Secession In, 192–193

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-53713-1 - Contention and Democracy in Europe, 1650–2000 Charles Tilly Index More information

Index

Aargau: anti-Catholic actions in, 193; Albiez, Hans, 57–58, 59 high taxation in, 190;incorporation Alemannic dialects, 178 of, 171;revolution in, 175;secession Alexander, of Yugoslavia: assassination in, 192–193 of, 230;dictatorship of, 230 abolition, Chartists and, 163 Alexander II, concessions of, 218 Academy of Metz, 129 Alfonso XIII: elections of, 233;escape Academy of Moral and Political of, 233;restoration of, 233 Sciences, 196 Algeria: anti-Semitism in, 130;civil war Act of Succession, 144 in, 122, 132;revolutionary situations Act of Union, 141 in, 99 actors: constituted political, 20; alliances, 68;tactical, 9 detached identities of, 63;external, Allies: as external party, 237;liberation 11;intentions of, 9;political, 15; of France by, 121;victory of, 131 political entrepreneurs as, 76;public Alsace-Lorraine: German annexation political, 21 of, 129;Jews of, 129 administration, Dutch model of, 28 Alteraciones urbanas andaluzas of Afghanistan: contention in, 34; 1647–52, 88 Freedom House analysis of, 209; American Revolution, 75, 148;Catholic Soviet assistance to, 222;U.S. Emancipation and, 149;inﬂuence of, support of rebels in, 222 80;as revolutionary model, 105 Africa: anticolonial rebellion in, 244; Americas: European settlement in, 243; enslavement of, 244;European Spanish colonization of, 82 settlement in, 243;indirect rule in, Amerindians, massacre of, 25 49;Spanish colonization of, 82 anarchist movements, in Iberia, 233 Age of the Democratic Revolution Andalucıa,´ 90 (Palmer), 75 Andorra: democratization of, 216; Agitators, 140 Freedom House analysis of, 209;vs. Agreement of the People, 67, 140–144 Switzerland, 179 Agulhon, Maurice, 126 Angelets guerrilla warfare, 100 Albania, 33;Freedom House analysis Angers: anti-Semitism in, 130; of, 209;independence of, 230 occupation of, 115

279

Index

Anglican Church, 140;Church of democratization, 237;Freedom Ireland and, 143 House analysis of, 209;particularism Angola, Portuguese withdrawal from, in, 57 235 Austro-Hungarian empire, 230; Anjou: duke of, 97;open rebellion in, collapse of, 216;disintegration, 114 post–World War I, 230 Anne, Queen of England: death of, authoritarianism, 7, 11, 27;citizenship 146;voting laws of, 146 and, 120;coercion, 51;democratic Anne of Austria, Queen-Regent, 95; adaptiveness of, 240;economic entree´ into Bordeaux of, 97 growth and, 138;in France, 99, 131; Anti-Semitic League, 130 manhood suffrage and, 214;phases anti-Semitism, 129–130;resurgence of, of, 52;in Russia, 93;short-term, 239 130 autonomist movement, 114 anticlericalism, 172 autonomy, 11 Antigua, constitution of, 246 apartheid, 50 Balkans, 229–232;citizenship in, 45; Appenzell Ausserrhoden, 184 conquests of, 229; Arab-Israeli conﬂict, 131 de-democratization in, 240;state Aragon, loss of Roussillon by, 81 path of, 54;threatened democracies Aranjuez, 84 in, 236;vs. Iberia and Russia, 217, Argyll rebellion, 138 236–240;vs. Low Countries, 33; aristocrats, 112;massacres of, 115 wars of 1908–13, 229 Aristotle, 9 Baltic states, independence of, 238 artisans, organization of, 122 Bangladesh, 206 Artois, 111–112 Bank of England, 145 Asia: anticolonial rebellion in, 244; Barbados, constitution of, 246 Spanish colonization of, 82 Barber, Benjamin, 66 assemblies, 31;deliberative, 44;worker, Barcelona, 90 78 bargaining, 91 associations: elite, 127;freedom of, barretines, of Catalonia, 88 128;government monitoring of, Basel: Bishopric of, 171;division in, 127–128;under Louis Napoleon, 191;high taxation in, 190;labor in, 128;as political actors, 127;popular, 185;liberal programs of, 173; 126–128;public politics and, 123; revolution in, 171;secessionist shift toward, 166;voluntary, 159, movement in, 183;Zwinglian, 169 258–259;webs of, 122 Basque: nationalists, 234;Swiss model Asturias, separatist movement in, 233 and, 179 Aubrey, John, 133–134 Batavian Republic, 71 Audijos rebellion, 100 Batavian Revolution, 73 Australia: colonization of, 25, 165; Battle of the Boyne, 137 democratic colonization of, 26 Battle of Worcester, 134 Austria: annexation of Bax, Mart, 161 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 230; Behemoth (Hobbes), 133, 134 assassination of archduke of, 230; Beissinger, Mark, 255 democracy-accelerating processes in, Belarus: corruption in, 228;diminished 216;external parties and rights in, 227;Freedom House

280

Index

analysis of, 209;nondemocratic status of, 209;political problems in, status of, 209;political problems in, 210 210;state trajectory of, 227, 228 Bourbon regime, installation of, 82 Belfast, textile exports of, 137 bourgeois, 106, 111;growth of, Belgian Revolution, 73 115–116;perception of, 115;political Belgium, 33;collective actions in, bases of, 116;power consolidation 78–79;democracy-accelerating of, 115;propriety of, 188;workers processes in, 216;external tyranny and, 122;in Zurich, 174 in, 250;politics in, 79;rebellion in, Brabant: collective actions in, 76–77; 89;rebellion of, 72 Revolution, 73 Benauge´ rebellion, 100 braccianti, 86 beneﬁts, government-mediated, 15 te Brake, Wayne, 75–76 Benin, 206 Brazil: independence of, 232;King Bern: boundaries shift of, 171;high John’s rule of, 232 taxation in, 190;industrialization in, Brezhnev, Leonid, 222;death of, 222 188;inequality in, 170;language Britain: in 1650, 42;analysis of, 211; in, 179;weak governmental capacity antislavery in, 155;centralism in, 54; in, 182 civil war in, 135;civil wars of Bill of Rights, British, 144 1640–1660, 67;coastal traders and, binding consultation: negotiation 71;coercion in, 139;colonization by, and, 65;of political participants, 25–26;Commons of, 140; 190 confrontation in, 25;conquests by, Birnbaum, Pierre, 129 165;deaths in, 135; Bishops’ Wars, 138 democracy-accelerating processes in, Black Hand assassins, 230 216;democratic ideas of, 140; blood feuds, 32 democratization of, 33–34; Blues, army of, 115 democratization-promoting Blueshirt movement, 161 mechanisms in, 211;documented Blum, Leon,´ 123 history of, 80;electoral expansion of, Boer War, 50 26;Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, Bolshevik(s), 50;control of, 222; 80;history of, 27;incomplete removal of Social Revolutionaries, democracy in, 141;and indirect rule, 221;revolution, 214–220;seizure of 49, 143, 148, 165;industrial power by, 221 expansion in, 150;integration of Bonnets Rouges rebellion, 100 trust networks in, 164;Jewish Borbon, Juan Carlos de: ascension of, emigration to, 129;landlords in, 157; 234;democratic efforts of, 234 language in, 135;Liberals vs. Bordeaux, 95–96;administrative shift Conservatives, 19;middle-class in, 107;autonomist movement in, expansion in, 158;military 114;conformity of, 97;democracy expenditure of, 158;mobilization of, in, 98;Parlement of, 96;state 159;parliament, 144;parliamentary trajectory of, 98 expansion in, 34, 147;parliamentary Bosnia, 33;Austrian annexation of, reform in, 149;political divisions of, 230;Austrian control of, 229 136–140;political identity of, 166; Bosnia-Herzegovina: Freedom House political paciﬁcation of, 28;political analysis of, 209;nondemocratic participation in, 145;radical

281

Index

Britain (cont.) Cadours, taxes in, 110 reformers of, 23;reduced role of Caen, autonomist movement in, 114 royalty in, 158;reform bills in, 163; Caetano, Marcello, 235 regime fluctuations in, 142;religious Calvinists: in Switzerland, 169;vs. influence in, 140;religious rights in, industrialized Zurich, 188 6;reorganization of, 28;response to Camisard rebellions, 100 mobilization of, 25;revolutionary Canada, 6;colonialism in, 244; situations of, 137–138;17th-century colonization of, 25;reliance on crises of, 140;similarities with indigenous persons in, 244 France of, 6–7;social movements in, Cape Verde, Portuguese withdrawal 153, 159;success of, 51;suppression from, 235 of Irish nationalists by, 161;taxation capital, 7;accumulation of, 45, 46;in in, 147;tenant disenfranchisement Britain, 139, 140;concentration of, in, 157;vs. France, 6, 164–167; 46;definition of, 46;distribution of, William III and, 71 54;in France, 100;France vs. British Reform Act of 1832, 28; Britain, 167;growth of, 50;in Low creation of, 3–4;effects of, 4;vs. Countries, 80;in regime formation, British Reform Act of 1867, 3 251–252;in Switzerland, British Reform Act of 1867;creation 198 of, 5;effect of, 5;vs. British Reform capitalism: agricultural, 166;Artesian Act of 1832, 3 agricultural, 112;material British Union of 1707, 143 inequalities and, 18 Brittany: guerrilla attacks in, 114; capitalization, in France and England, indirect rule of, 50;open rebellion 28 in, 114 Caramani, Daniele: criticism of, 213; brokerage, 93;of coalitions, in on democracy, 213;on Greece, 231; Switzerland, 195;definition of, 58; omissions of, 216 mass rebellions and, 88 Caribbean: democratic colonization of, Brunswick Clubs, 151 26;independence of, 246 Brunswickers, 154 Carlos IV, abdication of, 84 Bucher, Erwin, 195 Carnavon, Lord, 5 Buhler,¨ parish government in, Castile, revolts against, 43 184 Castilian Comuneros, 67 Bulgaria: democracy-accelerating Castres, 107 processes in, 216;democratic Catalonia: barretines of, 89;failed regimes of, 230;democratizing in, secession of, 81;labor organization 232;oppression in, 232;partial in, 86;local struggles in, 90;regime independence of, 229;war with of, 89;revolt of, 43;separatist Ottoman empire of, 230;wars of, movement in, 233 230 categorical inequality, 8, 17, 186; Bundestag, 62; see also Diet adaptation and, 186;buffered politics bureaucracies, civilian, 119 from, 212;causal mechanisms and, 8; burghers, 66;militias of, 73, 91 cross-cutting, 18;insulation from, Burma: Freedom House analysis of, 18, 165;mechanisms of, 18; 209;vs. Russia, 208 mechanisms that insulate, 237

