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WATER MANAGEMENT, LIVESTOCK and the OPIUM ECONOMY Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor

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WATER MANAGEMENT, LIVESTOCK and the OPIUM ECONOMY Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor Case Study Series WATER MANAGEMENT, LIVESTOCK AND THE OPIUM ECONOMY Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor David Mansfield This report is one of seven multi-site case studies undertaken during the first stage of AREU’s three-year study “Applied Thematic Research into Water Management, Livestock and the Opium Economy”. Funding for this research was provided by the Euro- December 2006 pean Commission (EC) i Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit © 2006 Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. All rights reserved. The views and opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of AREU. ii Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor About the Author David Mansfield is a specialist on development in a drugs environment who has spent 15 years working in coca- and opium-producing countries, with over eight years’ experience conducting research into the role of opium in rural livelihood strategies in Afghanistan. About the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) is an independent research or- ganisation that conducts and facilitates action-oriented research and learning that informs and influences policy and practice. AREU also actively promotes a culture of research and learning by strengthening analytical capacity in Afghanistan and by creating opportunities for analysis and debate. Fundamental to AREU’s vision is that its work should improve Afghan lives. AREU was established by the assistance community working in Afghanistan and has a board of directors with representation from donors, UN and multilateral organisa- tions and NGOs. Current funding for AREU is provided by the European Commission (EC), the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), the United Nations High Commis- sioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the World Bank and the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland and Sweden. Funding for this study was provided by the EC. iii Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit Acknowledgements This report owes much to my Afghan colleagues who continue to provide invaluable inputs in the field under increasingly trying circumstances. I would also like to thank Alan Roe and other colleagues from the AREU Water, Opium and Livestock team for their comments on drafts, as well as Anja Havedal for her editorial sup- port. David Mansfield, November 2006 iv Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor Contents Glossary, Acronyms vi 1. Introduction 1 2. Methods 3 2.1 Conceptual underpinnings 3 2.2 Developing an area-based analysis 5 3. Nangarhar Province: The “Success Story” 7 3.1 Overview of the province 7 3.2 A history of opium poppy cultivation in Nangarhar 8 3.2.1 An “opium entrenched” province 8 3.2.2. The enforcement of the Taliban ban 9 3.2.3. The implementation of the opium ban in 2005 10 3.3 The continuation of the ban in 2006 12 3.3.1 “Zone 1” 12 3.3.2. “Zone 2” 15 Governance 16 3.3.3. “Zone 3” 22 3.4 Findings 26 4. Ghor Province: Marginal Area, Marginal Crop 28 4.1 Ghor: An overview 28 4.2 The cultivation of opium poppy in Ghor 30 4.2.1. The history of cultivation 30 4.2.2 The extension agents 31 4.2.3. Agricultural practice 32 4.2.4. Yields 32 4.3 Factors influencing poppy cultivation in 2005 and 2006 34 4.3.1. Reductions in cultivation in 2005 34 4.3.2. Sporadic increases in cultivation in 2006 35 4.3.3. Widespread crop failure 35 4.4 Findings 37 5. Conclusion 39 Annex: Economic Profile of Selected Households in Nangarhar Province 41 References 47 v Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit Glossary1 biswa a measure of land. One biswa is the equivalent of one hundred square metres; there are twenty biswa to one jerib. eradication the physical destruction of a crop, e.g. by aerial spraying jawzai loans in opium. The borrower repays an agreed amount of cash for each kilogramme of opium borrowed. jerib unit of land measurement; 5 jerib = 1 ha (2000 m2) jirga gathering of elders kuchi nomadic or transhumant pastoralists lalmi rainfed crop production maldars nomadic or transhumant pastoralists patak checkpoint used to levy “tax” seer a unit of measure shura local council of elders karez underground irrigation systems Acronyms AREU Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees EC European Commission GAA German Agro Action GTZ German Technical Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH) NGO non-governmental organisation UNODC United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime USG United States Government WOL project Water, Livestock and Opium project Exchange Rates 50 Afghanis (Afs) per 1 US$ 60 Pakistani Rupees (PKR) per 1 US$ 1 Transliterations in this glossary, as well as in the text, are spelled according to