AIR U N I VE R S ITY

AIR TRAINING COMMAND: PROVIDING FOR THE FUTURE

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 1968

AIR U N IVE R S ITY REVI EW THE P R O F E S S I O N A l JO U R N A L OF THE U N I T E D S TA TE S

Air Traininc Com ma n d Looks to the Future...... 2 Lt. Gen. Sam Maddux, Jr., usaf T oward I n d iv id u a l iz ed Instruction...... 10 Lt. Col. Vernon J. Elslager, usaf B eh a vior a l l y Oriented Instruction in ATC...... 21 John P. Murphy

M il it a r y Assist a n c e Traininc Program...... 27 Lt. Col. Frank H. Robertson, usaf

Air c r a f t Maintenance Traininc for Southeast Asia ...... 37 Maj. Frank F. E. Hense, Jr., usaf Survival Tr a in in g ...... 42 2d Lt. Robert M. Zickes, usaf

“I nexorable” Is the Word...... 52 Col. Robert D. Curtis, usaf How Do I Know He Knows I Know? ...... 67 Capt. Allen K. Taylor, usaf Air Force Review

T he Tec h n iques of Modern Rec r uiting ...... 73 Brig. Gen. J. T. Scepansky, usaf

P a r a m il it a r y Forces Need a New M issio n ...... 85 Maj. Joel J. Snyder, usaf In My Opinion

Humane Warfare for International Pea c ekeeping ...... 91 Lt. Col. Amold J. Celick, usaf Books and Ideas

I nto the Air with ATC...... 94 Gen. Frederic H. Smith, Jr., usaf (Ret)

T he La byr in t h ia n W orld of Soviet Mil it a r y Doctrine...... 95 Dr. Kenneth R. Whiting

T he Contributors...... 98

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the cover Address manuscripts to: Editor, Air Univer- sity Review, Aerospace Studies Institute, Max- One of the earlier associations an has well Air Force Base, Ala. 36112. Printed by with is the issuing of Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. the uniform and the trying on of caps. Later Subscriptions are sold by Air University Boolc Department, Maxwelí Air Force Base, exposure to the command is more enduring Ala. 36112: yearly $4.50, back issues 75 and certainly more significant in terms of cents. USAF kecurrinc pu bl ic a t io n 50-2. long-range usefulness to the Air Force and the nation. In this issue of Air University Review, Lt. Gen. Sam Maddux, Jr., ATC Com- mander, and several members of his command discuss salient aspects of their mission: Vol. XIX No. 6 September -O ctober 1968 "Preparing the Man” for an Air Force career.

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/ V AIR TRAINING COMMAND LOOKS TO THE FUTURE

L eeut en a n t Gen er a l Sam Maddux, J r .

T IS generally accepted that the Air Force is the most technolog- I ically and scientifically advanced military force in the world today. Our aerospaee team is equipped with highly sophisticated weapon systems, the most effective that Air Force planners and the civilian aerospaee industry can provide for the defense of this country and for the protection of the Free World. To look back over the 23 years since the end of World War II, to consider our air power then, to follow it through the develop- ment stages of the postwar years, and then to realize what the force is comprised of today is a reassuring assessment. In less tlian a quarter of a century, a whole new spectrum of hardware and doctrine has been envi- sioned and brought into operational employ- ment. This was not just a quarter of a century of advancement. It was also a period of mili- tary thrusts and political harassments by our adversaries bringing about many local situa- tions on the worlds geopolitical front which had to be dealt with as the aerospaee force continued to take form. Preparing the man for today s aerospaee force is the task of Air Training Command (atc). Various top-echelon air leaders have expounded repeatedly that a weapon system, however technical and effective it may be, is no better than the men who operate, maintain, and support it. atc has the responsibility of selecting, processing, and training officers and airmen for these duties. As one of the Air Forces largest com- mands, atc averages about 131,000 military personnel assigned, including students, and 3 21,000 civilian employees. The training fleet To provide the Air Force with people who has approximately 2000 aircraft of 13 different have the necessary physical and mental quali- types. fications is vital to its continued capabihty to In its 25 years of operation, atc has con- perform assigned aerospace missions. As Air ducted courses of instruction for more than 7 Force requirements change, there is an ac- million personnel. Almost every member of companying change in the number and types the Air Force receives training at least once of recruitment programs. The recruiting effort, under atc supervision. Many retnm several which enlists over 100,000 replacements each times to upgrade skills or to change to an- year, is further complicated by several factors other field as the aerospace force introduces which affect recruiting in varying degrees and new systems. over which neither the Air Force nor atc has Currently, atc trains about 700,000 Air any control. These are selective Service laws, Force personnel yearly, conducts more than nationwide employment trends, civilian wage 3000 courses at 16 command bases, and has scales, overseas military commitments, and the 146 field training detachments at other U.S. general worldwide political environment. bases and throughout the world, including Basic to all recruitment activities is the Southeast Asia. Other training squadrons are face-to-face contact between the locally as- located on bases of other commands. In addi- signed recruiter-salesman and prospective re- tion to Air Force requirements, several thou- cruits. Future changes and refinements in the sand Air National Guard, reservist, and foreign recruiting system will be directed toward students are trained each year. atc conducts assisting the local recruiter to increase his training of foreign students under the Military effectiveness. Assistance Training Program, with personnel The introduction of data automation into from as many as 60 nations attending the selection and assignment actions for non-prior- command’s technical and flying schools at service personnel has had a impact on various times. the recruiting operation. Implementation of Basically, atc has four broad missions— the Selective, Qualitative Airman Recruiting personnel recruiting, military training, techni- System (sq a r s) plays a most important role in cal training, and flying training, of which this undertaking. survival and special training are a part. sq a r s was developed in two phases. Phase I, implemented in 1965, provided Computer creasing number of Air Force specialties based Processing of airman personnel data in basic on the trend toward a vastly greater variety military training and Officer Training School, of equipment to be used in the Air Force. As and also yielded management products for the re-enlistment rates are not expected to change personnel processing activities at Lackland greatly, there will be increasing emphasis on Military Training Center. Phase II, imple- providing only essential technical training for mented in January 1967, makes use of the effective first-term job application. Computer for classification of basic trainees Implementation of a maintenance concept for most technical school courses and directed which emphasizes removal and replacement duty assignments. The system employs a math- procedures as a first-line function will increase ematical technique to determine the best pos- development of built-in test, automatic self- sible array of assignments for any given group check, and “remove and replacement only” of basic trainees. functions. Fewer highly skilled maintenance Basic military training continues as a personnel will be required at this levei. De- single-phase program to be completed by all ployment of automatic test equipment and non-prior-service personnel before assignment maintenance of microminiaturized circuitry to formal technical training or to an Air Force will require a higher ratio of skilled to semi- unit for on-the-job training (ojt). There is a skilled personnel. possibility that basic training will be extended Fundamentais training and initial equip- to eight weeks, to provide initial training in ment-oriented phases of technical courses will the unique requirement of living and working tend to become shorter and more specifically in a combat environment. keyed to actual narrow job specialty skill and Officer Training School (ots) also con- knowledge requirements. This will dictate a tinues to provide a short lead-time source for greater number of such courses, with shorter officer procurement. Liaison is maintained training times and more-specialized graduates with agencies responsible for other dod officer who have prepared to perform in their specific commissioning programs, to achieve greater first-term assignment. To provide the higher standardization of training objectives in basic skill and knowledge leveis for the technicians military skills and knowledge. who will be engaged in detailed maintenance Indications are that there will be an in- diagnosis and repair, rather than in remove- 6 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEW

and-replace activities, a greater number of greater emphasis on modem management advanced technical training courses also will decision-making processes. be required. These courses will be broader in To accomplish the flying portion of the scope and application than the basic airman mission, atc has 17 flying training organiza- courses and will train to a much higher tech- tions which consist of ten wings conducting nical levei. Students entering these programs undergraduate pilot training, a navigator train- will be primarily career airmen on their sec- ing wing, a survival training school, two flight ond and third enlistments. instxuctor training squadrons, one flight indoc- Field training programs will keep pace trination at the Air Force Academy, with force structure development. Each new one pilot training squadron for the Military weapon system will be considered for field Assistance Training Program, and a training support. Applications of improvements training unit. in training technology in resident programs Air Training Command’s current under- will apply also to field training programs. Ex- graduate pilot training (upt) program pro- pansion of the field effort to career areas not duces highly qualified jet pilots who readily now served because of low quantitative re- make the transition to any type of aircraft. quirements may be possible by the use of Although the commands current pilot training techniques such as computer-assisted instruc- program is producing a well-qualified and tion and closed-circuit links. universally accepted product, it is possible As with the airman programs, there will that through experimentation and the appli- be an increasing number of officer specialties cation of advancements in training technology within the Air Force, and these will require better pilots may be produced more econom- additional courses to meet more specific skill ically and perhaps in less time. and knowledge requirements. It is anticipated The present upt curriculum provides 240 that officer training in general will include hours in three different types of aircraft. Fu- AIR TRAINING COMMAND LOOKS TO THE FUTURE 7

ture training concepts may drastically alter in flying training. A major advance which this curriculum. Two concepts are under study could be adapted is training wherein the at present. First is the single aircraft concept. Computer compares student performance with Advantages of such a program are that main- specific criteria in the automatic demonstra- tenance activities would be streamlined and tion of maneuvers. An example would be auto- simplified as spares and support equipment matic evaluation of student performance in would be required for onlv one type of air- comparison to preselected performance cri- craft; more flexibility in assignment of mainte- teria and visual aids to provide realistic time nance personnel would be permitted; the displays for teaching of visual flight cues in student could remain with the same instructor the landing and traffic pattern. through all phases of training, allowing the The basic aeronautical skills required to instructor to see the end results of his efforts, operate various Air Force aircraft will remain thus enhancing his motivation and, in tum, substantially the same over the next several that of the student. Another benefit would be years, considering the family of aircraft Sys- the elimination of academic courses relative to tems which will be in the inventory. However, more than one aircraft, but this would also one system which will require development of eliminate the training that students currently new pilot skills is the vertical/short takeoff receive in problems related to the transition and landing (v /st o l ) aircraft. Anticipated de- from one aircraft to another. velopment of v /st o l fighter and transport air- The second concept would use additional craft with a limited-war and procedural trainers and flight simulators to operations capability indicates that substantial improve the leaming process and thereby in- numbers of these aircraft will enter the inven- crease the quality of the graduate. Current tory. research projects in this area will provide In helicopter pilot training, improvements further data on the optimum use of simulators will be made through the introduction of a 8 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

helicopter simulator and an aircraft designed ing, has emerged as the primary methodology specifically as a training vehicle. There will be used in the development of atc training pro- a few changes in the basic flying skills em- grams. The systems concept involves all train- ployed in present helicopter operations. ing personnel in the adoption of individual atc will continue to train navigators in a training systems. Instructors are being trained multitude of skills to meet the continued ex- in the principies of programmed leaming prior pansion of the scope of that rating. Require- to the systemization of courses in which they ments will exist for rated officers trained are eonsidered expert. in pure navigation; however, introduction of atc will continue to explore and develop highly sophisticated equipment will cause fre- up-to-the-minute trainers and training devices quent revisions in the curriculum. The more to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding specialized advanced training courses, de- technology. New approaches in the use of signed to prepare navigators for duty as simulators will be given high priority. Another navigator-bombardiers and electronic warfare method of presentation being used by atc in officers and to develop other essential skills, an increasing number of training situations is will undergo rapid changes in course mate- the multimedia approach, which combines the riais and equipment. advantages of the programmed text, 35-mm atc must increase its efforts to close the slide projector, 16-mm movie projector, and gap between training equipment available and student response devices into an overall train- the new navigation systems and electronic ing presentation. Such a method permits warfare systems in-being. Training applica- maximum use of remote-site and on-the-job tions to the new systems are impeded primar- training instructions and provides high quality ily by equipment limitations of the T-29 and achievement and economy of instruction. associated ground trainers. Research and ex- tv presentations will be combined with perimentation vvith multiple sensors, low light- programmed instruction, and the effectiveness level television, infrared detection devices, of the presentations will be validated by stu- radar in the field of target acquisition, and the dent learning outcomes. Performance testing development of a hunter-killer weapon system by educational television (et v) also will be —all will have an impact on the diversity of exploited and will be used in remedial train- skills and specialties grouped under the rated ing areas, in basic military training, and even position of navigator. in complex flying training areas. tv kinescopes In searching for the highest leveis of will be widely used, particularly in leamer- efficiency, effectiveness, and responsiveness in centered instruction, and will be made for the management of the vast military and tech- Extension Course Institute ( ec i) and ojt nical training programs, atc will exploit to courses for use by airmen worldwide, particu- the maximum the tremendous advantages of larly those in remote assignments. The ex- computers for data collection and analysis. panded use of mobile tv units in the field The applications must be more than mere con- also is anticipated, and small video tape re- versions of current manual procedures. They corders will be fully exploited. Rear-screen must take full advantage of the State of the projection equipment will eventually replace art in information storage, retrieval, Process- et v monitors in the classroom. ing, reduction, transmission, and display. Prog- In atc, it is becoming increasingly com- ress in the coming years will bring about total monplace to see studcnts undergoing training integration and improvement of the current programs based upon independent study. The manual and automatic data-processing systems instructors role is being modified from the used in military training, resident technical lecturer-authoritarian figure to one providing training, graduate assignments, and field train- instruction when requested, clarifying mis- ing. conceptions, and guiding students to achieve The systems approach to training, which predetermined, clearly defined goals. Com- employs the principies of programmed leam- puter-assisted instruction systems will be de- AIR TRA1N1NG COM MAN D LOOKS TO THE FUTURE 9 veloped for atc use. Studies indicate that the must be measured through the design of the major significance of such a system will be total system. Unless the training programs are the challenge it presents in devising new developed in the systems total complexity, methods of administration, instruction, and then any new innovation is merely a gadget advisement. The system capitalizes on the which may or may not have a significant or established psychological principie that stu- permanent impact on the leaming process. dents vary in the rate at which they leam and The application of the systems approach that they leam better in a situation where requires, as a minimum, on-site facilities to they are self-paced. analyze, develop, and, most important, test Regardless of how advanced the educa- innovations in training methodologies and tional system is, its most important element equipment. A study is under way now to remains the instructor. The tvvo most impor- establish an experimental facility at an under- tant attributes of the best instructor are en- graduate pilot training base and one at a thusiasm for the job and technical competence technical training center. These facilities will in his specialty. To insure these quahties in have the capability to identify, test, and eval- the command instructor corps, atc will con- uate training concepts and techniques appli- tinue to procure volunteers from field-experi- cable to flying and technical training. Such enced personnel. facilities will provide centralized leadership Full exploitation of new training tech- in the development and application of ad- nology will require personnel with the vision vanced training technology to all training and energy to seek new approaches to solving courses. training problems and the professional and We continue to hear more and more in technical competence to apply them. Although this rapidly advancing technological age about the role of the individual instructor may the mechanical means with which to accom- change as new technologies are adopted and plish our daily tasks. We speak of survival in incorporated, atc will continue to provide terms of scientific progress and weapon sys- instructors a foundation of basic methods and tems. But man is still the most important techniques in instruction through a preservice element in the Air Force today—indeed to- instructor course and the opportunity for pro- morrow and the day after. And atc will con- fessional growth through an in-service training tinue to “Prepare the Man” for our aerospace program. force. The contribution of these innovations Hq Air Training Command J TOWARD gINDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

ECENT advancements of educational and training research in the military environment have closely paralleled the direction and R guidance our national leaders have provided on this subject. President John F. Kennedy, in his “Message on Education” to the 88th Congress of the United States in January 1963, compared the growth of research in industry, health, and agriculture with the astonishingly meager and frequently ignored research in education. He deplored the fact that educational systems lag behind, sometimes as much as 20 or even 50 years, in utilizing the results of research and keeping abreast of knowledge in all fields, including education itself. President Kennedy recommended legislation to broaden the Cooperative Research Act to include support of centers for multipurpose educational research and for development and demonstration programs. President Lyndon B. Johnson, in his “Message on Education’’ to the 89th Congress in January 1965, referred to the historie educational measures passed by the 88th Congress and its increased commitment

10 TOWARD INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION 11

to education in America. He recommended the in behavior as a result of experience. There- establishment under the Cooperative Research fore, it is important that, first, all training be Act of regional educational laboratories, which geared to the place of the individual in the would undertake research, train teachers, and systems process. The behavioral analysis tasks implement tested research findings. Further have to be specifically structured in order to recommendations under this act included determine if leaming has resulted. Education broadening the tvpes of research organizations or training then becomes the process of ar- now eligible for educational projects, training ranging the environment of the individual in educational research personnel, and support- such a way as to make this behavioral change ing construction of research facilities and pur- take place. chase of research equipment. In the 10-month Dr. Robert Glaser, Director, Leaming period January to October 1965 the 89th Con- Research and Development Center, University gress legislated an educational revolution. of Pittsburgh, highlights the importance of In June 1965 Secretary of Defense Mc- individualized instruction in the systems ap- Namara, in a memorandum to the Service proach with his definition of educational secretaries, expressed his concem over the technology: relatively negligible funds being spent on edu- Education involves behavioral change. cational innovations, including research and The system in the environment we create in de\'elopment and new methods and tech- which the individual makes this behavioral niques. He called for an examination of the change is what we call education. We have education and training programs of the respec- to use certain tools. The whole system, the tools tive departments, recommendations for im- we may use, whether they be computers, books, proving these programs to reach him on or tests, or measurements—all of these comprise before 1 August 1965. the technology which the educator uses to The forceful educational leadership of our make this behavioral change take place. national leaders had an immediate impact on The subject of individualized instruction military education and training, civilian edu- is not a new one. Educators have been talking cational institutions, and the software and about the need to take account of individual hardware industries. Industry was alert to the differences for at least 40 years, but for 40 advent of this educational revolution, and 1966 years they were doing little about it, in large will perhaps be best remembered as the “year part because they lacked the pedagogy and of the merger.” Announcements in the finan- the technology. Now, however, the technology cial pages told of a succession of corporate is becoming available, fortunately at a time marriages that promised to exert a profound when there is a growing insistence that in- influence on the character and content of mili- structing must take advantage of individual tary, school, and college programs. differences. What, then, is the significance of these Today, this search for ways to individual- new ventures? The new companies are pri- ize instruction is emerging as the most impor- vate, profit-making concerns; consequently, tant single force for innovation and reform. their approach to the problems of educational technology is to develop innovations based on instructional systems engineering. The proc- Learner-Centered esses involved in designing a training system are arbitrarily analyzed in three areas: (1) Instruction determining training requirements, (2) devel- The Air Training Command, with about oping the training environment, (3) measuring 3500 courses, has many major obstacles to the results of training.1 overcome before total individualized instruc- The success of the systems approach to tion can become a reality. Fortunately, atc education and training is based on the basic pioneered the programmed instructional sys- definition of leaming: an individuais change tems approach to training in the Air Force, 12 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW and in 1967 this learner-centered approach nificantly advance the existing technology of was declared operational. In the systems proc- this approach. A course will be developed to ess, emphasis is placed on the instructors role relate to time schedules and data provisions in assisting, guiding, and supervising individ- of the F-111A weapon system. To better un- ual student progress to achieve specific leam- derstand the rationale of this project, one must ing objectives after the appropriate mode of take a look at the basic definition, training instruction has been determined. All new problems, provisions for individual differences, methods, devices, and procedures are identi- and job motivation. fied and evaluated as to their purposefulness to training objectives. There are countless new definition devices, equipment, and techniques that have been developed by industry to assist in achiev- The learner-centered instruction approach ing specified training objectives. The atc goal promises great rewards today for satisfying is to identify and analyze those innovations educational requirements in the design of in- that are most suitable and applicable to its dividually oriented instructional systems. Al- training programs. though various forms of this technique have Although atc is involved in manyresearch been studied in the past, there is a need to studies in instrnctional technology, the con- further explore “learner-based” environments cept of learner-centered instruction has been in light of possible military applications. At identified as one vvhich appears to present the Aerospace Education Foundation Seminar far-reaching effects in applying the principies held in Washington in September 1966, Major of individual leaming to a training environ- General Leo F. Dusard, Jr., Director of Per- ment. A learner-centered instruction project sonnel Training and Education, Hq usaf, pin- now being developed at Lowry afb, Colorado, pointed the urgent necessity to further study is an effort to demonstrate, evaluate, and sig- the individual and how he leams best:

Sessions in the cockpit of the F -lll Simulator give the student practice in performing operational checkout proce- dures. in detecting malfunction indica- tions, and in troubleshooting equipment rnalfunctiom. . . . An instructor sets malfunction indicators in the simulator. . . . A horesight trainer duplicates the complexitíj of horesighting the F -lll. TOWARD INDIV1DUALIZED INSTRUCTION 13

The teaching process continues to be re- achieved, there is still a continuing need to fined. but what we need to know is how leam- train personnel to perform duties in an ex- ing occurs so a more precise refinement of the panding number of weapon-system support teaching-leaming process will take plaoe. We activities. The high cost of training and low know that a student leams more and remem- re-enlistment rates have served as a stimulus bers it longer if all his faculties and perceptive for exploring new training methods in the senses are made a part of the leaming process. armed forces, especially in the electronics Leamer-centered instruction is a systems area. Research efforts have shown that elec- approach that attempts to solve the problem tronics resident training under joblike condi- referred to by General Dusard. For our pur- tions is possible.-' pose, we will define leamer-centered instruc- In the foreseeable future, computers, tion as an educational environment in whieh greater systems reliability and maintainability, the student is provided with behavioral objec- and the use of procedural and troubleshooting tives and in whieh, with minimal instruetor aids will probably decrease the need for the interaction, he proceeds at his own rate under maintenance technician to utilize theory on the self-selected leaming conditions to specified job. Already these technological advancements terminal behaviors. are in exploratory stages of development. One such development, the Presentation of Infor- training problems mation for Maintenance and Operation ( pim o ), will be tested at Dover afb, Delaware, and In recent years weapon systems have Charleston afb, South Carolina, for possible greatlv increased in complexity because of use as a convenient retrieval system for cogni- modem technological advancements. Although tive maintenance and operation information. greater equipment reliability, maintainabil- The future use of microelectronic configu- ity, and built-in test capabilities have been rations of electronic systems will reduce sig- 14 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

nificantly the maintenance burden and thus reduce certain maintenance personnel and training requirements. The microelectronic configurations also suggest new techniques of organizing maintenance activities to further reduce training and personnel requirements.3 Therefore, it seems justifiable to consider first- term airmen for an advanced development program designed to demonstrate the feasi- bility of training them to become proficient in the use of pertinent information-retrieval Systems, tools and test equipment, and trou- bleshooting techniques. In view of the tech- nological advancements in modem weapon systems and maintenance concepts, it may be unrealistic to provide extensive education in front-end principies, vvith the expectation that the trainee will apply the infonnation later in the operational setting.

providing for individual diferences To gain entry into electronics mainte- nance training courses, airmen usually must achieve above-average scores (usually 80th percentile and above) on the electronics apti- tude index of the Airman Qualifying Examina- tion. Although airmen may score high on the index, there is no assurance that all of them will be able to cope equally with abstract training course content. A review of grades in courses taught in the traditional manner usually shows a wide range in student achieve- ment. Of course, in a similar training environ- ment, medium-aptitude trainees may achieve a similar distribution of scores and perhaps at a lower levei of aehievement, especially if the instruction remains constant for both high- and low-aptitude groups. However, by devel- oping job-specific courses and providing for individual differences in leaming, atc should be able to train airmen with lower electronics aptitudes (60-75 percentile) as well as those with higher aptitudes (80-95 percentile) to a An instructor guides students as they work troubleshoot- high levei of job performance aehievement. ing logic problems tising technical order data. Group or individual practice sessions normallij follow programmed learning periods, which matj cover system data flow, job motivation system functions, troubleshooting concepts, operating Motivation is often a problem in the train- procedures, etc. Training is given in operating standard test equipment as well as specifc F-lll test equipment. ing and operational situation. The problem TOWARD INDIVIDUALIZEI) INSTRUCTION 15 may become particularly acute if the airman and personnel system. His eomments on this does not intend to pursue a military career. subject relate quite closely to the rationale for Sinee this group represents the vast majority application of leamer-centered instruction in of first-term airmen, efforts should be directed a training situation. Dr. Ferraro stated: toward making the training and operational The recognition of Air Force manpower jobs botli ehallenging and rewarding. and personnel research lias come most from Although many high-aptitude men enter its leadership in the development of education the Air Force, there are also many jobs that training technology. Many of the procedures require personnel with high ability, primariJy and systems now being applied in the field of because of the abstract nature of the content education had their origin or early application of a large number of training courses. For in the Air Force. Emphasis on educational example. the traditional electronics technician technology is necessary to increase the Air program usuallv starts with an extensive study Force’s ability to meet its needs in the future. of electronics fundamentais, beginning with In view of this need, a thorough reapprais- the electron and atom. In this program, stu- al of the Air Force education and training sys- tem may be in order—not so much in terms of dents build their knowledge of theory through the adequacy of training but of the necessity an abstract study of the nature of electricity, for much of it. What was the relation between direct current, altemating current, electron the time spent in training the 84 percent of our tubes, and, later, design problems in radio first term airmen w'ho have left the Air Force transmitters, rec-eivers, and other electronic this year, with their period of productivity as equipment. The emphasis in this part of elec- Air Force members? Was it vvorth the time and tronics training is on building and designing.4 effort? We need to consider altematives. Pos- In general, airmen who can successfullv sibly the best way to begin reducing training cope with the abstract verbal content of ex- time and improving the productivity of our tensive training in front-end electronics prin- training system is to adopt different objectives for “first termers” and career airmen. Under cipies plan technical careers after discharge this concept, all men would be trained at a from the Air Force. WTien these airmen are certain levei for their first tour, with in-depth assigned to duties such as on-aircraft mainte- training given only after reenlistment. We shall nance, they fínd little or no challenge in the examine selected courses in several career fields “black box” scope of the job. On the other to redesign them for the “first termer” and hand, medium-aptitude airmen may be able career training concept. This concept might to perform such jobs to a high degree of pro- also help retention by providing advanced edu- ficiency and thus find satisfaction in their ac- cational opportunity as an inducement to complishments. They should be tested on their reenlistment. ability to use test equipment and perform job tasks effectively rather than be required to verbalize the job by means of paper and pen- Systems Approacli to cil tests. It is possible to train airmen with Learner-Centered a minimum of theory to perform flight-line Instruction maintenance tasks efficiently. However, their inability to speak the electronics language The leamer-centered instruction (lci) Sys- fluently may result in bias against them which tems approach to training has been developed could affect their job motivation. as a result of many Department of Defense In remarks by Dr. Eugene T. Ferraro, studies. The task analysis research in the early Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force for 1950s attempted to specify knowledge, skills, Manpower, to the Air Force-wide Career and abilities from data based on actual job Motivation Conference at Langley akb, Vir- requirements. Later refined task analyses have gínia, on 2 May 1967, educational technology formed bases for well-defined leaming ob- was identified as one of six priority areas jectives and terminal behavior statements. required to develop an improved manpower Many comparative training media studies have 16 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

advanced the methodology of training aids very little emphasis on theory. In addition, selection. Later research on troubleshooting, the effort will provide a demonstration to de- programmed instruction, performance aids, termine just what savings and performance and job proficiency evolution has contributed increments will be possible. to the refinement of training technology. Since 1964, atc has conducted experi- experimental design ments at Lowry afb in leamer-centered in- struction. The lci concept utilizes various In the experimental demonstration to be education and training techniques, includ- conducted at Lowry afb, the trainees will be ing programmed instruction and multimedia divided into three groups of 40 students each. selection. In January 1966, the Behavioral The trainees in the current electronics course Sciences Laboratory, YVright-Patterson afb, (control course) will have high electronics Ohio, engaged in a joint effort with atc to aptitudes, ranging from 80 to 95, as will the develop an lci electronics fundamentais course trainees in one of two experimental courses. based upon the Systems approach to training. In the second experimental course the stu- While exploratory research in the general dents will have lower aptitudes, ranging from technology of this approach to training has 60 to 75. Airmen with scores below 80 will not been accomplished, it still remains to be inte- take the current electronics course, since the grated and systematically validated for poten- training is oriented toward students in the tial use in military technical training programs. 80-95 range. The experimental course will be designed to provide for individual differences goals and purpose throughout the aptitude range 60-95.