282

Index

paradox of, 20–21; public politics Ceausescu, Nicolae, overthrow of, 232 and, 17, 22; reduction of, 249; census taking, 15 segregation from public politics of, central co-optation, in Switzerland, 18; shifts in, 93; social relations and, 195 15; value of, 254 central government, rapid weakening categories, equalization of, 22 of, 238 Catholic Association: dissolution of, Central Powers, Brest-Litovsk treaty 156; effect of, 156; expansion of, 151; and, 221 formation of, 150 centralization, 48 Catholic Church: Concordat of, 111; Cevennes,´ 102 exclusion of, 147–148; French CGs. See contentious gatherings disestablishment of, 121; (CGs) mobilization, 151; political reform chambree,´ 127 and, 11; property of, 136; rights Chanzeaux, veterans’ groups, 125 restoration, 151; in Spain, 83; in Chapelle de Belle-Croix, 115 Switzerland, 169 character traits, 9 Catholic College of Carlow, charivari, 61, 104 157 Charles I, 42, 134 Catholic Confederacy of 1650, 139; Charles II: ascension of, 134; escape of, army of, 134 134–135; reinstatement of, 135; Catholic Emancipation, 147, 148, restoration of, 138; Thomas Hobbes 149–158; concessions of, 155–156; and, 134 inﬂuence of, 163; petitions for, 154; Charles VI, 57 Protestant resistance to, 150; Charles X, overthrow of, 121 Protestant support of, 150; Reform chartered companies, 243 Act of 1832 and, 157 Chartist movement, 4, 28; mobilization Catholicism: conscription and, 110; in of, 163 France, 100 Chateauˆ Trompette, 96 Catholics: in Britain, 140; exclusion of, Cholvy, Gerard,´ 124 147, 167; mobilization of, 25, 159; Chur, 66 political disabilities of, 154; political Church of Ireland, 136, 145; participation of, 157; in public integration of, 143 politics, 145 citizen-agent relations, 15, 26; Caucasus, Russian annexation of, democracy and, 35; shifts in, 218 17, 22 causal mechanisms, 8; acceleration of, Citizen Army, 160 8, 200; of causal processes, 38; citizenship, 53; in Balkans, 45; cantonal, cognitive, 17; democracy promoting, 178, 187; Catholic Emancipation 8; of democratization, 254; and, 157; causes of, 190; communal, environmental, 17; identifying, 92; 187; creation of, 8, 253; deﬁnition of, popular contention and, 200; 117; democratization and, 8, 254; recurrent, 9; relational, 17–18; types direct rule and, 118; governmental of, 17–18; within processes, 17 agents and, 20; identities and, 61; cause-effect relations, contention intermediaries and, 120; negotiation in, 91 and, 65; nondemocratic,

283

Index

citizenship (cont.) collective control, enhancement of, 22 8, 253; protection of, 35; revolution collective rights, war and, 65 and, 116–120; scope of, 118; in Collier, Ruth Berins, 11 17th-century Britain, 141; Swiss, Collioure, 113 175–178, 182, 199; Swiss Colombia, 206–213 nationalization of, 185; vs. colonialism, 25; Britain vs. France, 165; democracy, 120 causal mechanisms and, 8; civil citoyens, 116 liberties and, 245; democracy and, Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 117 25; democracy promoting and, 255; civil liberties, 208; Freedom House democratic rule in, 245; indirect rule checklist for, 207–208; Freedom and, 49; thinly controlled, 243; House ratings of European countries tyranny in, 244 on, 210 colonies: authoritarian regimes of, 243; civil-military struggles, in Brabant, 76 democracy in, 243; European, 243; civil rights, in Europe, 216 segregation in American, 244; civil society, organizational density of, settler, 243; tyranny of, 243; 11 uprooting in American, 244 civil war: in Algeria, 132; French, 114 command economy, in Madrid, 82 Civil War, American, 175 commitment, 7; accumulation of, 45, claim making: in France, 103–104; 47; in Britain, 139; concentration of, Iberian, 87; of Karin van Honacker, 47; definition of, 47; development of, 77; performances, 29; popular, 89 50–51; distribution of, 54; external Clan na Gael, 160 guarantees of, 189; in France, classes: subordinate, 11; unification, 99–100; geography of, 50, 50; 125–126 government meeting of, 189; in Low cluster treatments, 12 Countries, 80; in regime formation, clusters, 10 251–252; in Switzerland, 198 coalitions: bourgeois-worker committees: in direct rule, 108; phasing republican, 128; cross-class, 93, 128, out of, 108 166; political, 61; of radicals, in Commune(s), 1–2; of 1871, 245; Switzerland, 190; in Switzerland, formation of, 3; French, 1–2, 121, 195; trust-bearing, 25 123 coerced-labor systems, 243 Communist Party: authoritarian coercion, 7; accumulation of, 45, 46; in regime of, 222; in France, 123, 132; Britain, 139; concentration of, 46; indirect rule of, 224; Leonid definition of, 45–46; distribution of, Brezhnev and, 222; in Spain, 234; 54; in France, 100, 103; France vs. subordination of military to, 238 Britain, 167; organized, 46; in community, 14 regime formation, 251–252; in Comte, Auguste, 37 Switzerland, 198 Concordat, 111 coercive controls, 25 Conde,´ 96–97; Prince of, 43; Colbert, Jean-Baptiste: ascendancy of, withdrawal from Bordeaux, 97 98; death of, 103 conditions: necessary, 11, 39–40; Cold War, 222 sufficient, 10–11, 13, 39 collective claims, 30; bifurcated, 30; confrontation, 24–25; causal parochial, 30; particular, 30 mechanisms and, 8; democracy

284

Index

promoting and, 255; in Europe, 216; contentious events, 79 in France, 1830–2000, 121; Contentious French (Tilly), 98 importance of, 93; in Switzerland, contentious gatherings (CGs), 152; 196 selection of, 152–153; vs. petitions, Congregationalists, 140 155 Congress of Soviets, 221 contentious politics, 236; forms of, 55; conquest: Britain vs. France, 165; in Switzerland, 201–205 causal mechanisms and, 8; deﬁnition contentious repertoires: alterations in, of, 14; democracy promoting and, 92; governmental capacity and, 63; 255; in Europe, 216; French, in Low Countries, 72; 1830–2000, 121; importance of, 93 nondemocratic, 63 conscription: Britain vs. France, 165; in Cordoba,´ local struggles in, 89 France, 109, 123; Jacobin, 114; Corsican rebellion, 100 resistance to, 124–125; in Seysses, Cossack rebellions, 43 110; war-impelled, 119 Costa Rica, 6; civil war in, 247; conservatism, Benjamin Disraeli on, 5 democratization of, 247 Conservative Catholic opposition, 176 Council of the Revolution, Portugal, Conservatives, British Reform Act of 235; abolishment of, 235 1832 and, 4 counterrevolution, 114–116; rural, 114; Consistories, Jewish, 129 sustained, 114 consolidation, 11; democratic, 11; crafts, membership in, 16 effect of, 12 Crimean War, 218 constitution building: crises, impact of, 93 de-democratization and, 257; Croatia, 33, 229; civil war, 231; de-emphasis of, 239 democratic movement in, 226; constitutional innovations, 9 Freedom House analysis of, 210; contention: coordination of, 121; quasidemocratic system of, 232, 236; democracy and, 34; democratic, 30; sovereignty post–World War I, 230; detached identities and, 60; effects of state trajectory of, 227, 228 military on, 91; embedded identities Cromwell, Oliver: arrival in Dublin of, and, 60; in France, 132; frequency 134; authoritarian claims of, 140; of, 121; in Iberia, 86–87; Iberia vs. death of, 135; exhaltation of, 133; Low Countries, 89; impacts of, 93; in invasion of Ireland by, 42; invasion Low Countries, 80; nondemocratic, of Scotland by, 134; New Model pre-19th-century, 44; open, 68; Army of, 140; Ormee´ and, 97 political, 8, 28; political Cromwell, Richard, 135 entrepreneurs and, 76; political Cromwell regime: centralization under, participation and, 29–30; popular, 8, 143; growth of, 134; invasion of 1650 28–29; regime change and, 92; of, 136–140; revolutionary changes regimes and, 68; religious, 74; of, 135 repertoires of, 29, 200, 255; in crop burning, 134 17th-century Britain, 141; state Cuba, 247; Freedom House analysis of, trajectories and, 63; surges in, 90, 91; 209 in Switzerland, 175; tolerated cultural evolution, 38 performances as, 56; undemocratic, cultural fragmentation, 50 30 culture, homogenized, 51