AREU’s editorial policy and do not reflect the opinion of the author. vi Opium Poppy Cultivation in Nangarhar and Ghor 1. Introduction Currently there is considerable attention on the amount of opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, what has been referred to as “the metrics”. On 2 September 2006, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) announced that opium poppy cultivation had reached an unprecedented level of 165,000 hectares (ha) in 2006 an increase of 59% since 2005.2 However, it is important to look at these fig- ures in context. Two thirds of the estimated total amount of cultivation in 2006 lies in the southern provinces of Helmand (69,324 ha), Kandahar (12,619 ha), Farah (7,694 ha), Uruzgan (9,703 ha), Daikundi (7,044 ha) and Zabul (3,210 ha), where there has been a sharp decrease in the level of security over the last year. Of the estimated 61,000 hectare increase in cultivation, 70% is from Helmand alone, 92% from the four southern provinces of Helmand, Uruzgan, Daikundi and Zabul. Moreover, the top seven opium-producing provinces (Helmand, Badakhshan, Kan- dahar, Uruzgan, Farah, Balkh, and Daikundi) are responsible for 77% of total culti- vation. Cultivation is less prevalent in the other 27 provinces of the country: 6 provinces are reported to be “opium poppy free”, 8 cultivate less than 1,000 ha and 28 provinces less than 5,000 hectares. A further disaggregation of the data to the district level shows an even more complex picture where districts in which opium poppy is concentrated can be found neighbouring areas where the crop is marginal or non-existent. This diversity at the provincial, district, and even sub- district level, suggests that opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is both contin- gent and contextual — a function of where, who and when — and therefore highly dependent on local factors. This particular report looks at the results of fieldwork in two specific provinces in which opium poppy cultivation is cultivated: Nangarhar and Ghor. According to UNODC, both provinces currently cultivate less than 5,000 hectares. However, the two provinces have very distinct histories in relation to opium poppy cultivation, much of which is not captured (and may be lost or even distorted) by an analysis of provincial statistics on the amount of land allocated to the crop. The report charts the role opium poppy plays in rural livelihood strategies within the two provinces and how this differs by the different assets households within these provinces have at their disposal. It documents the impact significant reductions in opium produc- tion have had on livelihood strategies in both Nangarhar and Ghor. The report is part of the Water Management, Livestock and the Opium Economy (WOL) project funded by the European Commission and implemented by the Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) in cooperation with the Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR) and German Agro Action (GAA). Fieldwork for this report was undertaken over a two-year period, where possible visiting the same households each year.3 2 UNODC Press Release, Afghan opium cultivation soars 59 percent in 2006, UNODC survey shows, 1 September 2006. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/press_release_2006_09_01.html. 3 In 2005, fieldwork in Nangarhar was commissioned by the Project for Alternative Livelihoods (PAL) implemented by GTZ and funded by the EC. The report of this work is David Mansfield, Pariah or Pov- erty? The Opium Ban in the Province of Nangarhar in the 2004–05 Growing Season and Its Impact on Rural Livelihood Strategies, GTZ Project for Alternative Livelihoods in Eastern Afghanistan, Internal Document No. 11, 2005. Fieldwork in Ghor in 2005 was funded by AREU. 1 Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit The report should be read as a companion to other preliminary studies4 of the WOL research programme and more specifically as a parallel to the study by Adam Pain on opium poppy cultivation in the provinces of Balkh and Kunduz.5 It should be noted that the research on opium poppy cultivation has been deliberately ex- panded beyond the core WOL project research sites (Kunduz, Nangarhar, Ghazni and Herat) both to capture wider dynamics of shifts in the opium poppy economy as well as to provide specific points of contrast to the key WOL study sites. The report is divided into four sections. The first section provides an overview of the theoretical underpinning of the analysis, offering an explanation of the diver- sity that exists amongst opium poppy cultivating households both in terms of the different assets they have at their disposal and the subsequent dependency they have on the cultivation of the crop as part of their overall livelihood strategy. The second section provides a detailed assessment of the coping strategies that house- holds have adopted in response to a significant reduction in opium poppy cultiva- tion in the province of Nangarhar between 2004 and 2005.
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