About Boxes and Labels: A Periodization of the Amerindian Occupation of the West Indies Benoît Bérard

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Benoît Bérard. About Boxes and Labels: A Periodization of the Amerindian Occupation of the West Indies. Journal of Archaeology, Museum/University of Florida, 2019, 19. ￿hal-02275527￿

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Journal of Caribbean Archaeology Copyright 2019 ISBN 1524-4776

About Boxes and Labels: A Periodization of the Amerindian Occupation of the West Indies

Benoît Bérard Université des Laboratoire AIHP/GEODE (EA 929) Campus de Schœlcher, BP 720997275 Schœlcher cedex F.W.I. [email protected] ______

Depuis de nombreuses décennies, les données issues de la fouille de sites liés à l’occupation précolombienne de l’archipel antillais sont analysées en fonction du système classificatoire développé par Irving Rouse. Ce système fondé sur la triade complexe/sous-série/série a permis d’établir avec une grande efficacité un premier cadre chrono-culturel pour l’occupation amérindienne de l’aire caraïbe. C’est avant tout dans ce but qu’il avait été forgé. Il a cependant au cours des dernières années aussi démontré ses limites face à la complexité croissante des questionnements des chercheurs ; quand certains ont tenté de lui faire faire autre chose que ce pour quoi il avait été construit. L’objectif du présent article n’est pas de remplacer par un autre le modèle établi par Irving Rouse. Notre ambition est de tenter d’évaluer au niveau théorique et opérationnel en quoi l’adjonction d’une véritable périodisation pourrait d’avérer utile au développement d’une pensée complexe qu’implique le processus actuel de renouvellement des problématiques ainsi que de diversification et d’enrichissement rapide des données. Il s’agira, enfin, pour nous d’esquisser les contours de ce que pourrait être une telle périodisation en espérant que de cette première avancée puisse émerger de nombreuses discussions aptes à participer au processus de construction nécessairement collectif d’un tel outil.

For many decades, data from excavations of sites related to the pre-Columbian occupation of the Caribbean Archipelago have been analyzed according to the classification system developed by Irving Rouse. This system based on the triad complex/sub-series/series made it possible to establish with great effectiveness a first chrono- cultural framework for the Amerindian occupation of the Caribbean area. It was forged primarily for this purpose. However, in recent years it has also demonstrated its limitations in the face of the increasing complexity of researchers' questions when some have tried to make it do something other than what it was built for. The purpose of this article is not to replace the model established by Irving Rouse with another. Our ambition is to try to evaluate at the theoretical and operational level how the addition of a real periodization could be useful for the development of a complex thought that implies the current process of diversifying issues addressed by the researchers as well as the diversification and rapid enrichment of data. Finally, there is the question of sketching out the contours of what such a periodization could be, in the hope that this first step will lead to many discussions enable to participate in the necessarily collective building process of such a tool.

Durante muchas décadas, los datos de las excavaciones de yacimientos relacionados con la ocupación precolombina del archipiélago caribeño han sido analizados de acuerdo con el sistema de clasificación desarrollado por Irving Rouse. Este sistema basado en la triada complejo/sub-seria/seria permitió establecer con gran eficacia un primer marco crono-cultural para la ocupación amerindia del área del Caribe. Es para este propósito que fue forjado principalmente. Sin embargo, en los últimos años también ha demostrado sus limitaciones frente a la creciente complejidad de las preguntas de los investigadores cuando algunos han intentado hacer que haga algo distinto de para lo que fue construido. El propósito de este artículo no es reemplazar el modelo establecido por Irving Rouse por otro. Nuestra ambición es tratar de evaluar a nivel teórico y operativo cómo la adición de una periodización real podría ser útil para el desarrollo de un pensamiento complejo que implica el actual proceso de complejización de las problemáticas así como la diversificación y el rápido enriquecimiento de datos.Por último, se trata de esbozar los contornos de lo que podría ser una periodización de este tipo, con la esperanza de que este primer paso dé lugar a muchas discusiones que participaran en el proceso de construcción, necesariamente colectiva, de esta herramienta.

