DOCSLIB.ORG

Domestic Workers in Diplomats' Households

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Domestic Workers in Diplomats' Households Study Domestic Workers in Diplomats’ Households Rights Violations and Access to Justice in the Context of Diplomatic Immunity Angelika Kartusch Imprint The Institute Deutsches Institut für Menschenrechte The German Institute for Human Rights is the inde- German Institute for Human Rights pendent National Human Rights Institution in Ger- Zimmerstr. 26/27 many. It is accredited according to the Paris Principles 10969 Berlin of the United Nations (A-Status). The Institute’s activ- Phone: (+49) (0)30 25 93 59 - 0 ities include the provision of advice on policy issues, Fax: (+49) (0)30 25 93 59 - 59 human rights education, applied research on human [email protected] rights issues and cooperation with international organ- www.institut-fuer-menschenrechte.de izations. It is supported by the German Federal Minis- try of Justice, the Federal Foreign Office, the Federal Cover photograph: Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development Ms Jacob Langford and the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. The National Monitoring Body for the UN Convention Typesetting: on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was estab- Wertewerk, Tübingen lished at the Institute in May 2009. June 2011 The project “Forced Labor Today - Empowering Traf- ficked Persons” is carried out by the Institute since ISBN 978-3-942315-17-3 (PDF) 2009 in cooperation with the Foundation “Remem- brance, Responsibility and Future” (EVZ). The research © 2011 Deutsches Institut für Menschenrechte for this study has been undertaken as part of the pro- German Institute for Human Rights ject, funded through the Foundation EVZ. The study All rights reserved was printed at the expense of the Institute. Print compensated Id-No. 1111290 www.bvdm-online.de Domestic Workers in Diplomats’ Households Rights Violations and Access to Justice in the Context of Diplomatic Immunity. Analysis of Practice in Six European Countries Author Angelika Kartusch Academic Advisor Heike Rabe Author - Academic Advisor The Author Academic Advisor Angelika Kartusch holds a law degree from the Uni- Heike Rabe works as project manager of the project versity of Vienna. She has twelve years of work expe- “Forced Labor Today – Empowering Trafficked Persons” rience in the fields of trafficking in human beings and at the German Institute for Human Rights. She super- women‘s human rights, with a focus on research, train- vised the research design and the composition of the ing and project coordination From 1999 to 2006 she present study. Before joining the institute in 2009 she worked with the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Human has been a researcher on national and international Rights in Vienna, and from 2006 to 2009 with the projects since 2000, primarily in the areas of domestic United Nations Development Fund for Women in New violence, sex work and human trafficking. Selected York and Brussels. She also has worked as consultant projects are the Evaluation of the German Prostitution with the United Nations, OSCE and Council of Europe Act for the German Federal Ministry of Family Affairs, as well as non-governmental organizations. Since Senior Citizens, Women and Youth; interview study on 2010, Ms Kartusch is based in Vienna, where she works persons trafficked into sexual exploitation for the BKA as free-lance consultant. (German Federal Criminal Police Office); and feasibil- ity study for the EU Commission on the creation of a hotline for trafficked persons throughout the EU. 4 Preface by the German Institute for Human Rights Preface by the German Institute for Human Rights Rights violations experienced by migrant domestic Rights (ICESCR) is violated when they receive less than workers in diplomats’ households may seem, at first minimum wages, are forced to work overlong periods glance, to be a side issue only of the broader discourse without adequate rest and without periodic holidays on human trafficking and exploitation of labor with pay. The prohibition of slavery, servitude and migrants. Upon further inspection, however, its rele- forced labor, enshrined in Art. 8 of the International vance as a human rights issue becomes clear in two Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Art. respects: First, even if the number of victims consti- 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), tutes only a small portion of labor exploitation and is at stake in the most severe cases. The right to health forced labor worldwide, labor rights violations and may be violated by unhealthy working conditions with- exploitation in diplomats’ households are a global phe- out rest periods and insufficient nutrition, as well as nomenon rooted in structural shortcomings in the pro- the right to an adequate standard of living, including tection of diplomats’ domestic workers, both in send- adequate food (Art. 11, 12 ICESCR). The right to phys- ing states and in host states. Second, the employers’ ical integrity and the prohibition of torture are vio- diplomatic immunity aggravates rights violations and lated by physical and sexual attacks and degrading restrictions of freedom experienced by domestic work- treatment (Art. 7 ICCPR, Art. 3 ECHR). The right to pri- ers as it severely limits, if not entirely bars, victims’ vacy is affected when the domestic worker is not pro- access to justice. vided with a room for herself or himself (Art. 17 ICCPR, Art. 8 ECHR). Freedom of movement is infringed upon Spectrum of cases when the worker is not allowed to leave the house on her or his own (Art. 9, 12 ICCPR). The restriction of lib- Reported cases range from less severe labor law erty entails violations of other rights, such as the free- infringements (e.g. no remuneration for overtime work, dom of religion when the worker cannot go to a place less wages than agreed beforehand) over severe forms of worship, or the right to family life, when he or she of labor exploitation (wages far below the minimum is not allowed to