285

Index

Czech Republic, Freedom House democratic institutions, creation of, in analysis of, 210 Switzerland, 197–198 Czechoslovakia: democratization of, democratic organization: adoption of, 11; socialism in, 216 in Switzerland, 190; models of, 239 Dahl, Robert, 11–13 democratic reform, 26 Dail, 161 democratic repertoires, 30–32; de Corcelle, Claude-François, 182 autonomous, 32; cosmopolitan, 30; de-democratization, 14; conditions of, modular, 32; principles of, 31 257; explanation of, 27; massive, 240; democratization: analyses of, 13; mechanisms of, 18, 19, 20; during barriers to, 93; in Britain, 146; causal Napoleonic Wars, 212; promotion mechanisms of, 255; citizenship and, of, 17; religious conflict and, 239; 8, 120; components of, 22–23, 92; xenophobia and, 239 conditions of, 9, 11–13; contingency de Gaulle, Charles: dictatorial power of, 236; definition of, 13–14, 68; of, 132; return to power of, 121 detached identities and, 61; de Gaulle government: mobilizations dynamics of, 195–198; effective, 52; against, 121; students and, 121 effects of, 29; embedded identities de Rothschild, James, 129 and, 60; European, 215, 216; de Tapia, Don Pedro, 84 explanation of, 27, 38–40 external De Valera, Eamon, 161 parties and, 236–237; in France, 131, Dekker, Rudolf, 73–74; limitations of, 132; French, 1830–2000, 121; 79; methodology of, 79; vs. Karin incomplete, 247; as legal reform, 9; van Honacker, 77 mechanism promoting, 211; del Moral, Juan Dıaz,´ 84 Napoleon and, 102; noncontentious, democracy, 53; analogies of, 35; 40; obstacles to, 23, 257; paradox of, barriers to, 68; belief in, 240; in 20–21; political contention and, 8; Bordeaux, 98; breakdown of, 12; processes of, 22; promoting, 257; Catholic Emancipation and, 157; regularities in, 199–200; signs of, conditions of, 9, 10; direct, 180; 123; studies of, 10; trust networks during economic crises, 251; and, 15–16; unconscious, 9; electoral form of, 249; European vs. justice, 240; well-being constitutional democracy, 245; and, 9 foundations of, 5–6; fragility of, demonstrations, 32, 159; in Belgium, 238–239; Freedom House definition 78; in Catalonia, 86; effects, 11; in of, 206; higher-income, 251; Switzerland, 177 large-scale vs. small-scale, 36; Deneckere, Gita, 78–79; limitations of, limited constitutional, 81; in Low 79; methodology of, 79 Countries, 81; markers of, 35; in Denmark, Freedom House analysis of, national governments, 36; paths to, 209 9, 53; political struggle and, 9; scale desertion, 124 of, 14; social, 93; social movements Deutsch, Karl, 168–169 and, 159; survival of, 250; transition Deventer, 76 to, 11, 13; in undemocratic Diet, Swiss, 170, 175, 182; systems, 14 constitutional reform of, 195; in democratic ideologues, 240 Schwyz and, 192

286

Index

diplomatic confrontations, in educational systems: national, 51; Switzerland, 197 specialized, 16 direct democracy, in Switzerland, efﬁgy burning, 56; in Britain, 153 199 El Salvador, public politics of, direct representation, 26 246 direct rule: citizenship and, 118; election campaigns, 166 counterrevolution and, 115; elections: in 1650, 44; ballot, 163; replicating, 111; resistance to, 111; competitive, 206; Daniele Caramani roving commissioners in, 108; on, 213; procedural, 14; value of, strategies of, 108; war and, 109 258–259; voting age, in Switzerland, Disraeli, Benjamin: British Reform 177 Acts of 1832 and, 28; on British Elizabeth I, 139 Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867, 3; on emulation, categorical inequality and, conservatism, 5; electoral expansion 186 of, 26; on French Revolution of England: accommodation in, 164; civil 1848, 5; Lord Carnavon on, 5 wars in, 138; confrontation in, 164; Dissenters, political participation of, economic expansion in, 4; Irish 157 immigration to, 150; state trajectory Dominica, constitution of, 246 of, 143; see also Britain Dominican Republic, public politics of, Epernon,´ Duke of, 96 246 equalization, of assets, 18 Dreyfus, Alfred, 121; defense of, 123 equity, 14 Dreyfus Case, anti-Semitism and, Essay on the Physical, Moral, and Political 130 Regeneration of the Jews (Gregoire),´ Drogheda, Oliver Cromwell’s sacking 129 of, 134 Estates General: citizenship and, 117; Dublin: agriculture of, 137; Fenians in, terms of rule and, 104 160 Estonia: democratic movement in, Dubrovnik, 229 227; Freedom House analysis of, Dufour, Guillaume, 175 210; socialism in, 216; state Duma: creation of, 218; dissolution of, trajectory of, 227, 228 218 Europe: colonization of, 25; revolution Dutch Patriot Revolution, 73, 75 in, 25 Dutch Reformed Church, 74 European Union, policy shifts of, Dutch Republic, 43; Indian Ocean and, 11 43; Orangist bids for power in, 91 excluded categories, mobilization Dutch revolt, 67; Treaties of of, 21 Westphalia and, 70 executions, 114, 132 dysentery, 135 exit, 11 exploitation, categorical inequality and, East Germany, 11 186 Easter Rebellion of 1916, 138, 160 external parties: guarantees of economic growth, 11; global, 11 stabilization and, 237; during war, Edict of Nantes, revoking of, 98 237 Edinburgh, anti-Catholic petition in, extraction-resistance-bargaining cycles, 153–154 19; in Switzerland, 196

287

Index

Fahnlilupf,¨ 62 democratization-promoting failures, internal, 11 mechanisms in, 211; direct rule in, fascists, 159 106, 107–108, 165; Directory of, Federal Pact, of Switzerland, 171; 109, 112; documented history of, 80; weaknesses of, 172 Estates General of, 109; external Federalist movement, 108, 114 parties and democratization, 237; Fenians, 159–160 external tyranny in, 250; fluctuations fermiers-lieutenants. See leaseholders of regimes in, 101; food shortages in, feuds, 56; brokerage and, 58; 104; Fronde of, 43; German embedded identities and, 60; in occupation of, 102, 121, 123, 130, Iberia, 86; in Low Countries, 74; 131; government capacity of, 102; particularism and, 63 guerrilla attacks, 114; history of, 27; Fiji, 206 house sacking in, 104; Iberia and, 81; Finland: civil war of 1917–18, 213; increased coercion in, 103; increased democratic institution of, 213; government capacity in, 102–103; Freedom House analysis of, 209; indirect rule in, 49, 105–106, 107; independence of, 238 internationalist programs in, 122; fiscal conflicts, in Brabant, 76–77 Jews in, 128, 123–131; liberalization Fitzgerald, Alexander, 157 of, 2; liberation of, 100, 121; food supplies: Brabant fights over, 76; manhood suffrage in, 214; massacres Dutch struggles over, 74; forcible in, 115; metropolitan, 122; military seizures of, 74; seizures of, 88; expansion in, 124; military service in, shortages of, 104 124; militias in, 104; Municipal Fouche:´ of Nantes, 109; police system Revolution of, 107; national under, 119 bureaucracy of, 119; national France: administrative revolution of, democratization of, 106; national 108; analysis of, 211; anarchist government of, 2; Parlement reform programs in, 122; assembly in, 122; in, 104; police system, 119; policing association in, 122; authoritarian in, 108–109; political consolidation regimes of, 103, 214–220; of, 2; political identity of, 166; autonomist programs in, 122; popular mobilization in, 105, 116; Batavian Republic and, 71; battles post–World War II reestablishment with Iberia, 82; bourgeois of, 106; of, 24; protected consultation in, 100, budget of, 102; Catholicism in, 100; 103; Protestantism in, 100; Prussian citizenshipin, 117; civil war in, 114; war and, 122; public ceremonies in, claim making in, 103–104; class 104; public mobilization of, 122; unification in, 125–126; Communes radical democratization of, 102; of, 100; Communist opposition in, radicals, 3; rebellion in, 114; regime 121; Communist party in, 123, 132; fluctuation in, 101–102; conquests by, 165; conscription in, reorganization of, 28; republican 109, 113; Convention of, 113; resistance in, 121; Resistance of, 100; counterrevolution in, 115; crises, revolution in, 25; revolution of 1789, post-1815, 121; 1; revolution of 1789–99, 98; democracy-accelerating processes in, revolutionary reorganization in, 131; 216; democracy in, 122; revolutionary situations in, 99, 100, democratization of, 33–34; 106; royal centralization in, 23; royal