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Introduction and the stratigraphic analysis of middens Almost all archaeologists in the (Rouse 1951). However, if reference to this West Indies refer to the classification construction remained fundamental in all system developed by Irving Rouse of his work and is repeated in some recent (Keegan et al. 2014; Petersen et al. 2004). syntheses (Petersen et al. 2004), it was Strongly inspired by the Linnaean very widely dominated by the triad classification, it is composed of complexes complex/subseries/series. To be convinced, (or styles), defined by a set of modes it is sufficient to witness how little space (essentially types of ceramic decorations), the presentation of this periodization associated within sub-series, themselves occupied in Rouse's (1992) last major components of series corresponding to synthesis (the term "period" is even historical traditions supposed to regroup missing in the glossary at the end of the the descendants (peoples and cultures) of a book). common ancestor (Rouse 1992). A It is interesting to look briefly at his continuum of modes is supposed to be the definitions of these different periods indicator of this "genetic" relationship (Rouse 1992:106): "Periods Ia and Ib are (Rouse 1960). It is undoubtedly this last preceramic. Period IIa is the time when point that best shows the proximity painted pottery was dominant; and period between Rouse's framework and the IIb, the time when it was going out of thought pattern stemming from the natural fashion. Period IIIa is that of the newly sciences. found plain pottery. The later modeled- This framework has been the incised ware begins during period IIIb and subject of much criticism in recent reaches its climax during period IVa. decades. The main ones concern the Period IVb is historical." Thus, there does rigidity of the phylogenetic tree model, not seem to be any explicit coherence which appears to have little ability to between the subparts of the same period (it account for the fact that "cultural evolution is in fact based on the identification of in the Caribbean is the product of complex series). Moreover, outside the period IVb interactions between local groups" the foundations of the definition for each (Keegan 2011:237; see also Hofman & of its periods are a mode of ceramic Hoogland 2011). It also has been criticized decoration playing the role of diagnostic for the very strong preponderance of fossil. Their identification is therefore ceramic decorations in the definition of based on the same type of data that forms complexes, subseries and series as well as the core of the complex/sub-series/series the equivalence maintained between system. This is undoubtedly one of the peoples, cultures and chronological periods main causes of the very weak role played (Rodríguez Ramos 2010). A periodization by this periodization in the construction of of the Native occupation of the Greater archaeological knowledge concerning the Antilles was, however, well established by Amerindian settlement of the West Indies. Rouse mainly on the basis of early research In the (Table 1), conducted in Haiti and Puerto Rico period II corresponds to the Saladoid (Rainey 1940; Rouse 1939, 1941). It series, period III to the Troumassoid series, initially consisted of seven arbitrary and period IV (partly contemporary with periods (I, IIa, IIb, IIIa, IIIb, IVa and IVb) period IIIb) to the Chican Ostionoid whose identification resulted from cross- subseries (Rouse and Faber-Morse 1999). referencing the results of modal analysis

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Table 1: Chronology of the Leeward Island (from Rouse & Faber-Morse 1999). Directly inspired by the Rousean The main alternative was developed model, adaptations to recent data (Petersen by Spanish-speaking archaeologists et al. 2004) and other periodizations working in Venezuela (Marcio Sanoja and (Bonnissent 2010) have been proposed. Iraida Vargas) and in the Greater Antilles However, they lead to an extremely (Marcio Veloz Maggiolo and Luis complex or even confused panorama, Chanlatte Baik). These researchers, contradicting the very function of a founders of or strongly influenced by the chrono-cultural framework to organize the Latin American School of Social chaos of data in order to make them Archaeology, are in opposition to the thinkable. The two referenced above, with essentially North American school of varying degrees of success, simply change classificatory archaeology. Their objective the labels without changing the contents of was to develop a theoretical and the boxes. An ancient neo-Indian becomes methodological approach compatible with equivalent to an early Ceramic Age Marxist historical analysis. To this end, confusing itself with the Saladoid series. In they rely on a system comprising three the Lesser Antilles, this often leads in levels that are supposed to make it possible practice to a chronology with two main to elaborate a global description of "periods", the Saladoid and the post- societies: cultures, lifestyles and socio- Saladoid, a distant echo of the first economic formations (Vargas-Arenas chronologies, in which a Carib People 1985, 1986, 1989; Veloz Maggiolo 1984). replaced an People at what is Offering an alternative to the Rousean today the chronological boundary between model, this approach, undoubtedly the Saladoïde and the post-Saladoïde. penalized in an area long dominated by Thus, Rouse, even if he treated it, took North American research due to its little account of the periodization of the nationalist and anti-colonialist political Amerindian occupation of the West Indies foundations, has finally, thirty years after in favor of the complex/sub-series/series its emergence, only slightly infiltrated the system closer to his theoretical framework West-Indian archaeological community. It of thought and specifically suited to remains mainly a source of inspiration for answer his taxonomic questions. some Puerto Rican archaeologists (Pagán

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Jiménez and Rodríguez Ramos 2008). Luis the development of a chrono-cultural Chanlatte Baik is the main contributor to framework following this perspective.