go out to visit or make a phone call wage, overlong workings hours, no days off or holidays) to family members (Art. 18, Art. 17 ICCPR). Interna- to working and living conditions that amount to forced tional human rights treaties furthermore impose the labor and slavery-like practices (low or literally no pay- duty on states to guarantee access to justice for such ment of wages, having to work around the clock, rights violations to victims (Art. 2 Para 3 ICCPR, Art. restrictions of liberty, inhuman accommodation and 13 ECHR). food, physical and sexual violence). While the over- whelming majority of victims are women, mostly The relation between human rights and diplomatic employed as domestic helpers, nannies or cooks, there immunity are also cases of male victims, employed as cooks, gar- deners or chauffeurs. When victims are seeking justice, their employers’ dip- lomatic immunity, acknowledged in the 1961 Vienna Rights violations Convention on Diplomatic Relations, comes into play, barring as well criminal, civil and administrative juris- Victims may experience violations of their human diction as the enforcement of judgments in the host rights in manifold ways: Their right to just and favora- state. Insofar, employers’ diplomatic immunity in prac- ble working conditions enshrined in Art. 7 of the Inter- tice overrules the human rights of the victim and leads national Covenant on Social, Economic and Cultural to a situation of de facto-unaccountability and –impu- 5 Preface by the German Institute for Human Rights nity for exploitative employers. For the most severe On 2nd and 3rd of May 2011, the German Institute for cases amounting to slavery, general international law Human Rights, in cooperation with the Special Repre- offers a resolution of this situation: The prohibition of sentative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking slavery is generally acknowledged to have the status in Human Beings of the Organization for Security and of a peremptory norm (“ius cogens”) in international Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), organized a roundtable law. Thus, it cannot be overridden by any state through on the issue of “Rights Violations and Access to Justice international treaties or general customary rules not of Domestic Workers in the Context of Diplomatic endowed with the same normative force. In situations Immunity” in Berlin. The roundtable was attended by when the exploitation of domestic workers amounts thirty selected experts from nine countries and brought to slavery, the victims’ human rights thus precedes over together representatives from Foreign Ministries, non- diplomatic immunity. But even in those cases of human governmental organizations, lawyers, the academia rights violations listed above which do not amount to and International Organizations. The research findings slavery or torture, host states of diplomatic missions and the recommendations were presented to partici- cannot confine themselves to referring to diplomatic pants and discussed in depth. All participants wel- immunity and remain inactive. Human rights impose comed the study as the most comprehensive research on states the obligation to offer alternative ways to of its kind and committed themselves to continue and justice and redress for victims – be it by making avail- reinforce their work to protect victims’ human rights. able alternative complaint mechanisms or by providing We hope that the study provides other actors both the compensation to the victims as a case of State liabil- incentive and the ideas for taking up this human rights ity (as the French Conseil d’État determined in a recent issue, too. judgment). Berlin, June 2011 The study and the expert roundtable German Institute for Human Rights The German Institute for Human Rights carried out the Prof. Dr. Beate Rudolf present study to provide an expanded and comprehen- Director sive insight into the practice of several European states, to identify examples of promising practice and to Dr. Petra Follmar-Otto develop a comprehensive set of human rights based Head of Department Human Rights Policy Germany/ recommendations to all actors, especially the Protocol Europe departments of Foreign Ministries and non-govern- mental organizations.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Legal Regime of Persona Non Grata and the Namru-2 Case
    Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3240 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3259 (Online) Vol.32, 2014 Legal Regime of Persona Non Grata and the Namru-2 Case Marcel Hendrapati* Law Faculty, Hasanuddin University, Jalan Perintis Kemerdekaan, Kampus Unhas Tamalanrea KM.10, Makassar-90245, Republic of Indonesia * E-mail of the corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Just like the diplomatic immunity principle, the principle of persona non grata aims to ensure justice for both the state seeking to evict a diplomat (receiving state) and the state whose diplomat is being evicted (sending state). This is because both principles can guarantee the dignity and equality of sovereign states when resolving issues in international relation. Not every statement of persona non grata has to culminate in expulsion because a statement may be issued by the receiving state both after the diplomatic agent has started performing his functions and even before he arrives at the receiving state. If such a statement is followed by the expulsion of the diplomat, it should be based on article 41 of the Vienna Convention, 1961 (infringement on laws of receiving state and/or espionage actions). Also, expulsion may occur due to war and severance of diplomatic relation between two states. Indonesia has had to deal with issues of persona non grata on several occasions both as receiving and sending state. This paper analyses several cases of declaration of persona non grata involving several countries, especially Indonesia in order to give a better understanding of how the declaration of persona non grata plays out between states, and the significance of the Vienna Convention of 1961 on diplomatic relations.