The lci research project has as its goal the development of a 12-14-week (conven- Development of tional course 25 weeks), systems-oriented, Learner-Centered leamer-centered course in electronics mainte- Instruction Course nance for the Weapon Control Systems Me- chanic (afsc 322Xlr, F-111A). Although the The leamer-centered systems approach course instruction will be conducted by Air to electronics training is programmed over a Force personnel at Lowry afb, the develop- three-year schedule and will consist of three ment of the total program will be through major phases: (1) job description and perform- the standard multisource contract procure- ance test; (2) development and conduct of ment with civilian companies. The Behavioral course; and (3) course evaluation. Let us ex- Sciences Laboratory will monitor all contracts. amine each of these developmental steps in The purpose of the Lowry lci project is relation to the programmed schedule. to demonstrate and evaluate the technology for developing job-specific electronics mainte- Phase I: job description and performance test nance courses that will (1) be systems-oriented and compatible with time schedules and data The basic training philosophy underlying provisions associated with the development of the Lowry lci project is that the trainee should both the aircraft and the firepower control be taught on-the-job skills and knowledges in subsystem; (2) increase the efficiency of train- formal training. To develop a course based on ing through the use of multimedia, including this philosophy, it is necessary to analyze and automated instruction; (3) allow effective use describe the actual behaviors that are required of fírst-term airmen of lower aptitudes than on the specific job. A contract was awarded those currently assigned to electronics mainte- to obtain a behavioral analysis of job require- nance training by providing for individual ments, course objectives, and a job proficiency differences; and (4) develop course objectives test of the Weapon Control Systems Mechanic from a detailed job behavioral analysis, with for F-111A aircraft. The Phase I schedule: TOWARD INDIV1DUALIZED 1NSTRUCTION 17

Perform task analvsis...... March 1967 knowledge of unfamiliar terms, and test Prepare job description...... June 1967 equipment operation. The behavioral analysis Prepare job performance test... .June 1968 consisted of three steps: identifying tasks, de- Deliver simulator...... June 1968. termining task activities, and describing be- The following work has been accomplished havioral details. according to that schedule: • Development of job performance test • Preparation of the job behavioral Preparation of test rationale and specifi- description cations. The lci job performance test will Data collection. The contractor was fur- serve as the criterion of the Weapon Control nished all required quantitative and quali- Systems Mechanic based upon task and equip- tative personnel requirements information ment analysis of job requirements. In a per- (qqpri) by the F-111A-SPO at Wright-Patter- formance test the trainee is observed while son afb, Ohio. Prototype copies of all perti- performing a task on real or simulated equip- nent technical orders were provided by the ment and is scored on a quantitative or quali- F-lll manufacturer, General Dynamics, Fort tative basis. The purpose of the lci program Worth, . Other pertinent documents and is to demonstrate how well the airman can references were obtained by the contractor perform the job, not how well he can verbalize from various sources. the job. The first approximation to the job descrip- For each class of activity in the job be- tion (preliminary) contained all the elements havioral description a statement giving the expected to be included in the final job following information will be prepared: (1) description, but in less detail and less au- criticai aspects of the behavior to be measured thoritatively. The preliminary job description in the proficiency tests; (2) type and nature included names of the fire-control subsystems, of test items to be used in measuring this be- definition of maintenance echelons used with havior; (3) kind of equipment needed, insofar this system, and the behaviors involved under as it can be specified before the items are the maintenance functions of checking, ad- prepared; (4) nature of the scoring of the justing, replacing, repairing, servicing, and item, if it can be specified before the item is troubleshooting. prepared; and (5) an estimate of the time re- To facilitate field data collection, various quired for the item or class of items. materiais were devised, including task analysis Preparation of list items. Items will be forms to permit systematic collection of data prepared in accordance with the stated speci- and simulated maintenance problems for use fication and rationale. One requirement is that in structured interviews. Data collection visits the test be diagnostic. In order to achieve this, were made to General Dynamics, Edwards subtests or test items will have part-task scores. afb, Califórnia, and Cannon afb, New México. For example, if the operation of a given item Behavioral analysis. Two classes of be- of equipment is to be tested, scores might be havior are associated with job performance: obtained on resetting the instrument, obtain- normal repertoire (nr) behavior, which re- ing the proper display, and evaluating the dis- quires no special skills or knowledges to per- play. If the trainee’s performance is poor, the form; and special behaviors (sb), which only subtest with three subscores will reveal to the proficient technician, using special skills some extent just where his difficulties he. and knowledges, can perform. Anyone who can read and follow directions can perform • De v e l o p m e n t o f s i m u l a t e d m a i n t e - smt e nr behaviors; therefore, these behaviors were nance training environment ( ) of little concem in the behavioral analysis. During the development of the job be- However, the sb aspects received special con- havioral description, it became evident that sideration, since they include very narrow the limited number of aircraft at the test sites discriminations, especially in rapid responses, would make it extremely difficult to obtain an 18 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

adequate performance test tryout. To over- development of an effective course sequence come this problem, it was decided to build for practically any subject depends largely a fully transportable, full-size mockup of ap- upon the judgment and insight of the person proximately a 14-foot section of the F-111A performing the sequence, although it is desir- aircraft. The necessary physical, electrical, and able to be as systematic as possible. electronic features for adequate simulation of Selection of media and training equip- the tasks of the VVeapon Control Systems ment. A multimedia approach will be taken Mechanic will be incorporated into this mock- in the development of the lci course, and the up or into accessory equipment and materiais. selection of the media and equipment will The simulation designed to support the job be determined by the objectives. Among performance test would be the simplest pos- other factors to be considered are the nature sible device with only the fidehty necessary of the behavior change to be produced, num- to provide testing ability and potential train- ber of students to be trained, proficiency levei ing facilities for the tasks performed by the required at the end of training, and the man- mechanic. The characteristics of the smt e will ner in which the médium is to be used. be determined from the job behavioral descrip- • Develop training course tion and performance test requirements. This phase will be devoted to the devel- opment and preparation of detailed lesson Phase II: development and conduct of course plans, actual training materiais, and training media and equipment to be used in the con- Phase II, development of the lci course duct of the course. It will also include orienta- schedule, deals with three major areas: tion of the Air Force instructors to be used in Prepare plan of instruction. . . . March 1968 the experimental course. It is considered that Develop training course...... July 1968 the best orientation that can be given to the Monitor and conduct course. . .July- instructors would be to have them participate December 1968. in the development of the lci course. Two Let us consider a brief résumé of each step. months prior to the course start, the instruc- tors will be oriented to the approach and given • Prepare plan of instruction experience with the course materiais, proce- Preparation of primary statements of dures, and training media. learning objectives (SOLOs). The primary • Monitor and conduct course leaming objectives will be based upon the performance requirements of the job, taken Each instructor will teach the whole directly from the behavioral job description course to his class. To maintain the planned but supplemented with performance times content and methods of instruction, contractor and error specifications. The statements will representatives will monitor much of the train- specify what the trainees will be expected to ing. Television will be used for on-site moni- do at the end of the training program. toring of the classes and will eliminate the disruptive effect of an observer in the class- Determinotion of subordinate learning room. Video recordings will be made of some objectives. The subordinate learning objectives of the class samplings for later evaluation. In must be derived from the primary leaming addition, the contractor representatives will objectives through identification of their be- confer with the Air Force instructors conduct- havioral components. This process should pro- ing the classes. duce a hierarchically organized set of sub- ordinate learning objectives, so that for any Phase III: course evaluation higher-level task to be performed successfully the trainee must be able to perform all lower- The evaluation of this experiment will be level tasks. made by means of the job proficiency test to Determinotion of teaching sequence. The be developed for the specific purpose. 1 he Closed-circuit television platjs an important part in ATC training and has the collateral ad- vantage of insuring that all the students receive the same amount and qualitij of instruction.

cest will be designed to measure actual job A lthouch the general technology associated performance in the field. It will be adminis- with the Lowry lci project is largely available tered to graduates of both courses, and for on a piecemeal basis, it has not been sys- follow-up the graduates will take the same tematically evaluated for use in Air Force test after they have been in the field about programs. The total program will focus and four months. The Air Force Specialty Knowl- demonstrate the technology for developing edge Test (skt ) also will be administered when job-specific, apprentice-like technical courses the trainees graduate and after they have been as an integral part of the weapon system de- on the job four months. The job proficiency velopment cycle. It is hoped that this systems- test will serve as the criterion for evaluating oriented approach for the development of the experiment; however, the skt results will job-related technical courses will provide the be compared with the job proficiency test following potentials: results. • In comparison with current practices, The experimental course will be evaluated this program proposes to train personnel of according to the following evaluation design: equal or lower input aptitude in half the time and produce equal or better on-the-job pro- Upon Groduolion In lhe Field Job Job ficiency in their first job. Perl. Perf. • The technology associated with this Teu SKT Test SKT program is keyed to the weapon system de- Currenl Course velopment cycle for several reasons. Personnel Electronics Principles-)0 weeks must be considered an integral part of opera- Equipment (seis)-14 weeks x X X X tional Air Force systems. During the develop- Experimental Course ICI Electronics Mointenonce ment of a weapon system, much information Course-14 weeks x X X X is generated that is of direct value in planning 20 AIR UNIVERSITY RLV1EW training courses. Greatest economies can be media self-instruction and training to a job- realized if teclinical courses are initially keyed sample performance criterion. This effort will to weapon system requirements, rather than include the development of formal perform- establishing a course that is not system ori- ance measures of the F-111A Weapon Control ented and redesigning it based on feedback Systems Mechanic. Accurate measurements of from the field. the effecbveness of the training program for By making the technical course job-related teaching personnel to perform the electronics and apprentice-like, vve can train personnel maintenance job vvill be developed. of average aptitude to perform maintenance The total program will be judged in terms duties in a very satisfactory manner. Use of of the applicability of the procedures used to sueh personnel is important because they are efforts in other systems and the degree to more available, more likely to remain in the which execution of this program increases con- Air Force, and perhaps even more likely to fidence in the general technology being dem- perform routine maintenance duties satisfac- onstrated and evaluated. torily than those with higher aptitudes. • The course will make use of multi- Hq Air Training Command

Notes 1. G. A. Eckstrand, “Current Status of the Technology of 4. J. P. Foley, Jr., "Performance Testing: Testing for Training,” Department of Commerce, AD608 216, September What Is Real,” Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Aeromedical 1964. Research Laboratories, October 1961. 2. H. Valverde, “A Systems Approach to Electronics Maintenance Training, Part I,” Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Acknowledgment Aeromedical Research Laboratories, August 1967. The author is grateful to Mr. Horace H. Valverde, F-111A 3. D. H. Hnrris, ‘‘The Impact of Microelectrnnics on the Leamer-Centered Instniction Project Contract Monitor, and Utilization and Training of Maintenance Personnel,” San Diego, others of the Behavioral Sciences Lalwratory, Air Force Sys- Califórnia: New Developments Research Branch, Bureau of tems Command, for their assistance and technical advice in Naval Personnel, June 1966. preparation of this article. / BEHAVIORALLY ORIENTED INSTRUCTION IN ATC

J ohn P. M urphy

LMOST any workday on many Air Force / A bases one can find a classroom whose unique environment is immediately noticed. Using a set of equipment descriptively called a multimedia teaching system, an in- structor holds the attention of forty students, seldom uttering a word himself. The equipment, now being used through- out the Air Force for training in traffic safety, consists of a tape deck, still and motion pic- ture projectors, student responding devices, and response recorders. The system presents the audio portion of the lesson from conven- tional magnetic tape. A separate track of the tape Controls the projectors, selecting still or motion projections to present the visual stimuli. Lessons presented by this equipment contain many questions which are voiced by the tape and presented visually by still pro- jection. Each time a question is presented, the 21 22 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

student selects his ansvver by depressing one omy and the basic principies of programmed of four buttons on his responder. His relative instruction require that training be limited to performance is observable on digital counters teaching the tasks of a given job. at any time during the lesson, and the per- The history of the development of pro- centage of responses to all choices of each grammed instruction is not all as recent as the question is also visible. term itself. As a matter of fact, programmed The Air Force has in use about 150 com- instruction is a bringing together of principies plete sets of multimedia teaching equipment long known, and little of its present status is at stateside and overseas bases. When one sees attributable to one person or group of persons. this hardware in operation, he realizes im- Many people, spanning centuries, have discov- mediately that it looks quite like programmed ered and expounded the principies, but only instruction. That observation is correct; the recently have they been merged into an im- system is the result of some of the most ad- pressive and still growing discipline. vanced thinking and study in the application The chain discovery of these principies of the behaviorally oriented principies on dates back at least to Sócrates, who questioned which programmed instruction is based. his students, then confirmed or corrected their Tvvo separate though related conditions responses immediately. Sócrates used another are responsible for our having procured this of the characteristics that programmed instruc- multimedia teaching equipment (hardware) tion proponents have “discovered” and still and programmed traffic safety lessons (soft- use where possible: self-pacing. By teaching ware): first, the excessive involvement of Air one student at a time, Sócrates moved the Force members in traffic accidents; and sec- student along in the lesson only as fast as he ond, the highly successful experience of Air could Iearn. Training Command with programmed instruc- Following the analyses of mental processes tion in the shaping of desired behaviors. The by Binet, Dewey, and Thorndike, Sydney L. question arose: Can programmed instruction Pressey devised a machine for administering increase traffic safety consciousness in Air multiple-choice questions.1 Some alert peda- Force personnel enough to improve their driv- gogues saw in this device a new dawn: its ing behavior? use could mechanize the process of imparting That question has not been answered yet knowledge. But others, although impressed because the multimedia teaching Systems have with teaching by machine, felt sure that re- not been in use long enough for their effec- sponse construction was superior to response tiveness to be conclusively evaluated. But selection in effecting changes in verbal be- Air Force experience thus far points up one havior. The Pressey apostles then completed irrefutable fact: Careful selection and inte- the initial draft of programmed instruction. gration of media and the application of the be- Their product is with us today and is the havioralhj oriented principies of programmed classic image of programmed instruction. It instruction do in fact mold student behavior has long series of verbal stimuli (or sometimes very efficienthj, significantly, and desirably. even two-dimensional graphic stimuli), always Behaviorally oriented principies of pro- followed by an abundance of blanks to grammed instruction guarantee that the stu- be filled in with the information froin the dent can perform the behaviors required by prior sentence. After a soporific maze of such the job for which his training is designed. stimulus-response pairs, the student reaches No item of subject matter is justified in the a real objective of having learned by rote. curriculum unless the end behavior requires This approach, known as constructed response it. Briefly, this behaviorally oriented instruc- or linear programming, is the most frequentlv tion trains the student to do the task to the used in paper-and-pencil or machine-admin- levei required by the Specialty Training Stand- istered programmed materiais. ard (st s) and discards all irrelevant material, The pencil-and-paper médium has, how- even that which is nice-to-know. Both econ- ever, been used effectively to train to the dis- BEHAVIORALLY ORIENTED INSTRUCTION IN ATC 23

crimination levei of knowledges. Contempo- objectives are avoided like sin and rattle- rarv with the appearance of machine-adminis- snakes. tered linear teaching programs, branching • Controlled response is required of all programs also appeared as “scrambled books.' students of behaviorally oriented materiais. By Designed by Norman A. Crowder, this method forcing the student to make specific responses, employed a more lengthy stimulus on each his behavior is shaped step by step until he teaching page and exacted a multiple-choice achieves mastery of the subject or skill. response to the stimulus material. Each alter- - • Im m ediate confirmution after each native directed the leamer to another page— response assures the student of the correct- \\Tong answers to corrective pages, correct ness of his response. This tends to prevent answers to confírmation, and thence to a new him from becoming habituated to wrong ideas teaching page.- or practices and strengthens the probabihty Variations of the Uno basic principies have that he will respond correctly in a like situa- appeared, each with some merit. One such tion later. variation is mathetics. Devised bv Thomas F. Cilbert, this one applies reinforcement • Optimum step size is determined by experimentally applying the instructional ma- theory to the analvsis and engineering of be- havior. It features extensive use of laboratory teriais to numbers of typical students. Care techniques found effective for training.3 is taken to prevent moving in steps that are The Air Training Command has experi- too large; they tend to lose the student. atc mented exhaustively with all these types. For experience has demonstrated that too-small presentations that are limited to or primarily steps are also damaging; they bore students. Hence, the optimum step is small enough to aimed toward changing verbal and knowledge assure that the student can respond correctly, behaviors, atc uses a presentation that draws heavily on all its predecessors; it can be de- but not so small as to be boring. scribed as “discrimination linear.” Its segments • Volidation before implementation is are presented in consecutive order, as are those accomplished for all programmed lessons and in conventional, constructed-response Unear multimedia teaching Systems used by atc. A presentations. Yet, instead of exacting a con- system is tested and revised until it has suc- structed response from the student, it borrows cessfully trained a large sample of the target from Pressey’s teaching machine, Crowders population. The minimum acceptable per- branching techniques, and Gilberts mathetics, formance levei for a system is for at least 90 by exacting only discrimination responses. percent of the students to achieve the pro- Multiple-choice, matching, and true-false are ficiency levei specified for each leaming examples of the response modes employed. objective.4 This type of programming lends itself not only • Self-pcicing allows the student to to shorter and less boring paper-and-pencil establish his own rate of progression through lessons but also to multimedia instruetion for the material. When each student has liis own group presentations. atc requires that all separate material to attend, as in individually courses, those employing multiple media as prepared programmed lessons, this practice well as those using only programmed paper- can be fully employed. Yet \Vhen the Systems and-pencil exercises, use all the following designer has employed movies, still projection, characteristics: television, or even the check of the functional • Behavioral analysis is applied to system of an aircraft, self-pacing can be sac- course content to determine (1) what the rificed if its loss can be ofFset by the advantages trainee must know to perform the task lie of group pacing. is assigned to do, and (2) the stimulus neces- sary to elicit each behavior. Explicit specifi- cations of training objectives are then for- Am T r a in in g Command entered mulated. All behaviors not prescribed in the the field of programmed instruetion in 1962 24 AIR UN1VERS1TY REVIEW by planning and executing an elaborate ex- From the outset, atc was overripe for periment in programming portions of many programming’s most outspoken dogma—the resident courses. Indoctrination of personnel necessity for behavioral objectives. Nice-to- was as complete as possible, with many trained know material was already gasping for breath in the techniques of programming; countless because of the choking pressures of austerity. others were familiarized with its characteris- It followed naturally that the training contract tics and potentials. should specify the skills and knowledges the The results obtained from the use of pro- trainee must have on termination of training grammed texts during the experimental phase and that all else should be excluded. Clearly were not phenomenal, but they proved that and precisely stated objectives, specifying end programmed instruction had a place in the behavior and the degree and conditions for atc picture.3 Before its techniques could be- it, soon became the norm for all atc courses— come fully accepted and used, some adjust- even conventional courses—after the program- ments had to be made to fit programmed ming movement introduced them. All present instruction into military training. Fortunately, atc courses have felt the impact of behavioral these alterations led to many improvements in objectives. programming techniques and to the adapta- Another fallout benefít of the programmed tion of programming principies to many other instruction movement is its influence on the types of presentation. atc does not claim to preparation and presentation of conventional have invented the principies of programmed instruction. In a conventional informal lecture, instruction, but her contributions in this field questions are sometimes used to measure the have been impressive. teaching effectiveness of each point presented; BEHAVIORALLY OR1ENTED INSTRUCTION IN ATC 25 active responding is thereby elicited from one absent from a lecture so prepared. student when he answers a particular ques- Another effective technique is the lecture- tion. The immediate knowledge of results discussion-recitation ( l -d -r ). In such a learning occurs when the instructor acknowledges the situation, the class is first divided into groups student’s response. But by the use of certain of 3 or 4 students. As suggested by the name, techniques—for example, a “response card’ — the material is presented to the class in lec- the participation of all students at every step ture form by the instructor. After a point is along the way is assured. A response card (and presented, members of each group briefly en- this is just one of a variety of similar devices) gage in a timed discussion of the material reveals a minimum of four colors, any one of among themselves, normally in response to a which can be shown to the instructor in re- question. A representative of each group re- sponse to a question. For example, red may ports on the responses of his group; then the stand for answer “A,” blue for “B, yellow for instructor evaluates and comments on these “C,” and green for “D .” With such a device, responses. Though this technique lacks the all students answer all questions asked during strict control of student response which is the presentation. Those who respond inappro- characteristic of most programming, it effec- priately are corrected on the spot. At the same tively employs many of the features of pro- time, the instructor measures the effectiveness grammed instruction.6 of his instruction so he can malce changes in Air Training Command is now concen- later presentation of the same material based trating on the second generation of program- on student response. Of all the characteristics ming. This vigorous prodigy is called the “sys- of programmed instruction, only self-pacing is tems approach.”7

Multimedia teaching equipment in ATC includes tape recorders; projectors for slides, film strips, and motion pictures; and responders for as many as forty trainees. . . . Students in cryptography use self-teaching devices at their own speed through theory and practical lessons. ... A trainee follows a programmed text with an M-16 rifle to learn how to disassemhle and assemhle the weapon. Programmed methods are also used for lockstep instruction in firing-line procedures. 26 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

If the parents of instructional Systems are The parent course, which has existed since programmed training and conventional train- August 1963 and is entitled “Instructional ing, the ofFspring retains and magnifies the Programmer,” has been attended by people best features of both. This apparent hybrid, from all branches within domestic and allied systemization, has more potential for instruc- military establishments as well as numerous tional success than either parent. nondefense activities. But wherein lies the difference between Another activity within atc is the usaf programmed instruction and systemized in- Programmed Learning Advisory Service. Situ- struction? Lo, in the media each employs. ated at Randolph afb, this organization func- Almost exclusively, programmed instruction tions as a ready bank of information or aid vvas accomplished by a type of device called for every activity within the defense establish- a programmed instructional package. Prepared ment and for other govemment and even non- as individual books (or machine-administered govemment agencies. Having the capacity to individual lessons), these packages typically provide guidance in the most advanced as- shunned such desirable experiences as projec- pects of programmed instruction or instruc- tions (motion or still), lectures (recorded or tional systems, this organization has fostered live), and other group media. On the other the commands reputation as the prime author- hand, the newer concept of systemization ity on the instructional systems approach with- adapts any and all media to the principies pre- in the armed forces. viously employed by the individual packages. Air Training Command has five Instruc- tional Systems Development Teams. A single W here to now? What is the prospect for growth of behaviorally oriented instruction? team is assigned at each of atcs technical writing centers. Its primary duty is to prepare Will systemized instruction continue to influ- instructional Systems to support the mission of ence the evolution of pedagogy? We in Air Training Command are convinced that it is the center to which assigned. In some cases, however, teams are assigned to prepare ma- gaining impetus. As with all movements, it has teriais for use odtside the command. The met some opposition, and some of the original conflicts still give pause to the most optimistic Lackland team, for example, has prepared seers. Yet with the development of new hard- programmed materiais for General Military ware more adaptable to behavioral philosophv Training. It has also revised and administered and with the increased need for austerity in commercially prepared materiais used for training, this commands efforts in “behav- driver training throughout the Air Force, and it is now prcparing new materiais for driver ioralizing” its courses are moving forward at training. full throttle. The growing public acquaintance with the potential for the art in its highly In addition to the development teams, atc developed and still advancing state is inducing maintains courses in instructional technology. other commands and branches to swell the All these courses are behaviorally oriented, stressing the principies of programmed and procession. Lackland AFB, Texas systemized instruction which have endured.