288

Index

militia of, 124; rural grievances in, Friends of Religious Liberty, 154 105; rural revolts in, 106; shaming Fronde, 95, 100; of France, 43; Ormee´ ceremonies in, 104; similarities with and, 97; termination of, 98 Britain of, 6–7; state collapse of, 100; state expansion, 116; state hierarchy Gandara,´ colonel, 84 of, 111; state trajectory of, 98; Garibaldi, in Sicily, 241 success of, 51; takeover of Low Gazette de France, 1054 Countries, 73; tax rebellions in, 104; Geddes, Barbara, 12–13 taxation in, 103, 110; Thirty Years’ Gelterkinden, rebellion in, 191 War and, 42; trust networks of, 23; Geneva: administrative change in, 175; undemocratic regimes of, 102, 131; revolution in, 170 vs. Britain, 6, 164–167; war debts of, genocide, colonization and, 25 105; war on Austria, 109; war with George I, ascension of, 146 Prussia of, 121; wars of, 98, 102; George III, Catholic Emancipation worker turnouts in, 104 and, 149 Franche-Comte,´ indirect rule of, George IV, 151 50 Georgia, 206 Franco, Francisco: authoritarian rule German Peasants’ Revolt, 67 of, 234; death of, 234 German Union Bundestag, 215 free, deﬁnition of, 240 Germanias, 88 Free Trade Hall, 3 Germany: authoritarian regimes of, Freedom House, 206–211, 231–232; 214–220; coastal traders and, 71; checklist for political rights and civil control of France by, 102; liberties, 207–208; country ratings democracy-accelerating processes of, 247–249; measures of in, 216; democratic viability of, postsocialist countries, 226–227; 250; external parties and rating of countries by population, democratization, 237; internal 248; ratings of European countries, conﬂict in, 216; manhood suffrage 210 in, 214, 215; peasant democracy in, Freischarler,¨ 175 66; post–World War II French-American war, debts of, reestablishment of, 24 105 Gerspach, Hans Friedle, 58 French Republicanism, 1 Gladstone, W. E., 160 French Revolution of 1789–99, 100, Glarus, 192 148; citizenshipafter, 120; Claude glasnost, 222 Javogues and, 112; conscription and, Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, 24, 124; democratization and, 131; effect 138, 144–149; inhibition of on Switzerland of, 170–171; democratization by, 146 establishment of power of, 113; Godoy, Manuel, 84 Iberia and, 82; resistance to, 109, 113 Good Friday agreement, 162 French Revolution of 1830, effect on Gorbachev, Mikhail, 222; failed Switzerland of, 190 economic plan of, 223; loss of power French Revolution of 1848: Benjamin of, 224–225; proposed union treaty Disraeli on, 5; elite associations and, of, 225; removal of, 225–226 127 Gordon, George, 148; petitions and, Fribourg, Sonderbund War in, 175 155

289

Index

Gordon Riots, 148 Bulgaria of, 230; war with Ottoman Goulard, Citizen, 110–111 empire of, 230; war with Turkey, 230 government: arbitrary exercise of Greek Cyprus: democratization of, power of, 22, 249; collective control 216; Freedom House analysis of, over, 249; control, 33 209; religious exclusion in, 256 government containment, 165 Gregoire,´ Abbe,´ on Jews, 129 government securities, 16 Grenada, public politics of, 246 governmental agents, citizens Grisons, incorporation of, 171 and, 20 Guatemala, public politics of, 246 governmental capacity, 7; building, 7, guerrilla attacks, in West France, 114 252–253; causes in change of, 190; Guinea-Bissau, Portuguese withdrawal contention and, 63; deﬁnition of, 51; from, 235 democracy and, 7; detached Gujer, Heinrich, 191 identities and, 63–64; effects of Guyenne, 95–96; see also Bordeaux increased, 90; in England, 143; in France, 102–103; in Iberia, 81; Habsburg empire: delegation of power increase of Yugoslavia’s, 231; in, 75; fall of, 33; in Low Countries, increases in, 7; in Ireland, 141; 70; Spain and, 82; weakening of, 42 protected consultation and, 252; in Haiti, 206; independence of, 244; low Scotland, 142; state trajectories and, capacity of, 258 64; in Switzerland, 173, 181, 199; Hauenstein, 57–58; assemblies in, 61; undemocratic building up of, detached identities in, 60 238 Haut-Rhin, 172 governmental commitments, 19 Haute-Garonne, 110 governmental controls, dissolution of, Head, Randolph, 62 18 Helvetic Society, 170 governmental operations, analysis of, Helvetian Republic, trust networks 257 and, 189 governments: high-capacity, 48; Henry VII, 139 low-capacity, 258; national, 92 Henry VIII, 139; Act of Union of, 141 grain supplies: attacks on, 90; Herr, Richard, on Spain, 84 commandeering of, 56; in Dublin, Herzegovina: Austrian annexation of, 137 230; Austrian control of, 229 Gramsci, Antonio, 242 histories: democratization and, 9; Graubunden,¨ 66; Fahnlilupf¨ of, 62 national, 51 Great Power intervention, 171 History of the Russian Revolution Greece: democracy-accelerating (Trotsky), 219–220 processes in, 216; democratic efforts Hobbes, Thomas, 42, 133; French exile of, 231; democratic regimes of, 230; of, 133 democratic viability of, 250; Holland, 70; Kingdom of, 71; religion discrimination in, 232; expulsion of in, 74 king George II, 231; Freedom homogeneity, in Europe, 176 House analysis of, 231; manhood Hotelˆ de Ville, 3 suffrage in, 214, 215; martial law in, House of Commons: growth of, 147; 231; parliamentary rule of, 231; Irish Protestants in, 143; passing of right-wing forces in, 231; war against Catholic Emancipation by, 152

290

Index

House of Lords, 151; forestalling of Iceland, Freedom House analysis of, Catholic Emancipation by, 151; 209 Irish home rule and, 160; passing ideal-case reasoning, 39 of Catholic Emancipation by, identities: in Brabant, 77; citizenship 152 and, 61; contention and, 60; Hundred Days, 100 contentious, 63; democratization Hungary: discrimination against, by and, 60; detached, 59, 68; embedded, Romania, 232; Freedom House 59, 63; embedded vs. detached, analysis of, 209, 210; internal conﬂict 59–60; government capacity and, 63; in, 216 movement, 61; political, 59, 65; Hunt, Lynn, 106 religious, 200–201; in undemocratic Huntington, Samuel P., 11, 12 politics, 61 income, governmental stability and, Iberia: Carlist wars of 1833–39, 88; 250 Catalonia and, 89; centralization of, India, 6; activism in, 244; colonization 82–83; claim making in, 87; coercion of, 243; religious exclusion power in, 82; colonization efforts of, in, 256 82; contention in, 89; Indian National Congress, 244 de-democratization in, 240; indigenous populations: enslavement democratic viability of, 250; of, 243; extermination of, 243; 1850–2000, 232, 236; expulsion of extermination of American, 244; Muslims in, 82; farming in, 83; ghettoization of, 243 forbidden contention in, 87–88; indirect rule, 49; in Africa, 49; origin government capacity of, 82–83, 238; of, 49–50; popular associations and, history of, 70; internal conﬂicts of, 127; war and, 109 83–84; local struggles in, 89–90; industrialization: in France, 2; in local vengeance in, 84; low-capacity France and England, 28; government of, 167; military in, 83, 19th-century, 78; rural, 188; in 89, 91–92; military intervention in, Switzerland, 187 236; performances in, 84; political Inglis, R. H., anti-Catholic petition of, history of, 81; popular contention 153–154 in, 86–87; post-1793, 83; pre-1793, intermediaries, 107; elimination 83; protected consultation in, 87; of, 120 rebellions in, 88; revolution of international relations, 256–257 1848, 84; revolution of 1820–23, 88; Iraq, Freedom House analysis revolutionary situations in, 88; of, 209 revolutionary situations of, 85–86, Ireland, 28; in 1650, 42; agricultural 89; royalist rising of 1922–23, 88; workers in, 166; agriculture in, 137; in 17th century, 81–82; state casualties in, 160; civil war in, 138, path of, 54; tolerated contention in, 161; conscription in, 161; 87–88; transition in, 82; U.S. democratization of, 34, 164; disease military presence as external party, in, 135; dissidents of, 6; dissolution 237; violence in, 88; vs. Eastern of parliament in, 149; emigration Europe, 81; vs. Low Countries, from, 136; Freedom House analysis 47–48; vs. Russia and Balkans, of, 209; German support of, 160; in 217 House of Commons, 143;