    [Show full text]
  • An Experts' Guide to International Protocol
    9789463727167 An Experts’ Guide to International Protocol An Experts’ Guide to International Protocol Best Practice in Diplomatic and Corporate Relations Gilbert Monod de Froideville and Mark Verheul Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Elmer Dumlao Cover design: Elmer Dumlao, Jordan Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout First edition: April 2016 Second edition: July 2016 Third edition: November 2018 Fourth edition: April 2021 isbn 978 94 6372 716 7 e-isbn 978 90 4855 485 0 nur 754 doi 10.5117/9789463727167 © Gilbert Monod de Froideville, Mark Verheul / Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 2021 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the authors of the book. Any opinions expressed in this publication are those of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the authors. Table of Contents Preface to the original edition by His Royal Highness Prince Carlos de Bourbon de Parme 9 Prologue 11 Acknowledgements 13 1. International protocol 17 Introduction 17 Protocol vs Etiquette 17 Etiquette and its History 18 Protocol and its History 20 Protocol and cultural differences 24 Interview with Professor Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, former Secretary- General of NATO 29 2. Precedence 41 Introduction and history 41 Comparison of countries around the world 44 Various facts, trivia, and guidelines 48 Protocol and the International Court of Justice by Dame Rosalyn Higgins, DBE, QC, former President of the International Court of Justice in The Hague 53 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Adhering to Our Views: Brennan and Marshall and the Relentless Dissent to Death As a Punishment
    Florida State University Law Review Volume 22 Issue 3 Article 1 1995 Adhering to Our Views: Brennan and Marshall and the Relentless Dissent to Death as a Punishment Michael Mello [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.law.fsu.edu/lr Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Michael Mello, Adhering to Our Views: Brennan and Marshall and the Relentless Dissent to Death as a Punishment, 22 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 591 (1995) . https://ir.law.fsu.edu/lr/vol22/iss3/1 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Florida State University Law Review by an authorized editor of Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW ADHERING TO OUR VIEWS: BRENNAN AND MARSHALL AND THE RELENTLESS DISSENT TO DEATH AS A PUNISHMENT Michael Mello VOLUME 22 WINTER 1995 NUMBER 3 Recommended citation: Michael Mello, Adhering to Our Views: Brennan and Marshall and the Relentless Dissent to Death as a Punishment, 22 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 591 (1995). ADHERING TO OUR VIEWS: JUSTICES BRENNAN AND MARSHALL AND THE RELENTLESS DISSENT TO DEATH AS A PUNISHMENT MICHAEL MELLO* I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 592 A. Capital Punishmentand the Modern Court: An Overview ..................................................... 593 B. The Evolving Law of Death: "The Supreme Court's Obstacle Course" .............................. 598 II. LEGITIMACY IN HISTORY ......................................... 606 A. The Supreme Court: "Nine Scorpions in a Bottle" .................... .................................. 606 B. Early History of Dissent ................................. 607 1. Seriatim Opinions..................................... 607 2. Early "Opinions of the Court"--andEarly Dissents ................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Political Issues of Paradiplomacy: Lessons from the Developed World
    DISCUSSION PAPERS IN DIPLOMACY Political Issues of Paradiplomacy: Lessons from the Developed World André Lecours Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ ISSN 1569-2981 DISCUSSION PAPERS IN DIPLOMACY Editors: Virginie Duthoit & Ellen Huijgh, Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ Managing Editor: Jan Melissen, Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ and Antwerp University Desk top publishing: Desiree Davidse Editorial Board Geoff Berridge, University of Leicester Rik Coolsaet, University of Ghent Erik Goldstein, Boston University Alan Henrikson, Tufts University Donna Lee, Birmingham University Spencer Mawby, University of Nottingham Paul Sharp, University of Minnesota Duluth Copyright Notice © André Lecours, December 2008 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy, or transmission of this publication, or part thereof in excess of one paragraph (other than as a PDF file at the discretion of the Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’) may be made without the written permission of the author. ABSTRACT Regional governments can be international actors. This phenomenon of regional governments developing international relations, often called ‘paradiplomacy,’ has been most visible in Western industrialized liberal- democracies. In thinking about paradiplomacy in developing and post- communist countries, considering the experience of regions such as Quebec, Catalonia, the Basque Country, Flanders and Wallonia could be instructive for understanding the logic of this activity, highlighting key choices that need to be made, and pointing out potential challenges stemming from the development by sub-state units of international relations. This paper begins by distinguishing between three layers of paradiplomacy and makes the argument that paradiplomacy can be a multifunctional vehicle for the promotion of interests and identity. It then discusses the various choices that have to be made when developing a paradiplomacy, including designing new structures and selecting partners.
