KALINAGO ALLIANCE NETWORKS Annie Cody ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the alliances held by the Kalinago (Island Caribs) at the time of Europe­ an contact and colonization. It suggests that European influence provided a catalytic stress, stim­ ulating the Kalinago to strengthen their inter-island alliances with each other and to knit together their ties with other ethnic groups, such as the Taino and Kalina (Galibi). The alliances formed by the Kalinago illustrate segmentary sociability and complementary opposition, as formerly autono­ mous groups consolidated to meet the threats posed by European colonization. This study applies network analyses to historic Kalinago inter-island alliances, and finds a complex, hierarchical network, in which St. Vincent and Dominica were promoted to dominant positions. RESUMEN Este artículo se enfoca en las alianzas sostenidas por los Kalinago (Island Carib), en el tiempo de contacto con los Europeos y la colonización. Se sugiere que la influencia Europea proveyó un esfuerzo catalítico, estimulando a los Kalinago a reforzar sus alianzas inter-islas, entre ellos mis­ mos y para estrechar sus lazos con otros grupos étnicos, como los Taino y Kalina (Galibi). Las alianzas formadas por los Kalinago ilustran una socialización segmentaría y oposición comple­ mentaria, antiguamente como grupos autónomos, se consolidaron para enfrentar las amenazas de la colonización Europea. Este estudio aplica un análisis de red a las alianzas históricas inter-islas, y encuentra una compleja red jerárquica, en la que St Vincent y Dominica fueron promovidas a posiciones dominantes. 311 INTRODUCTION Sociopolitical characterizations of West Indian societies at the time of European contact embody essentially synchronic snapshots. Arrested in the processes of formation and fragmen­ tation, the complex chiefdoms of the Classic Taino and the simple chiefdoms of the Sub-Taino may in fact represent alternate stages in chiefly cycling (Cody 1991; v. Anderson 1990). But whereas European contact and colonization destroyed any further Taino and Sub-Taino socio­ political development, the Kalinago1 were able to remain in the southern islands of the Lesser Antilles for two centuries. The Kalinago strengthened their inter-island alliances with each oth­ er and knit together ties with other ethnic groups2, such as the Taino and Kalina3, in comple­ mentary opposition to fight their common enemies. This paper suggests that for the Kalinago, European presence acted as a catalyst stimulating confederation and greater sociopolitical com­ plexity. Historical documents that note Kalinago alliances provide the most detail concerning their offensive or defensive reactions. The directions and subjects of aggression reveal Kalinago in­ terests in the islands. Most reports concern Kalinago attacks on European colonists, and it appears that they took place not just in those islands where Kalinago resided. Other islands, such as Puerto Rico and Trinidad, which bracket the Lesser Antilles, were attacked; as were some of the northern Leeward Islands, where suggestions of Kalinago residence are inconclu­ sive. It is possible that Kalinago interest in other islands stemmed from boundary or "buffer zone" maintenance (v. Anderson 1990), and/or from their use of those islands as resources. For instance, Puerto Rico has been cited as a source for acquiring the large trees necessary for building canoes (Figueredo 1978:394; Southey 1827:110). The smaller —and more arid— is­ lands are more often noted as sites for growing cotton or for fishing, not as places of permanent residence (e.g., by Breton 1958 [1665]; Rochefort 1666 [1658]). No descriptions were found of Kalinago residences on Barbuda, Antigua, or Montserrat; yet Kalinago from Guadeloupe, Do­ minica, St. Vincent, and other islands attacked European colonists there. Kalinago from Do­ minica were the most involved in these attacks. They participated in at least four raids on Antigua, three on Montserrat, and one on Barbuda. Kalinago aggression followed the pattern of European colonization. As colonists encroached upon the southern Leeward and the Windward Islands, the number of recorded alliances in attacks increases. While it is possible that the growth of alliance records is an artifact of the 1. Kalinago are also known as Island Caribs or Caribes. 2. A caveat: categorical differences between so-called "ethnic groups" such as the Taino, Kalinago, and Kalina are extremely difficult to define, for reasons that lie beyond the scope of the present paper (cf. Allaire 1977:17-21 ; Basso 1977:18- 19; Heinen 1983-1984:4-6; Rouse 1986:109-117). 3. Kalina are also known as Galibi. 