Notes 1. A. A. Lumsdnine and Robert Glaser, Teaching Machines 4. Air Training Command Manual 52-10. Instrtutional and Programmed Learning (Washington, D.C.: Nationnl Educa- Systems Engineering, Hq ATC, 1 March 1967, p. 29. tion Association of the United States, 1960), p. 32. 5. Ibid., p. 1. 2. Ibid., p. 21. 6. AFM 50-1, pp. 28, 29. 3. Air Force Manual 50-1, Programmed Learning, Hq 7. ATCM 52-10. p. 2. USAF, 13 January 1967, p. 27. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAM

L ie u t e n a n t Frank H. R obertson

HE Military Assistance Program ( ma p) is an integral part of the overall United States foreign aid program and is designed to raise the effective- T ness of the military forces of recipient nations to a levei that will give reasonable assurance of internai security. ma p provides the means whereby selected countries are either furnished or sold equipment to achieve a specified force structure. It follows that if we provide military equipment, we also have a responsibility to insure its proper use. Qualified technicians of the recipient country must be available to operate the equipment and perform necessary maintenance. Supervisory and planning personnel must be trained in the tactics and techniques necessary for proper use of equipment and people. Training is 28 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW thus an extremely important part of the pro- sources; however, overseas commands fre- gram. The United States cooperates in this quently provide them. area through the Military Assistance Training In the , the Air Program (ma t p). Training Command is the prime agency respon- There are several methods by which Mili- sible for implementing the ConUS portion of tary Assistance training can be funded, just the Military Assistance Training Program. The as in the materiel portion of the program. overseas major air commands handle ma p- The most common of these are Grant Aid and sponsored training on bases and in units within Foreign Military Sales. Under Grant Aid, the their areas of operation. Headquarters United United States pays for the training. Funds for States Air Force and the overseas major air this purpose are included in the Military commands share the responsibility for provid- Assistance portion of the Foreign Aid Bill each ing Mobile Training Teams. year. The funds are paid to the U.S. military Air Training Commands role in the Mili- department or agency that provides the train- tary Assistance Training Program is varied and ing Services to the foreign country. By the widespread. In fulfilling its obligation, the Foreign Military Sales method, these Services command does more than provide training are purchased by the foreign countries from within its training centers and wings. It also or through the United States military organiza- renders a management Service by arranging for tions. There are also various cost-sharing and training of foreign air force personnel in other barter arrangements to provide assistance. usaf commands, by other Services and govem- However, the method of paving for training ment agencies, and through contract with civil- assistance is not of particular significance in ian industries and universities. ( Figure 1) this article except to illustrate a growing trend Generally speaking, Air Training Com- toward Military Sales (discussed later). mands responsibility is to schedule and moni- tor or conduct training that has been pro- There are three main locales in which grammed by the Military Assistance Advisory training under the Military Assistance Program Groups ( ma a c ) and approved for implementa- takes place: tion by the Department of Defense. atc pub- ConUS training. The training conducted lishes training schedules, authorizes the ma a g’s in the continental United States is accom- to send students at the appropriate time, han- plished by formalized courses of instruction as dles administrative problems involved, moves well as by on-the-job training ( ojt) and ob- trainees from one course to the next, and sends server programs conducted by U.S. training, students home when they have finished all operational, and support organizations. Overseas training. The training conducted by U.S. units located in overseas areas is nor- mallv by ojt programs. A noteworthy excep- Figure 1. Sources of Military Assistance tion is the Inter-American Air Forces Academy Program training—formal, OJT, observer at Albrook Air Force Base in the Panama Canal Zone, where courses are taught in both technical National Guard Institute of and Portuguese.1 training centers Army, Navy, FAÀ Technology In-countrij training. The most typical ex- ample of training conducted within a foreign Air yLfí country by personnel sent for that specific pur- flying __J Training u Air University pose is the Mobile Training Team. The team training wings y Command J is composed of highly qualified officer and nco specialists, who provide training assistance in School of a specific area. The team is limited to a maxi- other major civilian mum of six months in-country. Mobile Training Aerospace air commands industry Medicine Teams are normally provided from ConUS re- The Defense Language Institute English Lunguugc School, Luckland AFB, Texas 30 AIR UNIVERSITY REV1EW scheduled training. It also assists the maags in Morocco and Saudi Arabia to the tropical re- programming their requirements by recom- publics of Latin America. Of course, a large mending appropriate training to solve specific percentage would be from the Far East—Re- problems. Air Training Command receives and public of Vietnam, Thailand, Republic of accounts for ma p monies to pay usaf and other Korea. agencies for training provided. Figure 2 depicts Training provided under the Military the ma p training channels of communication Assistance Program varies almost as much as in accomplishing these tasks. the origin of the students. It ranges from famil- During any given year 55-60 foreign coun- iarization with usaf procedures and techniques tries participate in the Military Assistance to maintenance or operation of the worlds most Training Program, and 2200-2500 students are modern weapon systems. Limited numbers of trained. This represents over 7000 training personnel even receive university-level educa- spaces each year, as trainees normally attend tion under ma p sponsorship. Many foreign more than one course of instruction. The sched- trainees attend Air Training Commands under- uling of these personnel results in 1600-1800 graduate pilot training schools and then pro- students from 40-50 countries in ConUS train- ceed to other commands, primarily Tactical ing at any one time. Of these, approximately Air Command, for combat crew training. Tech- 1200-1400 will be on Air Training Command nical school graduates go on to ojt programs bases, the remainder being dispersed through- at various usaf units for vital practice of their out the other commands and training agencies newly leamed skills in an actual operational in the ConUS. These students come from all environment. Various professional courses, over the world. A survey of the trainees at one such as those available at the usaf School of of the larger atc training centers vvould reveal Aerospace Medicine, or observer programs at students from widely diverse nations, varying usaf hospitais provide training for foreign from industrial countries like the Federal Re- medicai personnel. The Squadron Officer public of to emerging African na- School and Air Command and Staff College tions such as Mali, from the desert nations of conducted by Air University at Maxwell Air

Figure 2. Military Assistance Program training channels in the United States Technical Training and T-28 Flying Training, Keesler AFB, Mississippi 32 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

Force Base provide necessary managerial train- Florida, to become combat-ready A-l pilots. ing for key personnel and future leaders of Recently the has begun many foreign countries. In addition to actual training rvnaf pilots in the A-37 aircraft at instruction, the Air Training Command sends afb, Louisiana. This combined train- special teams to survey in-country training pro- ing effort by the Air Training Command and grams and make recominendations for improve- the Tactical Air Command has been the back- ment. Further assistance is provided by Tech- bone of the rvnaf flying training program and nical Training Centers in developing and pro- has made a significant contribution to the strug- viding training equipment. gle between the free world and Communism. Normally, Military Assistance training Ls Larger countries also encounter problems liinited to key personnel and instructors. How- in providing for their own pilot training. In the ever, a notable exception is in the flying train- Federal Republic of Germany ( frc.), for in- ing area, specifically in undergraduate pilot stance, a combination of limited airspace and training. This type of training is, of course, very bad flying weather makes training of jet pilots expensive to establish, prohibitively so for many an extremelv difficult and hazardous task. The small countries. For this reason it is much more frg Air Force, therefore, requested assistance economical to purchase or obtain through Grant from the usaf in meeting its jet pilot training Aid the limited training spaces needed. Train- requirements. Since they needed more jet train- ing can then be accomplished in either the reg- ing spaces than the usaf could sell them in its ular jet undergraduate pilot training course or regular undergraduate jet course, a joint agree- in a special course in propeller-driven aircraft. ment was reached and frc Air Force pilots are The regular usaf jet undergraduate pilot train- now being trained in a special course at Shep- ing program is conducted at nine different Air pard afb, Texas. The normal jet undergraduate Training Command bases scattered throughout pilot program consists of a preliminary light- the southem and southwestem parts of the plane phase utilizing T-41 aircraft, followed by United States. Foreign trainees attend this T-37 and T-38 phases. However, the frg Air course with American students at all these Force gives its trainees light-plane training bases. before they come to the United States. They For those countries that do not need train- then receive T-37 and T-38 instruction at Shep- ing in jet aircraft the Air Training Command pard, and upon completion they go on to ad- conducts a course in conventional aircraft at vanced training either in the United States or , Mississippi. The train- in the Federal Republic of Germany. Those ing consists of 200 hours of flight instruction in who remain here go on to the F-104 at Tactical the T-28 propeller-driven aircraft, an excellent, Air Commands F-104 combat crew training well-proven trainer. This course was designed course at Luke afb, . A unique feature specifically for foreign students, and the tempo of this program is that the frg Air Force pro- of instruction has been adapted to fit their vides instructors and staff officers to assist usaf needs. Upon graduation, trainees are awarded personnel in conducting the undergraduate usaf pilot wings, and they usually proceed to program at Sheppard. The actual flying and C-47 aircraft at Keesler or receive transition related academic portions are conducted by and combat crew training in some other type usaf instructors, but the frg Air Force con- of aircraft with a unit of the Tactical Air ducts its own officer inilitary training as an Command. integral part of the course. frg Air Force staff For the past few years, the majority of personnel are also available to assist in the students in the T-28 course have been from the F-104 training at Luke. All trainees are re- Republic of Vietnam Air Force ( rvnaf), though quired to meet usaf course standards before many from other Asian, Latin American, and they graduate. African countries have participated. Most of Most people think of the Military Assist- the rvnaf trainees have either checked out as ance Training Program as being paid for by C-47 pilots or have gone to Hurlburt Field, the United States, which was generally true Undergraduate Pilot Train- ing, Wcbb AFB. Texas 34 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

Programmed ConUS Training (in millions of dollars)

FY 64 FY 65 FY 66 FY 67 FY 68 1 F Y 6 3 Grant Aid 33 20- 14 16 22 18 Foreign Military Sales 1 1 15 16 26 47 46

until a few years ago. However, there lias been additional weeks. The maintenance and main- a drastic swing from Grant Aid ( ga) to Foreign tenance instructor cadre personnel receive from Military Sales ( fms) as shown in accompany- 3 to 11 weeks of specialized training with the ing table. Were it not for the war in Vietnam, Field Training Detachment and then 2 to 8 the swing would have been even more drastic. weeks of ojt in the base maintenance shops at The causes behind tliis trend are many, but it Williams. The maintenance personnel selected is primarily a case of those who can afford to to be instructors also receive specialized train- pay and those who cannot. As the Congress of ing in instructional techniques; they prepare the United States has reduced foreign aid ap- the lesson plans they will use when they return propriations, the Department of Defense has to their homeland. The maintenance instructor limited the countries eligible to receive Grant cadre is scheduled to complete training and Aid assistance. return home 60 to 90 days before the aircraft There also has been a gradual trend toward are to be delivered. more sophisticated training. As the various At this time a Mobile Training Set, consist- countries throughout the world seek to mod- ing of various training aids, mockups, cutaways, ernize their air forces by higher-performance etc., is also delivered, and a usaf Mobile Train- aircraft and associated equipment, there is an ing Team from Air Training Command arrives increased need for more highly qualified pilots to set up the equipment. This team begins train- and maintenance personnel. The United States ing additional maintenance personnel for the Air Force has had much experience in prepar- country. The instructor cadre assists this team ing foreign air forces for receipt of new aircraft and determines how to eonduct the various and has developed a most effective training courses. The cadre then takes over the training plan to accomplish this. The F-5 Freedom of a second group of technicians, and the usaf Fighter training plan is an excellent example instructors observe and assist as necessary. This of the “cadre” concept. It provides for transi- training period normally covers about three tion and instructor training for 6 pilots, mainte- months. When this second group of technicians nance and instructor training for 15 instructor is trained, the Mobile Training Team returns technicians, and maintenance training for 36 home. Shortly before the team leaves, airframe key technicians. This program establishes both and engine technical representatives (“Tech an instructor cadre and a maintenance cadre Reps”) arrive to assist the country technical in- for the country. structors in conducting ojt and follow-on up- The training of F-5 personnel is a joint grade training. These personnel depart after effort by Air Training Command and Tactical one year, and the country Air Force is then on Air Command at Williams afb, Arizona. The its own. pilots undergo a 2-week aircrew familiarization A similar joint training effort takes place course in the Field Training Detachment of Air with the pilot cadre and a Mobile Training Training Command. They then proceed to the Team of two instructor pilots fumished by 4441st Combat Crew Training YVing ( tac) for Tactical Air Command. This cadre plan insures transition and instructor pilot training for 13 that sufficient numbers of aircrew and mainte- MILITARY ASSISTANCE TRAININC PROGRAM 35

nance personnel are trained and ready when when they retum home. Therefore, extra effort the aircraft are delivered. The plan, or modifíca- is made to insure that the foreign trainee gets tions of it, has worked well in nine countries everything possible out of his training. Special that are now flying the F-5 Freedom Fighter: training methods, individual attention, addi- Iran, Greece, Turkey, Moroeco, Ethiopia, Re- tional training time, and oral or praetice tests pubhc of , Republic of Korea, Thailand, assist the student to complete the course suc- and Republic of Vietnam. The cadre concept cessfully. Practically any method is encouraged of training is readily adapted to other types of so long as it does not lower the standard of aircraft and is the basic plan used in the Mili- proficiency required for graduation. VVhenever tary Assistance Training Program. possible, foreign students are housed, fed, and Training for foreign students in the United intermingled with American students during States is conducted in English. Separate classes the courses of instruction. This association not for foreign trainees are not normally scheduled only enhances their language proficiency and unless the course is simply one in which usaf subject understanding but also aids in develop- personnel would usually not participate, such ing close and lasting friendships. as T-28 Undergraduate Pilot Training. Even Foreign trainees quite naturally experience these special classes are taught in English by many problems in adjusting to their new en- usaf personnel. Therefore, the foreign trainee vironment, and unique situations arise. To must be fluent enough in the English language minimize their effects, a Foreign Training to enable him to assimilate the instruction and Office is established at each base where there perform any tasks required of him. Most coun- are foreign trainees. The manning of these tries participating in the Military Assistance offices varies considerably, depending on the Training Program provide English language foreign student enrollment. At many locations instruction to their students before they come the job of the Foreign Training Officer is an to the United States. All students must achieve additional duty, whereas at others it may be a passing scores on English Comprehension Levei primary duty with several stafiF members to tests administered by maac personnel or else assist. In any case, the Foreign Training Office receive English language training when they serves as the single point of contact on the base come to the United States. for matters pertaining to training and admin- English language training under the Mili- istration of foreign students. The Foreign tary Assistance Program is provided by the Training Officer has a most difficult and per- Defense Language Institute English Language plexing job at times, but his efforts are reward- School located at Lackland afb. The English ed by increased understanding and goodwill. Language School provides instruction for all Selected countries also have liaison officers foreign trainees participating in the Military assigned to Air Training Command to assist in Assistance Training Program, regardless of the administration of their students. At present whether their follovv-on training is with the there are liaison officers from Ethiopia, Federal Army, Navy, or Air Force. Republic of Germany, Iran, Republic of Korea, Unless there are security limitations, for- Morocco, Norway, Turkey, and Republic of eign trainees are treated in the same manner Vietnam. These officers provide invaluable as- as their counterparts in the United States Air sistance to the training units wberever students Force. They are also expected to assume the from their eountry are located. same responsibilities as U.S. personnel. In the While the primary objective of the Mili- Air Training Command, this is especially sig- tary Assistance Training Program is to develop nificant since all students, U.S. or foreign, are professional and technical skills in foreign air expected to meet course standards before they forces, the program has a second objective: to are allowed to graduate. For foreign students, provide a better understanding of the United this is extremely important: they are usually States by introducing foreign trainees to the key personnel who must incorporate the ac- significant aspects of American life. Called the quired knowledge into their own organizations Informational Program for Foreign Military 36 AIR UNIVERSITY REV1EW

Trainees and Visitors to the United States (In- helping to insure smooth intemational relations formational Program for short), it is designed in years to come. to expose foreign trainees to American society, It has been demonstrated again and again institutions, and ideais through lectures, discus- that the people we train through the Military sions, films, visits, and tours. The activities are Assistance Training Program rise to high posi- carefully planned bv the Foreign Training Offi- tions in their countries. While underscoring this cers to meet the objectives of the program and fact, a former Secretary of Defense said, “In all to utilize judiciously the limited funds available probability, the greatest retum on a portion of for this purpose. The scope of the program in- our military assistance investment—dollar for cludes agriculture, labor, education, U.S. gov- dollar—comes from the training of selected offi- ernment, the judicial system, press, etc. The cers and key specialists in United States schools Informational Program is built around the idea and installations. These students are hand- of showing America rather than selling Amer- picked—they are the coming leaders of their ica. America will sell itself if foreign students nations. It is beyond price to the United States have the opportunity to see for themselves. to make friends of these men.” Community support is perhaps the most impor- tant factor contributing to a successful pro- gram. Experience has shown that the civilian Am T raining Co mma n d has been training for- community responds enthusiastically, when eign students for many years. O ver 45,000 have made aware of the program. Likevvise the for- been trained since 1950 in the United States eign trainees enjoy the opportunity to leave the alone. Many thousands more have been trained military environment and get acquainted with by usaf units overseas. This program has but Americans and learn more about the host coun- one purpose: to help establish in friendly for- try. These intemational friendships literally eign air forces the capability to operate, main- span the globe! The Informational Program is tain, and properly utilize their equipment and a verv important part of our foreign aid, and personnel. This purpose can only be achieved the resulting goodwill, friendship, and mutual by effective education and training. The Mili- understanding may vvell pay greater dividends tary Assistance Training Program is an essen- in the long run than the actual training received tial part of the United States foreign policy. To by the foreign students. have strong allies, we must have well-trained The Military Assistance Training Program, allies. Air Training Command is proud to be then, is many different things to our several doing its part. allies. But to all of them, rich or poor, it is the Hq Air Training Command vehicle that gives them the chance to have the best-trained air force in the free world. It also allows us the opportunity to work firsthand Note 1. Dr. A. Glenn Morton, “The Inter-American Air Forces with our friends and neighbors. These correla- Academy,” Air University Review, November-December 1966, tive opportunities have the residual effect of pp. 11-20. V AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TRAINING FOR SOUTHEAST ASIA

M ajo r F rank F. E. H en se, J r .

N late 1965, Air Training Command was confronted with the urgent requirement to develop and implement a special I program to provide aircraft maintenance training for a large number of airmen to be sent to Southeast Asia (sea ). Some of these airmen were needed as quickly as they could be trained, to make up manning shortages in units that Tactical Air Command (tac) had transferred to (pa c a f ) when the force buildup in sea began. The manning shortages were created by several factors: some tac units had deployed understrength; all deployed units were flying more aircraft hours per month, which ConUS manning leveis could not support; and, finally, the sea operational environment was primitive, and facüities were lim- ited. Concurrently with the development of a program to fill the urgent augmentation requirement, atc worked jointly with tac and the usaf Militarv Personnel Center (mpc ) to resolve the greater but longer-term problem of 38 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