291

Index

Ireland (cont.) Japan: post–World War II independence of, 138; indirect rule democratization of, 247; post–World of, 50; internal conﬂict in, 216; War II reestablishment of, 24; militant nationalist movement of, 6; victory over Russia, 218 militias, 160; mobilization in, 25, Jaures,` Jean, 123 159; nationalist path of, 160; Oliver Javogues, Claude, 112–113 Cromwell in, 133; parliament of, Jesuits, banned in Lucerne, 193 148, 161; parliamentary withdrawal Jews: emigration of, 129; in France, of, 160; partition of, 137; political 123, 128–131; prosecution of, 48; transformation of, 164; potatoes and, regionalism and, 129; restrictions on, 137; religious exclusion in, 145, 167; 128; rights restoration, 152; in Soviet revolutionary change in, 164; Union, 222; in Switzerland, 178, 187 revolutionary movement of, 149; Joseph II, 71 separation of, 143; social movements July Monarchy, 127 in, 159; state trajectory of, 141; July Revolution, 100, 195 suppression of, 161 Jura: boundaries shift of, 171; language Ireton, Henry: scorched earth in, 179 campaign of, 134; Thomas Rainborough and, 140 Karamanlis, Konstantinos, 231 Irish Free State, 161 Katzenmusik, 61 Irish National Invincibles, 160 Kazakhstan: oil reserves in, 226; ethnic Irish Republic, formation of, 137 exclusion in, 256 Irish Republican Army, 162 Kearney, Hugh, 144 Irish Republican Brotherhood, 159, Kerensky, Alexander: appointment of, 160; see also Fenians 220; escape of, 221; Pravda and, Irish Tenant League, 160 220 Irish Volunteers, 160 Kloten, protest in, 193 Israel, religious exclusion in, 256 Korea, post–World War II Italy, 241; authoritarian regimes of, democratization of, 247 219–220; contention in, 242; Kornilov, Lavr, unsuccessful coup of, democracy-accelerating processes in, 220 216; democratic viability of, 250; Kosovo, 33 external parties and democratization, Kriesi, Hanspeter, 177–178 237; fascism in, 242; peasant Kyrgyz Republic, 206 democracy in, 66; post–World War II reestablishment of, 24; uniﬁcation labor, coerced, 244 of, 213–214 laborers. See workers Landsgemeinden, 184, 192 Jacobin(s): associations and, 127; languages: Germanic, 169; national, centralism, 108; expansion, 114 51; Romance, 169 Jacobite rebellion, 138 Languedoc, resistance in, 110 Jamaica, emancipation in, 244 Latin America: anticolonial rebellion James II, 136; deposition of, 147; in, 244; transitions of, 12 French support for, 138 Latvia: Freedom House analysis of, James III, ascension of, 146 210; socialism in, 216

292

Index

Lausanne, administrative change in, rebellions against, 102; revenue 175 collecting of, 102 leaseholders, 112 Louis XVI, terms of rule and, 104 Leeds Mercury, 1; on Paris riots of 1871, Low Countries: analysis of, 211; Britain 3 and, 139; capital and commitment in, Lefebvre, Georges, 112 80; citizenship in, 45; contention in, legal exclusion, vs. unofﬁcial 89; division of, 70; documented discrimination, 152 history of, 79–80; history of, 70; legal reform, democratization as, 9 low-capacity government of, 167; Leinster House, 161 municipal oligarchies in, 54; popular Lenin, V. I.: on general strike, 219; contention in, 80; protected return from exile, 220 consultation in, 91; rebellion in, 74; Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, 72 1787 Prussian invasion, 71; vs. Lepetit, Bernard, 107 Balkans, 33; vs. Iberia, 47–48 Levellers, 67; agenda of, 140 Lucerne: banned Jesuits in, 193; Leviathan (Hobbes), 42, 133–134 Freischarler¨ failure in, 175; invasion liberal political movements, in Iberia, of, 193; refugees in, 193; revolution 233 in, 171, 175; Sonderbund War in, Liberals, British Reform Act of 1832 175 and, 4 Lukashenka, Aleksandr, 228 Liberation, executions during, 132 Lustucru rebellion, 100 Liberia, 206 Luxembourg, 33, 70; Freedom House Libya, Freedom House analysis of, analysis of, 209 209 Lyon, 107, 108; autonomist movement Liechtenstein: democratization of, 216; in, 114 Freedom House analysis of, 209; vs. Switzerland, 179 Macedonia, 33; Freedom House Liege,` Principality of, revolution analysis of, 209; political problems in, 73 in, 210 Life of Jesus (Strauss), 193 Macintosh, James, pro-Catholic Lille, mutual aid societies in, 127 petition of, 154 Linz, Juan, 12, 233 Macmahon, general, 2 Lithuania: Freedom House analysis of, Madrid, command economy in, 82 210; socialism in, 216 Maine, guerrilla attacks in, 114 lobbying, shift toward, 166 Malaysia, racial exclusion in, 256 Locke, John, 144–145 Malta: democratization of, 216; Loire, 112 Freedom House analysis of, 209 London, capital growth in, 139 Mamdani, Mahmood, 49 Longueville, princess of, 95 Mar, earl of, 138 Loret, Jean, 95 marches, 159; Catholic civil rights, Louis XIII, 28; revenue collecting of, 162; shift toward, 166; in 102 Switzerland, 177 Louis XIV, 28, 95; Bordeaux and, Mardi Gras, 56; as claim making, 104; 95–96; death of, 103; entree´ into in Iberia, 87 Bordeaux of, 97; personal rule of, 98; Marechauss´ ee,´ 109; of Palluau, 115

293

Index

Markoff, John, 105 15, 16; specialized, in Belarus, 228; marriage, 16 standing armies, 50 Marrus, Michael, 130 militias: in direct rule, 108; French, Marseilles, 108; autonomist movement 104; phasing out of, 108; reduction in, 114 of, 165; in Switzerland, 175; urban, Marx, Karl, judicious synthesis of, 105 66 Mary, 139; ascension of, 144; Mill, John Stuart, 37; criticism of, 37 coronation of, 144; political mimicry, 56 participation and, 145; see also mobilization: of subordinate classes, William III 11; in Switzerland, 186–187 Masonic lodges, 127 mobilization-repression-bargaining mass media, 166 cycles, 20; in Switzerland, 196 mass rebellions, 56–57; brokerage and, modernization, 48 58–59; detached identities and, 60; Moldova: Freedom House analysis of, frequency of, 57; particularism and, 209; political problems in, 210 63; performances and, 62 Monaco, democratization of, 216 material inequality: capitalism and, 18; monarchy, Levellers and, 67 protected consultation and, 17 Monck, George, 135 Mazarin, Cardinal, 43, 95; death of, Monck’s coup, 138 98 Moncloa Pact of October 1978, 234 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 172 Mongolia, 206 Mediation government, 171; trust Monmartre, 3 networks under, 190; Monmouth rebellion, 138 meetings, shift toward, 166 Mont Terrible, 172 Mende, 107 Montenegro: democracy-accelerating Mensheviks, 214–220 processes in, 216; independence of, mercantile municipalities, 66 229 merchants, mobilization of, 25 Mountagu, Edward, 134 Methods of Agreement and of Mozambique, Portuguese withdrawal Differences (Mill), 37 from, 235 Methods of Residues and of mullerisch,¨ 57, 66; political identiﬁes Concomitant Variation (Mill), 37 of, 59 Michael, abdication of, 219 Municipal Revolution, 107 Mihalisko, Kathleen, 228 Muret, taxes in, 110 military: administrated colonies, 243; Muslims: anti-Semitism of, 123–131; aristocratic, 73; autonomous, 20; discrimination, in Greece, 232 autonomous political power of, 119; mutual aid societies, 127 autonomy, 200; British expansion of, 147; confrontations, in Switzerland, Napoleon: authoritarian rule of, 103; 197; containment of, 195; effect on citizenship under, 120; Concordat contention of, 91; expenditure, 158; of, 111; Consistories of, 129; defeat ﬁnancing, 119; French expansion of, of, 24; democratization and, 102; 102; growth, 119; of Iberia, 92; democratization under, 131; direct national conscription and, 51; rule and, 111; Iberia and, 82; in political autonomy of, 255; private, Netherlands, 80; peacekeeping of, 18; pronunciamientos, 89; service, 115; police system under, 119;

294

Index

resistance to conscription and, nondemocratic regimes, in 1650, 125 44 Napoleon, Louis: associations under, Normandy, guerrilla attacks in, 114 128; banning of workers’ North America: colonization of, 165; organizations by, 122; capture of, 2; democratic colonization of, 26; coup d’etat´ of, 2, 100; election of, Fenians in, 160; Jewish emigration 121; National Assembly and, 214; to, 129 suffrage and, 213; in Switzerland, North Korea, Freedom House analysis 172 of, 209 Napoleon III. See Napoleon, Louis Northern Ireland: conﬂict in, 141; Napoleonic Code, 127 establishment of, 161; guerrilla Napoleonic wars: Catholic warfare in, 138; intergroup struggle Emancipation and, 149; in, 162 de-democratization during, 212; Northern Ireland Civil Rights democratic effect on Europe of, 237; Association, 162 Iberia and, 232; Russia and, 217 Northern Netherlands, rebellion of, 42 National Assembly, of France, 108; Northwest model of democratization, Louis Napoleon and, 214; public 246 meetings and, 128 Norway: Freedom House analysis of, National Front, anti-Semitism of, 130 209; independence from Sweden of, National Front, of Yugoslavia, 231 213 National Guard, of France, 2–3, 109; arrondissement-based, 123; Central obligations, religious, 144 Committee of, 2, 3; resistance to, Oceania: anticolonial rebellion in, 244; 115; revival of, 122 European settlement in, 243 national politics, in Belgium, 79 Ochsenbein, Ulrich, 193, 195 negotiation, 65; in regime institution, O’Connell, Daniel, 150; Irish home 45 rule and, 159; parliamentary election Netherlands, 33; Austrian, 71; external of, 151 tyranny in, 250; Freedom House O’Doherty, Cahir, rebellion of, 138 analysis of, 209; history of, 71–72; O’Donnell, Guillermo, 246 Kingdom of, 81; Spanish, 70 oligarchies: bourgeois, 71; colonization Neuchatel:ˆ administrative change in, and, 25; confrontation and, 24; 175; sovereignty of, 176 democratic, 93; democratic New Democracy Party, of Greece, 231 adaptiveness of, 240; merchant, 48, New Model Army, 140 66, 70; municipal, 54; urban, 81; New York, Fenians in, 160 urban commercial, 92 New Zealand: colonization of, 25, 165; O’Neill, Hugh, rebellion of, 138 democratic colonization of, 26 O’Neill, Joseph, 136 Nicaragua, public politics of, 246 opportunities, high-risk, 188 Nicholas II: abdication of, 219; opportunity hoarding, categorical concessions of, 218 inequality and, 186 Niger, 206 Orange: bids for power of, 91; Nımes,ˆ 107 hereditary power of, 89; pivotal Nine Nations, 77 events of, 75; revolt in United Niort, 107 Provinces, 73; revolt of 1747–50, 74