Table 2: Esquema cultural antillano (after Chanlatte-Baik, 2014).

The latest version of that Antillean period and an agro-ceramist period called cultural scheme (Chanlatte Baik 2014), in the "Antillean formative". The Archaic continuity with its previous productions, Period is divided into two stages (pre- proposes a division between an archaic ceramic and ceramic), and the Caribbean

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Formative Period is divided into four followed a global logic highlighting an stages (agroalfareros I to IV) (Table 2). aim, a meaning to history. If Marc Bloch The establishment of a periodization that and Lucien Febvre reject this teleological prevails over the identification of cultural perspective of history, they insist above all ensembles, without ignoring them, is a on the fact that time is both continuum and fundamental element of this scheme that perpetual change. Thus, any division is "... offers several solutions to the problems nothing more, nor nothing less than a posed by the complex/sub-series/series perspective, whose legitimacy is proven by system. We will come back to this later. its fruitfulness" (Bloch 1952:78). Any No doubt, the passionate debates that have periodization that is too rigid, conceived as animated the Antilleanist archaeological a historical reality, ultimately becomes no community around the so-called "La longer an aid but an obstacle to Hueca problem" (Oliver 1999), of which understanding. Thus, the historian must Chanlatte Baik was one of the main actors, consider that "... sometimes the great have not encouraged recognition of the waves of related phenomena which cross value of this cultural scheme. Even more, from one side to the other, the duration, the "vagueness" concerning its sometimes the human moment when these chronological transcription of this currents tighten in the powerful node of periodization (see in Table 2), and its consciences" (Bloch 1952:79). difficult compatibility with the system We can already distinguish here the developed by Rouse, which constitutes in premises of the tripartition of duration fact a sort of lingua franca of the developed later by Fernand Braudel: short Antilleanist archaeological community, duration of the event, medium duration of also undoubtedly have been disadvantages. the economic situation, and long duration One may wonder about the of the structures (Braudel 1958). Michel usefulness of superimposing a real Foucault, by underlining the conjunction of periodization of the Amerindian the power/knowledge binomial in the occupation of the West Indies on the construction of discourses, only reinforces complex/sub-series/series system; a the criticisms of the historical periodization situation that largely has been going on for previously expressed by the "Ecole des nearly a century. Indeed, the problems Annales". However, its Archeology of linked to the historical periodization and Knowledge (Foucault 1969) is nonetheless the discussions relating to the very interest an attempt of a global history aimed to in the establishment of such a periodization reveal the face of an era. He thus conceives are far from specific to the Caribbean area. a periodized history of alternating In fact, these problems have been at the “epistemes” (Foucault 1966) and heart of many debates since the emergence “ruptures”. Similarly, Paul Veyne rejects of the "Ecole des Annales" in the whole the myth of the period which he associates field of historical sciences. Traditionally, with a narrative practice of history (Veyne history had been divided into successive 1977), but stresses that "...facts do not exist periods that were supposed to give in isolation but have objective connections coherence to all the events and dynamics [...] and no one can change anything about that took place there. In this, the period them" (Veyne 1971). Thus, these was supposed to embody the "spirit of a researchers laid the foundations for a time." Whether in the Christian vision return to the historical periodization freed (from creation to the last judgment), in the from its original sins (Besserman 1996). In positivist thought of Auguste Comte (from this post-modern perspective: "Each period the theological phase to the scientific is in itself equivocal. The periods differ phase), or in the Marxist historical from one another because there are analysis, the succession of periods different forms of heterogeneity, not

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Amerindian Periodization Bérard because each period held a single and suggest or even require case studies coherent view of the world" (Hillis Miller designed to invalidate or confirm the 1975:31). intuitions thus canalized" (Coquery- Periodization in the historical Vidrovitch 2004:32). Finally, it could sciences is therefore both an extremely perhaps encourage the emergence of a ancient and a very modern exercise. How, metalanguage to develop interactions with and under what conditions, can it prove the archaeological communities of useful in advancing our knowledge of the continental America, which generally think Amerindian settlement of the West Indies? of pre-Columbian settlement according to The system set up by Rouse based on the other frameworks (phases, sequences, triad complex/sub-series/series, based on a horizons, traditions, periods, etc.). This last people-culture-period equivalence and point would not only encourage exchanges inspired by the phylogenetic model, is between researchers but would above all today like an old habit worn for a long provide a more stable scientific basis for time and often for uses for which it was the construction of hypotheses involving not designed. Too many times enlarged to strong interactions between the adapt, as best it can, to the exponential Amerindian populations of the West Indies enrichment of data. A hundred times and those of the continent. reprised by its author and his successors, it This does not mean throwing the has already shown its limits for some time. baby out with the bath water. The Thus, the growing complexity of the periodization that we advocate here should construction produced gradually removes not replace the Rousean triad and lead to any explanatory value. Today, it seems its disappearance. On the contrary, it must almost impossible to build a "true" account juxtapose them because, built on distinct of the Amerindian occupation of the bases, it fulfils different functions. The Antilles based on this system. system complex/sub-series/series cleaned Our proposal is therefore not to of a few slags would then simply be break down Rouse’s model but to returned to the function for which it was reconstruct a real periodization based on designed: the identification of cultural factors other than the Rousean triad. This ensembles and their organization in time is accomplished by breaking the monopoly and space according to their supposed of cultural characterization to identify degree of proximity. The cohabitation of historical events or dynamics, moments of these two explanatory frameworks, rupture or continuity, that have had an completed by others, would allow us to impact on a large scale. First, it should make some steps towards the production of allow the construction of a narrative over a a complex thought (Morin 1995) of the long period of time able to identify the Amerindian occupation of the Antilles. historical dynamics produced and endured by the Amerindian populations of the West New Periodization Indies. Second, this framework should After this long theoretical preamble encourage recognition and interpretation of the time to get our hands dirty has arrived the complexity of the interactions that have and it is time for us to propose and defend existed between the different cultural a periodization. We are far from groups within the archipelagoes and considering this proposal as indisputable, between the archipelagoes and various on the contrary, our idea is above all to lay continental areas. On the other hand, the the foundations, even if they are polemical, periodization exercise allows comparison of a process of necessarily collective and: "However perilous it may be, construction of a periodization whose comparatism authorizes systemic implementation seems to us eminently hypotheses rich in ideas which in turn desirable for the reasons we have just

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Amerindian Periodization Bérard outlined. Any periodization as construction pre-Columbian navigation, regular round is a risky attempt "... because it will always trips between or and be easy (...) to criticize this or that choice, are difficult to envisage due to the depending on the reader's field of nature of the currents. Indeed, if the predilection, which does not necessarily navigation in a southeast to northwest correspond to that of the author" (Coquery- direction (Tobago to Granada) does not Vidrovitch 2004:32). pose any particular problem (Slayton, Because each periodization has 2018), the way back is problematic validity only in a given geographical space, because of the force of the equatorial south we have chosen to focus on the space current which flows north along the coast extending from Grenada to Puerto Rico. of and enters the Caribbean Why this choice? We are firmly convinced Sea precisely between Trinidad and that it is possible to identify a certain Tobago and Grenada. Thus, the most number of global phenomena at the scale natural gateway to the mainland from of the entire Antillean archipelago that Grenada seems to be further west near could provide a serious basis for Margarita Island, rather than Trinidad. periodization work. This space has These different elements make the experienced historical dynamics, certainly Amerindian occupation of Trinidad more connected to those of other spaces, but associated with the cultural dynamics whose specificity justifies this scale of taking place in the Orinoco basin and the analysis. Furthermore, our insufficient northeastern coast of South America (from knowledge of the wide spaces that are the to Margarita), than with those islands of , Cuba and Jamaica specific to the Caribbean archipelago has prompted us to limit our ambition. We (Boomert 2000:218, Fig. 55; Boomert could have limited ourselves to the Lesser 2006). The island of Tobago would Antilles. However, we feel that Puerto constitute a border zone, an interface Rico, the last of the Lesser Antilles and the between these two areas, which of course first of the Greater Antilles, should be maintained links but which also have their included for two main reasons. First, own specificity. Puerto Rico was the only one of the Once the geographical framework Greater Antilles to have been impacted by has been established, constructing a the first phase of formative occupation of periodization can be summarized as the archipelago, which is at the heart of our defining breaks and continuity. We begin concerns that otherwise were limited to the by maintaining continuity with previous Lesser Antilles. Second, this integration of productions, so our periodisation is largely Puerto Rico is a first step toward inspired as much by Chanlatte-Baik's integrating the rest of the archipelago as scheme as by the age system set up by part of a collective effort that we hope to Rouse. Similarly, because cultural changes accomplish. As regards the exclusion of are a consequence of the historical the islands of from phenomena on which we wish to base our our study space, Trinidad is first of all chronology, dialogue with the Rousean geologically and biogeographically a system of cultural characterization should continental island, a continent to which it not pose a major problem. Thus, the names was still connected until around 9000 BP we chose to designate each period are not (Ribera-Collazo 2019). Tobago, because of original; the important thing was to its proximity to the mainland and Trinidad, concentrate our efforts on the contents of can also be considered at another level as a the boxes rather than on the labels. Four continental island. Conversely, from "events" seem to chacterize the Grenada the West Indies constitute an Amerindian occupation of the Lesser oceanic archipelago. Moreover, in terms of Antilles and Puerto Rico: the arrival of

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Amerindian Periodization Bérard humans, the migration of formative type evolution as a global, established, and groups, the development of complex coherent social, political and economic hierarchical societies, and the European system. Another phenomenon of more invasion. Three of them are exogenous, discreet endogenous evolution also seems linked to the arrival of new populations, to characterize the Amerindian occupation and of relatively short duration. The fourth, of the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico: the the endogenous development of passage from formative societies belonging hierarchical societies, is a historical to a pioneering logic and based on process that takes place over a longer structures of essentially continental origin period of time. It is probably desirable to to the first original insular cultures. divide it into two phases: the first would Therefore, we propose the correspond to the sequence of the different following periodization (Table 3). stages of its development, the second to its

DATES AGES PERIODS CULTURAL COMPONENTS 16th-18th centuries HISTORIC Contact Cayo 1100 C.E./contact Final Ceramic Suazan Troumassoid / Marmoran Troumassoid (Marmora bay),/ Chican Ostionoid -Chicoid. 750/1100 C.E. Late Ceramic Troumassan Troumassoid /Troumassoid marmoran (Mill Reef)/ Ostionan Ostionoid / Elenan CERAMIC Ostionoid /Late Cedrosan Saladoid /Caliviny 400/750 C.E. Middle Middle-Late Cedrosan Ceramic Saladoid (400 ?) 200 Early Ceramic Early Cedrosan Saladoid B.C.E./400 C.E. / Huecan Saladoid - Huecoid Around 3000 ARCHAIC Casimiroid /Ortoiroid B.C.E./ 0 corosan ?

Table 3: Proposed periodization of Amerindian occupation of the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico.

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 Archaic Age: The Amerindian possible within the framework of a occupation of the Lesser Antilles global approach integrating the and Puerto Rico began with the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola arrival of nomadic human groups where archaic occupations are whose economic system was numerous and ancient. Culturally, mainly based on foraging. Their the archaic sites of Puerto Rico and arrival within our study area is the Lesser Antilles have been dated around 3000 BC according to linked to the Casimiroid or data from Puerto Rico (Rodriguez- Ortoiroid series almost solely on Ramos 2010) and St. Martin the basis of the presence or absence (Bonnissent 2010) where these of flint macroblades in the occupations have been most widely assemblages. If the presence of documented (see Hofman and macroblades seems to indicate a Antczak 2019 for a global technical and cultural filiation with synthesis). Occupations associated the Casimiroid ensemble, the with the archaic age are largely cultural attribution of occupations documented in the northern part of where they are absent to the our study area between Ortoiroid would undoubtedly and Puerto Rico. Their presence deserve a closer discussion. seems more discreet or even non- Especially since the reality of existent in the southern part of our migration within the Lesser study area (Bérard 2002; Callaghan Antilles of Ortoiroid groups, whose 2010; Fitzpatrick 2011), where our presence is well documented in knowledge is based essentially on Trinidad, has been questioned in indirect evidences (Siegel et al. recent years (Callaghan 2010). 2015). In the northern Lesser Archaic occupations gradually Antilles and the our disappeared after the second half of knowledge of the way of life of the first millennium BC. This these groups has improved greatly disappearance, whatever the in recent years (Bonnissent 2010, modalities, appears to be the 2013; Hofman, et al. 2006, Hofman consequence of the development of and Antczak 2019). This area was formative occupations. occupied for nearly three millennia by populations whose economy  Ceramic Age (400/200 BC - was based on a nomadic multi- Contact): The Ceramic Age began island circuit. In Puerto Rico, with the appearance of formative introductions of plants from the sites in the Lesser Antilles and mainland (Pagán Jiménez 2013) Puerto Rico during the second half and possible limited ceramic of the first millennium BC. This practice (Rodríguez Ramos et al. appearance is linked to the 2008) have been documented in migration of groups from the north some archaic sites. For the time of the South American continent. It being, it remains difficult to ends with the appearance in establish an internal periodization archaeological assemblages of of these three millennia at the scale evidence of direct or indirect of our study area, although a few contact with Europeans. It can be limited attempts and the divided into four periods based on multiplication of works give hope the criteria described above that this objective can be achieved o Early Ceramics (400/200 in the near future. This will only be B.C.-400 A.D.): This first period

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corresponds to the expansion of is thus marked by a visible these agro-ceramicist groups demographic expansion through an between Grenada and Puerto Rico increase in the number of sites and as well as the period during which the colonization of new spaces their economy, their symbolic (Curet 2005). The economic system system and their technical system is also undergoing significant remain generally in conformity changes. Settlement sites are with the structures that allowed the established in very varied development and success of their environments (Bérard and Vidal pioneering project (Bérard 2013). 2003). Associated with this is an The early Ceramics is thus increase in the diversity of characterized by a highly economic choices and the standardized and predetermined appearance of specialized sites that economic system based, among testify to the implementation of other things, on the introduction new modes of land management. into the archipelago of a consistent Various changes have also been corpus of plants and animals from identified in the symbolic system. the mainland. These groups also are They are partly due to the influence marked by a strong cultural identity of the Barrancoid series whose visible, among other things, presence is attested in Trinidad through their expression of a from the second half of the 3rd complex symbolic system within century AD (Boomert 2000). the framework of their ceramic and These changes are visible lapidary production. Finally, this not only in the decoration of the period was marked by the ceramics but also in the appearance establishment of an important of "three-pointed stones." Finally, network of long-distance the first petroglyphs of the Lesser exchanges. So far two cultural Antilles were probably made ensembles have been identified during the Middle Ceramics during the early ceramics: the Early (Jönsson-Marquet 2002). It is Cedrosan Saladoïde and the interesting to note that the Huecan Saladoïde/Huecoïde. While diversification of economic the first of these clearly originated solutions seems to find an echo in in the Orinoco basin, the second, in ceramic production. It is marked, the absence of a clearly identified compared to the previous phase, by continental ancestor to date, could an enrichment of the morphological be the result of a process of and decorative vocabulary used by ethnogenesis that took place in the craftsmen. However, this richness West Indies. is little used and at the same time o Middle Ceramics (400- there is a reduction in the diversity 700 AD): In a process that seems, of the production (Berthé and despite the action of external Bérard 2013). Both economically, factors, essentially endogenous, an and in terms of pottery production, evolution of Amerindian societies these changes seem to indicate a in the Lesser Antilles and Puerto reduction in the constraining social Rico can be observed during the norm that so strongly marked the 4th century AD. This evolution early ceramic groups representing a seems to be the product of the pioneering logic in these two fields. conjunction of different Only one cultural ensemble has so phenomena. The Middle Ceramics far been documented during the

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Middle Ceramics. This is the technical and symbolic investment middle Cedrosan Saladoid. made in ceramic production in o Late Ceramics (700-1100 previous periods has gradually been AD): The transition between the reduced, probably to the benefit of Middle Ceramics and the Late other types of support or practices. Ceramics seems to be an o Final Ceramics (1100 endogenous phenomenon again. No A.D. - Contact): In Puerto Rico and significant influence of cultural the Virgin Islands, as in most of the groups outside the archipelago can Greater Antilles, the process of be observed during the process and developing complex societies the cultures that are being seems to lead, with the Final established have no continental Ceramics, to the establishment of a equivalents. The most striking global and coherent system marked feature of this transition is the by a strong social hierarchy and a break with the relative cultural significant production of prestige homogeneity that characterized the goods of high symbolic value. In previous period. While in the the northern Lesser Antilles (e.g., Lesser Antilles a system seems to Anguilla [Crock & Petersen 2004], be maintained within which the Saint-Martin [Bonnissent 2010], village constitutes the social, Saba [Hofman & Hoogland 1991]) political and economic unit of there seems to be integration into reference, one sees appearing in this cultural sphere and its socio- Puerto Rico the signs of regional political model has spread there. integration (development of This diffusion of social hierarchy ceremonial centers, modification of may even have extended further funeral practices) (Curet and Oliver south (Hofman & Hoogland 2004). 1998) of the development of more In any case, the cultural influence complex societies (Wilson 2007). of the complex societies of the The populations of the Greater Antilles is felt there in an Greater Antilles, and Puerto Rico in attenuated form (Allaire 1990). At particular, were beginning a the economic level, there is process of economic and political preferential exploitation of integration that is gradually mangrove areas in the Lesser differentiating them from their Antilles (Crock and Petersen 2004; neighbors in the Lesser Antilles. Bérard and Vidal 2003). Finally, This phenomenon appears some researchers (Boomert 1986) concomitant with if not of a have located in the Final Ceramics disappearance, then of a reduction the integration of the Southern of, long-distance trade networks. In Lesser Antilles within a vast the Lesser Antilles, if the economic cultural complex whose heart system seems, with the exception would lie in the Guyana Plateau. of this reduction in trade networks, However, no date in the West relatively identical to that of the Indies makes it possible to affirm previous period, we observe a for the moment the pre-Columbian progressive evolution of the character of the phenomenon. symbolic system. It is visible in the Various cultural ensembles have modification of the patterns present been dated from the Final on ceramics as well as in the Ceramics: the Suazan Troumassoid, change in funeral practices the Marmoran Troumassoid and the (Hofman & Hoogland 2004). The Chican Ostionoid (or Chicoid).

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during the contact period. The  Historical Age (Contact-?): The modalities of this connection, Historical Age begins with the described as a violent invasion by European invasion of the West European sources, remain largely to Indies. The archaeological study of be characterized from an Amerindian sites of historical age archaeological point of view. remains limited until now. The generally shallow archaeological Conclusions layers are often disturbed and even Any periodization is only a when this was not clearly working tool. The one presented here is the demonstrated, the presence within tool we will use for the rest of our the same level of Amerindian and research. Based on the recognition of European objects was more significant dynamics in the Amerindian frequently seen as the result of history of the West Indies, it constitutes a taphonomic problems than of first stage, but in no case a final outcome. contact between the Old and the It deserves to be completed and enriched New Worlds. Thus, most of our by other thematic periodization (paleo- knowledge of the way of life of environmental, technical, etc.). From the Antillean Amerindian groups from dialogue between these different the 16th century onwards is based frameworks, a real complex thought of the on the study of European historical Amerindian occupation of the West Indies texts. However, the gradual could emerge. It will then have to be empowerment of the historical extended geographically, in particular to narrative produced by the all the Greater Antilles. We are well aware archaeological work vis-à-vis that that the geographical framework we have resulting from the study of these (too?) carefully chosen strongly limits our texts (Allaire 1977; Allaire 1980; understanding of a certain number of Boomert 2011; Bright 2011; Davis phenomena (first settlement of the and Goodwin 1990) has only made archipelago, complexity of archaic the excavation of historic occupations, development processes of Amerindian sites all the more complex societies). It will undoubtedly be necessary. necessary to put it in resonance with those The aim in formally of the various continental zones associated recognizing a Historical Age is to with the history of the populations of the highlight issues of transculturation archipelago. Finally, the periodization that in contrast to the long-standing we propose deserves to be specified and emphasis on genocide. It offers a refined. This work concerns in particular counterpoint to the European vision the question of absolute dates which we and emphasizes the progressive have chosen to largely evade. It could also impact of contact on the concern a more detailed approach to the Amerindian population. Various transition processes between the different sites excavated in recent years periods which, as most often endogenous (Boomert 2011), and in particular phenomena, are of a duration which must those of Argyles in Saint-Vincent be apprehended in terms of relative (Hofman & Hoogland 2012), and chronology. Our proposal will therefore of La Poterie on Grenada (Keegan only reach real maturity if other and Hofman 2017) have shown the researchers take it up to criticize, amend, existence of a strong connection complete and thus co-construct it. What between the Amerindian societies was essential for us was to offer the of Guyana and the West Indies possibility of inscribing cultural entities in

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Amerindian Periodization Bérard periods and to no longer to attach them equivalence of periods to cultural sets without real reflection and in a relative (series, subseries, complex). ______

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