providing fully trained and weapon-system- The delivery of a fully qualified weapon qualified maintenance personnel replacements system technician is a complex task—there just for the airmen then in sea . Because of the isn’t any way to provide instant work-area nature of its mission, tac would be the most experience and job knowledge to a mainte- logical source to provide mission-oriented re- nance technician, particularly in light of the placements to sustain and replenish sea com- complexity of the modem jet fighter. Nor was bat units. there time or the resources in tac to allow That command had tried to meet the re- qualification routinely by lengthy (6 to 12 quírement from within its own resources, but months) exposure to the flight-line environ- by the end of September 1965 it was apparent ment. that these efforts would not be enough. Vir- Hq usaf, recognizing these factors, di- tually all of its remaining mission units were rected atc to develop and implement jointly being tapped for personnel to be fed into the with tac a special program to provide the fully replacement cycle. qualified replacements needed. tac was also faced with the growing pro- atc, normally the provider of individual gram to provide qualified combat-ready re- training, which this requirement surely was, placement aircrews. These aircrews had to be could not accomplish suc-h a task alone. This put through the appropriate weapon-system was an added mission, requiring facilities and operational readiness training. To meet the equipment not available in atc within the aircrew training needs, almost all of its re- needed time frame. tac, the center of tactical maining fighter units were converted to com- warfare and by far the major supplier of units, bat crew training schools or replacement equipment, and personnel for the sea build- training units (rtu). up, did possess the facilities, equipment, and tac’s actual trained manpower require- essential qualification environment. So in No- ment grew apace with the increased flying vember 1965 the atc/tac/sea training pro- mission. gram was bom. Operating under the charter This, then, was the situation in late 1965 given by Hq usaf, atc and tac joined in a when atc entered the sea support arena. It coordinated training effort that has since pro- was readily evident that tac was going to duced the best-qualified replacements ever need assistance, and rapidly. It was also ap- provided operational units. parent that large numbers of augmentees were The essentials of the training program going to be required in sea , and quickly. were the following: (1) atc would conduct Qualified replacements would have to be sup- classroom training at tac rtu sites with ftds, plied soon. preferably with mobile training equipment. The exact nature and extent of atc sup- (2) tac would provide practical, on-the-job port was not readily discemible in September training (ojt) in conjunction with the ftd 1965. It was evident, however, that atcs field formal training. The goal was to provide a training capability—probably the most flexible fully oriented individual, and our formal ftd of its several training mediums—would have training was redesigned and tailored to this to be expanded. end. tac absorbed the sea replacements di- One of the Solutions considered at pa c a f s rectly into the work center and let them get request was the placing of Field Training their hands dirty in the real-world situation Detachments (ftd), with their training equip- while undergoing enroute training. naent, at the main operating sea bases. How- Since tac could no longer provide the ever, atc’s experience in Korea indicated that numbers of replacement personnel needed, the organizations engaged in fighting a war can- question then was where to find the people to not make use of sucli training facilities; what train. The solution was provided in a joint they need is replacements who are immedi- conference of atc/tac and mpc . The formula ately productive in the weapon system they developed would utilize tac’s inherent poten- are to support. tial for work-area qualifying of maintenance A1RCRAFT MAINTENANCE TRA1NING FOR SEA 39 personnel yet preserve tacs reservoir of the ing sites were Seymour Johnson, Nellis, and trained and qualified maintenance personnel McConnell; F-100 sites were Myrtle Beach, essentíal to sustain the aircrew replacement Luke, and Cannon. Shaw was selected as the training program. The formula called for train- site for all reconnaissance training. Several ing en route 50 percent of pa c a f s replacement technical training centers were designated to requirements. These personnel would be with- provide training that was beyond the capabil- dra\vn from other commands, such as adc, ity of the ftds: Keesler for electronic counter- ma c , and sa c . They would get full atc/ftd measures, Amarillo for structural repair, and and tac/ojt training en route to their sea Chanute for jet engine and nondestructive assignment. Since only 5 or 7 leveis were testing. selected, they would already be skilled main- By July 1966, the machinery designed tenance personnel, requiring only transition jointly by atc and tac to sustain the units in training to another weapon system. tac would sea with system-qualified personnel was estab- provide another 25 percent; these would also lished and operating. The program had begun be 5- and 7-level personnel already qualified 6 months earlier to provide some 1800 addi- on the appropriate weapon system. The re- tional personnel to reconcile the differences maining 25 percent would be developed from between zi operation and overseas combat op- 3-level graduates of atcs airman resident eration. This task had been completed in May maintenance courses, who would be assigned 1966. Originally we had planned to train 3600 to tac as an intentional overmanning in order replacements for pa c a f between July and De- to gain work-area experience before being eember 1966, based on the formula devised to sent to sea . The 3-level replacement would train en route 50 percent of the total pa c a f undergo the ftd/ojt cycle in a pc s status and requirement, which was 7000. However, in be programmed to remain on base slx months. April 1966 pa c a f fumished a more definitive The scope and nature of the program was tpr calling for 4813 personnel to be trained en slowly developing, and by late November the route by May 1967. This tpr included replace- immensity of the requirement began to take ments for some of the augmentees just trained. shape. Some measure of the scope could be Adjusting the plan was eased by the fact that obtained from the size and composition of the the program was in-being and that tpr’s could force that needed support: 10 F-4C, 5 F-100, be projected with some assurance. and 5 F-105 squadrons, plus an unspecified Although it appeared that the rough spots number of RF-4C, RB-66, RF-101, and C-130 were being ironed out in the replacement aircraft. pa c a f had estimated that at least training program, there were certain inherent 6000 augmentation personnel might be re- factors that had to be considered because they quired. The replacement trained personnel re- complicated the effort that was being ex- quirements (tpr) were estimated to be even pended. It was recognized that the already greater—the estimates for the three fighter emplaced ftds at the tac bases were the most systems alone for 1966 totaled 7000, the pre- logical means for providing the replacement ponderance of whom would need training. training; however, these units were initially Because of the size and urgency of the there to support tac basic needs, not the sea augmentation requirement, the decision was requirement. The concurrent buildup of tac made by atc/tac and mpc to provide only ftd units could not be overlooked by those doing training, with limited practical experience, in the programming for sea support, since the as expeditious a manner as possible. The aug- need for replacement aircrews in sea was as mentees trained from 31 January through 18 criticai as the need for maintenance replace- May 1966 numbered 1813. ments. Limited troop housing at Shaw, tacs atc designated ftds, supplemented in Reconnaissance Center, and at other bases had some instances by travei teams, at 16 bases: to be reckoned with, along with ftd and Mo- for F-4 training, MacDill, Davis-Monthan, bile Training Set ( mts) movement schedules George, and Eglin were selected; F-105 train- and additional equipment/materiel require- 40 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEW ments. Moreover, the enlarged program gen- or atc would be in a position similar to that erated a need for additional instructors and of tac: faced with a growing mission and de- fy 1967 travei funds, initially estimated at $1.4 pleted resources. Accordingly, in a conference million for students and $105,000 for instruc- in October 1966, mpc and atc representatives tors. Amarillo and Chanute alone needed 37 developed procedures to insure stability and more instructors and a budget increase of over preservation of the atc ftd instructor force $136,000 for travei and equipment movement. needed to support sea and tac. Essentially, By late 1966 evidence began to appear the agreement was that mpc would not levy that a situation vvas developing which would upon atc for an ftd instructor until his re- render the training program less effective and placement was on board and qualified. This would depress the skill levei of the people did not provide a permanent sanctuary from being sent to sea . The basis of the situation sea assignments for atc instructors, but it did stemmed from the formula established for pro- insure that the ftds maintained essential 100 viding the personnel, specifically that part percent capability at all times. which levied on tac one-half of the total sea As always, atc was not satisfied merely replacement requirements, of which 50 per- to deliver gross numbers of personnel to meet cent were to be 5 or 7 skill levei, tac no longer requirements; the quality of the individual was capable of providing this caliber of per- was a concem also. Evaluations of the training sonnel, and initial implications were that atc made afterward by the students themselves would be required to train larger numbers of indicated that a satisfying levei of success was 5 and 7 personnel in the enroute training pro- being attained, but this assurance was not gram. The situation was eased, though, when sufficient to satisfy atcs concem completely. pa c a f agreed to accept 34 percent of the total Accordingly, a plan was instituted to evaluate replacement requirements as 3-level weapon- the student after he began serving at his over- system qualified. This eased the strain on tac’s seas assignment. The means for accomplish- resources by reducing its requirement for ing this were to be a mailed questionnaire/ qualified 5- and 7-level personnel from 25 per- critique form, on-the-spot evaluations by atc cent to 16 percent of the total sea requirement. traveling team instructors, spot checks by the Despite pa c a f s revising the requirements atc Liaison Officer to Seventh Air Force in downward, the cold fact remained that ConUS Saigon, and field visits by Sheppard person- resources had been depleted severely. The nel, to compare course content with the job situation was so criticai that one base had to requirements. resort to the temporary hiring of civilian con- The end-of-course critiques by the stu- tract maintenance personnel to support local dents almost universally showed satisfaction maintenance requirements. Further, the input with course content, although a fairly common of 3-level technical school graduates into the complaint was that some courses were longer ConUS maintenance complexes was steadily than necessary. Fairly common, too, were com- increasing, with no end in sight. atc would plaints about lack of trainers, training and test need at least 68 more instructors for the ftds equipment, and training materiais. A shortage supporting tac to handle training loads just of technical data drew some criticism but sub- through the remainder of fy 1967. sided as soon as additional technical orders Stability of the atc instructor force was became available. Student facilities also re- also a concem, for atc ftd instructors formed ceived a fair share of criticism, mainly of a pool of weapon-system-qualified mainte- housing, transportation, and overcrowded nance personnel to be drawn upon to satisfy classrooms. But in spite of these conditions, the needs of sea . The computers in the Mili- overall ratings of “good” and ‘ very good” pre- tary Personnel Center readily recognized this dominated. This, then, indicated the measure and were withdrawing atc instructors apace of success being achieved in what could be with the levies issued to the other commands. classified as a rapid response to an add-on, Something would have to be done and quickly, unprogrammed requirement. AIRCRAFT MA1NTENANCE TRAINING FOR SEA 41

The success of the program must be at- the future, atc foresees expansion of the train- tributed in part to the instructors’ thorough ing concept and scope to encompass all air- understanding of their role in the training task craft support personnel in sea . Aircraft such and to their achievement in motivating the as the , nonjet fighters, and assault students. airlift are being considered now. atc believes In summation, atc s support of the buildup that the growing need for qualified replace- in sea tactical units was at first the providing ments who are ready to be productively em- of individual training to personnel required to ployed on arrival can only be provided by this augment those units. This was aceomplished type of training program. The complexity of from January through May 1966. Replacement todays aircraft demands the cohesiveness of training began immediately thereafter and con- formal training in conjunction with practical tinues to date. The total trained so far in this work-area exposure. unique tac/atc program exceeds 12,000. For Hq Air Training Command. IR TRAINING COMMAND prepares its aircrew members to be the best in the world. One of the fundamental and A absolutely essential segments of at c's air training pro- gram is the survival course conducted by the usaf Survival School at Fairchild afb, Washington. This training provides the principies, procedures, and techniques that may directly save an aircrew member's life and enable him to return to his unit without giving aid or comfort to the enemy. It is often the final and, to the individual, most important step in preparing the man. Survival schools for training military personnel have been in existence since the early part of World War II, but they were scattered, and no attempt was made to centralize control or standardize curricula. In December 1949, under the stimulus of General Curtis E. LeMay, then Commander of the , a school for survival was established at Camp Carson, Colorado. Training began on 1 April 1950. Initially, the school was operat- ed by the 3904th Training Squadron of Strategic Air Command. Thefaculty and staff were a cadre of survival specialists gathered from Air Force, Army, and reserve sources. The school was designed to satisfy the needs of sac and its mission of that day. In 1952 the school moved from Camp Carson to Stead af b, . The Air Training Command assumed responsibility for providing Air Force survival training on 1 September 1954. The school operated under a wing, group, and squadron setup. The wing was a crew training wing originally, finally becoming

a flying training wing. The squadron as such went through a series of name changes and finally was known as the 3637th Combat Crew Training Squadron, operated by the 3636th Flying Training Wing. After Stead was deactivated, elements from the old wing, group, and squadron moved to Fairchild af b, Washington. There are two entities at Fairchild—the usaf Survival School and the 3636th Combat Crew Training Group, which operates the school. Since Camp Carson days, the Survival School has trained almost 100,000 students in the art of combat survival. (From 1 April 1950 to 21 December 1967, 93,000 students were trained.) During fiscal year 1968, the school trained 9317 students in its several courses, 7965 of them in the regular survival course. Knowledge gained during the Korean and Vietnam con- flicts and the continuing has necessitated changes in the curriculum to satisfy the requirements of the larger number of students now attending the courses. These include not only U.S. Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine personnel but military personnel from many allied countries. “ The School's mission is to train selected personnel in the employment of principies, procedures, equipment, and techniques which per- mit a person to survive regardless of climatic conditions or unfriendly environments, and return to his organization." The goal that challenges all students is to return with honor. In addition, the student will understand the basic concepts of guerrilla activity, causative factors of insurgency, and the organization concept of Special Forces. Under Air Force Regulation 53-28, 26 July 1966, the schooTs functions are, among other activities, to conduct academic and operational training in basic survival (the preservation of one's life against immediate perils such as starvation, drowning, dehydration, heat, cold, injuries, bactéria, and radioactivity); in combat survival (those measures to be taken by Service personnel when involuntarily separated from friendly forces in combat, including procedures relating to individual survival, evasion, escape, and conduct after capture); in evasion and escape (the procedures and operations whereby military personnel and other selected individuais are enabled to emerge from an During the field phase of training at enemy-held or hostile area to areas under friendly control); the Survival School, the student ap- in counterinsurgency operations; and in special training as plies what he has learned: how to pro- directed. To carry out these functions, the usaf Survival School cure food from the wild, as here by improvised rod, line, and fishhook . . . conducts the regular survival course (S-V80-A), which develops how to build a survival shelter . . . as follows: how to start a fire without matches. a. On-base training (exclusive of Resistance Training Laboratory) b. Resistance Training Laboratory c. Field training (operational training): (1) Static camp (transition training) (2) Mobile training (advanced transition and opera­ tional training). In reality the course is not "phased." For example, training in the on-base portion lays the foundation for the Resistance Training Laboratory and field training which follow; training in fieldcraft and travei techniques must be accomplished on a continuing basis throughout all the field training that is accom- plished under direct instructor influence, both in static camp and during mobile training. The classroom portion of survival training prepares the aircrew member by giving him basic and advanced survival theory. In order to give a student the background and tools which he will need to complete this rugged course success- fully, he is given a wide variety of classroom and practical instruction. During the nine days (formerly 12) devoted to class­ room and laboratory training, the student is instructed in para- chute control and landing; water survival; survival medicine and hygiene; special problems posed by life as a prisoner of war, resistance to all aspects of exploitation, and escape; the procurement of food from available plants, fish, and game; and other survival principies. He is informed of the representative types of terrain and climate the world over and the hazards associated with each. He also learns the principies of land navigation, camouflage, and evasion movement. Some of the more interesting segments of this on-base training are lab phases in parachute training and water survival. Five academic training hours of Course S-V80-A are devoted to parachute instruction and helicopter recovery. One hour is spent explaining the principies and procedures for control of the parachute in the air, landing falis, and recovery. Four hours are spent in actual practice. The class is divided into five separate groups, which inter- change after each segment of demonstration and practice is completed. Group 1 practices control of the parachute in the air, recovery from a faulty opening, and body position for land­ ing in open field, water, high-tension wires, and trees. The instruction includes how to make a mid-air modification that will give a more steerable parachute (e.g., the four line cut). Group 2 meanwhile is being taught how to make a parachute landing fali (pl f ) from four basic positions—front, right side, left side, and rear—starting from a standing position on the ground and advancing to a four-foot platform. The correct falling procedures for a successful injury-free parachute land­ ing are demonstrated. Then each student participates and is critiqued on his ability to effect a good landing, regardless of the direction of the fali. Group 3 is being taught how to make a successful recovery or rescue by helicopter. The student learns how to use the new tree-escape letdown device which enables him to reach the ground if he becomes hung up in a tree after a parachute jump. He gets three rides in a simulated helicopter hoist (stationary tower), which is approximately 25 feet high; one ride is with the conventional sling, and two are with the newly designed forest penetrator. Group 4 is learning how to avoid being dragged by a full canopy if caught in a high wind. This is an important phase of jump training, for a full canopy in a 20-knot wind can be a great danger to a person who has otherwise made a good landing. Here the student is taught to lie on his back, head and legs raised, spring open the quick releases, and spill air from his parachute. A method for a quick roll from stomach to back is also taught and practiced. An instructor in the Parachute Group 5, starting in January 1968, began using the newest Training Branch of the Survival parachute training aid, the swing landing trainer, which more School explains the dangers of realistically simulates a parachute landing fali. The student is parachute malfunctions during the lab phase. . . . The stu- in a harness while being lowered and swung as he falis ap- dents leam how to operate and proximately 12 feet. The instructor can control the speed of the protect the various types of fali, but the student cannot predict where or in what position rádios that are part of Air Force he will land. This is advanced pl f training and is an important survival equipment for expedit- new segment of parachute instruction. ing emergency rescue operations. The parachute training received at the usaf Survival School is not designed to jump-qualify the student. Its purpose is to give him confidence in his parachute equipment and in his own ability to take care of himself in survival situations. The student generally enjoys and appreciates this training, knowing that one day it may help him make a safe parachute descent and landing, Water survival is another important segment of survival training. The student gets two hours of instruction in emer- gency parachuting principies over water and the use of water survival equipment until rescue and recovery. He becomes familiar with his emergency water gear through a preliminary lecture before moving to the pool area for actual water instruc­ tion. The student is dropped from a high tower, simulating a water parachute landing. He learns how to prepare for the water landing, correctly enter the water, and release his parachute. Thus he enters into instruction in using life preservers and one- man and multiman rafts. A recent addition to the course teaches the student how to cope with a parachute canopy that collapses on him once he has hit the water. Survival Course S-V80-A also includes resistance training. After being given intensive classroom preparation, the student enters the Obstacle Penetration Lab. After sunset, he covers the mile-long obstacle course. He is hindered by barbed wire, fiares to betray his position, obstacles like those found on many territorial borders, and school instructors acting as guards. Upon completing the obstacle course, the student is captured by school instructors masquerading as the enemy. This signals the beginning of the Resistance Training Labora- tory, one of the most significant sections of training, particularly in what the student learns about himself. He is faced with simulated enemy interrogations and periods of isolation and cramped quarters. Later he is confronted with compound life in a prisoner-of-war camp, where the students as a group are faced with more and different problems relating to honorable survival while in captivity. After each segment of this training, the student is critiqued by school instructors so that problem areas can be identified. These critiques are designed to make the student aware of his mistakes and give him the information necessary to correct them. With his on-base classroom training and Resistance Train­ ing Lab completed, the student moves into the next portion of training, the static camp portion of field training. Instruction in the field is extremely important, for it is in the field that the survival principies, procedures, and techniques taught in the classroom take on new meaning as they are applied in actual situations. Students are taken to one of the three training areas in the Kaniksu and Colville National Forests, approximately 65 miles north of Spokane, for their field training, which is divided into static camp and mobile training. For the training period of 5Yi days, each student is issued survival and fresh rations totaling approximately 2500 calories. This supply of food, Bij practicing landing falis, the student augmented by what the enterprising student can procure off learns how to make an actual parachute the land, will be his sustenance during this period. landing and walk away unharmcd. . . . His Transition survival training, conducted in the static camp familiarity with rescue hoists may one day for three days, gives the students an opportunity to practice assist in his own helicopter rescue. . . . field techniques while living in a semipermanent camp. They On the Survival Schools swing lander the are grouped in small training elements, each with its own in- student learns correct ways to land a para- structor. The instructor explains, discusses, and demonstrates chute. . . . H e also learns to lower him- survival principies, techniques, and procedures, and the stu- self if his parachute should land in a tree. dent practices under the instructor's supervision. Static camp serves as a transition between the academic phase and the mobile phase of training, as it gives the student an opportunity to review knowledge and skills introduced during on-base training and permits him to integrate this introductory material with field application. The student learns the principies and techniques of per- sonal protection (shelter and clothing); shelter location and selection; shelter construction; firecraft; care and use of equip- ment; improvised clothing and equipment; procurement, prepa- ration, and preservation of food and water; field medicine and personal hygiene; survival under radioactive fallout conditions; preparation of Communications; position determination; and day and night navigation on the ground (orientation). At the end of each day in static camp, the instructor eval- uates the performance of his element and each individual member. Constructive criticism and extra instruction when needed ensure that every student learns the essential survival principies and can put them into practice. Following static camp, students move into perhaps the most demanding portion of survival training, the mobile training. Mobile field training gives the student the opportunity to apply basic fieldcraft and travei techniques under changing conditions. Gradually the enemy opposition buildup (in the form of aggressor forces) and combat survival situations put a greater demand on the studenfs capabilities. While under this stress, he must put into practice what he has learned in the on-base and static camp training. The mobile training is the real test of the principies and techniques he has been learning. The last portion of the mobile training is called "confidence training," and rightly so. Successful completion of the mobile phase significantly increases the studenfs con­ fidence that he can apply what he has learned and return safely from any emergency. In the mobile training, which lasts two and one-half days, the students are again grouped in small training elements, each with its own instructor. However, direct instructor supervision and assistance are gradually withdrawn. The first two days, the students travei as an element force with their instructor nearby; after that, they pair off without an instructor. The students travei by day and night, are harassed by a simulated aggressor enemy force, and attempt to evade capture by the enemy. A major problem encountered is ground naviga­ tion, but other important segments of training are presented: enemy harassment, evasion problems, cooperation with friendly forces, plus all the basic fieldcraft learned in static camp and the early part of mobile training (shelters, food, water, equip­ ment, etc.). Upon completing the mobile training, each man can look back with a smilethat reflects his feelings: "1 survived."

T he USAF Survival School has a staff and faculty of highly skilled specialists with a wide range of the knowledge required by global combat survival training. The philosophy of the school is to teach the skills which will enable the student to survive in

In practice landings, the student leams the importance of quickly disengaging the parachute so as not to be dragged by it. . . . A wind machine introduces him to one of the serious problems of parachut- ing and graphically shows the need for immediate release of the chute.

the event of a future emergency. The school must keep up to date on changing world conditions, keep abreast of military and technological developments, and continually adapt itself to the requirements of various commands of the Air Force. In the last analysis, the main concern of the school is with the man, the individual. The goal of the school is his safe and honorable return from any emergency, whether it involves dealing with an enemy or not. That he may “ Survive To Fight Again," the school is dedicated to providing the individual with the tools and training which will enable him to cope with any emergency anywhere on the globe.

Hq Air Training Command / \

INEXORABLE IS TH E W ORD

COLONEL ROBERT D. CURTIS

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ODAY more than 3000 flying sorties phase one consisting of 30, 90, and 120 flying \vill be launched from Air Training hours, flown in the T-41, T-37, and T-38 T Command pilot training bases. There respectively. With minor modification, it is the were 3000 launched yesterday, there will be course of today and for the immediately fore- 3000 more tomorrow, and there will be at least seeable future. that many launched during virtually any work- Addition of a light-plane “screening” ing dav one might select in the future, for the phase was not a new idea in pilot training. pace is increasing. During fy 1967, Air Train- The Air Force had used the Beech T-34 in ing Command logged more than 795,000 flying like manner in the early 1950s. Reintroduction hours in T-37 and T-38 aircraft. The number was expected to serve much the same purpose will be 900,000 in fy 1968 and will exceed one as before: to identify early the obviously unfit million in fy 1969. These are large figures. Yes, so that expensive, limited jet hours could be and other large figures are the $22.2 to $28.3 reserved for pilot students with above-average million fy 1967 operating costs for each of the potential. The T-41 has served this purpose nine Air Force bases devoted principally or well. Since introduction of the T-41, fourteen solely to the pilot training mission, resulting classes have been graduated. From these in a figure of $243.3 million as the one-year classes, 45.2% of the students eliminated for price of pilot training. These flying hours and flying defíciency were identified during T-41 dollars yielded 2996 new military pilots in flying. Furthermore, as an unexpected bonus, fy 1967 (of which 2702 were usaf). Produc- the T-41 has been found to provide useful tion goals for fy 1968, 1969, and 1970 are 3293, orientation and training value. The student is 3473, and 3850 pilots respectively. This is big conditioned to flying within a highly disci- business by any standard and is indicative of plined and procedural environment and is able the magnitude of the usaf pilot training task. to assimilate T-37 instruction faster than could This article will describe the nature of the his predecessor in pre-T-41 times. task—what it is, how it is done and why, the So much for background. Let’s go on to sort of people involved, and the means by an investigation of the nature of the task. which the new pilot is tailored to meet future responsibilities. the student

The usaf pilot training student of today background is a commissioned officer and a college gradu- The first substantial increase in pilot train- ate. As such, he is intelligent and mature and ing rate in recent years was initiated with has mastered habits of self-discipline and Class 67A on 29 July 1965. During the early application to study. These traits are tested 1960s, production had ranged from 1700 to severely during the initial months of training. 2200 new pilots each year, a relatively leisurely The largest single source of student pilots pace by present-day standards. The target for is the Air Force rotc program, supervised by fy 1967 was 2982, with higher goals for sub- Air University; 44.7% of the students who en- sequent years. Rather than accept the delay tered training during fy 67 were from this which would be required to activate or con- source. Incidentally, 84% of these rotc gradu- vert additional bases and obtaín additional ates had received flight instruction in light training aircraft, an adjustment in course con- aircraft while still in college. Under this Flight tent wras made. The course requirement of 262 Instruction Program, the student flew 36 hours all-jet flying hours in the early 1960s was re- in light aircraft at an FAA-accredited civilian duced to 252 in mid-FY 1965, then sharply cur- flying school. Although justified principally as tailed to 210 in fy 1966. In view of the severe a motivational device, the Flight Instruction impact on proficiency that would inevitably Program ( fip) has had a substantial impact on result from this drastic reduction, a light-plane elimination rates as well. The elimination rate phase was added. The course became a three- for Ftp-trained students has been approximate- 54 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

ly one-half that for students from universities “ground school” instruction, the student be- where fip training is unavailable. gins an arduous schedule—three hours in the A somewhat comparable program for Air classroom and six to eight hours on the flight Force Academy upperclassmen began in Janu- line, five days a week, with extra hours in ary 1968. The Pilot Indoctrination Program quarters for study, and occasional weekend (pip) provides 36 hours in the T-41 aircraft. flying. It is a demanding schedule and leaves This is an Air Training Command mission; little time for family or recreation. Air Force pilots are the instructors, and the Students from rotc and Air Force Acad- school is tightly supervised by a squadron emy sources who have completed fip or pip commander and appropriate staff officers. The light-plane training fly 18 hours in T-41 air- curriculum is pattemed after that of the T-41 craft; all others fly 30 hours. It may appear phase and serves the three purposes of screen- that the 18 hours flown by fip and pip gradu- ing, motivation, and preparation. ates is an expensive duplication of training Other sources of student pilots, in de- already completed, but most students com- scending numerical order, are: Officer Train- pleted their light-plane training several weeks ing School—31.8%; usaf officers already on ac- or months before entry into Air Force pilot tive duty—8.6%; navigators—7.6%; and Service training. Experience has proven that, were the academies—17.3% (principally from the Air Force 18 hours withdrawn, these students would be Academy, though graduates of the United unable to assimilate T-37 training at a rate States Militar)' Academy and United States comparable to those who fly the full 30 hours Naval Academy are eligible, and a few—76 in in Phase I. the last 5 years—have selected an Air Force T-41 flight training is provided by civilian career by this route). Regardless of source, flight instructors at a civil airport in the near most student pilots are highly motivated to- vicinity of each base. The T-41 aircraft are vvard mastery of the pilot skills, either because “loaned” to a civilian contractor, who furnishes of the challenge of flight itself or as acknowl- instruction and maintenance in accord with edgment of the likelihood that the pilot rating the terms of a contract negotiated yearly. will improve Air Force career potential. Quality control of both instruction and main- tenance is assured through close monitorship by Air Force personnel. Three Air Force pilots the overall mission oversee ground and air operations and fly at In a general sense, the pilot training least 10% of the final check flights; two ncos course is designed to provide mastery of the oversee maintenance procedures and practices. basic flying skills, which in due course will The T-41 was purchased by the Air Force permit assignment to any Air Force aircraft “off the shelf.” With two minor exceptions, it or mission. At graduation, however, the new is identical to the Cessna 172. It has a cruising pilot is able to operate only those aircraft in speed of 120 mph and a maximum speed of which he was trained; he is qualified for no 174 mph. Cost to the Air Force was a bit over specific Air Force mission. Consequently, fur- $7000 each. ther training, ranging from a few weeks to Phase two. The second-phase trainer is several months, is necessary before the pilot the Cessna T-37. Affectionately known as the can contribute usefully to national defense “tweety bird” or “double-barreled dog whistle" efforts. Most such postgraduate schools are the because of the frequency and amplitude of responsibility of major commands other than the scream produced by its two jet engines, ATC. it is a first-rate training vehicle. Selected in Phase one. The initial phase of training 1955, it is the first Air Force training aircraft is approximately five weeks in duration, de- to be designed with side-by-side seating. Air pending upon seasonal variation in weather Training Command received the initial pro- suitable for flying. Following one week of duction in 1956 and now operates 680 of these administrative processing and initial classroom fine training aircraft. At takeoff, it weighs 65 < 5 "INEXORABLE" IS THE WORD 55

pounds. Two J-69 engines, rated at 1025 pounds’ thrust each, push it to a cruising speed of 250 knots and a top speed of 372 knots. The price is approximately $147,000 each. It is during the 23 weeks of phase two that the student pilot really leams to fly in accord with military standards, procedures, and techniques. The 90 flying hours are di- vided into increments of 55 hours’ contact flying, 21 hours’ instrument training, 9 hours’ navigation practice, and 5 hours' formation introduction. At phase completion, the student pilot has experienced most aspects of modem military flying and is well along toward mas- tery of basic flying skills. Associated with the contact and instrument flying lessons are 22.5 additional hours in the T-4 ground trainer. This trainer is not a simulator in the technical sense; it does not move, but its cockpit dupli- cates that of the T-37 and its instrument indi- cations simulate those of the aireraft. It is used initiallv to provide familiarity with cockpit lavout and for practice of normal and emer- gency procedures. Later, each instrument in- struction flight is flown first in the T-4 trainer, then soon thereafter in the aireraft. This prac- tice assures understanding of the nature and content of each instrument flight before in- vestment of expensive flying hours. With the reduetion in jet flying hours from 262 to 210 at the start of fy 1966, the principal cut was made in the T-37 phase, from 132 to 90 hours. Experience now indi- cates this cut may have been too severe. An increase of the T-37 phase to approximately 120 hours would provide long-term profíciency gains well worth the additional expense. The typical leaming curve is still steep at 90 hours and does not appear to flatten until 110 to 130 hours. Phase three. During the third and final phase of approximately 25 weeks’ duration, the student further masters and polishes those skills introduced in the T-37 and adapts them to a modem high-performance aireraft. Again, The AFROTC Flight Instruction Program (FIP) Air Training Command is blessed with a near- serves as effective orientation for many who after optimum training aireraft. The Northrop T-38, commissioning proceed to pilot training in driven by two J-85 engines of 2900 pounds’ ATC. . .. Since January 1968 upperclassmen at Air Force Academy have been offered thrust each, cruises at a bit over 500 knots and a similar Pilot Indoctrination Program (PIP). can exceed mach 1.2 in levei flight. It is a rela-