295

Index

Orangemen, of Tipperary, 151 patronage networks, 166 organizational forms, 7–8; evolution of, Paxton, Robert, 130 253 Peace of Basel, 168 Orleanist regime, overthrow of, 121 Peace of Westphalia, 168 Orleans,´ Louis-Phillippe d’, 121 peasant democracies, 66–67 Ormand, earl of, 134 Peel, Robert, 155 Ormee,´ 97; democracy and, 97 penal colonies, 243 Ottoman empire: anarchy in, 43; Pepys, Samuel, 134 collapse of, 216; conquest of Balkans, perestroika, 222 229; disintegration, post–World Perez,´ Manuel, on Basque nationalists, War I, 230; disintegration of, 93; fall 234 of, 33; Greek independence from, performances: claim-making, 68; 215; hegemony of, 229; indirect rule contentious, 62, 64–65; France vs. of, 229; millet system of, 50; Britain, 166; merging of, 61; rebellions against, 229; war against political, 55, 62; tolerated, 56 Bulgaria of, 230 petitions, 56, 159; in Belgium, 78; Overijssel, revolution in, 75 Catholic Emancipation and, 154; detached identities and, 60; in Low Pale, 137 Countries, 74; right to, 155; shift Palmer, R. R., 75 toward, 166; vs. contentious pamphleteering, 159; shift toward, 166 gatherings, 155 Panama, public politics of, 246 Philip V, 82 Papier Timbre´ rebellion, 100 Piedmont, 241; reforms of 1848, Paris: Commune of, 123; elections of 213–241; vs. Sicily, 241–242 1871, 1; invasion of, 3; riots of Pitt, William: Catholic Emancipation 1871, 3 and, 149; Irish rebellions and, 143; parish governments, 184 Irish revolutionary movement and, parliament: annual, 163; enhanced 149 powers of, 158; expanding powers of, plantations, 243 146; Levellers and, 67; popular Plehve, Vyacheslav, assassination of, responses to, 158; popular support 218 of, 158 Plurality of Causes, 37 parliamentarians, in Ireland, 136 Poitou, open rebellion in, 114 parliamentary reform: in Britain, 6; Poland: coercion in, 48; Cossack Reform Act of 1832, 156 rebellion in, 43; Freedom House parodies, 56; in Brabant, 77; brokerage analysis of, 210; independence of, and, 58; in Iberia, 87; in Low 219; revolts of, 218; socialism in, Countries, 74 216; vs. Iberia, 81 particularism, 58; embedded identities police forces, 50 and, 63; in Low Countries, 72 policing, 108–109 parties, political, 61 political culture, 9 PASOK, 231 political entrepreneurs, 76, 158 patriots, massacres of, 115 political exclusion, 20 patron-client networks, 19; political identities, France vs. Britain, government destruction of, 189; 166 nongovernmental, 20 political information, diffusion of, 15

296

Index

political intermediaries, autonomous, analysis of, 209; independence of, 82; 20 Indian Ocean and, 43; Inquisition of, political organization, models of, 9 232; internal conﬂicts in, 235; junta political participation, 29, 55; breadth of, 235; military coup of, 243; and equality of, 190; broadened, 22, military junta in, 245; military rule 212, 249; collective control by, 212; of, 233; protected consultation in, contention and, 29–30; equalized, 236; rapid democracy in, 238; 22, 212, 249; forbidden, 29; republic of, 1918–26, 235; return of increased, de-democratization and, King John to, 232; revolt of, 43; 257; increases in, 18; prescribed, 29; revolutionaries, 245; withdrawal protection of, 165, 190; tolerated, from Africa of, 234; during World 29 War I, 233, 235 political parties: socialist, 123; of Prak, Maarten, 81 workers, 123 Pratteln, rebellion in, 191 political reform, Catholic Church and, Pravda, Alexander Kerensky and, 220 11 Presbyterian Church, 166 political rights: Freedom House Primo de Rivera, Miguel, coup of, 233 checklist for, 207–208; Freedom proletarianization: 19th-century, 21; of House ratings of European countries rural populations, 188 on, 210 property seizures, war-impelled, 119 politics: categorical inequality and, 22; protected capacity, of Wales, 143 comparative, 36; contentious, 15, 55, protected consultation, 7, 14; in 63, 68; democratic, 61; French vs. Britain, 140, 146; effects of English, 5; noncontentious, 15; increased, 90; elaboration of, 53; public, 8, 15 European regimes and, 211; in popular confrontations, in Switzerland, France, 100, 103; governmental 197 capacity and, 252; increases in, 7, 68; popular contention: in Belgium, 79; in Ireland, 141; material inequality causal mechanisms and, 200; and, 17; national scale of, 91; popular importance of, 93; regimes and, 90; mobilization and, 120; public politics value of, 255 and, 68; in Scotland, 142; Popular Front, of France, 121; ascent simplifying, 45; in Spain, 81; state of, 123 trajectories and, 64; in Switzerland, Popular Front of 1936, Spain, 233 173, 181 popular mobilization: in France, 113; Protestant Association, 148; George petitions and, 155; protected Gordon and, 155 consultation and, 120 Protestant Constitution, 151 popular responses, to parliament, 158 Protestant Dissenters, 150; exclusion popular sovereignty, 26, 67 of, 146, 147; mobilization of, 25 population expansion, without trust Protestant Reformation, 43; in networks, 188 Scandinavia, 54 Portugal, 6; Brazilian rule of, 232; Protestant(s): conscription and, 110; in colonizing efforts of, 82; France, 100, 167; Louis XIV and, 98; democracy-accelerating processes in, mobilization, 136, 151; political 216; dispossession of Catholic autonomy of, 28; prosecution of, 48; Church, 232; Freedom House rebellion of, 67; resistance of, 102;

297

Index

Protestant(s) (cont.) Reform Act of 1832, 156; Catholic resistance to conscription of, 124; Emancipation and, 157; inﬂuence of, settlement in Ireland of, 135 163; mobilization and, 159 protests, against tax farmers, 74 Reform Unions, 4 Provence, popular associations in, Reformation, Switzerland and, 169, 126 179 Prussia: 1787 invasion of Low Regeneration Movement, 172 Countries by, 71; coercion in, 51; regimes: authoritarian, 11, 12; invasion of Overijssel, 75; old regime commitment and, 47; constitutional, government of, 167; siege of Paris, 2; 89; contention and, 68, 92; sovereignty in Neuchatel,ˆ 176; democratic, 10; democratic vs. strong state path of, 53; war with undemocratic, 10; effective, 48–49; France of, 122 French, 101–102; high-capacity, 8; Przeworski, Adam, 249 personalist, 12; popular contention public ceremonies, French, 104 and, 90; 17th-century vs. public meetings, 159; authorization of, 20th-century, 48; tsarist, 50; 128 undemocratic, 55, 65; variations in, public mobilization, Catholic 45 Emancipation and, 151 regularities, in democratization, 8 public politics: adaptive, 18; bourgeois religion: attacks by, 74; obligations of, oligarchies and, 71; categorical 16; organized, 166; political divisions inequality and, 17, 22, 186; changes caused by, 140–144; politicizing in, 17; integration of trust networks effects of, 194 into, 19; paradox of, 20–21; private religious exclusion, 256; in Britain, associations and, 123; segregation 147; in British government, 149 from categories, 18; shifts in, 93; Repeal Association, 159 social relations and, 15; in repertoires, 64 Switzerland, 190; trust networks and, representation, in Europe, 214 16, 17, 22; value of, 254 representative assembly, manhood public service, of Jews, 129 suffrage preceding, 214–215 punishments, demeaning, 56 representative government, restricted Puritans, in Ireland, 136 suffrage and, 215 Putin, Vladimir, 228 Republique´ rauracienne, 172 Putney debates, 140 resistance, 86; forcible, 56; in Low Countries, 74 Quakers, egalitarian programs of, 140 Restoration of 1660, 134, 135 Quebec,´ British control of, 147 Restoration of 1815, 121; Masonic lodges and, 127 racial exclusion, 256 reversals, 12, 16 Rainborough, Thomas, 140 revolutionary situations: of Britain, rebellions: against expanding states, 66, 138; of France, 99, 100; of Iberia, 67; legitimate, 67 85–86, 89; subsistence struggles and, Reconstruction, American, Swiss 89; of Switzerland, 196 parallels to, 175 revolution(s): in 1650, 42; catalog of, Red Army, 221 73, 86; causal mechanisms and, 8; Reed, John, 221 citizenship and, 116–120; conditions