313 314 ANNIE CODY increased number of chroniclers present and writing, it is at the same time likely that the Kali­ nago increased the strength and number of their alliances. Table 1 provides a chronological and geographical summary of the historical reports. The hostilities and alliances held between Kalinago groups indicate transitions in their po­ litical relationships, the circumstances of which depended on massing against a common ene­ my. For example, when Columbus's fleet landed at Guadeloupe, Dr. Chanca noted that the in­ habitants of three islands are "all agreed, as if they were of one family, doing no ill to each other. One and all they make war on all the other neighboring islands" (Jane 1967:32). This reported three-island alliance4 implies that they waged war on other Kalinago islands in the Lesser Anti­ lles, although it may mean just those islands of which the Spanish were aware (i.e., Taino is­ lands). As Europeans began colonizing the Lesser Antilles, formerly autonomous Kalinago po­ litical units integrated into broader alliances with each other (see Table 1), confederating in order to fight the external enemy. The Kalinago expanded their alliance system in multiple ways. They broadened and strength­ ened not just their inter-island ties, but also developed alliances with other ethnic groups. Chron­ iclers indicate that their interactions with allies became institutionalized. In every Kalinago carbet, one man, called a Nioukaiti, was commissioned to receive and show hospitality to "strang­ ers of their own nation, or their confederates" (Rochefort 1666 [1658]: 312). In the sixteenth century the Kalinago became allies with the Taino in the Greater Antilles to fight Spanish colo­ nization. In the seventeenth century their inter-island confederation became integrated fully, and they drew in allies from the South American mainland. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Kalinago on occasion allied themselves with one European nation in order to fight another. KALINAGO ALLIANCES WITH THE TAINO On Columbus's first voyage to the West Indies, he learned that the Taino feared raids from the Caribes (Columbus's Diario, in Colon 1984); and on his second voyage his crew found cap­ tive women in Guadeloupe, who related incendiary accounts of their treatment by the Kalinago (Dr. Chancas letter, in Jane 1967:32). Yet by 1509, the year that the Spanish began colonization of Puerto Rico, the Taino and Kalinago were allies (v. Figueredo 1978:394). A Spanish raid for Kalinago slaves from St. Croix, together with a loss of access to resources in Puerto Rico, ap­ pears to have spurred Kalinago interest in the alliance. In 1511 King Ferdinand issued his Royal Cédula, which permitted enslavement of the Car­ ibes, because, among other complaints, "many others of other Islands... have joined them" in attacking Spanish colonies (In Jesse 1963:27). The cédula refers in particular to a Taino rebel­ lion in Puerto Rico, "and to put it into effect a great number of the aforesaid Caribs came to the aforesaid Island of Sant Xoan [Puerto Rico]" (op cit:29). As a result of Spanish war against them, the Kalinago abandoned St. Croix for several years (Figueredo 1978:395). They contin­ ued their aggression against Puerto Rico, however, with at least three major attacks on the island in each of the following four decades. Meanwhile, the Taino left Puerto Rico to live with their allies in the Virgin Islands, Dominica, Guadeloupe, and other Kalinago islands (ibid). 4. Dr. Chanca calls the three islands "Turuquiera," "Ceyre,"' and "Ayay." While Jane (1967:32, note 1) believes the names indicate Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, and Santa Cruz, an examination of Kalinago alliance networks and hierarchical rela­ tionships, described below, suggests that the triad consisted of either (1) the islands Dr. Chanca had observed immediately: Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, and Dominica; or (2) the northern Kalinago power players of Guadeloupe, Dominica, and St. Croix (Santa Cruz). ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 315 KALINAGO INTER-ISLAND ALLIANCES Written descriptions of Kalinago alliances become more numerous through the seventeenth century (see Table 1), as the English, French, and Dutch increased their presences in the Carib­ bean and began colonizing the Lesser Antilles. Consistencies in the Kalinago inter-island alli­ ances make network analyses appropriate, and enable recognition of the confederation's basic properties. Because St. Croix's political role was drastically reduced within two decades of ini­ tial Spanish contact, the single specific report (n=l) of its alliance with other Kalinago islands (Guadeloupe and Dominica, in 1511) is assumed to inaccurately reflect the actual extent of the island's alliances. For this reason, St. Croix is not included in the network analyses below. The analyses draw more upon data available for the seventeenth century. Figure 2 illustrates the historically reported alliances between Kalinago islands. Each style of line represents an alliance that includes all of the islands it connects; both dyad and multiple- islands alliances are illustrated. Each different line stands for a particular alliance configura­ tion, whether it was reported from a single occasion or from several. According to the data obtained for this study, St. Vincent figured in 11 alliances, Dominica in 10, Martinique in eight, Guadeloupe and Grenada in four, St. Lucia in three, and Marie-Galante in two.5 To explore the sociopolitical underpinnings of this alliance network.