(Conlitiued on page 58) Phase 1 / the T-41

An ATC military supervisor discusses some of the fine points of flying the T-41A. . . . Flijing training also includes three hours in the classroom, five days per week, as here at Williams AFB, Arizona. . . . Pilot trainees at Reese AFB, Texas, get the feel of T-41A Controls. To meet the stringent demands tluit flying inakes on mind and bodij, student pilots rnust also take physical truining. . . . The light prop-driven T-41 proves ideal and economical for pilot training leading to the jet T-37. 58 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW tively small aircraft with a takeoff weight of structors and supervisors at all pilot training only 11,800 pounds, but its performance and bases are engaged in in-house research, study, flight characteristics duplicate closely those of and evaluation. Various phases and units of modem tactical aircraft such as the F-4C. Air instruction are compared for effectiveness, and Training Command now operates 822 of these equipment such as closed-circuit tv and other fine training aircraft, whose procurement price electronic picture and sound recording devices is approximately $880,000 each. is evaluated for use. By these methods aca- The 120 hours of T-38 flying is divided demic training is kept current, modem, perti- into increments of 36 hours’ contact flying, 30 nent, and keyed to job requirements. These hours’ instrument training, 16 hours’ naviga- are, of course, internai Air Training Command tion practice, 36 hours’ formation training, and initiatives. 2 or 3 hours’ optional time to be used where Of greater and broader consequence are most needed. Initial contact flying and instru- the means by which the student is tailored to ment training are augmented by 24 hours of meet his postgraduate responsibilities in the training in a T-7/T-26 ground trainer, which other major commands. This aspect leads us duplicates the cockpit and performance char- to a document and a program. acteristics of the T-38 as the T-4 does in the T-37 phase. Course Training Standard

The Course Training Standard (cts) is a academic training document published by Air Training Com- There are 289 hours of formal classroom mand. It consists of four parts: instruction on subjects appropriate to qualify Part I explains briefly the purpose of the the student for pilot duties both during and cts; it “sets forth the skills, knowledges, and subsequent to pilot training. Most of this degree of proficiency required of graduates . . . material requires extensive extra-classroom establishes the overall course objectives, and preparation. will be used as the basis for developing more For many years Air Training Command detailed course control documents and train- has used a “prime base” concept. That is, each ing evaluation instruments.” pilot training base is assigned prime or prin- Part II enumerates the general duties and cipal responsibility for a particular academic responsibilities of the graduate. subject or subjects. Civilian experts in training Part III defines four leveis of proficiency, material and evaluation, assisted by Air Force ranging from classroom instructors, prepare texts, instructor 1. Knowledge of the general nature of guides, student study guides, testing materiais, the operation, task, equipment, or considera- and appropriate demonstration devices and tions, and able to relate the Information or visual aids. As such materiais are developed, knowledge to the performance of his assigned they are submitted for final review, editing, duties. approval, and production to an element of the to Hq atc staff. Annually, each base hosts an “academic workshop” where representatives of 4. Able to perform the operation or all bases meet to review and further refine task correctly, quickly, and efficiently without training materiais for a particular subject. assistance and able to apply the principies, Training materiais now include 13 Pro- techniques, and procedures involved to new or related operations, tasks, equipment, or grammed Instructional Packages, using up-to- situations. date techniques of programmed instruction and a multitude of modem and sophisticated In Part IV, job elements are listed, and audio-visual training aids. Development of leveis of proficiency (from the four defined) training techniques does not end here. Besides are assigned. For the pilot training course, 62 accomplishing the everyday teaching job, in- job elements are listed. “1NEXORABLE" IS THE WORD 59

Were a new course to be established, prep- flying hour availability, the course is adjusted aration of the cts would be the first step. How- appropriately. Thus continuous evaluation and ever, since the pilot training course has been positive action assure that the pilot graduate established for many years and is relatively matches the requirements of his job. When the stable, the cts serves another very important job changes, the training is modified promptly purpose: it permits efficient cominunication to meet new requirements. between atc and the other major commands. That is, the cts provides the vocabulary by course quality which requests for change are expressed and negotiated. It is also an essential aspect of the Those readers who are familiar with and Field Evaluation Program. perhaps products of the pilot training program of past years will have leamed little new so far. The course length has changed only a few Field Evaluation Program weeks since post-World War II days; flying The Field Evaluation Program is formally hour content is roughly comparable. But is established by atc regulation for the purpose course quality much the same? The answer to of providing currently valid information on the this question is an emphatic NO! quality of recent graduates: Are they compe- Through the years, the increasing de- tent to meet postgraduate responsibilities? mands of tactical aircraft and the flying en- The question is answered in two ways—by vironment have challenged the ingenuity of personal interview and through questionnaires. pilot training course managers. This challenge Approximately three months after graduation, has been met. The pilot graduate of today is each new pilot who enters an advanced flying better than ever before and in most respects school in another command is interviewed by is fully competent to meet his new responsi- a representative from an atc pilot training bilities. Nevertheless, the fact that it is pos- base, and his immediate supervisor is inter- sible to train a pilot to the proficiency levei viewed also. Those new pilots who are as- demanded by modem military flying with only signed directly to tactical units (and their a few more weeks and flying hours than it took supervisors) are mailed questionnaires. These in pre-World War II days should be consid- interviews and questionnaires use the crs as ered an almost miraculous achievement. How vocabulary and ask two kinds of questions: has it been done? How often is each job element used? Is train- Improvement in course quality has oc- ing for each job element adequate? Responses curred in two ways—incrementallv and by are correlated at base levei and again at Hq breakthrough. These two general categories atc on a quarterly basis. As examples of the will be discussed in tum. effort devoted to the Field Evaluation Pro- Incrementai improvements. gram during fy 67: More than 1300 question- (1) Control centralization. Today, control of naires were completed by recent graduates, the course curriculum is tightly centralized in 879 by their supervisors. Twenty-eight bases an element of the Hq atc staff. Here, selected were visited, and 96 formal reports were pre- from the entire personnel resources of atc, is pared on these visits. It is estimated that 95% assembled a group of the most highly quali- of all graduates will be queried at least once fied and experienced pilot training experts by questionnaire or interview within two years in the Air Force. It is their responsibility to of graduation. obtain maximum training value from each The Field Evaluation Program provides training day and flying hour allocated to the a means of validating course objectives and pilot training task. The product of their work training quality on a near-continuous basis. and that of their predecessors has been a cur- Additionally, crs review conferences are con- riculum of ever improving quality, together vened as required or as requested by other with the training techniques and materiais major commands, and, within the limits of which assure its eífective presentation. What (Continuai on page 62) Phase 11 / the T-37

The student familiarizes himself with the T-37 by experience in the T-4 ground trainer Once promoted to the real thing, he gives his “tweety bitd” the proper preflight check, including ejection seat and oxygen system. Progress through solo, acrobatic, and formation fhjing is made easier by T-37 side-by-side seating, which enables the instructor to get full reaction of his student to high-speed jet flying and make corrections when needed. MA

62 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW is taught, when it is taught, and how it is instruction role, special procedures apply to taught are all the subject of detailed directives pilots selected for instructor duty in these and course materiais. schools. Selection criteria include minimum (2) Standardization/Evaluation (Stan/Eval) oer average for the last five years of 7.5, hvo function. It is essential, of course, to ensure years’ experience (minimum) as instructor that the program is run precisely in accord pilot at a pilot training base, and at least 750 vvith course directives and that every instruc- hours in the aircraft (T-37 or T-38). That atc tor and supervisor is doing his job correctly can afford so high an experience levei in the and professionally. This is the responsibility of instructor schools may be a surprise. Never- the atc Stan/Eval Board, also an element of theless, atc now enjoys a very impressive the Hq atc staff. The Stan/Eval Board con- experience levei at the pilot training bases. sists of 14 highly experienced ex-instructor The Computer provides this profile of the typi- pilots. Their functions are spelled out in an cal atc instructor pilot: he is 30.8 years of age, atc manual. In brief, they act as the eyes of has a bachelors degree, and has 26.6 months’ the Commander, atc; they visit each pilot experience as an instructor pilot; 57% of them training base at least twice yearly, where they have flying experience in other commands, fly with students, instructors, and supervisors, and 26.5% have combat experience in South- monitor briefings and classroom instruction, east Asia. screen administrative records and local direc- These instructor pilots are eompetent, dis- tives, and review all operational procedures. ciplined, hard-working young men, highly The Stan/Eval function is duplicated again at qualified for their important job. During 1967 each base, where nine highly qualified instruc- the “buck” instructor pilot, in whose hands tor pilots perform the same Service for the ultimately rests the success of the program, deputy commander for operations. The Stan/ worked a 50- to 55-hour week and averaged Eval function at Headquarters and base leveis more than 45 hours of flying a month. ensures that all the hundreds of people in the Innovations. Now lets look at improve- pilot training program understand what they ments which may qualify for the term “break- are supposed to be doing, that they comply through.” I shall discuss three, though there with directives, and that they use sound, safe are others. Probably a narrative exposition operational procedures. will make their nature and significance most (3) Instructor pilot qualification. Certainly easily understood. the qualification of the instructor is a key fac- (1) Flight scheduling. Traditionally, train- tor in course quality. This is particularly true ing aircraft were launched in flying periods. in pilot training. Preparation of the instructor The flying day was divided into four or five pilot for his influential role has received strong periods, depending upon the season of the emphasis. Specialized instructor pilot training year. At the beginning of each period, many courses are operated for T-37, T-38, and aca- aircraft were launched together, flew the as- demic classroom instructors. The T-37 and signed missions, and returned together. This T-38 instructor courses are approximately ten was known as the “pulse launch” system. It weeks in duration, and they include 60 and had several limitations, the most important of 65 flying hours respectively. Already qualified which is the fact that all aircraft were com- in the aircraft at time of entry, the student peting for takeoff space, airspace, navigation instructor is taught the many procedures and aids, and landing space. Frorn a maintenance maneuvers used in pilot training and the tech- viewpoint, the working day consisted of a niques by which he may best develop flying series of shaip peaks and valleys. That is, a skills in his students. Prior to graduation, the large number of aircraft required starting at student instructor must meet high instruct- the same time. Then, at completion of the ing standards and demonstrate during check flying period, all aircraft required refueling flights precise mastery of all maneuvers. As and restart for the next period. an indication of the emphasis placed on the During the past two years, a new concept (Continued on trage 66) Phase III / the T-38

In a ground trainer the student gets instruction in handling the T-38, including use of its tactical air navigation (TACAN) system. Student and instructor oceupy tandem pilot seats in this most advanced . When the student has mastered it, he is ready for easy transition to combat fiying, for the T-38 is similar in design to the F-5 Freedom Fighter now being used in Vietnam. Phase III / the T-38

66 AIR UN1VERSITY REVIEW called “smooth flow” has replaced the “pulse goal of radar control of all training flights from launch” system. The day is now divided into initial takeoff to final landing. This goal is not brief intervals of three or four minutes each. as yet achieved; but, based on progress during Every three or four minutes of the flying day the last two years, it appears attainable within a single aircraft (or formation) of each type perhaps the next two or three years. is launched. Since each sortie is of approxi- (3) Use of computers. With improvements mately the same duration, aircraft retum for in aircraft control and scheduling, the training servicing at approximately the same interval capacity of each training base has increased. and rate. The maintenance workload is both Thus, it has been possible to accept larger reduced and leveled; only one aircraft need production goals within the existing atc base be launched or serviced at a time. More im- structure. This increase, in tum, has expanded portantly, individual aircraft no longer need and complicated greatly the problems of super- compete for runway time, airspace, or naviga- vision and management. The Computer has tion aids. Improvement in training efficiency been the obvious answer. Today scheduling has been spectacular, since there is much and a major portion of administrative account- less interference between individual sorties. ing are done by machines. Further, as com- Queueing for takeoff, approach, or landing is puters with greater capacity become available, a problem of the past, and each student is able more and more of the managerial task will be to receive many more opportunities for prac- transferred to the machine, relieving supervis- tice at the same flying hour cost. ors of routine scheduling and administrative (2) Air traffic control. Soon after receiving tasks and permitting closer attention to super- the first T-38 aircraft, it was apparent that visory responsibilities. atc had a new problem. The combination of high speed and small silhouette greatly in- All in all, the training operation of today creased the probability of mid-air collision. bears little resemblance to the manual grease- In stark tenns, if two T-38 aircraft get lined pencil-wall-chart operation of a few years ago. up on a head-on or near head-on collision The pilot training program is vital and adap- course, both aircraft will be lost. Neither pilot tive and ever improving in quality, safety, and will see the other aircraft in time to maneuver efficiency. out of the way. The initial solution to this Webster provides a clue to the word problem was to divide airspace into pieces and “inexorable” in the title of this article: it reserve a private piece for each aircraft. Be- “implies relentlessness of purpose.” Such is the cause of maneuver requirements, a minimum nature of the pilot training mission. Three size was defined, and the launch capacity of thousand sorties are required today and again each base became limited by the number of tomorrow; every six weeks a class graduates, airspace pieces available. Adoption of the and on its heels a new class enters; and every “smooth flow” concept has greatly alleviated new pilot must be capable of carrying his congestion and increased capacity. Addition- share of the Air Force responsibility. This ally there has been aggressive action and con- mission is a harsh taskmaster; it pennits no siderable progress toward expansion of radar letup in attention or effort. control. Hq atc has established the ambitious Hq Air Training Command J HOW DO I KNOW HE KNOWS I KNOW? 68 AIR UN1VERS1TY REV1EW

young Air Force looks younger men are second witli fewer around from the cockpit of his air- than 300 hours of flying experience. Others A plane. Through the windscreen in rank as high as full colonel, have thousands of front of him, he sees a runivay. He is on final hours of flying experience, and are veterans of approach for a landing. He doesnt have much several wars. Still a very few others are foreign flying experience, hut then that is what he is officers who are learning to teach flying in the here for: to learn how to fhy in the Air Force. T-37 so that they can aid the pilot training pro- On this final approach everything looks right; gram in their own countries. he’s sure it will he another good landing, his fourth in a row. Suddenly a voice from the seat next to him comes through on the intercom, academic instruction

“M ake this on e a fu ll stop!” pit classes at Perrin have approximately 12 The lieutenant thinks, “That’s it; that’s my students each. In a departure from the usual instructor pilot, and he is ready to let me fly flying school format, academic instruction is alone. He wants me to stop the airplane so he given to them before the T-37 flight phase be- can send me solo. He has heen watching me gins. This academic training consists of 47 hours fly, and now he thinks I am good enough to go of classroom instruction, presented in eight and up without him . .. hut how does he know? ... one-half training days, and includes classes in 1 wonder if l ’m really good enough. I guess I aerodynamics, T-37 engineering, flight instru- should he sure I can do it alone; after all, he is ments, principies and techniques of instruction, sure that I can. But how do I know? Can he Air Force flying publications, and T-37 per- really tell if Fm proficient enough to fly solo? formance charts. H ow d o I know h e know s if I know h ow to fhy?” In aerodynamics class, the future instruc- Relax, lieutenant, you can he sure he tor pilot leams to explain in technical terms knows. That primary instructor pilot sitting why an airplane flies, as well as why it some- next to you is a professional in the Air Force’s times doesn’t. The theories of aerodynamics are undergraduate pilot training program. He has discussed first. Then, in contrast to the tradi- heen trained in the school that grooms T-37 tional approach, the trainee goes one step fur- instructor pilots for the Air Force. In this school ther and learns how to apply these theories to he has learned to evaluate your ahility to fly. obtain practical results. All issues are discussed He has even learned how to help you with from a pilots viewpoint, to better enable the everything from strapping yourself into an air- trainee to explain them to his students. plane to counseling you on your prohlems. He At T-37 Pilot Instructor Training, the sub- is a graduate of T-37 Pilot Instructor Training jects of flight instruments and engineering are ( pit ). combined into one instructional block called “aircraft systems.” In systems class the trainee learns, first through a platforin lecture, how the different parts or systems of the T-37 operate. T-37 pit is conducted by the 3251st Flying Then through the use of one of the more mod- Training Squadron at Perrin Air Force Base, em educational methods, the programmed text, Texas, pit receives Air Force pilots that rank the trainee actually teaches himself the specifics anywhere from colonel to second lieutenant of each system. The instruction is enhanced by and trains them to be T-37 instructor pilots. the use of nine large training aids, ineluding a After graduation, these instructor pilots are full-sized mockup of the T-37 nose gear and fully qualified to teach flying for the Air Force cutaway engine. The class examines 25-30 in the pilot training program. actual T-37 components, ineluding valves, in- Nearly every future instructor comes to pit struments, fuel probes, and pumps. on temporary duty from one of nine undergrad- Thus the trainee learns to answer such uate pilot training ( upt) bases. These students questions as: How does the T-37 landing gear are officers of varied backgrounds. Some of the extend and retract? How is the fuel quantity HOW DO I KNOW HE KNOWS I KNOW? 69

measured in the T-37? How does the starting instructor pilot, not insignificant information. cycle progress in a jet engine? What compo- After fínishing the classes in aerodynamics, nents are available to a pilot of a T-37 if certain Systems, principies of instruction, and flight Systems fail? The answers to these questions, planning, the trainee completes his academic and many others, are necessary' knowledge to instruction by passing a four-hour comprehen- enable a pilot to fly the T-37 safely and to equip sive examination. He is then ready for the sec- an instructor pilot to handle his students ques- ond part of his training—leaming to fly and tions effectively. instruet in the T-37. The classes in principies and techniques of instrueting enable the would-be instructor pilot flying instruction to fire the ammunition he reeeives in the rest of his training at pit . Here he is taught the prin- Flying training for pit trainees is in four cipies of Air Force instruction and is shown phases: formation, contact (acrobatics, land- how students leam as well as how he can aid ing, etc.), instruments, and navigation. These them in the leaming process. Although this correspond exactly to the phases which the class does discuss some theory, it primarily pre- trainee will eventually teach to pilot training sents a practical approach to instrueting. Con- students. cepts are converted into realities by the use of Formation. In the formation phase, the many situations that have happened to instruc- trainee leams to teach the basies of keeping tors during pilot training. \Vhen a theoretical one aircraft flying near another one. He leams point is made, it is immediately clarified by to teach a student how to fly the different relating it to one of these actual examples. formation positions as well as how to rejoin In principies of instruction the trainee also with another aircraft. He also leams how he leams to grade, critique, and communicate. He can prevent his students from flying into dan- even leams to counsel through a series of gerous situations while in formation. counseling situations where he plays the coun- Contact. In the contact phase, the trainee selor role and attempts to get at the heart of leams how to teach pilot training students the certain problems. The problems used in the fundamentais of flying: tums, stalls, acrobat- counseling situations are all based on actual ics, climb and dive recoveries, landings, and student experiences. spins. These are the very basies of flying and The main contribution which the classes are representative of the task future T-37 in principies of instruction make to future in- instruetors must perform—teaching the art of struetors is a positive attitude. Here the trainee flying to students who know little or nothing is given the desire and motivation he needs about it. to be an effective instructor. This positive atti- Instruments. In the instrument phase, the tude prepares him for the position of leadership trainee practices teaching the methods of con- he will assume with his students, and it espe- trolling an airplane without any reference out- cially prepares him to accept his responsibilities to the Air Force. side the cockpit. Pilot training students are required to fly the T-37 simulating weather In the flight planning course, the pit conditions so bad that neither the ground nor trainee reviews T-37 performance charts and the sky is visible. A visor or eyeshade is placed Air Force flying publications. Through a vari- ety of attention devices, the trainee is taught on the student to block out everything but the how to use the charts and graphs which allow aircraft instrument panei. He is eventually him to precompute the exact performance of required to be able to take off and fly a mis- his T-37. He also reviews the rules and regula- sion all the way to landing without ever look- tions that govem flying in the Air Force. As ing outside. In the instrument phase of pit , the trainee leams how to teach this unfamiliar with all his academic training in pit , this course is operation-oriented. The trainee is given only procedure. the information necessary to be an effective Navigation. In the navigational phase, the 70 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW instructor trainee learns how to teach students to use an airplane as a means of transporta- tion. He practices teaching how to compute fuel consumption and the time it takes to fly to different check points. He learns how to teach map reading and to land at unfamiliar fields. In short, he learns how to teach pilot training students to apply their talents to mas- tering the tools and techniques of flying. methodology The formation, contact, and instrument phases are taught differently than the naviga- tion phase. In the first three phases, pit uses a gradual four-step educational approach. Step 1. In each phase, the future instruc- tors first fly several missions, in which they practice only piloting skills. A successful in- structor pilot must be able to concentrate al- most entirely on what he is saying, carefully choosing words that best convey instructional teclmiques. To do this, flying must become second nature and require little concentration; most of his attention then can be devoted to instructing. In this flying profíciency step, each trainee is assigned to a pit instructor pilot. These are the most experienced men in the Air Force at flying and instructing in the T-37. They average over 2000 flying hours and four years’ experience as T-37 instructor pilots. Step 2. Once the trainee has gained the flying proficiency required to demonstrate “perfect” flying, he is ready to begin instruct- ing while he flies. This is the second step of his flying training and is where he begins to gain the most from his own instructors experience. In step two, the trainee is taught the elements and instructional points of all the maneuvers he will eventually teach to pilot training students. He first reads a study guide that is a compilation of many proven instruc- tional points and techniques. He then engages in seminars where trainees discuss, among themselves and with experienced pit instruc- tors, all the maneuvers to be taught. In these seminars an atmosphere of academic freedom prevails. Trainees exchange experiences and concepts among themselves as well as with HOW DO l KNOW HE KNOWS I KNOW? 71

their experienced instructors. They talk not only of the correct instructional techniques and different ways to present them but also of incorrect techniques and why they are not acceptable. After the study guides and seminars have laid the groundwork, the trainee flies missions with his instructor. He learns mission plan- ning, proper timing, and methods of organiz- ing in-flight instruction. He practices maneu- vers over and over again. He “teaches” his experienced instructor the proper techniques, and the pit instructor corrects and guides him toward developing an effective presentation. As the trainee learns how and what to teach while he flies, his pit instructor gradu- ally begins to say less and less in the airplane. He finally reaches a point where he tells the trainee little or nothing during a mission. In- stead of acting as an instructor pilot, he begins to assume the role of an undergraduate pilot training student. This is the transition into the third step of flying instructor training, error analysis. Step 3. During error analysis, experienced pit instructors simulate problems, mistakes, and errors just as if they were novice pilot training students. The trainee first explains the various techniques involved in flying a certain maneuver; he then flies each maneuver as a demonstration for his “student” (the pit in- structor). The “student” then attempts to per- form the maneuver himself, committing the same errors that pilot training students make and often going so far as to appear dangerous. The trainee develops his skills as an instructor by trying to analyze his “students” errors and even by relieving him of control of the air- craft in “dangerous” situations. The trainee then attempts to analyze the errors that were committed and reinstruct his “student” on A student gives his T-37 a preflight check, to make sure techniques that would cure his poor flying. that everything is in order for his solo flight. . . . An When the trainee is capable of precisely instructor briefs a pilot trainee on instrument proce- dures to be followed in flying the T-37. . . . Soloing the flying the T-37, accurately instructing in all jet trainer represents a major milestone toward the goal. maneuvers, and correcting common student errors, he is ready for the fourth step of his training, an evaluation flight. Step 4. The evaluation flight is a complete test for an instructor pilot. Before the flight, the trainee is questioned by an experienced 72 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW evaluator for approximately one hour. He tions. He learns to teach strange-field landing must explain about the T-37 and flying in procedures, map reading, and everything that general. After the questioning, the trainee flies a pilot training student must know to fly an with the same evaluator and instructs him just airplane from one place to another. as he will instruct his pilot training students. When the navigation phase is complete During this mission the trainee must fly and and the trainee has passed evaluation flights instruct at the same proficiency levei as a fully in the other three phases, he is graduated from qualified instructor in undergraduate pilot Pilot Instructor Training. He has spent ten training. When a trainee successfully com- long weeks learning, and he is finally ready to pletes this evaluation flight, he is qualified as begin teaching. He goes to a pilot training an instructor in the phase tested: formation, base as a fully qualified instructor pilot, ready contact, or instruments. to train Air Force pilots. In the navigation phase, steps one and four (proficiency flying and the evaluation So, lieutenant, you see that ijour instructor flight) are eliminated. Navigation is completed can evaluate your ability to fly. He has been during a weekend cross-country flight, when trained in the best instructor pilot school in the trainee and his “student” fly to several dif- the Air Force, T-37 Pilot Instructor Training. ferent bases. During this weekend the trainee He knows you know how to fly. learns to teach navigation at night, in weather conditions, and in simulated weather condi- Perrin AFB, Texas Air Force Review A 19th centunj recruiting pin