    [Show full text]
  • Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881
    China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 The East India Company’s steamship Nemesis and other British ships engaging Chinese junks in the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841, during the first opium war. (British Library) ABOUT THE ARCHIVE China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 is digitised from the FO 17 series of British Foreign Office Files—Foreign Office: Political and Other Departments: General Correspondence before 1906, China— held at the National Archives, UK, providing a vast and significant primary source for researching every aspect of Chinese-British relations during the nineteenth century, ranging from diplomacy to trade, economics, politics, warfare, emigration, translation and law. This first part includes all content from FO 17 volumes 1–872. Source Library Number of Images The National Archives, UK Approximately 532,000 CONTENT From Lord Amherst’s mission at the start of the nineteenth century, through the trading monopoly of the Canton System, and the Opium Wars of 1839–1842 and 1856–1860, Britain and other foreign powers gradually gained commercial, legal, and territorial rights in China. Imperial China and the West provides correspondence from the Factories of Canton (modern Guangzhou) and from the missionaries and diplomats who entered China in the early nineteenth century, as well as from the envoys and missions sent to China from Britain and the later legation and consulates. The documents comprising this collection include communications to and from the British legation, first at Hong Kong and later at Peking, and British consuls at Shanghai, Amoy (Xiamen), Swatow (Shantou), Hankow (Hankou), Newchwang (Yingkou), Chefoo (Yantai), Formosa (Taiwan), and more.
    [Show full text]
  • Recent Cases
    Vanderbilt Law Review Volume 23 Issue 4 Issue 4 - May 1970 Article 7 5-1970 Recent Cases Law Review Staff Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/vlr Part of the Administrative Law Commons, Constitutional Law Commons, and the Intellectual Property Law Commons Recommended Citation Law Review Staff, Recent Cases, 23 Vanderbilt Law Review 809 (1970) Available at: https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/vlr/vol23/iss4/7 This Note is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Vanderbilt Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in Vanderbilt Law Review by an authorized editor of Scholarship@Vanderbilt Law. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RECENT CASES Accountants-Auditors-Compliance with General Accounting Principles Not a Complete Defense To Criminal Fraud Defendants' are members of a certified public accounting firm which was retained annually by Continental Vending Corporation (Continental) to audit its financial statements. While conducting a yearly audit, defendants learned that an affiliated company, Valley Commercial Corporation (Valley),2 was not in a position to repay its debt 3 to Continental. .The president of Valley, however, offered to secure the debt personally. Defendants determined that if adequate collateral' was posted, Continental's statements could be certified without reviewing Valley's books.5 The collateral was obtained,, its value was confirmed,7 and the receivable was entered on the balance sheet8 subject to an explanation in a footnote.' The statements were 1. Defendants are a senior partner, a junior partner, and a senior associate in the national accounting firm of Lybrand, Ross Bros.