298

Index

of, 24; definition of, 24; democracy by, 222; loss of Poland by, 222; promoting and, 255; in Europe, 216; Napoleonic Wars and, 217; in France, 2, 104, 121–123; nationalist dilemma, 226; old regime importance of, 93; resistance to, government of, 167; policy shifts of, 109–114; in Russia, 93; situations of, 11; political problems in, 210; 73 postsocialism, 226–228; reshaping of Riall, Lucy, 241–242 patron-client chains in, 236; rights: Catholic, 139; citizenship and, revolution of 1905, 24; and Russian 118; collective vs. personal, 66; minorities, 226; state trajectory of, equalization, 22; of Jews, 130; 227, 228; strong state path of, 53; political, 76, 144 universal suffrage in, 236; vs. Balkans Rinuccini, Giovanni, 134 and Iberia, 217, 236–240; vs. Burma, risk reduction, 19; governmental, 189 208; vs. Iberia, 81; during war, 237; rivoluzione mancata, la, 242 war and, 218; weak central Roma: discrimination against, in government in, 238; workers’ strikes Greece, 232; discrimination against, in, 219 by Romania, 232 Russian empire: Baltic states and, 219; Romania: democracy-accelerating Belarus and, 219; collapse of, 216; processes in, 216; Freedom House disintegration, post–World War I, analysis of, 210; independence of, 230; expansion of, 218; Finland and, 229; overthrow of Ceausescu, 232; 219; Poland and, 219; Ukraine and, war against Bulgaria of, 230 219 Romansch, 178 Russian Federation: accusations of Rosanvallon, Pierre, 118 imperialism, 226; rule of, 226 Rossa, Jeremiah O’Donovan, 160 Russo-Japanese war of 1904–5, 218 Roubaix, 107 Russo-Ottoman war of 1877–78, 218, rough music, 61 229 Roussillon, Aragon and, 81 Rwanda, contention in, 34 Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, 10; on necessary conditions, 11 Sabotiers’ rebellion, 100 ruling classes, 20 sacking, of houses, 74; curtailing of, 91; Russia: 1815–2000, 217; administrative in France, 104; in Iberia, 84, 87; shift hierarchy in, 54; assassination of away from, 166 interior minister of, 218; Saint-Amand-en-Berry, 107 authoritarianism in, 93; coercion in, Saint-Etienne,´ 107 51; collapse of social security in, 236; Saint-Flour, 107 colonization and, 25; competitive Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira: death of, elections in, 236; control of Finland 235; dictatorship of, 235 by, 213; de-democratization in, 240; salpeterisch, 57, 66; political identifies democracy-accelerating processes in, of, 59 216; diminished protected San Marino: democracy-accelerating consultation in, 228; diminished processes in, 216; democratization rights in, 227; Freedom House of, 216; Freedom House analysis of, analysis of, 209; general strike of, 209 218; internal conflict in, 216; loss of Sao˜ Tome-Princip´ e,´ Portuguese Baltic states by, 222; loss of Finland withdrawal from, 235

299

Index

Saudi Arabia, Freedom House analysis 230; war against Bulgaria of, 230; of, 209 war with Croatia, 231; war with Sautet, Jean, 110 Ottoman empire of, 230 savings, investment of, 16 Seven Years’ War, 147, 158 Savoy: religion in, 169; uprisings Seville, local struggles in, 89 against, 43 Seysses, 110; taxes in, 110 Scandinavia: coastal traders and, 71; shaming ceremonies, 61–62; in confrontation in, 25; Protestant Brabant, 77; in France, 104; shift Reformation in, 54; social away from, 166 democracy of, 93 shivaree, 61 Schaffhausen: high taxation in, 190; Sicily, 241; vs. Piedmont, 241–242 revolution in, 175 Sierra Leone, 206; low capacity of, 258 Schlosser, Fredrich Christoph, skilled workers, mobilization of, 25 170 slavery, in United States, 25 Schumpeter, Joseph, 14 Slovakia, Freedom House analysis of, Schwyz: division in, 191–192; federal 210 inﬂuence in, 192; Hooves in, 192; Slovenia, 6; Freedom House analysis Horns in, 192; secessionist of, 210; independence of, 231, 236; movement in, 183 quasidemocratic system of, 232; Schwyzerdutsch,¨ 178 sovereignty post–World War I, Scotland: civil wars in, 138; conquest 230 in, 164; industrialization in, 163; smallpox, 135 Irish immigration to, 150; Oliver social isolation, 58 Cromwell’s invasion of, 134; social movement organizations parliament of, 143; political (SMOs), 177 transformation of, 163; rebellion social relations: changes in, 15; patterns against England, 42; state trajectory of, 9 of, 142; Young Pretender’s rising in, Social Revolutionaries: growth of, 220; 138 removal by Bolsheviks, 221; seizure Scottish Covenanters, rebellions of, of power of, 221 138 socialism: in Iberia, 233; partial Scottish Ofﬁce, 163 democracy and, 245–246; post-1989 Second Empire, of France, 131; collapse of, 217; strikes and, 78 collapse of, 121; legalization of socialists: Swiss, 176; workers and, strikes under, 122 121 Second Republic, of France, Soissons, 107 establishment of, 121 Solothurn: high taxation in, 190; segmentation, 245 revolution in, 175 seizures: of complex economies, Sonderbund, 194; conquest and, 197; 243–244; of food, shift away from, government capacity and, 198; 166 mobilization of, 195; proposal of, sequences, 10, 11–12, 13 194; War, 175 Serbia: democracy-accelerating Sotelo, Leopoldo Calvo, 234 processes in, 216; democratic South Africa, 6; colonization of, 165; regimes of, 230; independence of, consolidation of, 50 229; sovereignty post–World War I, South Asia, colonization of, 165

300

Index

Soviet Union: barter in, 222; collapse St. Sulpice, taxes in, 110 of, 217, 226; collapse of central Stadhouder, 75 authority in, 223; contraband in, starvation, by Henry Ireton, 134 222; decentralization of, 222; state formation, 48 demands for guarantees in, 224; state trajectory, 63; of Bordeaux, 98; economic collapse of, 225; economic changes in, 70; of France, 98; of regulatory system, 226; ethnic Iberia, 81, 86; strong vs. weak, 53; of segmentation in, 225; foreign Switzerland, 198; weak vs. strong, capitalists in, 223; government 64–65 corruption in, 223; indirect rule of, states, high-capacity vs. low-capacity, 224; market liberation in, 223; 36 mutual aid in, 222; post–cold war Steinberg, Jonathan, on Swiss collapse, 226; private currencies of, Confederation, 170 223; regional leader recruitment in, Stepan, Alfred, 12 225; unauthorized inﬂuence, 222 Stephens, Evelyne Huber, 10; on Spain: alignment with Conde,´ 96–97; necessary conditions, 11 attempted coup of 1981, 234; Stephens, John D., 10; on necessary authoritarian regimes of, 214–220; conditions, 11 constitutional monarchy of, 234; Strafgericht, 62, 66; history of, 62–63; counterrevolutionaries of, 233; coup see also Fahnlilupf¨ of Miguel Primo de Rivera, 233; Strauss, David Friedrich, 193 democratization in, 234; strikes: in Belgium, 78; in Catalonia, dispossession of Catholic Church, 86; Dutch, 76; industrial workers, 232; Dutch rebellion against, 67; 121; legalization of, 122; shift electoral competition in, 234; toward, 166; in Switzerland, 177 Inquisition of, 232; Jacobin Stuart, Charles, 42 declaration of war on, 114; military Suarez,´ Adolfo, 234 rule of, 233; political policing in, subversions, 56; brokerage and, 58; in 234; propaganda wars in, 233; rapid Iberia, 87 democracy in, 238; rebellion in, 91; Sudan, Freedom House analysis of, 209 restored monarchy of, 232; social suffrage, 4; after parliamentary democracy in, 235; strikes in, 233; representation, 215; after World Thirty Years’ War and, 42; Treaties War I, 216; Chartists and, 163; of Westphalia and, 70; war of Daniele Caramani on, 213; in 1936–39, 234; during World War I, Europe, 214; female, 215; female, in 233 Switzerland, 177; manhood, 128; Spanish Succession, War of, 82 manhood, preceding representative spatial dispersion, 50 assembly, 214–215; Oliver Cromwell special-interest associations, 61 on, 140 Sri Lanka, 206 Supreme Being, 111 St. Blasien, 57 Sweden: Freedom House analysis of, St. Gallen: incorporation of, 171; 209; Norwegian independence from, revolution in, 175 213 St. Lucia, constitution of, 246 Swiss Peasant War, 63 St. Petersburg: Bloody Sunday attack, Swiss People’s Party, 176; in cabinet, 218; strikes in, 219 176