VTHE TECHNIQUES OF MODERN RECRUITING J B rigadde» Gen er a l J. T. Scepansky

DECADE AGO, recruiting for the Air mine what is needed to fill existing vacancies A Force vvas a matter of obtaining suffi- on a man/job match basis. cient ofiBcers and airmen to fill manpower At that point, it will be necessary only requirements. Technological progress and spe- to determine the degree of decentralization cialization, however, have increased the need the Air Force can afford in permitting the for an Air Force manned by more highlv qual- recruiting efiFort to interrogate the computers. ified personnel with increasingly specialized It is almost certain that the system will have to skills. The Air Force today recruits in almost permit input into the computers from the 74 40 difFerent categories, including ofiBcers and Department of Defense Armed Forces Exam- airmen of both sexes. Moreover, within the ining and Entrance Stations, as well as in- next decade the recruiter may find himself terrogation from the 46 Air Force recruiting recruiting for over 200 programs on practically detachment headquarters. Whether this auto- a man/job match basis. He will interrogate mated data processing can be extended down a Computer, which will tell him what the Air to the 900-plus recruiting locations throughout Force needs by skill, by number, by place, and the country is, again, largely a matter of avail- by time. The state of the recruiting art, in fact, able funds. would permit such a system today if suÉBcient Virtually everyone recruited for the Air funds were available to provide the necessary Force today is tested, screened, and categor- Communications and electronic equipment. ized before enlistment. The Air Force is test- A project called ec on oma n , which will ing in approximately 9000 high schools and be completed shortly, will computerize and has recently embarked on a joint testing pro- define specific jobs throughout the Air Force. gram with the recruiting commands of the When that Computer program is completed other Services. All high-school aptitude test and interfaced with the Personnel Data Sys- scoring for this program is being accomplished tem, which defines and categorizes the precise at Air Force Recruiting Service headquarters. Air Force personnel inventory, it will be a The results from these tests aid materially in simple matter to program computers to deter- the pre-enlistment screening process. 73 74 AIR UNIVERS1TY REV1EW

The recruiting organization inherently to-person process. The quality of the people feels the pulse of the natíons youth. An eco- recruited depends in the final analysis on the nomic boom or slowdown in a large industrial quality of the people who recruit them. city has an immediate eífect on Recruiting Services success in that city and region. history Strikes, seasonal economic cycles, the avail- ability of jobs, optimism or pessimism in the Recruiting has come a long way since the local, State, or national economy—all are ba- nineteenth century newspaper account of a rometers by which the recruiting climate can typical recruiting effort: be measured. When the climate-is good and We had a recruiting sergeant from Platts- draft quotas are high, the recruiter is chiefly burg parading our streets yesterday with a involved in sifting for quality. When the re- band of music, beating up for recruits. We cruiting climate is less favorable and draft hope he has been successful for we could spare quotas are lowered or eliminated, as can be a goodly number of loafers who, if they would expected when the crisis in Southeast Asia has serve their country as faithfully as they do the abated. the recruiter is faced with hard-to- devil, would be a great acquisition to the Army. meet quotas in numerous career fields and Recruiting then was a catch-as-catch-can with a sizable selling job if he is to persuade affair conducted by individual regiments. The the right man with the right skill to join the United States Recruiting Service was estab- Air Force at the right time. Paramount within lished in 1822, but recruiting was streamlined Recruiting Service planning is the overriding and made more efficient only after World War necessity to prepare for successful accomplish- I. During World War II, Selective Service ment of the recruiting mission in a post-Viet- handled procurement for all branches. After nam environment. the war the Army recruited for the Army Air The techniques of recruiting have under- Forces, and when the Air Force became a gone rapid development to keep pace with the separate service in 1947 the Secretary of De- headlong scientific and technological advances fense directed the two branches to continue in military methodology during this century. a joint program through the Army’s recruiting The same techniques which permit refined organization. and expanded specific manpower requirements The joint recruiting service was com- also permit rapid and vastly improved analysis pletely decentralized and exercised little con- of individual capabilities. However, recruiting trol over its recruiters. As a result, the Air today relies as much on modem methods of Force could not shift its procurement efforts salesmanship and personnel quality control as into more criticai areas or regulate the num- military operations depend on the latest ad- ber of recruiters to meet fluctuating require- vances in weaponry and tactics. Recruiting ments. Early in 1953 the Air Force petitioned can no longer depend on bands, parades, and to withdraw from the 1948 agreement and in missile displays to motivate the highly quali- March 1954 was directed to assume opera- íied young people needed in the Air Force; tional control of all Air Force manpower pro- novelties and gimmicks will not impress a curement programs. systems program analyst or an astronautical The Air Force assumed responsibility for engineer. Thus, paradoxically, today’s scien- its recruiting on 1 July 1954 and assigned the tific sophistication and automation demand mission to the 3500th usaf Recruiting Wing. and make possible greater human sensitivity During its first year as a separate recruiting than ever before on the part of the individual force, it attained 96 percent of its overall pro- recruiter. He must treat his prospects, not as duction objective. The demonstrated abilitv numbers on a chart helping him fill his quotas, of the Air Force to recruit successfullv was the but as individuais with valuable skills to con- first step toward achieving an Air Force com- tribute to the nations defense. Therefore, posed entirely of volunteers. recruiting is and will continue to be a person- In 1956 the Air Force raised its minimum AIR FORCE REVIEW 75

qualifying score on the Armed Forces Quali- market analysis during Silver Spur has since fication Test (afqt). This resulted in a signifi- been emulated by the other Services. cant improvement in quality, as evidenced by In 1963 Recruiting Service began to em- the higher percentage of airmen enlistees who phasize the “across-the-board” concept of re- are high school graduates. Quality was em- cruiting, a management incentive program phasized further during fiscal years 1958 and which stresses meeting quotas within all pro- 1959 with the introduction of the Airman curement categories instead of overproducing Qualifying Examination (aqe), an aptitude test in some programs and ignoring others. The administered to all Air Force applicants. The concept paid dividends in fiscal year 1964, test enables the Air Force to select only those when for the first time in its history Recruiting applicants with the requisite aptitudes for Service achieved 100 percent production in all technical training courses. procurement categories. In July 1959 usaf Recruiting Service was In January 1965 the headquarters moved established. It underwent a major reorganiza- from Wright-Patterson afb, Ohio, to Randolph tion in 1961-62 when Project Silver Spur afb, Texas, and on 15 June 1966 Recruiting increased the number of recruiting groups Service was elevated to from 6 to 7, reduced the number of detach- levei. For the last two years Recruiting Service ments from 48 to 46, and reduced the number has enjoyed unprecedented success in meeting of sectors from 190 to 181. These changes ever increasing demands for both quality and reduced the area of coverage, placed recruit- specialized recruiting. ing in more strategic areas, equalized the quota (based on market potential) in each selecting the recruiter group, and reduced the span of control and operating costs. The example set by the Air The reporting identifier afsc 99120 is used Force in quota allocations, manning, and to identify all personnel performing duty as 76 AIR UN1VERSITY REV1EW

officers personal appraisal, before making a final decision. Normally, applications remain active for one year. Vacancies occur continu- ally, and some areas are more difficult to man than others. Headquarters and the recruiting groups correspond directly with applicants in an effort to place the right man in the right community. Applicants are selected for spe- cific geographical assignments consistent with their preferences before they enter training. They must successfully complete training be- fore they are assigned to recruiting duty. Officers may also volunteer for recruiting The percentage of non-prior-service enlistees who duty. Recruiting Service has a continuing need are high school graduates reached an all-time high in for highly professional officers who can moti- fiscal year 1967—an important indication of quality. vate others to accomplish the recruiting mis- sion. The major or lieutenant colonel who commands a recruiting detachment holds one of the most challenging and rewarding assign- recruiters. Recruiting Service is authorized ments in the Air Force. 2224 recruiters, 1469 of whom actively re- cruit, the remainder being supervisors, testers, or administrators. Recruiters are noncommis- recruiter training sioned officers who voliuiteer for recruiting Although all the noncommissioned officers duty at specific geographic locations. The selected for recruiting duty are outstanding, selection of recruiters is a careful process; few have background or experience in the only one out of five nco’s applying Ls selected. techniques of salesmanship and public rela- Today’s recruiter is highly qualified in his own tions. All would-be recruiters are introduced career field and is a dedicated and resourceful individual. He is “Mr. Air Force” in many communities and is often the only contact be- tween the Air Force and the public. The Recruiting Service has exceeded its overall procure- Successful manning of Recruiting Service ment objectives in nine of the 13 years since its estab- requires an immediately available resource of lishment. In 1964 and 1967, all its objectives were met. qualified volunteer applicants when vacancies occur. A recruiter selection committee at Re- cruiting Service headquarters reviews all ap- plications, considering such factors as formal education, age and appearance, Service and grade relationship, performance ratings, num- ber and physical status of dependents, and personal conduct. Applicants approved by this committee are then interviewed by a Recruiting Service representative (except over- seas apphcants). The interviewer notes the applicant’s personal appearance, voice and communication abilities, motivation, and over- all knowledge of the Air Force. The selection committee again reviews the application, along with the interviewing AIR FORCE REVIEW 77 to the techniques of recruiting and inter- knowledgeable recruiter is the successful viewing in an eight-week Recruiter Training recruiter. Course at Lackland afb, Texas. The course concentrates on five blocks of benefits instruction—intervievv techniques, advertising and publicity, speech, selection criteria, and Since most Air Force recruiters live and career benefits. The emphasis is not on mem- work in civilian communities where commis- orizing techniques but on applying them saries, base exchanges, and other usaf facili- in face-to-face confrontations. Students and ties are not readily available, they may face teachers participate in mock interviews with much higher living costs than their counter- every type of prospect. The students leam parts living on or near Air Force bases. In enough fundamental psychology so they can an attempt to offset these abnormal expenses, probe into a prospects basic interests, desires, Recruiting Service has obtained authorization and ambitions. Once these are established, the for 182 leased family-housing units for the recruiter leams to concentrate on those aspects use of recruiters assigned to 17 areas where of an Air Force career which would most cost of living is high. The units are leased by appeal to the prospect—education, job satis- the Air Force and occupied by married re- faction, security, etc. He discovers how to cruiters, who forfeit their basic allowance for establish empathy with the prospect and over- quarters. Occupancy of a leased housing unit come objections, and he acquires an intuitive saves the recruiter $30 to $60 a month, the sense of when to close the sale. average being $51.08. To make their recruiting presentations Recruiters also receive the special sub- more graphic and convincing, recruiters are sistence allowance of $2.57 a day, paid when taught the proper use of sales aids—posters, rations in kind are not available, and an initial pamphlets, etc. The school has also set up a uniform allowance to provide for purchase model recruiting office to shovv students how and maintenance of the extra military clothing to create attractive and businesslike surround- required. ings. The model office helps standardize the Recruiters also enjoy these benefits: they physical setup, filing system, and functional are assigned to their area of choice, usually to responsibility of recruiting offices throughout the specific city for which they volunteer; the country. volunteers are sent to Recruiting School on A recent innovation is a closed-circuit temporary duty status and retum to their television system consisting of two monitors, home base before proceeding pc s to their a camera, and a tape recorder. The system recruiting assignment; w'hen recruiters rotate saves about 32 man-hours per class and has after the normal minimum tour of four years, lowered the failure rate by 25 percent. It is they know their new assignment three to four especially helpful in speech courses, permitting months in advance. students to see and hear their own presenta- tions. They are made aware—painfully, in pre-enlistment testing some cases—of faults like coughing, stammer- ing, and distracting motions. Public speaking In October 1958, the Air Force began ability is an important asset to the recruiter, administering the Airman Qualifying Exami- who is frequently called upon to speak at high nation at recruiting offices instead of during schools and before civic groups. basic training. This procedure enabled the re- The course is by no means the end of cruiter to preclassify a non-prior-service (nps) recruiter training. A vigorous on-the-job train- applicant into the broad career area for which ing program keeps recruiters skilled, flexible, he was eligible—mechanical, administrative, and motivated. Training at detachment levei general, or electronic—so he could select his is conducted in commander’s management aptitude area before enlistment processing. training, based on the philosophy that the In 1961 the local testing program was The Joint Centralized Test Scor- ing Branch at Air Force Recruit- ing Service headquarters uses a Digitek 100 Optical Reader in scoring the Armed Services Vo- cational Aptitude Battery. . . . Instructors at the Recruiting School record a model sales presentation on video tape, using a closed-circuit television Sys- tem, one instructor platying the role of a prospective enlistee. AIR FORCE REVIEW 79 expanded to include high schools. By admin- the group scoring in mental Category IV on istering the aqe in the classroom, the Air Force the Armed Forces Qualification Test. These was able to make first contact with graduating Cat-IV enlistees are divided into three sub- high school seniors, and the test results en- categories, with specific quotas in each. Since abled recruiters to identify potentially quali- the afqt is administered only at the afees, it fied apphcants. Test scores are also made is only through preprocessing there that a per- available to high school guidance counselors. son’s mental category can be determined in The results of the program can be seen in advance of enlistment. the steady climb in the enlistment rate of high school graduates. Project 100,000 The success of the Air Force’s high school testing program prompted the Army and Navy In August 1966 the Secretary of Defense to start similar programs, which resulted in announced a program intended to enlist in the all Services competing for testing time in the military Services as many as 100,000 young high schools. To remedy this, in 1967 the men a year who would previously have been Services designed the Armed Services Voca- unable to meet the mental or physical stan- tional Aptitude Battery (asvab), a common dards for enlistment or induction. test which enables each Service to obtain its During Phase I of Project 100,000, which own particular aptitude scores. The test is ran from 1 October 1966 through 30 Septem- administered in a joint high school testing ber 1967, the Air Force enlisted 10,166 airmen program and scored at the Joint Centralized in mental Category IV (those scoring between Test Scoring Branch at Air Force Recruiting 10 and 30 on the afqt). This was based on the Service headquarters. Test results are retumed osd requirement that 15 percent of all nps as a Computer print-out record, which speeds enlistees be from Category IV. The minimum Processing and allows the results to be for- score for Category IV enlistees, which was 21 warded simultaneously to all Services. when the program began, was lowered to 16 In addition to providing the standard on 1 January 1967 and to 10 in April 1967. mechanical, administrative, general, and elec- Although both high school graduates and non- tronic aptitude scores, the asvab has the ca- graduates were accepted, high school gradu- pability of breaking these scores down into ates were given priority. subtest areas. This opens the possibility at The medicai aspect of Project 100,000 some future date for the ultimate in pre- was implemented on 1 February 1967, with enlistment classification—offering a prospec- the Medically Remedial Enlistment Program tive erdistee his choice of a specific career (mr ep). This authorized the enlistment of assignment at the recruiting office. applicants who are overweight, underweight, After qualifying on the asvab, approxi- or suffering from readily remediable physical mately 96 percent of all regular Air Force non- defects; mr ep enlistments are limited to de- prior-service enlistees are preprocessed at the fects deemed correctable within six weeks. Armed Forces Examining and Entrance Sta- With the beginning of Phase II of Project tion (a fees) to determine if they are mentally 100,000 (1 October 1967 to 30 September and physically qualified before enlistment. 1968), the mandatory percentàge of Air Force Preprocessing is necessary because: nps enlistees from Category IV was raised to 17 percent. Air Force’s contribution to Phase • Recruiting Service must meet a daily, 11 is 14,651 enlistments. In addition an objec- weekly, and monthly flow to the basic military tive of 1800 mr ep enlistments was established training centers. The only way to insure this for Phase II. even flow is by sending qualified applicants to the afees for enlistment. recruiting for women • Under Phase II of Project 100,000, 17 percent of all nps enlistees must be from The primary emphasis in Air Force re- 80 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW cruiting for women is on quality recruiting advertising in the womens programs—Women in the Air Force Officer Training School, Women in An essential tool for recruiting in all pro- grams is advertising. Advertising builds an the Air Force Non-Prior Service, nurses, and image and stimulates a prospect’s interest in medicai specialists—and the effort is geared to the Air Force. At the same time it helps create providing the Air Force with intelligent, per- a favorable recruiting climate. National adver- sonable young women. To assist in attracting tising efforts are geared to the procurement these highly qualified recruits, Air Force objectives for each recruiting category. The women are presented to the public as attrac- recruiter is also provided with advertising tive, feminine, and highly trained young materiais for local use. people filling positions of responsibility. This All aspects of advertising are employed by image is fostered largely through personal Recruiting Service to get the Air Force mes- contact between Air Force women and edu- sage to the public: periodical advertising. cators, administrators, students, and womens radio, television, printed publications, window groups. cards and displays. These media are used with varied emphasis, depending on the particular Officer Training School recruiting program. For radio and television advertising, the Recruiting for Officer Training School Air Force must rely on public Service time, (ots) has been one of the most successful of depending on the good will of a station to all Air Force recruiting programs in recent present Air Force messages during unsold years, as evidenced by consistent overproduc- time. To make the most of this public Service, tion for practically all officer programs and Recruiting Service tries to provide attractive by the positive acceptance of Air Force re- materiais and encourage interest and effort by cruiters on most of the 1500 baccalaureate- local recruiters. The Air Force distributes to degree college campuses where ots recruiting subscribing stations three continuing radio originates. shows—“Serenade in Blue” (stereo and mon- Within the last two years, emphasis in aural), “Music in the Air,” and “Country Music the ots program has been on pilots, navigators, Time.” Transcribed spot announcements, often and engineers. The only utilization field in recorded by famous persons, are sent to re- which vacancies outnumbered ots enlistments cruiters for placement with local stations. has been development engineering, afsc 28XX. Television spot announcement clips in This field is composed of electronic, mechani- both 60-second and 10-second versions are also cal, astronautical, and aeronautical engineers. distributed by recruiters. “The Big Play,” a In late fiscal year 1967 the ots program was programmed series of football highlights, is directed to commission 300 development en- carried by more than 200 stations throughout gineers. Requirements for specific utilization the nation. A large share of the advertising fields were imposed, and Recruiting Service budget is spent on reaching the public through submitted over 500 applications for these fields. the more than 700 television stations and over The requirement for engineers, as well as 5000 radio stations in the United States. pilots and navigators, continued into fy 1968. An equally important médium is periodi- That requirement for engineers imposed quo- cal advertising. The marketing strategy of the tas on Recruiting Service for both applications contract advertising agency determines the and enlistments, resulting in increased pro- appropriate magazines and proper advertising duction in both categories. Over 500 develop- approach for each prospective group. Market ment engineers were commissioned in fy 1968, analysis reveals such facts as the number of a record for the program. Overall, Recruiting women who will graduate from college this Service submitted more than 20,000 applica- year, the number of men who will eam bacca- tions to ots during fy 1968, against a total laureate or graduate degrees, and the number goal of about 5600 officers in 42 career fields. of nurses who make up the potential nurse