    [Show full text]
  • Council of the European Union
    ISSN 1680-9742 QC-AA-05-001-EN-C EN EN COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION GENERAL SECRETARIAT European Union - Union European EU Annual Report This, the seventh EU Annual Report on Human Rights, records the actions and policies undertaken by the EU between 1 July 2004 and 30 on Human Rights June 2005 in pursuit of its goals to promote universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. While not an exhaustive account, it Rights-2005 onHuman Annual Report highlights human rights issues that have given cause for concern and what the EU has done to address these, both within the Union and outside it. 2005 EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2005 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, adopted by the Council on 3 October 2005. For further information, please contact the Press, Communication and Protocol Division at the following address: General Secretariat of the Council Rue de la Loi 175 B-1048 Brussels Fax: +32 (0)2 235 49 77 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://ue.eu.int Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this edition. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2005 ISBN 92-824-3179-7 ISSN 1680-9742 © European Communities, 2005 Reproduction is authorised, except for commercial purposes , provided the source is acknowledged. Printed in Belgium 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface................................................................................................................................................................5 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................................7 2. Developments within the EU ...................................................................................................................8 2.1.
    [Show full text]
  • Foreign Diplomatic and Consular Representatives
    Policy Redding Police Department 412 RPD Policy Manual Foreign Diplomatic and Consular Representatives 412.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE This policy provides guidelines to ensure that members of the Redding Police Department extend appropriate privileges and immunities to foreign diplomatic and consular representatives in accordance with international law. 412.2 POLICY The Redding Police Department respects international laws related to the special privileges and immunities afforded foreign diplomatic and consular representatives assigned to the United States. All foreign diplomatic and consular representatives shall be treated with respect and courtesy, regardless of any privileges or immunities afforded them. 412.3 CLAIMS OF IMMUNITY If a member comes into contact with a person where law enforcement action may be warranted and the person claims diplomatic or consular privileges and immunities, the member should, without delay: (a) Notify a supervisor. (b) Advise the person that his/her claim will be investigated and he/she may be released in accordance with the law upon confirmation of the person’s status. (c) Request the person’s identification card, either issued by the U.S. Department of State (DOS), Office of the Chief of Protocol, or in the case of persons accredited to the United Nations, by the U.S. Mission to the United Nations. These are the only reliable documents for purposes of determining privileges and immunities. (d) Contact the DOS Diplomatic Security Command Center at 571-345-3146 or toll free at 866-217-2089, or at another current telephone number and inform the center of the circumstances. (e) Verify the immunity status with DOS and follow any instructions regarding further detention, arrest, prosecution and/or release, as indicated by the DOS representative.
    [Show full text]
  • What Is a Science Diplomat?
    The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 15 (2020) 409-423 brill.com/hjd What Is a Science Diplomat? Lorenzo Melchor Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology (FECYT), Madrid, Spain; former FECYT Science Adviser in the Spanish Embassy in London, United Kingdom [email protected] Received: 22 May 2020; revised: 4 July 2020; accepted: 21 July 2020 Summary The COVID-19 crisis has shown how countries initially responded to a global chal- lenge on their own, instead of relying on a multilateral science diplomacy — based response. Although, science diplomacy has received great attention for the past de- cade, its meaning and the nature of the diverse practitioners involved remain elusive. Science diplomacy is a transboundary field sitting across national borders, policy frameworks and stakeholders of all natures and professional backgrounds. But what is a science diplomat? What science diplomacy roles formally exist? Who can become a science diplomat? What knowledge and skills are required? This practitioner’s essay proposes a typology of science diplomacy practitioners who bring science, technology, innovation, foreign policy and the international political system altogether closer in either institutionalised or non-institutionalised roles, and it also provides guidance for pursuing a career in science diplomacy. These science diplomats may promote na- tional competitiveness but also facilitate multilateral responses to global challenges. Keywords science diplomacy – science diplomat – science counsellor – science attaché – science adviser – science advice – science-policy interface – knowledge diplomacy – COVID-19 © Lorenzo Melchor, 2020 | doi:10.1163/1871191X-bja10026 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0Downloaded license. from Brill.com10/01/2021 11:43:18AM via free access 410 Melchor 1 Introduction1 The COVID-19 outbreak has caused a profound global public health and socio- economic crisis.