301

Index

Switzerland: Aargau secession and, Freedom House analysis of, 209; 192; abolishment of guilds in, 185, governmental capacity changes in, 187; analysis of, 211; anti-Catholic 183–184; governmental capacity in, radicals in, 192; anti-oligarchic 182; history of, 168–172; increase in activists in, 191; authoritarianism in, rural landless population in, 187; 198; boundaries of, 171–172; cabinet increased material inequality in, 187; of, 176; cantonal increases in government capacity in, de-democratization, 184; cantonal 198; independence of, 168; power in, 181; cantonal reform in, individual liberty vs. collective 183; cantonal veto power in, 180; autonomy in, 181; inequality in, 170, cantons of, 169; capitalism and 184; insulation of categorical Protestantism in, 190; Catholic inequalities in, 186; liberty in, 172; defenders of, 192; Catholic networks linguistic differences in, 175–178; vs. Protestant networks, 188; linguistic fragmentation of, 169; Catholic reformers in, 192; Catholic local equality in, 184; manufacturing rights in, 194; Catholic trust competition in, 187; material networks in, 189; causal mechanisms inequality in, 185; mercenaries of, in, 199; child labor reform in, 172; 169; migration in, 186; military of, citizen-agent relations in, 181; 179; militias in, 180; mobilization in, citizenship in, 171, 175, 182; civil 190; mouton cantons of, 168–169; war in, 173, 178; commercialization naming complexity in, 178; in, 186; concentration of textile Napoleon’s intervention in, 171; factories in, 187; confessional national assembly of, 171; national division of, 192; constitution of inequality in, 184; nationalization of 1798, 171; constitution of 1848, 183; citizenship in, 185; neutrality of, constitution reform in, 190–191; 171; nondemocratic citizenship in, constitutional convention of, 183; 199; official multilingualism in, 171; contentious politics, 201–205; patriotism in, 170; patron-client ties Council of State of, 178; in, 187; peasant democracy in, 66; de-democratization of, 173; political problem in, 174–175; decentralization in, 198; political shifts in, 93; political decentralized army of, 181; turmoil of 1830–31, 172; population democracy in, 64; democratic of, 169; post-1848 stability of, 176; elements of, 179; democratic proletarianization in, 186; protected procedures in, 177; democratic consultation changes in, 183–184; stability of, 180; democratization and protected consultation in, 54; citizenship in, 199; Protestant inequality in, 172; democratization-promoting Protestant reformers in, 192; mechanisms in, 211; direct Protestant trust networks in, 189; democracy in, 180, 181; dissolution public politics in, 190; public school of coercive controls in, 186; expansion in, 172; Radicals in, 176; economy of, 185; 1830–1848, 179; referenda in, 177; regime exiled revolutionaries in, 172; fluctuations in, 174; religion in, 187; Fahnlilupf,¨ 62; fortification of religious exclusion in, 187; religious governmental capacity in, 190; fragmentation of, 169; religious fragility of, 197; fraternity in, 172; mobilization in, 186–187; religious

302

Index

parochialism in, 170; representative textile production: in Switzerland, 185; systems in, 180; resemblance to urbanization of, 185 Glorious Revolution of, 192; Thiers, Adolphe, 3; National Guard revolutionary movements in, 170; and, 3 secessionist movements in, 183; Third Estate, 105 secular citizenship in, 194; Third Republic, of France, 121, 131; segmentation of, 176, 187, 198; slow anti-Semitism in, 130; founding of, democracy in, 178; social movements 128; secularization of, 129; in, 177; state trajectory of, 181; stabilization of, 123; veterans’ groups struggles for preeminence, 190; and, 125 Swiss Peasant War and, 62; Third Wave, The (Huntington), 11 termination of military in, 176; Thirty Years’ War, 42 textile production in, 185; Thurgau: incorporation of, 171; topography of, 179; transalpine revolution in, 175 routes of, 168; trust networks in, Ticino: incorporation of, 171; reform 187–190; undermining of trust movement in, 175 networks in, 188; urbanization of Tipperary, 151 textile production in, 185; voting Tito: death of, 231; rise to power of, rights in, 180; weak state structures 230–231 of, 179; weak state trajectory of, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 105; Ireland 198 and, 157; on Swiss constitution, 182; symbolism: in Brabant, 77; irreverent, on Swiss democracy, 196–197; on 31 Switzerland, 173 Syria, Freedom House analysis of, Tor r eben´ rebellion, 100 209 Toulouse, taxes in, 110 system functionalism, 38–39 trade, long-distance, 16 trade restrictions, war-impelled, Taiwan, post–World War II 119; democratization of, 247 traders, coastal, 71 Tardanizat rebellion, 100 trajectories, of regimes, 252 tautology, 92 transition, 11 taxation: resistance to, 74; Seven Years’ transnational diffusion, 11 War and, 158; war-impelled, Treaties of Westphalia, 42; Dutch 119 revolt and, 70 tax(es): in Artois, 112; collection, 15; Treatise of Civil Government (Locke), farmers, protests against, 74; French 145 rebellions against, 104; Jacobin, 114; Treaty of Utrecht, 71 Jewish, 129; rebellions, 74 Trinidad, constitution of, 246 teleology, 38 Trochu, General, 2 Tell, William, 63 Tr ondle,¨ Joseph, 59 Ten Days That Shook the World (Reed), Trotsky, Leon: army containment of, 221 238; on Bolshevik revolution, Terror of France, 112, 113; executions 219–220; Brest-Litovsk treaty and, under, 114 221; Red Army and, 221; return Test and Corporation Acts: repeal of, from exile, 220 156, 163; repealing of, 150 Troubles, the (Ireland), 162

303

Index

trust networks, 8; alterations of, 15–16; unions: labor, 16; in Switzerland, 177 bourgeois-centered, 166; in Britain, United Irishmen, insurrections of, 138 146; Catholic vs. Protestant, 188; United Kingdom of Great Britain and causal mechanisms and, 8; Ireland, 149 destructive mechanisms of, 188; United Nations, Swiss rejection of, disintegration of, 188; distinct, 20; 177 effectiveness of, 16; government United Provinces, 70; Orange revolt in, incorporation of, 189; increasing 73 access to, 19; insulated, 19, 22, 249; United States: in Afghanistan, 222; aid insulated from public politics, 212; to Greece of, 231; black labor in, integration into public politics of, 19; 244; civil war of, 244; colonization integration of, 16, 17, 22, 165; of, 25, 244; policy shifts of, 11; white liberal vs. conservative, 188; labor in, 244 long-term history of, 33; unity, national, 11 mechanisms of, 189; urbanization: of France, 2; of nongovernmental, 21; politically Switzerland, 188; 19th-century, 21, connected, 22, 212; proliferation of, 78 16; public politics and, 17; religious, 21; segregated, 19, 21; segregated, in Valtellina, 67 Soviet Union, 222; in 17th-century van Honacker, Karin, 76–77; France, 23; shifts in, 93; social limitations of, 79; methodology of, relations and, 15; in Switzerland, 79; vs. Rudolf Dekker, 77 187–190; undermining of, in variables, 10, 11 Switzerland, 187; value of, 254 Vaud: high taxation in, 190; Tulle, 107 incorporation of, 171; reform Turkey: democracy-accelerating movement in, 175; revolution in, processes in, 216; Freedom House 171, 175 analysis of, 209; invasion of Cyprus Vendee,´ 109; bourgeois and, 115; by, 231; war with Greece, 230 perception of, 115 Turkmenistan, Freedom House Venetian Republic, capital in, 3 analysis of, 209 vengeance: in Brabant, 77; brokerage turnouts: in France, 104; worker, and, 58; collective, 74; embedded 78 identities and, 60; in Iberia, 86, 87; tyranny, 27, 43 local, 56, 63; in Low Countries, 74 veterans, 125 Ukraine: Freedom House analysis of, Vichy, 123; anti-Semitism of, 130; 209; political problems in, 210 citizenship under, 120 Ulster: Protestants, 162; rebellion in, Vietnam, revolutionary situations in, 136; uprising in, 138 99 Ulster Volunteer Force, 160 Vivarais, 102 undemocratic politics, identities in, 61 Waldensians: persecution of, 48; Savoy undemocratic repertoires, principles of, and, 169; 1655 massacre of, 74; 31 uprising of, 43 uniﬁed categorical action, paradox of, Wales: state trajectory of, 141, 143; vs. 20–21 England, 141

304

Index

war(s): collective rights and, 65; industrial, 121; income of French, components of, 71; democratic 102; mobilization of, 122; regimes and, 10; democratization organization of, 76, 123; public and, 201; direct rule and, 109; contention of, 122; socialists and, effect on political autonomy of, 237; 121; striking, 78; Swiss, 187; in France, 98; Prussian-French, turnouts of, 104; uprising of, 121 2–3 World War I: democratic effect on wealth, equalization of, 249 Europe of, 237; Irish support of, 160; weapons of mass destruction, start of, 230 50 World War II, 10; Allied victory of, 25; Weber, Max, 117 clustered transition after, 217; Weitling, Wilhelm, 172 democratic effect on Europe of, 237; welfare, citizenship and, 118 Ireland’s neutrality during, 161; well-being, 10, 14; democratization reestablishment, 24; restoration of and, 9 democratic institutions and, 237; Wellington, duke of, 155 veterans of, 125; workers’ Wentworth, Thomas, 135; execution organizations after, 123; Yugoslavia of, 136 in, 230 Westphalian treaties, ineffectiveness of, 43 Yeltsin, Boris: administration of, 228; West Cork, 136 rise of, 223; rise to power of, Westrich, Sal, 97 225–226; Russian nationalism and, Wexford, Oliver Cromwell’s sacking of, 223–224 134 Yeltsin-Putin wars, 227 Whitehead, Laurence, 246 Young Ireland, 159 Whites, army of, 115 Young Pretender, uprising of, 138 Wilkes, John, 155 Yugoslavia: dictatorship of, 230; William II, failure of, 43, 71 Freedom House analysis of, 209; William III, 71; ascension of, 144; joining Axis of, 230; nondemocratic political participation and, 145 status of, 209; political problems in, William IV, 73 210; splintering of, 217; tension with William of Orange, defeat of James II Hungary, 230; tension with Soviet by, 136 Union, 231 wine growers: mobilization of, 121; private clubs of, 127 Zug, Sonderbund War in, 175 Winter Palace, attempted bombing of, Zurich: bourgeoisie in, 174; high 218 taxation in, 190; industrialization in, Witte, Sergei, 218 187–188; inequality in, 170; workers: in Belgium, 78; bourgeois revolution in, 171, 175; and, 122; de Gaulle government and, secularization of, 192; vs. rural 121; desire for democracy of, 240; Calvinists, 188 disenfranchisement of, 122; French Zwolle, revolution in, 75

305