82 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

pool. It also reveals the magazines read by the • Some recruiters who have relaxed in various groups and the most efficient media their use of basic recruiting techniques during for reaching the prospects. the Vietnam period with its good recruiting Since the current recruiting emphasis is climate will face a difficult transition when on pilots and engineers and on nurses and waf they are called upon to produce under poor officers, Air Force advertising concentrates on recruiting conditions. To preclude a long train- these areas. Advertising is a vital part of the ing and transition period, supervisors at all overall recruiting effort at all leveis. High- leveis are now being advised or directed to quahty national advertising, coupled with the stress the use of basic recruiting tools at all ingenuity of the local recruiter, has been an times and to fíght the recruiters tendency to important contribution to the accomplishment relax when market conditions are good. of the recruiting mission. • Communications costs for contacting prospects like those who now get in touch with transportation recruiters on their own will increase, as will mileage driven in recruiting vehicles. Essential to a recruiters job is his ability To help provide for these changes, a mis- to travei throughout an entire area of respon- sion plan is prepared before each fiscal year, sibility to visit prospects and centers of in- estimating the recruiting situation and the fluence. Accordingly, Air Force vehicles are workload for each program during the coming assigned to each recruiting office and facility. year. Approximately 1700 Air Force vehicles are authorized to support the recruiting mission and are driven more than 23 million miles a big-city recruiting year. The key to successful recruiting after Vietnam—and the biggest problem facing re- recruiting after Vietnam cruiting today and in the future—is the ability to recruit in cities with populations of over Recruiting Service is devoting consider- two million. Big-city recruiting is complicated able thought and planning to the changes that by factors not associated with smaller metro- will have to be made to recruit successfully in politan or rural areas: a post-Vietnam recruiting market with its • The higher cost of living, which dis- anticipated low draft calls. Many considera- courages many potential recruiters from tions and adjustments will be required: volunteering for recruiting duty, compromises • Recruiters will have to devote more selectivity and the effectiveness of those of their time to the male non-prior-service pro- assigned. gram, with less time available for the other • Increased transportation costs from programs in which quotas are levied—waf, home to work and back. nurse, etc. • Congested and slow-moving traffic, • A re-evaluation of manpower needs which makes it difficult to visit applicants. will be necessary if Project 100,000 and the • Much greater difficulty in obtaining fragmentation of programs—such as the en- satisfactory newspaper publicity and public gineer requirements in the ots program—con- Service radio and television time. tinue or expand. • Greater competition for available • Headquarters and commanders in the manpower from civilian industry. field will have to anticipate changing market conditions, accurately judge their magnitude, Some steps which have been taken to and apply proper emphasis and recruiter effort ease living costs for recruiters have alreadv so as to obtain the highest possible quality and been mentioned. Recruiting Service is also quantity of applicants in all programs. attempting to provide recruiters with addi- AIR FORCE REVIEW 83

tional allowances for out-of-pocket recruiting area for which he was classified. In the inter- expenses. mediate time period (1969-73) it will require One experiment now under way to im- the development of pre-enlistment job pre- prove big-city recruiting is the establishment dictors which can be used to narrow the range of a full-time information center, the sole of jobs offered to recruits. Instead of enlisting purpose of which is to answer questions from recruits into four pools corresponding to the applicants and prospects. Recruiters spend four aptitude indexes of the aqe, the system much of their time on the telephone answering envisions offering a small number of job pos- questions. With an assistant recruiter available sibilities to the applicant based on his quali- to handle these calls, recruiters will be free fications determined prior to enlistment. At to concentrate on securing new prospects or the beginning, no additional recruiting prom- applicants. ises would be made to the applicant. As experience was gained and if it proved ad- automated recruiting system vantageous to mission accomplishment, a promise of a narrow range of jobs would be Successful quality recruiting over the next possible. several decades may depend on the long-range Recruiting Service recognizes that there development of an electronic data-processing are many problems in Phase III. Not the least system designed to automate three basic re- of these is the need to consider expanding cruiting tasks: the recruiter force to include a capability for Phase I—Processing the enhstees into ac- job counseling in line with the responsibility tive duty (administra ti ve processing) for pre-enlistment classification. Expanded Phase II—Selection of individuais for jobs mental testing capabilities will also be re- (classification) quired to qualify applicants for some job Phase III—Selection of individuais for en- assignments. From the recruiting standpoint, try into the Air Force (selective recruiting). there is the problem of developing a method The administrative processing and clas- of selling enlistments in the “soft core” ca- sification phases have already been imple- reer fields. All assignments are now made at mented at Lackland Military Training Center. the Basic Military Training Centers, within Phase III of the system, selective recruit- the airman’s selected aptitude area. The prob- ing, which is still in the planning stage, has lems facing a career counselor when inform- three main objectives: ing an airman in basic training that he is (a) To procure manpower with the highest being assigned to a sophisticated or glamorous training and utilization potential from the total career field are quite different from the ones available resource, in order to improve the which face the recruiter who must inform a matching of individual skills and training po- prospective Air Force enlistee that he may tential to specific Air Force needs. enlist only in the relatively menial career (b) To improve recruiting management ca- fields. These problems are under study, and pability by the use of advanced Communica- acceptable Solutions will be found before tions and Computer processes. Phase III is accepted. (c) To reduce the time airmen spend in the recruiting and training pipeline. The ultimate objective of Phase III is the To so me, the computers, long-distance Com- pre-enlistment classification of recruits for munications network, and modern testing pro- specific training courses or a narrow range of cedures threaten depersonalization. In fact, job assignments. In the long-range time frame however, they are tools to help the recruiter (1973 and beyond), this would provide for a procure the most highly qualified people avail- specific contractual arrangement with the re- able and match them to the jobs in which they cruit which would guarantee training or a will be of most value to themselves and to the directed duty assignment in the job or career Air Force. These tools, the techniques of sales- 84 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEW manship taught at the Recruiting School and pect’s interests and his sincere belief in the the modem advertising methods, are all sec- importance and advantages of an Air Force ondary to the recruiters concem for his pros- career. Hq USAF Recruiting Service

Recruiting Programs Recruiting Service is required to meet Air Force quotas in eight major programs, subdivided into more than 30 different categories. These quotas are allocated to the recruiting groups, then broken down and passed on to the detachments and individual recruiters in 774 recruiting offices throughout the nation. The major recruiting programs are:

• Non Prior Service (nps)1 • Prior Service (ps)2 • Women in the Air Force (waf) • Officer Training School—Women (wots) • Officer Training School—Men (mo t s)3 • Registered Nurses • Medicai Specialists4 • Judge Advocates General (ja g ) 1. Included in this program is a requirement for specific numbers of enlist- ments in ten different qualifying score areas of four aptitude indexes (mechanical, administrative, general, and electronics). The nps program also includes Project 100,000 requirements and bandsmen. 2. For directed*duty or retraining. 3. Applicants are further categorized as pilot, navigator, scientist, engineer, or other. 4. Includes dietitians, physical therapists, and occupational therapists, both fully qualified and student. / PARAM ILITARY FORCES NEED A NEW MISSION J M ajor Joel J. S nvder

ASIC military understanding of the role of local militias and police forces in internai security and counterinsur- gency activities is confused, and perhaps mis- taken. National regular military troops putting down civil disorder in cities of the United States are a shocking reminder that there is a stage in civil disorder or incipient insurgen- cies when the capabilities of police or para- military forces are overreached. Current con- cepts of how local militias can and should be employed need to be re-examined, particu- larly where paramilitary elements closely re- semble regular military forces or fight in more conventional military operations against sub- versive insurgents. Paramilitary forces, loosely defined, are forces or groups distinct from the regular armed forces of a country. They may resemble the regular military establishment in equip- ment, organization, training, or mission. In practice they are usually integrated in various degrees with regular fighting units for specific operations or emergencies. These various con-

85 86 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW ditions have blurred the distinctness of para- category between conventional military opera- military groups. There are no two identical tions and social or economic nation-building units from one country to another. In a wide- activities. Local militias usually conduct offen- spread insurgency such as the British emer- sive patrols, provide combat support elements, gency in Malaya or the current war in South or defend criticai positions. Composed of Vietnam, paramilitary elements have changed small organic units, such as platoons and considerably, appearing different than they rifle companies, paramilitary forces should be were when the insurgencies first began. The well suited to the numerous smaller security general belief is that paramilitary forces are requirements in rural or less-developed en- responsible for internai security, or “inner- vironments. The basic concept for their em- perimeter defense,” a phrase used in South ployment at the present time is generally Vietnam. Common paramilitary elements are understood to be as village platoons and ham- local militia and civilian police institutions. let squads which defend their own local areas Nothing is less glamorous than the militia, against insurgents.4 or part-time soldiers, who protect their own Besides traditional internai securitv mis- village and maintain law and order. These sions, paramilitary forces have an excellent troops seem to command little respect or ad- opportunity to assist with community develop- miration. Routine tasks of manning sentry out- ment. Many times military civic actions are posts or patrolling have never been considered carried out by paramilitary units in coopera- as jobs that require first-line training or equip- tion with central govemment economic or ment. So the self-defense platoons have been social teams. Pacification usually begins under composed traditionally of rural inhabitants of the protection of paramilitary forces who also the local area, partly trained and equipped, can support the development projects. As par- and inadequately paid, if at all. It is not sur- ticipants in the improvement of their own prising that the paramilitary forces have been community, they naturally combine a capacity the “ragtag” units in most internai defense for security measures with military civic ac- concepts. tions. Thus they possess substantial potential Despite their low prestige and lack of for nation-building activities in face of insur- glamor, no one questions the necessity for gent opposition. them. Paramilitary units have proven essential Considering their potential advantages, for defending widely separated villages and paramilitary forces should be the most effec- small settlements. The successful Philippine tive means of dealing with incipient insurgen- and Malayan counterinsurgency experiences cies. Unfortunately their record includes a underlined the value of police and militias. dismal string of failures. Paramilitary units by In Malaya, the police force grew to twice the themselves have never been able to prevent size of the regular Malayan armed forces the spread of concentrated, well-supported during the final phase of the emergency;1 and insurgencies. In the criticai stages of the Philip- they continue today with a mission of internai pine and Malayan experiences, the paramilitary security and counterguerrilla surveillance. The forces proved ineffective. Eventual success Philippine Constabulary, before 1950 and after carne only after major efforts to reorganize, 1955, has been the primary defense against a equip, train, and “regularize” the paramilitary recurrent insurgency threat.2 In South Viet- troops. nam, paramilitary troops, which include Re- The Philippine Constabulary, which was gional Forces, Popular Forces, police, and a poorly equipped police force under the De- civilian irregulars, constitute half of all Viet- partment of Interior before 1950, bore the namese men under arms.3 brunt of the govemment’s anti-Huk campaign When adequately trained and equipped, from 1946 to 1950. Constabulary strength was paramilitary units possess inherent advantages about 12,000, roughly equal to the estimated in conducting counterinsurgency activities. strength of the armed guerrillas. In 1950 the They occupy a unique position in the broad Constabulary was merged with the Philippine PARAMILITARY FORCES NEED A NEW MISSION 87

Army. Primary responsibility for internai law pacification efforts under military control, in- and order was transferred to the regular mili- stead of the Deputy Ambassadors direction, tary forces, where it remained until the Huk further emphasized the overall lack of security threat was defeated/1 This pattern of para- in the rural areas and the need for regular military unit ineffectiveness, until reinforced military forces to provide it. with regular military strength, was repeated The record in the Philippines, Malaya, in Malaya. There, approximately a 100,000- and in Vietnam under Diem all contradict the man Special Constabulary, composed of Kam- earlier assumption that local militia could be pong (village) Guards and Home Guards, was trained and equipped to protect the rural pop- also inefFective up to 1951 because of lack of ulation from the harassments and attacks of training and shortages of weapons in their equally well-equipped and possibly better units.8 trained and motivated guerrillas. The reason Paramilitary troops have not been success- is elementary: The insurgents’ primary targets ful in their support of the pacification efforts are those forces in the rural zones which in either. Hamlet development represent the govemment and its ability to plans that failed because of inadequate local maintain law and order. Guerrillas attack the security forces are at least as old as the 1959- paramilitary forces because they are the weak- 60 Agroville resettlement scheme, which never est and most exposed element of govemment extended beyond a few villages in Vinh Long security. As long as paramilitary forces are Province. The major pacification effort, Diem’s part-time, partially trained, nonregular sol- strategic hamlet program, also lacked the se- diers, they will never be a match for the curity necessary to support the local hamlets. concentrated insurgent attacks that mark the The strategy was to use regular Vietnamese advancing stages of any insurgency. As small, Army (arvn) units to fight Viet Cong main isolated defensive units, village militias neces- forces, while locally recruited mihtia were to sarily forfeit tremendous advantages to the defend rural hamlets against smaller units of enemy—initiative, surprise, and concentration local Viet Cong guerrillas. of forces, to name a few. On 12 August 1962 the Christian Science One of the problems of paramilitary forces Monitor reported that . . thousands of civic stems from their “distinctness.” By definition action cadres in numbers and with arms suffi- they are “apart from” regular military units. cient to defend themselves are to go into In actual combat this distinctness often means unprotected villages.” Approximately 150,000 that the small patrols or outposts are isolated paramilitary troops were partially armed and from reinforcing regular army elements, are given several days of military training.7 Never- seldom included in military campaign plan- theless, the program was a “crushing failure.”8 ning, and almost never have access to infor- In the first month following the coup in No- mation about enemy activities and capabilities vember 1963, the Viet Cong overran 15 stra- in their immediate area. An essential require- tegic hamlets in Tay Ninh Province alone.9 ment in that hamlet-district defense concept— This happened despite emphasis on trying to namely, rapid Communications and reinforce- reduce hamlet vulnerability to Viet Cong at- ment of units under attack—is conspicuously tack and efforts to enable villagers to defend absent from most of the Vietnamese provincial themselves. By the end of 1966 it was obvious security plans. Only limited military support that the local paramilitary forces in Vietnam is usually available, and often there are no could not protect the hamlets in the pacifica- means of transportation to move needed forces tion program. In November regular abvn units out to the scene of attack. In this environment were assigned the mission of intemal security, of isolation, poor training, and partial equip- reinforcing the paramilitary militia in local ping, the paramilitary soldiers are easy victims security activities with about 50 percent of the for insurgents. Their casualty rates have al- abvn maneuver battalion troop strength. In ways been high.10 May 1967, the reorganization of American One significant exception to the failure of 88 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW paramilitary units in face of concentrated guerrilJa attacks has been the offensive recon- naissance patrols of indigenous tribal groups. This tactic downgrades the importance of local defense and counterattack as the con- cept of employment and concentrates instead on offensive counterguerrilla operations. In these operations militia groups are trained and led by regular military forces especially equipped to aid such units. Moreover, the lo- cal militia receives fast-response air support from special air warfare squadrons, which pro- vide visual reconnaissance, aerial resupply, and close air support on a priority basis. In short, these paramilitary units are on the offensive and are combined with supporting elements, both ground and air, from regular military Paramilitary forces in Vietnam help maintain order, forces. Combining paramilitary with regular mili- tary forces is one solution to the paramilitary units chronic ineffectiveness. In South Viet- nam the trend to “regularize” the militia is pro- ceeding at a fast pace. Both Regional Forces (provincial) and Popular Forces (district) are now so much like the arvn units in training, equipment, and (in the Regional Forces) in pay and benefits, that they are no longer re- ferred to as paramilitary forces in official troop listings. This trend has also included integra- tion of paramilitary affairs into coordinated national military plans for regional and local pacification. A remaining difference has been the more limited scope of operations best suited to the company and platoon-sized ele- . . . studij tactics and techniques for intemal security, ments within Regional and Popular Forces. But even this distinction is not firm. Many of the smaller operations by Regional or Popular Forces are conducted under the operational control of regular military unit commanders, as more arvn units undertake the intemal security mission that once was the primary concem of the paramilitary. In the northem First Corps Tactical Zone ( ic t z ) some of the Vietnamese Popular Forces are organized into Combined Action Compa- nies with U.S. Marine rifle squads and U.S. Navy corpsmen. The new companies are a “single operational entity” and are successful examples of a kind of paramilitary unit oper- . . . combine defense with community development. ating under regular military commanders. An- PARAM1L1TARY FORCES NEED A NEW M1SSION 89 other kind of “regularizing” has begun in the while on the civilian side were Revolutionary Third Corps Tactical Zone (racrz) where the Development Teams with the job of nation- paramilitarv effort is being enhanced through building but with the necessity of carrying out use of mobile advisory teams of U.S. and arvn military operations to gain hamlet security. personnel.11 Thus it appeared that neither organization The local militias are also undergoing a was devoted exclusively to internai security detachment from traditional combat roles and or nation-building, but rather the roles were moving slowly into military civic actions. This loosely and unequally combined. change may realize more of the paramilitary Overall area security remains the essential potential for nation-building actions and re- condition before any civic action or revolution- duce their vulnerability in the internai security ary development can proceed. But the gaining role. At least, the re-emphasis suggests a trend and maintaining of a reasonable degree of for the future. During 1966 at the same time local security passed, by necessity, into the the Regional and Popular Forces, as well as mission of regular military forces. The overall all Allied forces in Vietnam, were given civic command of both civilian pacification and action as an additional mission, a large num- military security thus carne into the hands of ber of civilian Revolutionary Development regular mihtary commanders. A successful Teams began to deploy to rural areas. Ele- example of the new trend for paramilitary ments of these teams, like the paramilitary, elements occurred in Binh Dinh Province of were trained in mihtary subjects and had a Vietnam in 1966. Military operations had primary mission to expose the hamlet-level cleared 43,000 people from Viet Cong control, Viet Cong infrastructure.12 At the same time too many for the Revolutionary Development the teams also received training in social, Teams that were available. To augment and political, and development subjects and were support the civilian development program, charged with responsibility for aiding basic new military-civil teams were organized under economic and social programs in the vil lages. the control of the arvn 22d Division. The Since the Revolutionary Development Teams teams included a Regional-Popular Force pla- had both paramilitary and nation-building toon, civilian hamlet officials, arvn psycho- missions, their purposes paralleled those of logical warfare specialists, police, and other traditional paramilitary units, plus the politi- provincial technicians, such as health workers. cally oriented mission of establishing a govem- Each team received a 15-day training course ment presence in the village and motivating before deployment and then was assigned to the people to support the govemment. support three hamlets. These paramilitary- The Viet Cong recognized the challenge civic action elements could not carry out com- of these new pacification activities. As they plete revolutionary development programs, but had against the strategic hamlet program in they could provide a measure of govemment 1962-63, they now concentrated on Revolu- assistance and development in preparation for tionary Development Teams whenever the the Revolutionary Development Team’s ar- situation allowed. Several hundred civilian rival. They met the need for dealing with rural workers were killed or wounded by the end people who were uncovered by military opera- of the year. Revolutionary Development lead- tions, disrupted and caught in combat areas, ers complained about the lack of local security and who needed govemment attention as early and about their teams having to fight Viet as possible.13 Cong instead of carrying out constructive ham- In the future, combined teams of para- let programs. Enemy action forced the new military security troops and civic action per- teams to emphasize internai security and pas- sonnel will become more prevalent as their sive defense. advantages gain wider familiarity. This trend On the military side were Regional and will also realize a better use of local militias, Popular Forces with the mission of hamlet which have traditionally proven unequal to security but with emphasis on civic actions, the mihtary task of counterinsurgency. 90 AIR UNIVERSITY REV1EW

E xisting policy for counterinsurgency right- in the developing insurgency will the para- fully gives priority attention to intemal se- military units’ security capabilities be over- curity as a basic condition for the growth of reached and regular military forces required? economic and social development programs. Second, what is the best combination of para- But the old purely military role of “distinct” military and nation-building activities to en- paramilitary forces no longer applies. This able local militias to successfully represent the article has suggested that there is a definite governments presence in local, regional, or limit to the degree to which paramilitary units broader terms? These considerations will help can serve as a first line of defense against the paramilitary to achieve a more realistic insurgency. Therefore, concepts for the em- contribution to the counterinsurgency mission ployment of paramilitary forces must consider in the future. two important questions: First, at what stage USAF Special Air Warfare School

Notes 1. Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insur- 7. New York Times, 25 August 1962. gency (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1956), pp. 103-5, 124. 8. John Meeklin, “The Struggle To Rescue the People,” 2. Adrian H. Jones, et al., Internai Defense Against Fortune, LXXV, 4 (April 1967), 132. Insurgency: Si.t Cases, Center for Research in Social Systems, 9. New York Herald Tribune, 5 December 1963. American University, December 1966, p. 53. 10. Colonel Frederick C. Spann, USA, “Role of Para- 3. Colonel H. W. Lange, USA, lecture, "Regional Forces/ military Forces in Counterinsurgency,” a research paper, U.S. Popular Forces,” MACV Advisor Orientation Course, JUSPAO, Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., p. 46. Saigon, Vietnam, 19-23 December 1966. 11. Letter, Hq CORDS, IIICTZ, Bien Hoa, Vietnam, 4. "Professional Knowledge Gained from Operational Ex- “Mobile Advisory Teams (MAT)," 10 July 1967. perience in Vietnam,” NAVMC Bulletin 2614, 1965—66, pp. 12. Memo, Ministry of Revolutionary Development, Re- 28-29. public of Vietnam, Saigon, Vietnam, “Reorganization and 5. Jones, et al., pp. 52-53. Training of RD Groups," 7 October 1966. 6. Harry Miller, Menace in Malaya (: Harrap 13. “Military Civil Teams," OCO/MACV RD Support Co.), pp. 216-17. Newsletter, No. 1, 22 March 1967, pp. 7-8. In My Opinion

HUMANE W ARFARE FOR INTERNATIONAL

\l LlEUTEXANT COLONEL ÀRNOLD J. C e LICK a r

CAPABILITY already exists for mankind techniques for mob control, in the interest of A . to wage an unusual kind of warfare, public safety. Use of tear gas is already com- one which can be accomplished with relatively mon practice of police and National Guard little, if any, killing. The technique is not a units. The use of tear gas has also proven new one; it has been quietly developing and effective in clearing out Viet Cong tunnels in improving for a number of years. If applied South Vietnam. Large-scale air delivery of to intemational peacekeeping, such “humane” riot-control agents is currently feasible and warfare might prove to be of inestimable openly discussed in military professional jour- value to the future of humanity. Rather than nals.2 fantasy, the present State of the art indicates These examples, by no means complete, that a large military force completely equipped should be sufficient to establish the advanced with nonlethal weapons is at least as plausible status of a fair variety of nonlethal weapons. as nuclear weapons were twenty-five years Modem science and technology, if sufficiently ago. motivated, could undoubtedly produce far As far back as 1959, Major General Wil- more effective agents and devices that could liam M. Creasy, a former Chief of the Army be adapted to the useful purpose of ending Chemical Corps, suggested that the develop- human violence. At any rate, it seems reason- ment of psychochemicals provided a means of ably safe to conclude that the technique of waging war without death.1 At about the same humane warfare is probably far more nearly time the general was speaking, veterinarians realizable than our willingness to employ it. were hailing the newly marketed tranquilizer Chemical warfare has had a bad repu- dart gun for a wide range of applications, tation ever since use of poison gas was initi- from taming obstreperous domestic bulls to ated in and called a German capturing wild animais. “atrocity.” This and other epithets ha ve a tend- Recent concem about civil disturbances ency to muddy even the most well-intentioned has accelerated the development of nonlethal suggestions regarding its use. Unfortunately, 91 92 AIR UN1VERSITY REVIEW

labeis frequently seem to displace logic in ty and raises the specter of a world “police human affairs. Recent debate about the use of force.” riot-control agents in Vietnam serves to spot- Piecemeal loss of national sovereignty is light the perplexing position of some critics. in fact becoming rather commonplace due to The latter seem to insist that a painful man- growing economic interdependence and the gling or even death is more acceptable than space-time contraction of the world resulting the use of other techniques which are rela- from modem technology. The idea of a truly tivehj less harmful but equally effective in effective international police force is far more combat. alarming. There is the ever present fear that Admittedly, present nonlethal weapons someone might seize the reins of such power are highly dependent on terraii) and meteoro- and achieve world dictatorship. Still, even as logical conditions. Their toxicity is difficult to the mature community needs a police force to control, particularly toward the very young maintain law and order, the world will con- or very old. It is not unreasonable to argue, tinue to require an enforcement agency for however, that these characteristics can be im- international law. Let us speculate on what proved. We have seen what scientific concen- benefits might accrue to world order by equip- tration can accomplish in less desirable fields ping a hypothetical international police force of endeavor. to engage only in nonlethal warfare. Another charge against the use of any form If the simple charge to a central world of weaponry is the pious one that the proper govemment were to put a stop to any kind of way to end war is to remove those basic causes official or semiofBcial killing between nations, of confhct such as poverty, traditional hatreds, use of humane warfare would make the de- and so on. Although laudable, such goals seem cision for action far easier for the responsible somewhat remote and unrealistic. Most people world council. Generally speaking, intema- vvill agree, however, that before anyone can tional bodies constituted to preserve peace consider and work toward the solution of any traditionally find it very difficult to wage war. problem, it is necessary that the situation at Obtaining rapid and resolute action from a least be uncler control. It is hoped that any world peacekeeping council might be stimu- nonlethal technique as a control mechanism is lated by combining so simple an objective preferable to massacre. In international con- with the relatively innocuous mechanism of an flicts, as in riots, it is difficuít to achieve justice army which itself can engage only in non- or preserve any of the dignities of man when killing. There might be less vacillation in either bullets or bottles are in the air. launching so friendly a force in so good a If mankind is to continue to survive, so- cause. ciety simply must do something about the The present option allows only for the problem of war. Sooner or later, the concep- replacing of one kind of killing with yet an- tion that war constitutes a form of illegitimate other. Humane warfare is a far more defensi- behavior on the part of a nation state, similar ble alternative. To protest the use of such a in nature to any other kind of lawbreaking, police force, properly constituted and operat- must be adopted by the international com- ing under international law, a nation must munity. In order to stop conflict, the pressures adopt the awkward position of trying to jus- of civilized society will have to be brought to tify killing over reason and peaceful control. bear against the disturber of the peace. Logic As a second useful benefit, a world police appears to dictate but a single solution: It force equipped with humane weapons might seems inevitable that some sort of improved make the difficult transition to effective and and powerful world federation will ultimately enforceable world govemment more accept- be required. Most nations, however, remain able to us and to other nations. There is some- reluctant to accept such an answer. A truly thing a trifle “antiseptic” in the idea of such an strong and effective international authority im- army designed to control a dangerous intema- plies a considerable loss of national sovereign- tional situation without having to compound IN MY OPINION 93 the slaughter. The unarmed London bobby is perfect plan existed and were already accept- accorded a similar kind of respect. able, there would be no need for new ideas. Finally, since practically all plans for effec- Our generation must attempt to visualize and tíve world goverament are presumed to operate plan for a future world somewhat unlike the in an environment of realistic general disarma- present one. Technological pressures are forc- ment, a world federal army empowered only to ing us to seek new and workable Solutions with- wage nonlethal warfare should do much to out the luxury of time for much further experi- allay the fears of such a monopoly of strength. mentation or evolution. Like the sorcerers All nations would possess sufficient ordinary apprentice, man is seeking to hamess his re- pohce forces necessary to maintain internai cently released nuclear genie and will require order. It is difficult to imagine the wanton use tlie help of all the earths nations to accomplish of an intemational force of the kind suggested, this feat. Wishful thinking will not avail. one composed of representative troops of many Fortunately, the same technology which nations, to seize world dictatorial power. It has provided mankind with the potential for would be virtually impossible to subjugate and ultimate disaster can also furnish a means of enslave the entire world by use of only such enforcing world covenants, without killing. a force, particularly against any large coalition Science has quietly presented the instruments of outraged “customers.” As with present com- with which society can intervene to dispel the munity police forces, the tolerance of the world use of force and provide a climate in which the community would be necessary for the effee- rule of law may flourish, an environment which tive utilization of such an army. at least permits the employment of reason. Once the basic morality of the objective is Humanity still has several prudent courses established—and few can argue that ending of action from which to make its selection. war is not a moral objective—it would appear Many of these have already been outlined by that humane warfare for intemational peace- the great philosophers and statesmen of a more keeping might be a possible approach. The con- leisurely age. Our future depends on our pres- tinued arms race, constant minor wars, and ent willingness and ability to grasp our remain- proliferation of nuclear weapons to such an ing opportunities. The capacity for self-destruc- intemationally irresponsible nation as Commu- tion is already at hand and presses our decision. nist China—all seem to dictate a need for a In the urgent search for the road to perma- timely solution to the problem of war. nent world peace, perhaps “humane warfare” The proposal introduced here is simply a is a path that has been neglected. suggestion for additional consideration. If some

Notes 1. Major General William M. Creasy, “Can We Have War 2. "Riot Control Agent Delivery System,” Infantry, Without Death?" The Reader’s Digest, September 1959, p. 74. January-February 1967, pp. 49-51. Books and Ideas

IN TO T H E A IR W IT H ATC

G en er a l F rederic H. S mith , J r ., USAF (Ret)

T IS RARE indeed to find a writer who can Mr. Mason spent long hours at various leveis express in delightfully readable English of command. He parasailed, flew T-41s, T-37s, Ithe many facets of a complex and highly tech-and T-38s as part of his research on Air Train- nical subject. In The New Tigersf Herbert ing Command. Later he flew on gunnery mis- Molloy Mason, Jr., has displayed a talent for sions in F-105s and F-4Cs with the Tactical making his subject live. Air Command at Nellis afb, Nevada. The He has accomplished a work which de- book is lavishly illustrated with excellent scribes the process evolved by the Air Force black-and-white photographs taken by Mr. for producing fighter pilots in these days of Mason. pressing need. More than this, he describes The few very minor criticisms I would it with a clarity which transports the reader have with the book—and these nitpicks are into the cockpit, the classroom, and the vital apparent only to one who has been closely society of airmen. associated with the program—only serve to To one who went through the Air Force point up the accuracy, authenticity, and gen- training system in an era long past, the book eral readability of the book as a whole. was fascinating. The author senses the eager- For the young man who really wants to ness, the determination, and the occasional be a fighter pilot, the book should be an in- discouragement of the young trainee, as well spiration. For the one who is timid or lazy, as the strain which is part and parcel of being it should provide adequate discouragement— in an intentionally demanding environment. he couldnt be a tiger anyhow. During the summer and winter of 1966, Washington, D.C.

fHerbert Molloy Mason, Jr., The New Tigers (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1967, $6.95), xiii & 241 pp.