    [Show full text]
  • Constitutional Solutions to the Problem of Diplomatic Crime and Immunity William G
    Hofstra Law Review Volume 36 | Issue 2 Article 19 2007 Constitutional Solutions to the Problem of Diplomatic Crime and Immunity William G. Morris Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Morris, William G. (2007) "Constitutional Solutions to the Problem of Diplomatic Crime and Immunity," Hofstra Law Review: Vol. 36: Iss. 2, Article 19. Available at: http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol36/iss2/19 This document is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in Hofstra Law Review by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Morris: Constitutional Solutions to the Problem of Diplomatic Crime and I NOTE CONSTITUTIONAL SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM OF DIPLOMATIC CRIME AND IMMUNITY I. INTRODUCTION No one is above the law. This principle has been a driving force throughout the great ideological experiment known as democracy. From childhood, we are told that people who commit crimes must answer for them. However, the simplistic nature of this notion fails to capture the whole truth of the nuanced system of international law. International law permits certain individuals to escape accountability for their crimes. For centuries, the principle of diplomatic immunity has enabled foreign diplomats to avoid prosecution for violations of the host country's laws. 1 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which the United States is a party, has codified customary international law.2 The Vienna Convention grants diplomats, their families, and diplomatic property numerous protections.
    [Show full text]
  • Correspondence Manual
    ST/AI/102/Revo 3 Correspondence Manual j|k UNITED 40 HÂTIONS Correspondence Manual ЖШ& (JNITED ## NATIONS New York, 1968 ST/Al/102/Rev.3 I актшшвяаи» January 1968 UNITED NATIONS CORRESPONDENCE MANUAL This manual replaces the edition published in 1962. It has been prepared, with the assistance of the correspondence officers of all departments, by the Registry Section of the Communications, Archives and Records Service, Office of General Services. Questions concerning its content should be directed to that office. Copies of the manual may be obtained through the Distribution Section of the Publishing Service. Similar manuals are available in French and Spanish. All staff members concerned with the drafting, typing or dispatch of official communications are urged to familiarize themselves with the manual and to observe the prescribed regulations and procedures. Although the manual is directed primarily to Headquarters' needs, the broad policies and procedures are of general applicability; it is expected that offices away from Headquarters will follow these instructions, suitably adapting them to local practice. David В. VAUGHAN Assistant Secretary-General Director of General Services Approved: С V. NARASIMHAN Under-Secretary-General Chef de Cabinet Blank page Page blanche CONTENTS ^^ ^ Pile number ^ ^Initials 8 Re50o^5^l^^^o^e5po^de^e ^Date 8 1.General ^ margins 8 ^Spacing 8 ^.Correspondence officers ^Indention 8 ^.Clearance ofoutgoing correspondence.... ^ numbering of pages 8 ^ Salutation, text and complimentary closD ^Signature of correspondence ing 8 ^.Correspondence and records services.... ^ Signature bloc^ 9 ^Address 9 6.^ist of Official Addresses and Official ^ enclosures 9 Correspondence Card Index ^Assembly and dispatch 10 20. Interoffice memoranda 10 ^ Paper and envelopes 10 ^Copies 10 ^ Heading 10 ^Initials 10 ^.General 2 ^ margins 11 ^Spacing 11 8.
    [Show full text]
  • Fairness and Redistribution
    Fairness and Redistribution By ALBERTO ALESINA AND GEORGE-MARIOS ANGELETOS* Different beliefs about the fairness of social competition and what determines income inequality influence the redistributive policy chosen in a society. But the composition of income in equilibrium depends on tax policies. We show how the interaction between social beliefs and welfare policies may lead to multiple equi- libria or multiple steady states. If a society believes that individual effort determines income, and that all have a right to enjoy the fruits of their effort, it will choose low redistribution and low taxes. In equilibrium, effort will be high and the role of luck will be limited, in which case market outcomes will be relatively fair and social beliefs will be self-fulfilled. If, instead, a society believes that luck, birth, connec- tions, and/or corruption determine wealth, it will levy high taxes, thus distorting allocations and making these beliefs self-sustained as well. These insights may help explain the cross-country variation in perceptions about income inequality and choices of redistributive policies. (JEL D31, E62, H2, P16) Pre-tax inequality is higher in the United support the poor; an important dimension of States than in continental West European coun- redistribution is legislation, and in particular the tries (“Europe” hereafter). For example, the regulation of labor and product markets, which Gini coefficient in the pre-tax income distribu- are much more intrusive in Europe than in the tion in the United States is 38.5, while in Europe United States.1 it is 29.1. Nevertheless, redistributive policies The coexistence of high pre-tax inequality are more extensive in Europe, where the income and low redistribution is prima facia inconsis- tax structure is more progressive and the overall tent with both the Meltzer-Richard paradigm of size of government is about 50 percent larger redistribution and the Mirrlees paradigm of so- (that is, about 30 versus 45 percent of GDP).
    [Show full text]