94 THE LABYRINTHIAN WORLD OF SOVIET MILITARY DOCTRINE

D r . K en n et h R. W hitevc

V^ER since Engels began to fancy himself General of the Army A. A. Yepishev, top man as a military theorist a century ago, in the Main Political Administration. The book E Marxists have tried to convert the art of prepar-is divided into five major sections, each com- ing for and fighting wars into a science with all prised of a number of pertinent articles. The the exactitude of physics or chemistry. If all the editor-translators explain the significance of books and articles on military doctrine pro- each major segment and also preface each arti- duced by Soviet theorists since Frunzes classic cle with an explanatory introduction. The trans- dispute with Trotsky in the early 1920s were lations are well done, and Mrs. Scott is not to enumerated, the list would run into the thou- be blamed for the heavy, dull, pedantic style sands. Over the years these doctrinal writings that is the hallmark of Soviet military theorists. have come to resemble the worst products of There is also a Glossary at the end of the book, medieval scholasticism. It would seem that as well as an Appendix, in which the top Soviet Communists are just not happy unless they military leaders are listed. All in all, it is a com- have a doctrinal crutch to lean on. In addition petent piece of work. to this penchant for doctrine, the well-known There are several main themes that run Russian psychosis about revealing any concrete through most of the articles. The first is the con- müitary data forces the writer on things mili- stantly reiterated assertion that the Soviet Stra- tary to stick to the vague and abstract, i.e., doc- tegic Rocket Forces are now the elite element of trine. Thus it is not strange that Americans, the armed forces. This, of course, has to be so, who on the whole are pragmatic and not in- since there is near unanimity among the Soviet clined toward philosophical speculation, find writers that World War III, “if it is unleashed Soviet military literature a bit hard to get with. by the imperialists,” will be a nuclear war. Professor Kintner and Mrs. Scott have now Nevertheless, each author, after describing the produced a workf which gives those who do decisive role of the Strategic Rocket Forces, not read Russian a chance to see how Soviet hastens to add that victory can only be achieved military theorists approach the problems of by the combined forces of all the Services of the contemporary warfare. The book consists of 27 armed forces. The “why” of the necessity for articles, most of which were published between all the Services to get into the act in a nuclear late 1964 and early 1967. Some are from collec- exchange is never spelled out. Finally, all the tions of articles published in book form in the writers agree upon the infallibility of Soviet , but most of them are from the military doctrine. military joumals, especially the Communist of Before rushing out to buy the book, the the Armed Forces (Kommunist vooruzhennykh potential reader should be wamed that Soviet sil), which (as is stated right above the table military writings, especially those dealing with of contents in each issue) is the “military-politi- doctrine and strategy, are ponderous, repeti- cal joumal of the Main Political Administration tious, and crammed with hoary clichês. Soviet of the Soviet Army and Navy” and thus, it military theorists, in Manichaean style, divide would seem safe to say, is closely controlled by the world into absolute good and absolute evil:

------\The Nuclear Revolution in Soviet Müitary Affairs, translated and edited, with Introduction and Commentary, by William R. Kintner and Harriet Fast Scott (Norman, : University of Oklahoma Press, 1968, $6.95), 420 pp.

95 96 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

all virtue and wisdom belong to the socialist a few of the evaded issues: Whether World camp, especially to the Soviet Union, and evil War III will be a short, spasmodic nuclear ex- and injustice are the monopoly of the “imperial- change or a protracted conflict? Just what is ists.” Furthermore, through the use of Marxist- the Soviet doctrine on limited war? How do Leninist analysis, the Communist Party leader- “wars of national liberation” fit into their doc- ship can always assess the future accurately, trine? What is their strategy, or lack of it, in which gives it a tremendous advantage over its the military use of outer space? Do they mean imperialist enemies. At this point the Soviet a pre-emptive attack when they refer to “the writers have to explain, somewhat avvkwardly, frustration of a surprise nuclear attack”? These that the “cult of the personality,” i.e., Joe Stalin, are important contemporary problems and the managed to thwart the Marxist-Leninist fore- Soviet military theorists must think about them, sight of the Party leadership in 1941 and there- but there are no concrete discussions of them by caused the Soviet Armed Forces to get in the open literature. caught flatfooted by the Nazis on 22 June. The A good example is the continuous refrain “cult of the personality” is also censured for the that the Soviet Armed Forces can and will extermination of some of the best military “frustrate” a surprise nuclear attack. For in- cadres on the eve of World War II. (See stance, Colonel Strokov, on page 223, states that Shtemenko’s article, p. 51.) This is a euphemis- Soviet military doctrine considers the frustra- tic way of saying that Stalin butchered tens of tion of a surprise attack of the enemy and thousands of the top officers of the Red Army carrying to him a crushing blow as the main in the 1937-40 period, which is naturally a sore immediate task of the Armed Forces. point with the present Soviet officer corps. Khrushchev, “the erratic, harebrained” one, to He then goes on to quote Marshal Malinovsky quote from his official Soviet condemnation, as folio ws: was also guilty of obfuscating and perverting The main common mission for all of our Armed the collective wisdom of the Party leadership. Forces, in the course of combat and operational But inasmuch as all Soviet policies, including training, is set by us as the studying and work- military policy, were controlled by either Stalin ing out of ways for the sure repulse of a sur- or Khrushchev from at least 1929 through 1964, prise nuclear attack of an aggressor and also or for 35 out of the Soviet Unions 50-year life- of ways to frustrate his aggressive plans by way of a well-timed carrying out of a crushing span, the advantages of the Marxist-Leninist blow on him. analytical tool seem somewhat dubious to the uninitiated Western reader. If the reader, how- Both Strokov and Malinovsky must mean either ever, can suffer a certain amount of boredom that the nuclear attack will be pre-empted or and if his adrenalin does not tend to get out of that the Soviets have an impenetrable anti- control when his country is described as the ballistic missile ( ABM) defense. But at no time incamation of all evil, then this collection of does any Soviet writer spell out in concrete Soviet articles is worth reading. After all, “to terms what he means. Incidentally, as early as know your enemy” has been a widely accepted 1955 the Soviets were preaching about their maxim for military men for at least a couple of ability to frustrate a suqjrise nuclear attack; it millennia. was already an article of faith, and they cer- In the course of examining the Soviet mili- tainly did not have an ABM defense then.2 tary literature for the 1960-64 period, the re- This constant chant about the Soviet capability viewer was struck more by what the Soviet mili- to thwart a nuclear surprise attack is probablv tary theorists did not say than with what they a morale builder. did discuss.' Nothing seems to have changed Closely associated with the “frustration of in the last three years, judging from what Mrs. a nuclear attack” thesis is another article of Scotts stable of authors manages not to say. faith, the assumption that the Soviet Union will They just skip the tough problems, or skirt tliem be victorious in a nuclear war. In tliis case, in a gingerly manner. The following are just however, a few Soviet heretics have from time BOOKS AND IDEAS 97 to time expressed the opinion that such an ex- atomic and nuclear weapons, long-range bomb- change might end civilization, and as early as ers, and doing research on missiles. The doc- 1954 Malenkov was roundly scolded for ex- trine espoused in the open literature had no pressing such a thought. Here, again, one is connection with the weapons development go- inclined to see this “optimism” more as an ing on at the time. Actually, the doctrine denied attempt to keep up popular morale than as a the eflBcacy of the very weapons that the Soviets genuine conviction. For example, Colonel were developing at such great cost to their Ribldn (on p. 113), after asserting that the So- economy. viet Union will be \rictorious in a nuclear war, Today, as the articles selected by Kintner becomes somewhat more ambiguous when he and Scott illustrate, the military doctrine indi- says: cates that a nuclear war is the only type of war the Soviets have under consideration. But the However, to maintain that victory in nuclear present composition of their armed forces could war is in general impossible would be not only indicate otherwise. The Soviet Navy is rapidly untrue theoretically but dangerous from a polit- ical point of vietv. (Italics mine.) becoming a major element in the overall mili- tary capability of the nation. It now has a large In their introductory comments to the surface fleet as well as a huge submarine force, various articles, Kintner and Scott assert re- and it is now busy playing a role in the Mediter- peatedlv the thesis that the Soviets have opted ranean. The Soviets are developing their own for nuclear war and they are relentlessly driv- leathemecks, the naval infantry as they call ing toward a superiority in both offensive and them, and are equipping them with various defensive nuclear missile systems. It would be types of landing craft. The Soviet merchant hard to dispute the fact that the Soviets have marine, which could be used to take care of increased the tempo of their production of logistical support if Soviet troops were to en- ic bm ’s . According to the figures given by for- gage in operations in distant regions on the mer Secretary XlcNamara in February 1968, globe, is being built up at an ever increasing the Soviets had increased their arsenal of ic bm s tempo. That other requirement for worldwide to 720 by 1 October 1967, almost doubling their operational activities, special forces with their capability in that area in a year. The former own airlift capability, is now being rapidly aug- secretary, however, seemed much less worried mented. In the May Day display for 1968, there about the Soviet capabilities in the abm field. were more parachute troops with their rasp- At the present time, it would seem, the Soviets berry-colored berets than had ever participated still have some distance to go before they get before. to parity, let alone superiority, in the number If an analysis of Soviet intentions were to of nuclear warheads that can be delivered by be made on the basis of the new developments each side. But even parity might well present in the direction of a flexible capability in mili- problems for the United States in the not too tary operations and on the basis of what seems distant future. to be Russian foreign policy objectives in the It would seem to this reviewer that any last few years, the conclusion might well be attempt to predict Soviet intentions from Soviet that the Soviets intend their nuclear missile military literature is a dubious proposition. For buildup to act as an umbrella over their pene- example, during the 1945-54 decade, Soviet tration of the Middle East and their intention military theorists wrote only about Stalin’s five to play an active military role on a global basis “permanently operating factors for victory,” in support of “wars of national liberation.” In which called for huge ground forces loaded short, when dealing with the theoretical writ- with artillery and tanks, while at the same time ings of Soviet military men, as much considera- denying the possibility that nuclear weapons tion should be given to what they refuse to talk plus a suqírise attack could influence the course about as to those things they do discuss ad and outcome of a war. Yet it was precisely dur- nauseam. What bothers this reviewer about the ing that period that they were developing editorializing of Kintner and Scott is their as- 98 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

sumption that the present Soviet doctrine on all of the carping of this critic, the book is a nuclear war necessarily represents the real valuable addition to the sparse literature on Soviet military intentions. They might well Soviet military affairs that is available in have taken the editing job done by Dinerstein, English. Gouré, and Wolfe in the rand edition of Soko- Aerospace Studies Institute

lovskys Military Strategy as a model and point- 1. Kenneth R. Whiting, Soviet Reactions to Changes in ed out the inconsistencies and lacunae in the American Military Strategy (Ma*well AFB: Air University, 1965). writings of the Soviet military theorists. But for 2. Ibid., p. 30.

The Contributors

Inspector General, ATC, 1958-59; assignments have been as personnel Sênior Member, Com- Services officer at Johnston Island AFB mand, Military Armistice Commis- and Lincoln AFB, Nebraska, 1954-58; sion, Korea, 1959-60; Deputy for AFROTC instructor, Iowa State Uni- Plans and Operations to CINCPAC, versity; faculty member, Academic to 1963; Commander, Thirteenth Air Instructor and Allied Officer School, Force, Philippines, to 1965; and Vice Maxwell AFB, Alabama; and chief Commander in Chief, PACAF, 1965- training adviser to the Vietnam Air 66. General Maddux is a graduate of Training Center, Nha Trang, Vietnam, Air War College and National War 1965-66. College.

L ie u t e n a n t Gen er a l Sam Maddux, J r ., is Commander, Air Training Com- mand, Randolph AFB, Texas. Gradu- ated from University of Oklahoma in 1936 and flying training in 1937, he served in the Canal Zone until 1940, when he joined 19th Bombardment J ohn P. M urphy (B .S., Abilene Group, March Field, Califórnia. He Christian College) is a training special- flew a B-17 to the Philippines, Octo- ist with the Instructional Systems ber 1941, was on Bataan and Min- Branch, Lackland Military Training danao until March 1942, in Aftstralia L ie u t e n a n t Colonei. V er n o n J. Center, Lackland AFB, Texas. An em- and New Guinea until November E lslacer (M .S., Drake University) ployee of Air Training Command for 1942, when assigned to the War De- is an education and training staff offi- the past sixteen years, he was in the partment General Staff. He joined 20th cer, Hq Air Training Command. Com- first group of instructional program- Bomber Command, Guam, 1945, and missioned in 1943, he served as a mers trained on Air Force facilities. was Chief of Personnel, FEAF, Japan, bombardier and navigation instructor He designed an M-16 rifle instruction 1946-48. Other assignments have been at Childress, Texas. After the war he svstem, which is used in the Basic at Hq USAF, 1949-52; as Command- taught at the high school and junior Military Training Program at Lack- er, Mather AFB, Califórnia, 1953-57; college leveis in Iowa until recalled to land, and has helped develop other Deputy Commander, Flying Training Service in 1952 as a B-29 bombardier behaviorally oriented instructional Air Force, Randolph AFB, 1957-58; at Mountain Home AFB, Idaho. Other Systems. LtECTEXANT Colonel Franx H. R obebtson is Chief, Operations Divi- C olonel Robert D. C ubtis (B.S., sam, Directorate of Müitary Assist- University of Oregon) is Assistant ance, DCS/Plans, Hq Air Training DCS/Operations, Air Training Com- Command. Commissioned from Offi- mand. Commissioned and rated püot cer Candidate School in 1950. he lias in 1941, he served as instructor and C aptain Allen K. T aylor (B.A., served in various training assignments supervisor of püot training, then com- University of Omaha) is an academic at the ÜSAF Basic Müitiry Training manded 548th Night Fighter Squad- instructor, T-37 Püot Instructor Train- School. Hq Technicai Training Air ron through 18 months of combat in ing (PIT), Perrin AFB, Texas. Upon Force, and Hq Air Training Com- the Saipan, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and his graduation from pilot training at mand. His overseas tours have been Japan offensives. Postwar assignments Williams AFB, Arizona, in 1963, he as Training Officer, 58th Fighter have been as operations officer and was assigned as a T-37 instructor pi- Bomber Wing, Korea, 1953-54, and commander of night and all-weather lot, Laredo AFB, Texas. He was an as Education and Training Advisor to operations; Director of Flying Train- instructor pilot, T-37 PIT, Randolph the , 1961-64. He ing, Hq ATC; Operations and Train- AFB, Texas, from January 1966 until was a member of the Presidential ing Officer, Military Assistance Advi- his present assignment in June 1967. Emergency Relief Mission to the sory Group, Germanv; in DCS/Plans Captain Taylor is a graduate of the Domínican Republic, 1965. Colonel and Programs, Hq USAF, and AF T-37 Püot Instructor Training, ATC Robertson’* assignment since 1964 Academic Instructor School, and member, Chainnan JCS Staff Group; Squadron Officer School. has included visits to 16 foreign coun- and Commander, Craig AFB, Ala- triei and participation in conferenc.es bama, 1963-65. Colonel Curtis is a at USAF and Unified Command levei graduate of the Industrial College of concerning the Müitary Assistance the Armed Forces. Training Program.

B ricadier Gen er a l Joe T. S cepan- sky (M.B.A., Stanford University) is Commander, U.S. Air Force Recruit- ing Service, Randolph AFB, Texas. M ajor Fhask F. E. H x .xse, Jr ., S ec o n d Lie u t e n a n t Robert M. Commissioned and rated pilot in 1941, (B.C.E., University of Omaha) is Zic k e s is Information Officer, USAF he served throughout World War II training munager for Air Training Survival School, Fairchild AFB, in the flying training program as in- Command technicai training activibn Washington. Before graduating from structor, organizer, director, and com- in lupport of the F/RF-4 weapon Sys- the University of Notre Dame in 1967, mander. Other assignments have been tem, assigned at Randolph AFB, he worked for the school radio station as Plans Officer, Hq USAFE, Wies- Texas, since 1966. After completing badcn, 1949-52; Planning Officer, flying training m 1952, he served with as an announcer and public relations director. Commissioned through Offi- Secretary for JCS Matters, and Execu- the 449th Fighter Interceptor Squad- tivo to Director of Plans, DCS/O, Hq ron in Aluika. In ATC since 1954, he cer Training School in Septcmber 1967, Lieutenant Zickes joined the USAF, 1952-56, Deputy for Opera- has worked in flight trst, quality con- tions, 35th Air Division (Defense), trol. aircraft schrduling, and flight- 3636th Combat Crew Training Croup (ATC) (Survival) and took the Sur- Dobbins AFB, Geórgia; DACS/O, Hq line maintenance; attended Aircraft PACAF, Hawaíi, 1959-62; and Dep- Maintenunce Officer» courie at Cha- vival Training Course before assum- ing his present duty. uty Director of Personnel Planning, nutr AFB, IlUnoii; and commanded Hq USAF, 1963-66. General Scepan- mobile or flymg training detachments sky is a graduate of Air War College on the F-88. F/BF-101. and RF-4C. and National War College. is Deputy Chief, McClellan Central quently, he was Chief of Staff, Stra- Laboratory, Headquarters Command tegic Air Command; National Com- USAF, McClellan AFB, Califórnia. mander, Civil Air Patrol; Assistant Commissioned in 1944, he served as for Programming, DCS/O, Hq USAF; a weather officer and CAA controller Commander, Eastern Air Defense in the U.S., África, and índia. He was Force; Vice Commander, Air Defense graduated from the University of Wis- Command; Commander, Fifth Air consin (Pharmacy) in 1948. Recalled Force, Japan; Commander, Air Train- to active duty in 1951, he served in ing Command; Commander in Chief, special weapons assignments at San- U.S. Air Forces, Europe; and Vice dia, Kirtland, Schilling, and Loring. Chief of Staff, USAF, when he retired Under the AFIT program, he studied from active duty, 30 June 1962. nuclear chemistry at Ohio State, 1956-58, and has since served as a M ajor J oel J. S nyder (M.S., George nuclear research officer. Colonel Celick Washington University) is Instructor, has taught chemistry at Sacramento Counterinsurgency Course, Special Air State College. He is a 1968 graduate Warfare School, Hurlburt Field, Flor- of Air War College. ida. Other assignments have been as Intelligence Officer, Third Air Force, England, 1955-57; with a tacticaí reconnaissance wing, 1957-60; as stu- dent, Squadron Officer School, 1959, and Academic Instructor Course, 1960; Instructor, later Education Of- ficer, Squadron Officer School, 1960- Dr . Ken n et h R. W hitinc (Ph.D., 64; student, Air Command and Staff Harvard University) is a member of College, 1964-65; and Intelligence Aerospace Studies Institute and of the Staff Advisor to Hq Intelligence faculty, Air University. He formerly Branch, Vietnamese Air Force, Tan taught Russian history at Tufts Col- lege. Dr. Whiting is the author of The Son Nhut Air Base, Vietnam, 1966. Soviet Union Today: A Concisc Hand- book (1962) and of numerous studies and monographs on Russian subjects, including Readings in Soviet Military Thcory, Essays on Soviet Problems of Nationality and Industrial Manage­ ment, Iron Ore Resources of the U.S.S.R., and Materials on the Soviet Petroleum Industry. He also contrib- G en er a l Frederic H. S mith , J r . uted two chapters to Asher Lee’s book, (USMA), USAF (Retired), is Manage- The Soviet Air Force, and an article ment Consultant, Ryan Aeronautical to Eugene Emme’s book, The Impact Company, Washington, D.C. During of Air Power. World War II he served as Com- mander, 8th Fighter Group, New Guinea; Chief of Staff, Advance Ech- elon, Fifth Air Force; Commander, First Air Task Force; Director, Op- erations, Allied Expeditionary Air Forces, United Kingdom; Deputy Chief of Staff, Army Air Forces; and L ie u t e n a n t Colonel Arnold J. Commander, Fifth Fighter Command, C el ick (M.S., Ohio State University) Philippines and Okinawa. Subse-

The Air University Review Awards Committee has selected “Vietnam; Our World War II Legacy” by Major John F. McMahon, Jr., USAF, as the outstanding article in the July-August 1968 issue of the Air University Review. EDITORIAL STAFF

L ieu t en a n t Colonel Eldon W. D owns, USAF, Editor J ack H. Mooney, Mana gin g Editor L ieu t en a n t Colonel John H. Scrivner, J r ., USAF, Associate Editor Major Robert G. Spa r k ma n , USAF, Chief, Acquisition Branch E dmund O. Barker. Financial and Administrativa Manager J ohn A. W est c o t t , J r ., Art Director and Froduction Manager E nrique Gaston, Associate Editor, Edition L. Mid o si May Patterson. Associate Editor, Portuguesa Language Edition W il l ia m J. De Paola, Art Editor and Illustrator F ir st Lieu t en a n t Jer r y R. Stringer, USAF, Editorial Project Officer

ADVISERS

Colonel Mer r itt G. Garner, Hq Militanj Assistance Command, Vietnam Colonel Wil l ia m H. Huntley, J r ., Hq Air Training Command Colonel Marvin M. Stanley, Hq Tactical Air Command Colonel Rea de F. T il l e y , Hq Aerospace Defensc Command L ieu t en a n t Colonel Cec il G. Furbish, Hq Air Force Logistics Command L ie u t e n a n t Colonel Geor ge N. Ken t , Hq Strategic Air Command L ieu t en a n t Colonel James F. Sunderman, Hq U.S. Strike Command D r . H arold Hel fma n , Hq Air Force Systems Command L a Ver n e E. W oods. Hq Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories

ATTENTION Air University Review is published to stimulate professional thought concerning aerospace doctrines, strategy, tactics, and related techniques. Its contents re- flec» the opinions of its authors or the investigations and conclusions of its edi- tors and are nof to be construed as carrying any official sanction of the Depart- ment of the Air Force or of Air Universify. Informed contributions are welcomed. Air University LiDrary

OCT 7 1968

h/laxwell AFB, Ala. 36112

UNITED STATES AI R FORCE AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW