The George Wright Society

Board of Directors ROBERTJ. KRUMENAKER • President Paoli, Pennsylvania NEILW. P. MUNRO • Vice President Halifax, Nova Scotia PETER BRINKLEY • Treasurer New York, New York LAURA E. SOULLIERE • Secretary Natchez, Louisiana

MARIE BERTILLION COLLINS • Piedmont, California DENNIS B. FENN • Reston, Virginia GARY LARSON • Corvattis, Oregon DAVIDJ. PARSONS • Missoula, Montana DWIGHTT. PlTCAITHLEY • Washington, D.C. RICHARD B. SMITH • Placitas, New Mexico

Executive Office P. 0. Box 65, Hancock, Michigan 49930-0065 USA -a 1-906-487-9722; fax 1-906-487-9405 [email protected] • http://www.georgewright.org David Harmon • Executive Director Robert M. Linn • Membership Coordinator

The George Wright Society is a member of US/ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites—U.S. Committee), IUCN—The World Conservation Union, and The Natural Resources Council of America

© 2001 The George Wright Society, Inc. All rights reserved. (No copyright is claimed for previously published material reprinted herein.) ISSN 0732-4715

Editorial guidelines may be found on the inside back cover. Text paper is made of 10% Postconsumer fibers. Printed by Book Concern Printers, Hancock, Michigan THE GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM

Volume 18 ❖ 2001 ❖ Number 2

Society News, Notes & Mail 2 Box Sixty-Five • Thoughts on the Arctic Refuge’s Future William E. Brown 4 The Human Element Roger Kennedy 8 The U.S. National Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative and the Role of Protected Areas Russell J. Hall and Catherine A. Langtimm 14 Searching for Biological Specimens from Midwestern Parks: Pitfalls and Solutions James P. Bennett 26

PROTECTED AREAS IN EAST ASIA: AN OVERVIEW AND TWO CASE STUDIES Twenty-first Century Strategies for Protected Areas in East Asia David Sheppard 40 Establishing Protected Areas in the Philippines: Emerging Trends, Challenges, and Prospects Rafael G. Senga 56 Conservation of Protected Areas in Thailand: The Case of Khao Yai National Park Pakkawadee Panusittikorn and Tony Prato 66

On the Cover: A “froglogger”—an automated device for recording frog calls. USGS photo taken at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 1 Wiliam E. Brown Box 65: Commentary from the GWS office and our members

Thoughts on the Arctic Refuge’s Future

remember the shock that swept the country when the Exxon Valdez be- came grounded on Bligh Reef in 1989. Day after day the crude oil spewing from her punctured hull spread at whim of wind and current. IEventually the black muck coated a thousand miles of mainland and island coastline, killing countless sea mammals, birds, and fish. Who can forget the nightly pictures of doomed, oil-soaked creatures staring at us from the TV screen? The residues of this calamitous spill still poison Alaska’s Pacific shores and the animals that live there. This was a singular event. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 had transformed Alaska from Seward’s Folly and Gold Rush plunder into America’s last citadel of expansive wild lands. Nearly two-thirds of the nation’s protected lands—national wildlife refuges, national parks, national wild and scenic rivers—were created by that single act of Congress. In a mystical, even repentant way, we as a nation had tried in Alaska to make up for what we had done to most of the country Down Below. But the oil spill had shaken our vision of this remote domain. Now, these spectacular and biologically stunning shores where harmony existed, where “the wild ran free upon the crisp fresh land,” have lost that freshness. They have joined the larger neighborhood where industrial accidents routinely happen and are as routinely dismissed: “An anomaly. Statistically insignificant. Part of the external costs of progress and industry.” Neither these places nor our luminous vision of them will ever be quite the same again. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ So far, the 19-million-acre Arctic National Wildlife Refuge has been lucky, despite its proximity to Prudhoe Bay and adjacent oil fields. Now comes the push to get inside the refuge. Why? Is our national security at risk because of dependence on foreign-oil imports? That’s what Alaska’s congressional delegation and its political and corporate allies say. But these are the same people who in 1995 lifted the ban on Alaska oil exports. Prudhoe oil sold to Japan resulted in higher gas prices on the West Coast—to the benefit of Alaska’s oil-tax revenues, the profits of big oil, and the campaign funds of the politicians. Given these bottom-line realities, and the prodigal waste of oil since the discarding of President Carter’s energy conservation programs (and the

4 The George Wright FORUM mindless perpetuation of such waste in the Bush Administration’s new energy policy), the national security argument fails to persuade. Beyond the dollar sign, the urgent rationale for a new Arctic oil rush flows from the pending implosion of Alaska’s fading oil boom. As in territorial days, modern Alaska still depends on a colonial economy—by definition a boom- and-bust economy. It exports raw materials (principally oil) and imports virtually everything that it eats and uses to support its inflated urban lifestyle and population. Excepting traditionalists who live off the land, modern Alaska depends on Prudhoe Bay oil as the engine of its economy. But that oil draws down and the pipeline flows at half capacity. So the rush is on to develop a combined oil-and-natural-gas extension of the boom. That’s where the Arctic Refuge comes in. No one knows whether the refuge’s geologic structures hold oil, or, if so, how much. U.S. Geological Survey estimates indicate a potential for a large oil discovery of several billion barrels—which would translate to a few months’ equivalent of the nation’s annual rate of consumption. Experts are skeptical of a mega-giant field of Prudhoe or Persian Gulf scale. Are these same old, same old ploys reason enough to invade the Arctic Refuge? I don’t think so. At the least we should conserve Arctic oil resources until we’re forced to use them for valid societal purposes, i.e., in the transition from prodigality to sustainability, under a rational national energy regime that combines conservation, alternative energy sources, and fossil-fuel production. All we have now, and for at least the next four years, is wanton waste, which means the wanton impairment and destruction, in part, of a very special place. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ More than 20 years ago I conducted historic-site surveys along the Arctic Coastal Plain for the North Slope Borough, both within and adjacent to the Arctic Refuge. For longer periods I worked on a cultural landscape plan with the Inupiat people of Nuiqsut, a small village near the mouth of the Colville River, west of the refuge. During extended visits I was privileged to accompany village elders to several hunting-and-fishing, historic, and sacred sites. These tradition bearers shared with me their cultural history in these places. Their stories gave me great appreciation of the people, their homeland, and the creatures that sustain their lives and culture. The Nuiqsut people were concerned about oil developments in their traditional lands. Because these hunter–gatherers live in a spare Arctic desert, they must roam far and wide, as do the animals they hunt for food. The traditional-use area of the Nuiqsut people is as big as a good-sized state Down Below. My job was to listen and observe as these people pursued their way of life in a homeland they have occupied for thousands of years. Then to translate—for the invading world from Outside—their concerns for their Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 5 homeland. Then, maybe, the Outsiders would see the value of these seemingly barren lands and seas. And be careful how they would use them. After many drafts and discussions we finally agreed on this translation, this approximation of their core ideas:

The cultural landscape of Nuiqsut is occupied by a heritage community that perpetuates Inupiat culture by harvesting the wild resources of land and sea, by preserving places and ideals of value, and by transmitting this heritage to future generations. It is a place that cannot be truly owned by any transient human group nor consumed for any ephemeral human purpose, for it must be passed on intact. It is a cosmos that unites time and space, people and nature, resources and values. This place cannot be understood in simple economic or physical-resource terms. Such tools of understanding are too primitive. Yet those from afar who have plans to alter this landscape are using such primitive tools, as did their predecessors.

Sometimes I lose my way and wonder what it’s all about—these endless struggles to hold on to the valued places of this world. Then I go back to this statement, to these ideas that I finally understood after many evenings of sitting around campfires in the lee of a skin boat listening to old people in skin clothes who haltingly—with the help of a translator—told me what it’s all about. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ Why were these people worried about oil developments in their homeland? Because they had seen Prudhoe Bay and the other oil fields. They had even worked in them. They knew that oil development is fraught with catastrophe, especially in the Arctic. What are some of the things they feared? Here is a sampler:

· Oil and chemical spills into rivers and Arctic seas that would kill under- ice algae, the first link in the Polar marine food chain; · Disturbance of caribou calving and snow-geese nesting sites, with international implications for Alaskan and Canadian indigenes; · Industrial sprawl from collection and distribution pipelines, residence and work camps, roads, power and pump stations, etc.; · Industrial-scale water needs that would drain ponds and lakes for many miles around every development site—all of them fish-spawning, nursery, or overwintering water bodies; · The immeasurable aesthetic violation and disaster; · And on, and on, and on.

6 The George Wright FORUM ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ But I want to stop this catalogue of bad things that will happen in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge—if it is opened to oil development. For I want to conclude with the wisdom of the Inupiat elders, whose principal goal is to pass on intact the homeland over which each generation temporarily exercises stewardship. The views and values of these homeland people have capacity for infinite expansion and application to all special places, to the world in its entirety. The universal goal must be balance between the true needs of a stabilized humankind and sustaining natural systems. But there is nothing balanced about the current assault on the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. In the present prodigal temper, industrial invasion would simply waste the refuge’s oil. It would define the ephemeral, the primitive, the socially useless. Let’s hold on to this place. Let it stand for its own sake. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge should be a marker, a symbolic turning point in the human condition, not a sacked industrial wasteland.

William E. Brown is retired from the National Park Service. His column “Letter from Gustavus” appeared for many years in The George Wright Forum. 1

Reminder: this column is open to all GWS members. We welcome lively, pro- vocative, informed opinion on anything in the world of parks and protected ar- eas. The submission guidelines are the same as for other GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM articles—please refer to the inside back cover of any issue. The views in “Box 65” are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official po- sition of The George Wright Society.

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 7 Roger Kennedy The Human Element

Ed. note: These remarks were delivered at the close of the National Park Service conferenceCultural Resources 2000: Managing for the Future, held in Santa Fe, New Mexico, December 2000.

y text for this morning’s sermon is drawn from the gospel ac- cording to Henry David Thoreau and Wendell Berry. First, the familiar verse from Thoreau: “In wildness is the preservation of Mthe world.” And then the gloss put on it by Berry: “In human cul- ture is the preservation of wildness.” With those texts in mind, let’s talk ward. Nonetheless, let’s stick with about why your work is especially the artificial construct of a division important at this moment to Ameri- between cultural and natural life just can society, and will always be im- long enough to look up the word portant to this ravished yet still mag- “culture” in the dictionary and see nificent continent upon which we what it implies. Then we can get on live. to the moral consequences of re-de- Berry defines the work of the Na- fining it as Wendell Berry urges us to tional Park Service, though without do. quite saying so, situating its role in The first usage is that which gives society at the frontier between what dignity to you as professionals—we is frequently stated to be “civilized,” use culture to mean “development of or “civic,” or “urban,” “urbane,” or the intellect through hard work “cultural” activity—the adjectives all —training and development.” From mean roughly the same thing—and which comes the verb “to cultivate,” what is often presented as essentially as in: to cultivate a singer’s voice, a unaffected by humans—or “wild.” teacher’s skill, a rock climber’s Our qualities, as humans, are “culti- balance, a dancer’s grace, the skill of vated.” The quality of nature, while a preserver of adobe buildings or the affected by human activity, is that competency of an analyst of changes which has not been so altered by that in the minnow population of a deliberate activity as to lose its es- stream. You are cultivated people. sential “wildness.” We all know that You have worked hard to learn your there isn’t a square mile of this conti- professions. You spend years nent that hasn’t been affected by hu- sharpening your skills. If you are mans, nor will there be one unaf- superintendents, you derive from fected by what humans do hencefor- your own cultivation a profound

8 The George Wright FORUM commitment to helping the people required to show courage in demon- who work for you to improve their strating your faith in that work and in competency. You rejoice that the yourselves as professionals. Compla- National Park Service has heeded cency is even less appropriate at this E.O. Wilson’s admonition to make meeting, here in Santa Fe, than it was use of the Advanced Studies Pro- a few months back in St. Louis [at gram, and such implements as the the Discovery 2000 Conference]. Bearss Fellowship, to go back to My theme is cultivation and pro- school and get better. You will of fessionalism; my conviction is that course see to it that these implements the National Park Service must be are used in the parks where you fully professional so that it may be work, and maybe by yourselves. Be- continue to be a credible steward. cause you respect yourselves, and The watchword is and ought to be: revere your teachers, you want to you can trust the National Park make it easier for those who work Service. To merit that trust, we must around you to get better at theirs—to develop in greater numbers experi- cultivate their competency . enced and competent people who You do this in the context of the know they are the first line of defense knowledge, painfully gained, that of resource protection and of good there are people who want a weak- science. Already, the people of NPS ened set of stewards for our parks, are the first teachers many Americans because they have designs upon encounter on the ground—as soon as those parks that are incompatible they leave home—to learn about bi- with high standards of stewardship. ology and history. They want you either to be Every person in this hall knows frail—inept, insufficiently trained, that competent resource protection and therefore easily dismissed—or begins with knowing what you’re out of the way. They don’t want you doing—doing with and to the re- to cultivate your skills and help oth- sources for which you are the stew- ers to cultivate theirs. ard. Protectors are also expositors of These are not necessarily evil applied science and applied history. people. They are just impatient. Competent resource protection re- They want what they want—and they quires constant interaction with aca- do not hold stewardship to be very demic institutions and with “applied important if it gets in their way. Be- science”—science on the ground, sides, you are professionals, and tested and made useful. And ex- professionalism, cultivation, is insuf- plained to the public through effec- ficiently honored in this society. Be- tive education. cause your adversaries do not revere I’ve said it before and I’ll say it the things you revere, and do not again: resource protection has to respect your work very much, when- walk out of the park in the heart of ever they increase in power you are the visitor. Resource protection only

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 9 has staying power if it is also educa- First let’s be clear about a fact so tion. obvious and fundamental that it is The pride of Park Service people seldom a subject of remark: wilder- in their work as professionals must ness does not know that it is wilder- radiate outside the parks. Only if it is ness. Humans know it is wilderness. radiant, in that way, will it educate Few eagles cogitate much about be- the public about the values that led to ing wild. They are wild. We think the establishment of the parks them- about their wildness, and when they selves. fly they carry our metaphors as addi- There are calls to remove wilder- tional weight upon their pinions. But ness designation from many areas they show little resentment, perhaps now protected. The best defense because they know that we are the against these pressures are: unassail- concept-making species. able professionalism in protecting We may not make wilderness, but resources, education, and constitu- we have made up the concept of wil- ency building. In a democratic sys- derness. Every natural phenome- tem, that is where resource protec- non—from the soaring of an eagle to tion begins. the reproduction of an amoeba, from This leads me to the second pri- the explosion of a volcano to the ero- mary meaning of the word “cultural” sion of a granite outcrop, is seen by and to that interaction to which us through some kind of lens of our Wendell Berry calls our atten- own creation. Microscopes and tele- tion—an interaction among humans scopes, cosmologies and chaos theo- and non-human species, between ries are our contrivances through human activity and natural proc- which we observe nature. And here esses. When he writes that “in hu- is my primary point: because we pos- man culture is the preservation of sess such contrivances as the tool- wildness,” what does he mean by makers and concept-makers we are, “human culture?” The dictionary because we have memory and are says he must mean “the totality of capable of anticipation—we are the socially transmitted behavior pat- responsible species. terns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and We have moral obligations arising all other products of human work from competencies. What we have and thought.” learned as we became professionals We’ve talked a little about human directs what we do with and to the work—recognizing how much hard other species with which we co-in- work there is in becoming and sus- habit this earth—and to the inani- taining one’s right to be heeded as a mate earth itself. And as people who professional. Let’s talk for the rest of share a set of beliefs, as people who our time together about how beliefs spring from a continuous culture, we and thoughts may preserve “wild- have strong judgments upon what is ness.” mined, grazed, timbered, or pre-

10 The George Wright FORUM served. the damage can be repaired without The job of the National Park much intervention from us, or when Service is to stand between the eager that damage is imperceptible to us, visitor-learner—and we are all, wher- we leave place alone. ever we are, visitors to this earth for When we were enduring, to- our allotted span—and learners—and gether, the last set of assaults upon the natural world. We see that natu- wilderness and upon the parks, I ral world through the lenses of our suggested that among our caring al- culture—through lenses ground and lies were explicitly religious people. shaped by that “totality of socially The central concept of religious life transmitted behavior patterns, arts, is the same as the central concept of beliefs, institutions, and all other wilderness preservation. That con- products of human work and cept is a sense of scale, of human thought.” And we can decide to pre- scale. We humans believe ourselves serve “wildness,” by which we mean to be important, but not all-impor- nature on its own terms, because we tant. Religious people speak of our- believe in certain fundamental prin- selves as humbled in the presence of ciples, which are also cultural. God; even the most secular of con- May I once again suggest that in- servationists would admit, I think, cluded in that “totality”—indeed, at that they often feel humbled in the its core, around which all else con- presence of wilderness—a feeling that stellates and nucleates—is our relig- is deeper than awe—it can truly be ion—a cultural reality. We believe said to be reverence. Most religious that we humans are not masters of people think of the universe as inten- the universe; we are not even masters tional, as a creation—not necessarily of this earth. We are, instead, co-in- all at once, nor necessarily taking habitants of the earth with a multi- only a week’s time—but intentional. tude of other creatures. We are not Therefore, all its parts have value, all masters, though we try to be good it species, all its mountains, waters, stewards of some portions of it which fields, and oceans. Humans, in the fall within our specific responsibili- religious tradition, are not the only ties. Of course from time to time na- significant species on this earth. Our ture brings us fire and flood and orchards, farms, and woodlots are great winds to remind us of a central not the only places worthy of respect. attribute of wildness which is more All creation is worthy of respect. widely diffused outside of what we That respect requires a moral fo- call wilderness than we in our pride cus, and a determination, culturally, like to admit—it is essentially beyond that we resist the current and recur- control. We do manage the way peo- rent tendency of people living in ple act upon wildness, and when it market economies to become fasci- has been too obviously ravaged we nated—obsessed indeed—with mon- attempt to restore it to health. When ey, with reducing all values to money

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 11 values. Thomas Jefferson warned us the observer and the observed, be- of that; looking toward us, his tween wildness, preserving us, and posterity, he feared lest “the people us preserving wildness. will forget themselves in … making With that interchange in mind, we money,” losing sight of larger and may recall a passage from a sermon of longer values. It is a noble endeavor Donne’s. It provided to Ernest He- to keep a check-book, but that is not mingway a book title. It provides us the only Good Book. There are other with a text to set beside those of applications for the human brain Thoreau and Wendell Berry, recall- than counting. We should be good ing to us the moral basis for our pro- accountants, but we should also be fessional lives: “No man is an island, good stewards. entire of itself; every man is a piece of We may recall that Daniel Boor- the continent, a part of the main.... stin, America’s greatest living con- Any man’s death diminishes me, be- servative historian, helped us under- cause I am involved in mankind; and stand that Jefferson was the philoso- therefore never send to know for phical father of the Endangered Spe- whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.” cies Act: “in his writings, we fre- And, looming beyond John Donne, quently come upon the appropriate are the great figures of an older and verses of the Psalmist, ‘O Lord, how broader tradition, Saints Patrick and manifold are thy works! in wisdom Francis, and Buddha among them, hast thou made them all: the earth is who remind us of other endangered full of thy riches.’” And Jefferson species beyond our descendants: himself wrote that “if one link in na- The tolling of the bell is for the death ture’s chain might be lost, another of any living thing; we are “involved” and another might be lost, till this in all life. whole system of things should vanish Our “involvement” with other by piece-meal.” species of living things arises in part When Boorstin or Jefferson write because we share with those spe- in that way, they recall to us the cul- cies—indeed with earth, air, water tural tradition that unites them, Tho- and fire—a place in an intentional reau, Wendell Berry, and John and not an accidental universe, in Donne, a tradition that provides us which all these, all animate species with lenses with which to scrutinize and all inanimate objects from stars the natural world. When we take off to starfish, have a place. our glasses, remove those lenses, and “...if one link in nature’s chain hold them in our hands, we see in might be lost, another and another their inner surfaces ourselves re- might be lost, till this whole system flected. We see ourselves as nature of things should vanish by piece- sees us. And we are reminded of that meal.” reciprocity of which Thoreau and And so they might, friends, and so Berry wrote, a reciprocity between they might, one species after another.

12 The George Wright FORUM Unless we rally round each other, respect for this created universe. We and join with all others who ac- are preservationists because we are in knowledge with us that the bell is awe of the accomplishments of our tolling constantly now, tolling all day predecessors in the American tradi- and all night without surcease, as tion and do not wish to lose a single species after species dies, creation cubic foot of the ground they hal- after creation, friend in the earth after lowed. friend in the earth. The dictionary has helped us de- I urge, therefore, that we cultivate fine our task—and our role as good our competence the better to serve stewards—by providing two mean- the cultural values we bring to this ings of the word “cultural.” One re- work, in order that we may serve all minds us that we are professionals. nature and some portion of human- The other reminds us that we are kind. It is true that the Organic Act citizens—standing in a great tradi- of the National Park Service only re- tion. quires that the people in its service Let us get on with our sustain "unimpaired” the places put work—respectful of each other, as into their trust, but that Act is merely fellow-laborers toward a moral end, one expression of a cultural tradition courteous even to those who bore us, requiring us to give heed to the or infuriate us, or who don’t seem to seamless, coherent fabric of God’s “get it.” We are fellow voyagers on a creation, in all its interlinked parts. vessel which is heading into rough Each of those parts is of ultimate seas—we will need each other to man value, each is essential, each cardinal, the oars and the pumps, and, if nec- each indispensable. There is no sur- essary, to repel the boarding parties. plus in God’s creation. Indeed, we will require all the help All of us are conservationists; we we can get. would not be in our line of work if we Much of that help will come from were not. Some are secular conser- within, from our religious convic- vationists. Others are religious con- tions, from our cultural values. They servationists, unabashedly affirming are the values that led us into this line that our obligation arises from a due of work.

Roger Kennedy, 855 El Caminito, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501-2842 1

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 13

James P. Bennett Searching for Biological Specimens from Midwestern Parks: Pitfalls and Solutions

Introduction his paper describes the results of searches of herbarium and mu- seum collections and databases for records of vertebrate and vascu- lar plant specimens that had been collected in 15 midwestern Na- Ttional Park System units. The records of these specimens were pre- viously unknown to the National Park Service (NPS). In the course of our searches, numerous obstacles were encountered that prevented us from fully completing our task. These ranged from difficulties with the way databases are structured, to poor record-keeping, to incomplete or incorrect informa- tion on the actual location of specimens within collections. Despite these problems, we are convinced that the information to be gained from such searches is invaluable, and we believe that our experience, and the recom- mendations we offer, may well prove instructive to others undertaking this kind of work. NPS is responsible for adminis- west Region status of inventories re- tering lands that contain natural re- port. Inventories are typically based sources of value to the USA. In the on anecdotal records of species (sight midwestern part of the nation, some records), although a few may have of the lands are particularly impor- voucher specimens as their basis tant for managing and preserving (e.g., Hopewell Culture; Bennett and natural prairies and woodlands of the Course 1996). Mississippi River Valley and the sur- Recently, NPS has become inter- rounding region. Parks in this ested in determining if there are “Heartland Network” are shown in voucher specimens for plants and Table 1. These 15 parks range from animals collected in the parks, either just under 200 to almost 95,000 before the park was authorized or acres in area, and occupy a total area afterwards. Park records of speci- of 234,191 acres. mens collected using the NPS permit Plant inventories for some of the system are incomplete and unreli- parks are not complete (Bennett able, particularly in earlier years. 1996). The status of animal invento- Repositories of plant and animal ries is summarized in the NPS Mid- specimens (herbaria and museums,

26 The George Wright FORUM Table 1. The 15 National Park System units in the Heartland Network. Year Park authorized Acreage Arkansas Post National Memorial (Arkansas) 1960 389 Buffalo National River (Arkansas) 1972 94,309 Cuyahoga Valley National Park (Ohio) 1974 32,525 Effigy Mounds National Monument (Iowa) 1949 1,481 George Washington Carver National 1943 210 Monument (Missouri) Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial (Indiana) 1962 200 Herbert Hoover National Historic Site (Iowa) 1965 187 Homestead National Monument of America 1936 195 (Nebraska) Hopewell Culture National Historical Park 1923 1,130 (Ohio) Hot Springs National Park (Arkansas) 1832 5,549 Pipestone National Monument (Minnesota) 1937 282 Pea Ridge National Military Park (Arkansas) 1956 4,300 Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (Kansas) 1996 10,894 Ozark National Scenic Riverways (Missouri) 1964 80,790 Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield (Missouri) 1960 1,750 respectively) exist throughout the · Aid in understanding vegetation USA, and are typically found at col- changes through time; leges and universities, while a few · Help determine the effects of exist as separate institutions. Some management; have been in existence longer than · Determine if particular species are the parks, and collectors typically no longer found in the parks; deposit specimens at such reposito- · Aid in ecological restoration ries to guarantee a long life for the projects; collection. It is highly likely, there- · Document previously unknown fore, that there exist collections of collecting activity; and specimens from these national parks · Aid in understanding the history that are unknown to the NPS. The of the area. agency would benefit from the Objectives knowledge of these specimens in at This project was initiated to least eight ways. Such knowledge search selected herbarium and mu- would: seum collections and databases for · Make the species inventories records of vertebrate and vascular specimen-based; plant specimens collected in the 15 · Make inventories more complete; Heartland parks. The objectives

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 27 were to: names of all contacts and the status of the computerization of the collec- · Improve our knowledge of park tions were recorded in a Microsoft biota by tracing unknown collec- Excel spreadsheet / database. tions and locating specimens; Collection site visits . It was dis- · Gather collection-level data for covered that the Zoological Depart- newer collections; ment of the Field Museum in Chi- · Gather specimen-level data for cago had a complete database of their older collections; and specimens, but the staff did not have · Assemble such data in a format time to query it for this study. usable to NPS for inclusion in Therefore, a trip was made to the the NPSpecies database. museum in order to perform queries Methods of the database on-site. Although Collections on the Worldwide there was a locality field in the data- Web. The study began by consulting base, the staff member we consulted the Natural History Collections Da- was not sure if it had ever been used tabase, compiled for the NPS Mid- when entering data. Queries were west Regional Office by Susan Guc- thus performed for each county in ciardo (2000). This database pro- which the 15 Heartland parks are vides statistics on flora and fauna re- located, and the results printed out. positories in the USA, including Because the Field Museum also Universal Resource Locator ad- has extensive botanical collections, dresses for those repositories having the Herbarium staff was consulted to Web sites. Some of these Web sites determine a method to search the could access the database of the re- non-databased specimens. First, the positories’ collections, while others collector’s log book was studied to had no links at all. Each one was determine if links could be found viewed, and those which were between collectors and the parks, but searchable were searched by park such information was not recorded name/locality, or by county or state there. Second, the folders containing name, if possible. a common grassland species, Boute- Next, the database was filtered to loua curtipendula, were searched include only those repositories manually for those counties in which which had placed information on the Heartland parks are located. their collections into a database, al- Three were found, but the labels did though they had Web site access to not give specific locality information. the information. This list was then This species was picked at random reviewed for relevance and useful- and no others were tried. No pub- ness to the project. Approximately lished list of specimens from any of ten institutions were selected and all the 15 parks was ever found that re- were contacted by phone or e-mail, ferred to them being deposited in the with varying degrees of success. The Field Museum.

28 The George Wright FORUM A site visit to the Missouri Botani- rare in the state, it was thought that, cal Garden (MBG) in St. Louis was consequently, they might also have made specifically to look for speci- information on historical collections mens from Hot Springs National of those species. The eight Natural Park collected by E. J. Palmer in the Heritage Programs were contacted 1920s and 1930s. The original refer- by letter, telephone, or fax, and each ence to these specimens (Palmer was requested to search its database 1926) was discovered in the park for information relating to the parks archives by the park historian. One of the state. The results from those day was spent by at the MBG’s Mon- who responded were also recorded santo Center searching for woody in the Excel spreadsheet. plant specimens of half the species in the 1926 Palmer report. The curator Index Herbariorum. The latest of the herbarium printed out the re- Index Herbariorum (Holmgren cords for all the Palmer collections 1990) was consulted, and all herbaria from Arkansas that were in the her- in the USA were evaluated based on barium database. These were search- the information on collections pro- able on the Web, but a search would vided there. An attempt was made to have taken too long to do because the contact all herbaria that appeared to Web site does not allow multiplex be useful to the study. All attempts searching by several fields. were recorded in the Excel database. Floristic references . It was In cases where contact attempts were thought that references providing successful, the status of the comput- historical narratives on collecting in erization of the collections in those the parks would be useful, because herbaria was recorded. For herbaria non-computerized institutions could with adequate databases, searches of search for species names that the collections were performed by the collectors had recorded, and collec- herbarium staff. tors’ names could be entered into Park managers . It was necessary databases without locality queries to contact resource managers of ten being available. Floras of all states in of the fifteen parks in order to refine the study were consulted for this the reference list provided in the purpose. The bibliography informa- proposal for this project. It was not tion was then recorded along with a clear whether the references were code to explain how the text relates already known to the park, or were to to this study. be considered leads for further Natural Heritage Inventories . searching. Some managers had more The Natural Heritage Inventories of to add to the list of references, others the eight states in the study were said it was complete, and still others considered to be possibly valuable said that many of the collections of sources. Since the inventories have the listed studies were not known. information on which species are The suggestions given by the re-

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 29 source managers were then under- because of space considerations) also taken. contains hot links to other files, all of NPS Natural Resource Bibliog- which are provided with the final raphy. The NPS Natural Resource report in the form of computer files Bibliography on the Web (NPS at a file transfer protocol (FTP) site: 2000) was searched for each of the http://www.ies.wisc.edu/pub/jpbenn 15 parks and relevant references, if et/NPS. Access to these files does not any, were recorded. require a password. Instructions for Automated National Catalog using the files are provided at the System (ANCS) records . A file FTP site. The appendix does not containing records of specimens contain fields for specific collector from the ANCS listings for 10 of the names or collection dates because the 15 parks was reviewed for specimens sources do not consistently have this that were not on-site at the parks. All data. For example, collector names the repositories listed for off-site are not available for the Tulane Uni- specimens were contacted for infor- versity or University of Kansas col- mation about the specimens and oth- lections, and the dates are not avail- ers that may be at the repositories. able for New York Botanical Garden Latitude and longitude searches . collections. The information dis- No searches using park latitudes and played in each hotlink is the total longitudes were performed. Only amount of data recovered from the one herbarium Web site was search- source, and any missing information able via latitude and longitude, but it is simply not available. was not necessary to use those coor- The individual park for which we dinates because it was also search- found the greatest number of sources able by park name. A few other re- was Hot Springs, with 30 sources positories allowed searches by park (9% of the total). Homestead had the latitude and longitude, but no results least, with 8 sources (2% of the total). were found. Individual parks averaged about 18 sources. Results The sources fell into two groups: In the time allotted to this project, computerized data sources and lit- 329 sources of specimen information erature sources. The characteristics were evaluated for the 15 parks (Ta- of the source, and the degree of use- ble 2). In the final report of the pro- fulness of each, were coded and are ject as submitted to the NPS Mid- shown in Table 3. These codes are west Regional Office, an appendix used in the appendix for brevity. Al- was included containing a complete most a fourth of the sources were listing of the 329 sources with infor- computerized databases that could mation on each, extracted from the be searched on-site, but not via a Excel file. The appendix (which had Web site. Almost a fifth were collec- to be omitted from the present paper tions that were not computerized in

30 The George Wright FORUM Table 2. Number of sources of specimen data for the 15 parks. The category “All 15 parks” includes sources of data that could be searched for all the parks in the study, not just a single park. Park; number of data sources Arkansas Post 17 Hot Springs 30 Buffalo 24 Lincoln Boyhood 16 Cuyhoga Valley 24 Ozark 14 Effigy Mounds 18 Pea Ridge 19 George Washington Carver 14 Pipestone 17 Herbert Hoover 18 Tallgrass Prairie 17 Hopewell Culture 21 Wilson’s Creek 12 Homestead 8 All 15 parks 60 Grand total = 329

Table 3. Number of sources by characteristic code for 329 specimen data sources. Number of Code sources Code explanation 0 61 0 = Collections are not computerized in any way; no database at 21 all. 2 76 1 = Collections are currently being entered into a database but 3 17 are not yet searchable, even on site. 4 33 2 = Collections are databased and can be searched on site, but 5 2 not via a Web site. A 31 3 = Collections are searchable through the Web but not B 6 through search fields that are useful, or specimens that are B,C 1 useful have not been entered into the database. C 18 4 = Collections are fully searchable through remote access on C,D 2 Web site. 5 = Web site only describes collections but does not allow D 6 searches. E 2 A = Text contains no search leads. F 2 B = Text contains some vegetation distribution by county. G 3 C = Text contains some history of past collectors. H 2 D = Text listed where a collection/voucher specimens is/are I 1 located. n/a 2 E = Text mentions that live specimens were released, or that nc 43 data was observational, i.e., no collections were made. F = Text contains flora/fauna distributions by some area other than county but none of particular relevance to this study. G = Text implies a collection was made but does not provide further information. H = Text lists species present or provides an inventory. I = Text not seen, but collections were found serendipitously at MBG and University of Missouri. n/a = Not applicable. nc = No contact made.

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 31 any way at all. Ten percent were fully specimen data from all the parks in searchable on a Web site. Thirteen the study. percent of the sources were not con- The 56 sources are hotlinked in tacted. Six percent of the collections the final report’s appendix. Some of were being entered into a database these sources are actual Excel but were not yet searchable. Ten spreadsheets in native format from percent of the literature sources pro- the source and have not been edited. vided no leads at all as to collections, Many contain county-level informa- while 5% provided some history of tion only, and each park will have to collecting. Five percent of the determine individually if the records searchable collections did not have refer to specimens from within park useful search fields or specimens en- boundaries. Other hotlinks are for tered that were relevant to this study. Microsoft Word text files or images We were able to retrieve record of texts. Some of the hotlinks are information from 56 sources (17%) only for the first page of a set of re- (Table 4), with Hot Springs having cords because including the entire the greatest number. All parks had original document would have been some record information, although prohibitively long. All originals will Lincoln Boyhood had the smallest, be sent to each park and the NPS with only one source. Prairie Cluster long-term ecological The 56 sources contained a total monitoring office for their files. of 3,292 specimens representing 991 As a result of contacts found in species across all 15 parks. It is not Index Herbariorum, some curators known if there are duplicates in these were able to provide helpful infor- tallies, so the actual numbers may be mation. For example, Iowa State lower. Time did not allow us to University provided bibliographic break down the species and speci- information on many studies per- mens by park. However, the break- formed in the Iowa counties of Alla- down by biotic group is shown in makee and Cedar, in which Effigy Table 5. This table is a bit mislead- Mounds National Monument and ing because the herpetofauna and Herbert Hoover National Historic mammal sources are mostly all one Site, respectively, are located. These source, the University of Michigan studies often mentioned the location collections, and are repeated for of voucher specimens, although no many parks. The plants group are subsequent action could be taken actually the largest category of because the repositories mentioned specimens and collections (17%), were not computerized, and it was followed by birds at 12%. too late in the study for travel to A tabulation of results by source those locations. Also, the herbaria and park is shown in Table 6. Fifteen are too understaffed to search for sources contained specimens or hundreds of specimens by hand.

32 The George Wright FORUM Table 4. Number of sources from which records were retrieved for the 15 parks. The source category “All 15 parks” (see Table 2 caption) contained no source records because once records were found for a particular park, that information was moved to the park category to which it belonged. Park; number of data sources from which records retrieved Arkansas Post 2 Hot Springs 9 Buffalo 5 Lincoln Boyhood 1 Cuyhoga Valley 5 Ozark 5 Effigy Mounds 2 Pea Ridge 4 George Washington Carver 5 Pipestone 5 Herbert Hoover 2 Tallgrass Prairie 4 Hopewell Culture 2 Wilson’s Creek 2 Homestead 3 All 15 parks 0 Grand total = 56 (17% of 329 total sources)

Table 5. Number of record sources by biotic group. Biotic group; number of record sources All 1 Herpetofauna 13 Birds 7 Mammals 19 Bryophytes 5 Plants 10 Fish 1 Grand total 56

A large amount of specimen data The complete set of Pipestone re- was found for two parks: Pipestone cords are in an Excel spreadsheet as and Hot Springs. For Pipestone, we part of the final report to NPS. were able to locate label data for al- It appears that there has been a lot most 500 specimens at the University of collecting activity at Hot Springs of Minnesota Herbarium. These for some time. The park provided a specimens contained “Pipestone Na- list of collectors dating back to 1804, tional Monument” in the manage- and we were able to locate specimens ment area field, and were fully gathered by one of the collectors, E. searchable at the Web site. However, J. Palmer. We also discovered col- twenty-five records were viewable on lections by another botanist, Delzie a screen, and it was not possible to Demaree, of whom park officials had download the results of the search no knowledge. There is also evi- from the Web site. We contacted the dence of collections by H. R. Gregg database manager with a request for at the National Herbarium in Wash- the full query results, and these were ington, but we were unable to verify sent by e-mail at no charge. The Pip- their existence. estone records represent the best The earliest collections from Hot retrieval of all the parks in the study, Springs were those of Palmer in the and are the model which other col- early 1920s. Palmer published find- lection institutions should follow. ings on specimens of the woody spe-

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 33 Table 6. Specimen collections from the 15 parks by source and biotic group. Source Biotic Group Parks Completeness Cleveland Museum Plants Cuyahoga Valley Complete Field Museum Birds Arkansas Post, Buffalo, Pea Complete Ridge, Pipestone, Ozark, Homestead, Cuyahoga Valley Field Museum Mammals Hot Springs, Herbert Complete Hoover Kansas State University Plants Tallgrass Prairie Complete Minnesota Natural Heritage Many Pipestone Complete Program Missouri Botanical Garden Plants Hot Springs Incomplete New York Botanical Garden Bryophytes Buffalo, Hot Springs, Complete Pipestone, George Washington Carver, Ozark Smithsonian Plants Hot Springs Incomplete Truman State University Plants George Washington Carver, Complete Ozark Tulane University Museum Fish Buffalo Complete University of Arkansas at Mammals Hot Springs Complete Fayetteville University of Kansas Mammals Buffalo, Pea Ridge, Effigy Complete Mounds, Herbert Hoover, Tallgrass Prairie, Pipestone, George Washington Carver, Ozark, Wilson’s Creek, Cuyahoga Valley, Hopewell Culture University of Michigan Herpetofauna Arkansas Post, Buffalo, Hot Complete Museum Springs, Pea Ridge, Lincoln Boyhood, Effigy Mounds, Tallgrass Prairie, George Washington Carver, Ozark, Wilson’s Creek, Homestead, Cuyahoga Valley, Hopewell Culture University of Michigan Mammals Pea Ridge, Tallgrass Prairie, Complete Museum George Washington Carver, Homestead, Cuyahoga Valley University of Minnesota Plants Pipestone Complete Herbarium University of Missouri Plants Hot Springs Incomplete cies he collected (Palmer 1926), but their database of Palmer specimens not on those of the herbaceous spe- from Garland County, many with the cies. He stated that the woody phrase “hot springs” in the locality specimens were deposited at the field. However, of these 115 records, Arnold Arboretum, the MBG, and only 11 of the specimens were actu- the University of Arkansas. A visit to ally at MBG, because the remainder the MBG located 115 records in are located at the University of Mis-

34 The George Wright FORUM souri Herbarium in Columbia. The ium, but this can only be verified by MBG database includes the Univer- a visit there. sity of Missouri records, so both are Finally, a specimen collected by retrieved. The MBG database only Demaree in 1942, with “Hot Springs contains about one-quarter of all the National Park” actually written on specimens at MBG because it is not the label, was located by chance at yet complete. A physical search of MBG (Figure 1). Curators at MBG part of the MBG herbarium for and University of Missouri were able Palmer specimens using the woody to retrieve records for Demaree col- species mentioned in Palmer 1926 lections at both herbaria. The park located 20 out of 35 taxa. had no record of Demaree collec- A search by the curator at Univer- tions. Those Demaree specimens sity of Missouri located 97 Palmer which are in the two databases can specimens, even though MBG listed be incorporated into the park’s data- 111. Some of the supposed Univer- base, but others will have to be sity of Missouri specimens in the searched for manually. MBG database were actually physi- It should also be pointed out that cally at MBG, which could explain MBG may not contain all the Palmer the discrepancy. Another search at and Demaree specimens they are the university also located some of supposed to have because some of Palmer’s Hot Springs specimens them may have been deaccessioned from the 1930s. A search of the Na- by Robert E. Woodson during his tional Herbarium’s type database, tenure as herbarium director in the which is on the Worldwide Web, period 1948-1963 (Solomon 1998). located two Palmer isotype speci- Some specimens therefore could mens from Hot Springs. These are have been transferred to any of 68 very important specimens for the other botanical institutions during park. Finally, findings on the herba- this period, and it may not be possi- ceous specimens that Palmer 1926 ble to locate them. refers to were never, to our knowl- edge, published. The only way to Discussion discover these specimens is by man- In three months of searching for ual searching of the herbarium, but specimen records we were able to without a species list it may not be locate 329 sources of data, and found possible. Only a few of them can be specimen records in 56 (or 17%) of retrieved using the printouts from them. This is not a very high return each herbarium. rate. A more acceptable rate of return Another collector at Hot Springs would be closer to 50%. This low was H. R. Gregg. Park officials pro- rate of return is due to a number of vided a 1935 list of 451 specimens factors, including technological from the park that are supposedly limitations at specimen repositories, deposited at the National Herbar- poor communication by repository

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 35 Figure 1. Red maple specimen collected by Delzie Demaree, 27 March 1942. Note that it is specifically labelled as having been collected in Hot Springs National Park. Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium specimen #1270862. officials, incomplete record histories, a single park because the project and the lack of time to concentrate on scope included 15 parks.

36 The George Wright FORUM We found more specimen data for section identifiers. One specimen plants than for animals. This may be may require a day or more of re- due to the investigators’ greater fa- search just to determine its geo- miliarity with herbaria, the fact that graphic location. there are more herbaria in existence We were unable to tally the num- than museums, that more herbaria ber of species and specimens by each are computerized, or that there are park from this data. This is because more plant specimens in existence. some of the collections sources are Although we found only one for more than one park. We did not source of data for Lincoln Boyhood, have time to break out the specimens it was encouraging that we found by park in these sources. specimen data for every park in the Some of the sources contain data study. This is an indication that na- that is specific to the county level tional parks are attractive to collec- only, not to the park level. This tors and that there is a good chance means some of the specimen data that data do exist for any park under may not be useful at all because the study. More investigation may turn specimens may not be from parks. up even more sources for these These records will have to be parks. checked by park officials before they The quality of the data is highly can be useful. variable, ranging from detailed label information that includes the park Recommendations name in a field, to lists of species Our first recommendation is to with no label information at all. Label not conduct similar searches in the information fields are inconsistent future for more than one park. Our among repositories, as there is no survey of 15 parks led to constant standardization between them. Even confusion about which source was though we were able to collect data for which park. We were unable to for almost 3,300 specimens, there is concentrate our efforts because we little we could do with it because of were trying to find records for so the lack of standardization. Each many parks. A higher rate of return collection will have to be hand-en- would be more acceptable, and could tered into NPS databases because be achieved, if the focus were on one there is no way to automate the proc- park instead of many. ess. Our second recommendation is to In addition, historical collections, have searches performed by subject- when found, often have very incom- matter experts. Our expertise is in plete data associated with them. La- botany, and we were able to locate bel information is very sparse, and botanical specimens easily and accu- location data is often non-existent. It rately. Our success with animal is very rare to find specimens with specimens was not good because our park names or township, range and familiarity with the subject was not

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 37 expert. 2. Locate the herbaceous speci- Third, future searches should in- mens using computer lists from clude more time for manual searches the herbaria. Specimens not yet based on species lists from published computerized cannot be located. sources. Many collections are still 3. Locate specimens collected by not yet computerized or Web-en- Demaree at MBG and University abled, and on-site searches will be of Missouri using computer lists more productive. Of the 15 parks we from the herbaria. Determine if studied, the one that would benefit there are any at the Smithsonian. the most from a more detailed study 4. Locate specimens collected by of off-site specimen collections is Hot Gregg at the Smithsonian using Springs. This study uncovered what the list from the park. appear to be very site-specific collec- Specimens not yet computerized in tions that are sufficiently docu- any of these herbaria that are not on mented to merit further study. Some published lists cannot be located ex- of the specimens are known by spe- cept by chance. Specimens that have cies and repository. been deaccessioned by any of the Twenty-three specific recom- herbaria probably cannot be located mendations by park and specimen at all. The four tasks outlined above, repository are listed in the spread- however, would add considerably to sheet version of the final report’s ap- our knowledge of off-site Hot pendix. These recommendations Springs collections. refer to both complete and incom- plete searches, and are too detailed Conclusions to summarize in a narrative. Future This project began with a worthy work could include follow-up inves- goal: discover specimens of plants tigations of the incomplete searches, and animals from national parks that either by resuming the contacts to the parks have no knowledge of. The determine if more computerization goal, however, contains a paradox: has been performed, or carrying out How can one find specimens from the recommendations listed in the parks if the specimens are unknown? final report’s appendix. This paradox made the project diffi- For Hot Springs, the Palmer and cult from the start, and frustrated our other collections at MBG, University efforts throughout. The project was of Missouri, and the Smithsonian can unable to focus on tangible items and be completed by following these products. There is no easy solution steps: to this problem because, by nature, the project is searching for positive 1. Complete the inventory of evidence based on negative evidence. woody specimens by manually In spite of this inherent problem, searching for them in the her- we were able to uncover evidence of baria using the published list. almost 1,000 taxa and almost 3,300

38 The George Wright FORUM specimens that could be from the 15 nally, entering the data into NPS da- parks. Records of plants outnum- tabases. This project was unable to bered animal records. Almost a carry out these latter steps due to fourth of the sources were comput- time, funding, and logistical con- erized databases that could be straints. searched on-site, but not via a Web On the plus side, however, NPS is site. Almost a fifth were collections to be lauded for initiating this project that were not computerized in any and getting started on this important way at all. Ten percent were fully task. The biological resources of the searchable on a Web site. Records of national parks are under increasing specimens were found for all 15 pressure from humanity. Changes in parks. Data quality was highly vari- biota are often subtle and go unno- able, and we were unable to stan- ticed until it is too late. Retrospective dardize the data for automatic incor- studies such as this are a start to un- poration into NPS databases. covering the biological history of an Further work is needed to focus area, and hopefully will lead to the work on sets of records with a greater preservation and restoration high probability of success for NPS. of park biodiversity. The NPS Just searching for records is only half should not abandon this work be- the work. The other half is perform- cause one project such as this yielded ing quality assurance checks on the a low return. data, standardizing the data, and fi- Ed. note: This article is based on a final report (dated 23 February 2001) to the Heartland Network Inventory and Monitoring Program, National Park Service Midwest Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska (Interagency Agreement IA6370A0002). References Bennett, J.P. 1996. Floristic summary of 22 midwestern national parks. Natural Areas Journal 16, 295-302. Bennett, J.P., and J.E.J. Course. 1996. The vascular flora of Hopewell Culture National Historical Park, Ross County, Ohio. Rhodora 98, 146-167. Gucciardo, S. 2000. Natural History Collections. Collections.mdb Microsoft Access database. Omaha, Neb.: Midwest Region, National Park Service. Holmgren, P.K. 1992. Index Herbariorum. Part 1. The Herbaria of the World. 8th ed. New York: New York Botanical Garden Press. NPS [National Park Service]. 2000. NPS Natural Resource Bibliography. . Palmer, E.J. 1926. The ligneous flora of Hot Springs National Park and vicinity. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 7, 104-135. Solomon, J.C. 1998. Specimen deaccessions from the Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium during the tenure of Robert E. Woodson (1948-1963). Taxon 47, 663-680.

James P. Bennett, U. S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Division and Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wisconsin 53705; [email protected] 1

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 39 40 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

David Sheppard Twenty-first Century Strategies for Protected Areas in East Asia

Introduction he dawn of the new millennium provides an excellent opportunity to assess the future of conservation in the 21st century. The Fontainbleau Symposium, held in France in November 1998 to T mark the 50th anniversary of IUCN–The World Conservation Union, reviewed conservation achievements over the previous half-century and assessed future challenges. The symposium noted a dichotomy. On the one hand, awareness of conservation issues has never been higher. Concepts such as biodiversity conservation and sustainable development are increasingly being mainstreamed into key sectors of the economy. The recent proliferation of international environmental conventions also reflects growing awareness of the significance of the environment for life on earth. However, on the other hand, many key environmental indicators give rise to major concerns. The rate at which humans are altering their environment, and the impact of this on biodiversity, is accelerating and likely to increase by an order of magnitude over the next century or so. This dichotomy shows a clear need for the establishment and implementation of clearer and more effective conservation priorities. These messages are particularly in addressing the challenges of relevant in East Asia, where high biodiversity conservation and sus- populations and rapid economic tainable development in East Asia. development are placing pressure on Protected areas have been established remaining natural resources. The throughout the region and these areas scale of the problem is underlined by represent a vital investment by East the fact that Asia accounts for less Asian countries to ensure a healthy than 15% of the world’s land but is environment in the 21st century. the home of 50% of the world’s However, the full potential of this population. The need for effective investment will not be realized unless conservation of natural resources is dynamic and forward-looking strat- increasingly apparent, and most egies are developed and implemented countries in the region are in the region. This paper provides responding. Protected areas are background on protected areas within playing an increasingly important role East Asia and suggests some strategies

40 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia to ensure that their potential is resources was also embodied in the reached. work of scholars such as Confucius. Such thinking is reflected in China, Protected Area for example, where the values of Status in East Asia forests have been recorded for at least The East Asian Region, as defined 2,500 years, leading to the by IUCN’s World Commission on establishment of temple gardens, re- Protected Areas (WCPA), covers the stricted hunting areas, and landscape Democratic People’s Republic of forests. This long history of nature Korea (North Korea), Republic of conservation is shared by the other Korea (South Korea), Japan, Mon- countries of the region, such as North golia, People’s Republic of China and South Korea, where conservation (including Hong Kong), Macau, and efforts date back to King Chinsi (540- Taiwan. This is an area of almost 12 576 AD) of the Sinra Dynasty, who million sq km and encompasses a di- stressed the importance of scenic verse range of biogeographical and areas. In Japan, some of the first ref- cultural features. As one of the erences to wildlife conservation date world’s most populous regions, the from the 7th century AD when the interface between nature and humans Japanese Emperor organized a “bird is often blurred. As Mishra (1994) hunting and preservation section” in notes: “The line where nature ends the Imperial Government. Mongolia and human influence begins is indis- has its own tradition for protecting tinct and only an artifact of our lim- nature that goes back to the 13th ited perception of time.” century, when many forested hills Conservation of important natural were protected as holy areas; in the resources has a long history in Asia. late 1700s the first reserve, McNeely and Wachtel (1991) record Boghdkhan Mountain Strictly Pro- the long history of traditional conser- tected Area, was established. vation systems and note practices Protected areas have been estab- such as hunting rituals which allowed lished in almost all countries in the people to live in balance with avail- region. Table 1 shows the current able resources. People in East Asia extent of protected areas in the region have always had a strong awareness of according to IUCN management nature and the need for its preserva- category. The coverage of protected tion. Often this was based on aesthetic areas in East Asia is variable between values of a particular site rather than a countries and between ecosystems. conscious awareness of the need for There is also considerable variation conservation (McNeely et. al. 1994). in the effectiveness of management of Ancient thinking on conservation and these protected areas. Nevertheless, in on protecting important natural the East Asia region there has been a

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 41 Protected Areas in East Asia major expansion in the number of 1996). The expansion of protected protected areas over the last 30 years, areas in the region has often led to going from far fewer than 100 to conflicts over the use of natural re- nearly 900. Some countries, such as sources. In many East Asian countries Japan, have had well-established it is clear that conservation efforts systems of national parks and other must consider and be linked with the protected areas for many years. Oth- needs of local communities. In Asia, ers, such as Mongolia, have recently rural people are part of nature and witnessed a large expansion of the have always seen themselves as such protected area estate (Chimed-Ochir (McNeely and Wachtel 1991).

Table 1. Total number and area of protected areas in East Asia by IUCN manage- ment category. Number (% of Area, sq km IUCN Category Total) (% of Total) Ia — Strict Nature Reserve 35 (4.57%) 90,681 (10.27%) Ib — Wilderness Area 24 (3.13%) 498,673 (56.48%) II — National Park 56 (7.31%) 74,437 (8.43%) III — Natural Monument 30 (3.92%) 11,281 (1.28%) IV — Habitat / Species Management Area 195 (25.46%) 63,449 (7.19%) V — Protected Landscape / Seascape 96 (12.53%) 60,601 (6.86%) VI — Managed Resource Protected Area 330 (43.08%) 83,725 (9.48%) Total 766 (100%) 882,847 (100%)

42 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia There is no question that East Asia conflict with conservation and has made progress in the establish- protected area programs. Eco- ment of protected areas. However, nomic factors have a major influ- there are still significant challenges: ence within the region. The early · Key habitats, particularly marine 1990s witnessed the economic ecosystems, are under-represented. growth of the “Asian Tigers,” with In East Asia, marine and coastal East Asian countries and territories ecosystems are particularly vulner- having an unparalleled period of able to the environmental impacts economic growth and develop- of development activities. East Asia ment. This was followed by the is characterized by very high human economic downturn in 1998, lead- populations along the coasts, which ing to significant cuts in the budgets contribute to considerable pres- of conservation agencies. This fac- sures on marine biodiversity. A tor underlines the need for accurate number of marine protected areas valuation of the services provided (MPAs) have been established in by protected areas and the need for East Asia, but still more are re- this information to be clearly com- quired (Kelleher et. al. 1995). It is municated to key decision-makers. critical that decisions regarding the establishment of protected areas, 21st Century Strategies both on land and at sea, are based Establish more protected areas on a rational assessment system and and make more use of the range of clear priorities. They also need to IUCN management categories. As link with the sustainable develop- noted above, there are gaps, at the ment aspirations of local commu- global and East Asian level, in terms nities, particularly in relation to the of protected area coverage. A com- role of MPAs in sustaining fish parison of areal coverage by IUCN stocks. management category (Table 2) shows that almost 9% of the world’s · The majority of area under pro- surface is under protected status, tection falls within the IUCN pro- while only 7.5% of the East Asian tected area categories I and II, thus region is. Furthermore, the majority suggesting a need for a broader fo- of this area is in IUCN categories I cus. and II. IUCN suggests, through its · The globally recognized imperative “Guidelines for National Systems of linking conservation and devel- Planning,” that any national pro- opment is particularly pertinent in tected area system plan should in- East Asia, where population pres- clude the full range of protected area sures and the requirement for eco- categories, covering all terrestrial and nomic development can and does marine ecosystem type. In East Asia,

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 43 Protected Areas in East Asia

Table 2. Proportion of land area coverage by IUCN management categories: Global vs. East Asia. IUCN Category Global East Asia I — Strict Nature Reserve / Wilderness Area 1.28% 5.00% II — National Park 2.67% 0.63% III — Natural Monument 0.13% 0.10% IV — Habitat / Species Management Area 1.64% 0.54% V — Protected Landscape / Seascape 0.71% 0.51% VI — Managed Resource Protected Area 2.40% 0.71% Total 8.83% 7.49% gaps still exist for grasslands and lake · Such areas offer good opportunities systems as well as in coverage of the to build new partnerships with marine environment. In many East stakeholders, particularly local Asian countries the traditional em- communities; and phasis has been to extend the number of protected areas in Categories I to · Such areas can provide models for IV. However, a major change of em- the sustainable management of ru- phasis, and perception, is required to ral land generally (after Phillips bring more category V areas into 1998). protected area networks, and addi- Although few Category V areas tional, larger category VI areas. There have been designated in East Asia, are several reasons to give more they are very common in other re- attention to these multi-use protected gions, such as Europe. A typical ex- area categories in East Asia: ample are the national parks of Eng- · Future opportunities to create new land and Wales, which are mainly category I-IV areas in East Asia are upland areas where traditional farm- limited; ing practices and a relatively harsh climate means that much of the · Category V and VI areas are po- country is left open for low-intensity tentially important as buffer and grazing, and is thus also suitable for corridor areas to more strictly pro- recreation and access. Category VI tected areas; expands the protected areas concept · The biodiversity and other values to to link conservation with sustainable be found in such areas are often development and also covers those significant; relatively natural areas in which local

44 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia communities have traditional rights to from the land. The common elements access to natural resources for their of these approaches are: strictly sustainable use. protected core areas, surrounded by · The message for East Asian coun- buffer or support zones, and linked by tries is the importance of ensuring corridors of “ecologically friendly” that full use is made of the range of land management. This approach is protected areas. Also, those biomes showing that protected areas can be which are currently under-repre- integrated into broader regional land- sented should be given more atten- use planning if there is the political tion. will, local support, and the necessary administrative and legal framework to Plan systematically to place pro- make it happen. tected areas in a broader context. The central message from IUCN’s The opportunities for such ap- 1997 Albany symposium [a “mid- proaches should be assessed in East term review” of progress since the Asia. Models, such as the biosphere 1992 World Parks Congress; the reserve, are well-established in the symposium was held in Albany, region and provide an excellent Western Australia — ed.] was to framework for broader bioregional move planning away from individual planning. The biosphere reserve ap- “islands” of protection towards net- proach has more than 20 years of works of protected areas that link with practical application and the concept each other and with surrounding is particularly valid in East Asia, land-uses. The consequence of not where conservation efforts must be planning in this way is that existing considered in the context of national protected areas will continue to be- and regional development impera- come more and more fragmented and tives. A number of countries in the increasingly vulnerable to external region, such as China, have devel- threats such as climate change. oped networks of biosphere reserves, WCPA is thus encouraging new ap- under the direction of effective Na- proaches that link protected areas tional MAB (Man and the Biosphere) with the management of entire water- committees. In China, more than 60 sheds and marine ecosystems and also nature reserves constitute the China that link protected area “islands” with Biosphere Reserve Network. This corridors of wildlands. These network fulfils a valuable role in fa- initiatives recognize that management cilitating exchange and information, of protected areas cannot be sepa- both within China and between rated from what happens on sur- China and other countries. rounding lands—as is clearly shown Protected area planning should for the marine environment, where also be linked with other planning 50% of all pollutants in the sea come frameworks, such as National Biodi-

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 45 Protected Areas in East Asia versity Strategies, which call on all Often such values are neither contracting parties to the Convention identified nor articulated in govern- on Biological Diversity to develop ment policy forums, even though they (under Article 8) systems of protected can be significant. Clearer articula- areas, thus providing a useful frame- tion of the benefits of protected areas work for integrating concepts such as can show how they relate to different bioregional planning and corridors. sectors of government policy. Table 3 · The key strategy for East Asian gives examples. countries should be to widen tradi- Protected area values need to be tional approaches to protected ar- clearly articulated and communi- eas, so that they are seen as core cated. Recent work by IUCN on the conservation areas within wider economic values of protected areas land-use planning. Specifically, (IUCN 1998) reveals that they are protected areas in East Asia should: often significant revenue-earning en- (1) form an integrated aspect of re- tities and can make an important gional planning; (2) be concerned contribution to local economies. For with an interlinked network, rather instance, recent studies indicate that than a series of individual sites; and Canada is expected to create (3) encourage managers to give CDN$6.5 billion dollars in annual even higher priority to outreach and Gross Domestic Product from the communication with local expenditure of participants in wild- communities and other land users. life-related activities, which sustain 159,000 jobs and creates CDN$2.5 Increased support, at all levels, billion in tax revenue each year. for protected areas is essential if they Australia receives over AUS$2 billion are to have a viable future. In many in expenditure from eight national parts of the world, protected areas are parks—at a direct cost to governments seen as marginal to other areas of of only some AUS$60 million. In policy, such as economic develop- Costa Rica, about US$12 million is ment and agriculture. If protected spent annually to maintain the areas are to have a strong and viable national parks, but foreign exchange future, this situation must change. associated with the parks was more Protected areas need to be accepted than US$330 million in 1991, with as credible sectors in their own right 500,000 overseas visitors; park- and mainstreamed along with other generated tourism is the second larg- policy areas. A key issue is to appro- est industry in the country. priately identify and communicate the There is a clear message here: in- many values and benefits that vestment in protected areas can pro- protected areas offer society. vide significant benefits to national and local economies. Far from being

46 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

Table 3. Values of protected areas and principal sectoral policy implications.

Biodiversity conservation · nature conservation · health · agriculture · industry · foreign affairs Watershed protection · natural resources management · water supply Storm protection · disaster prevention Tourism · economic development · transport Local amenity · local government · recreation · public health Forest products · forestry · economic development · community affairs Soil conservation · agriculture · natural resources management Carbon sequestration · energy policy • foreign affairs Research and education · research · science • education (all levels) Cultural values · community affairs • local government Source: Phillips 1998 locked up and lost to local users, these It is assumed that similar figures areas represent an opportunity for exist in East Asian countries, par- sustainable industries and for the ticularly in the context of the tourism generation of financial returns. industry. To date, there has been little

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 47 Protected Areas in East Asia assessment of the economic contri- designated areas, such as World bution of protected areas in East Asia. Heritage sites. However, those studies which been Protected areas thus provide ma- undertaken indicate that the contri- jor benefits through nature-based bution is significant. Yoshida (1996) tourism; however, the benefits from notes that, since 1992, there have ecosystem services are much higher. been many efforts to increase aware- For example, protected areas can ness of the importance of protected play a major role in minimizing the areas for tourism in the region. Al- impacts of catastrophic storm events, though tourism benefits associated such as those in China in 1998. Pro- can be significant, it is important that tection of upper catchment areas pro- tourism be carefully planned so it vide watershed protection to lowland does not destroy the natural resource river valleys, preventing soil erosion on which it is based in the first place. and reducing the severity of flood and There are many examples around the drought. In China, for example, it has world of high tourist use of protected been found that the annual added areas, coupled with poor planning, value of water and soil conservation, which have caused significant adverse air purification, acid rain buffering, environmental impacts. The high and other functions in three forested populations in East Asian and in- areas was between two and ten times creasing leisure time contribute to the gross output value of timber, increasing tourism impacts on pro- wood processing, and orchard pro- tected areas in the region. Strategies to duction. At the national level, it has address high visitor use are suggested been estimated that the economic by Jim (1996), in relation to country value of the water storage function of parks in Hong Kong, and may have China’s forests is three times the ac- application elsewhere in the region. tual value of the wood in those forests. Tourism is rapidly growing in The clearer identification of benefits many countries in the region. For from protected areas, and the use of example, in China the tourism sector such information to support is one of the most thriving industries protected areas in various economic in the country. Data from the World and political forums, is essential. Xue Tourism Organization indicates that and Tisdell (1999) quantify the many in 1993 China ranked fifteenth in values of ecosystem services associ- tourist arrivals and had the highest ated with the Changbaishan Moun- annual growth rate, 16.5%. The na- tain Biosphere Reserve in northeast ture-based tourism sector is increas- China. Their research focuses on a ing rapidly within the region, with monetary valuation of ecosystem particular focus on internationally services using the methods of market pricing, shadow engineering, op-

48 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia portunity cost, and alternative ex- amined. pense. Using these approaches, they There have been many recent ini- note that the value of the reserve for tiatives to more effectively involve ecosystem services is 16 times higher local communities in East Asia, such than the opportunity cost for regular as through some of the Integrated timber production. Conservation and Development Pro- Similarly, protected areas must grams underway in China. Increasing broaden the base of support at the population pressures, both in and local community level. Global and adjoining protected areas, have meant East Asian experience shows that that local people must be involved in only planning which fully involves all decisions regarding the establishment relevant actors is likely to be success- and management of protected areas. ful in the long term, though it may All countries in the region either often be more expensive and com- have, or are planning to initiate, plex initially. The more effective in- community involvement programs in volvement of local communities is their protected areas. There are one of the major challenges facing already a number of innovative protected areas in East Asia, and the examples of community involvement key issue is how this can be done most in East Asia. Wong (1996) outlines effectively. In many cases, the answer the wide range of formal (e.g., will require an attitude shift on the statutory) and informal (e.g., part of those responsible for protected volunteer) mechanisms used for in- areas, such that involving local volving local communities in pro- communities is seen as an integral tected area management in Hong part of good management. Protected Kong. In Japan, the “Shiretoko area professionals in many parts of 100m2 Movement” has engaged local East Asia need to expand support for people and organizations in an inno- protected areas. This should include vative campaign to purchase land for developing structures to allow more addition to the Shiretoko National effective local input, such as through Park and to prevent it being devel- locally based management structures oped for industrial purposes. Such which are designed to give key local examples may provide a good basis decision makers a “voice” in pro- for application elsewhere in the re- tected area decision-making [see gion and should be communicated. Senga article on the Philippines, this · The key message for East Asian issue — ed.]. Various co-manage- countries is to ensure that the full ment structures for protected areas range of benefits from protected ar- are increasingly being applied in eas are identified and appropriately many parts of the world, and their factored into government decision- relevance in East Asia should be ex- making. Also, local communities

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 49 Protected Areas in East Asia must be more closely and effectively advantages of private sector involved in the establishment and involvement in protected areas are the management of protected areas. high level of motivation, relative efficiencies in management, and Make use of the full range of economies of scale available to large models for establishing and man- companies. On the other side of the aging protected areas. Around the coin is the need for care, to ensure world, protected areas have tradi- that conservation objectives are not tionally been managed by govern- subsumed by the profit motive. ment agencies. Institutional arrange- Furthermore, very few private ments vary, but in many cases pro- companies currently have the tected areas are managed by small and expertise necessary for effective under-resourced departments. In conservation management. There are East Asia, protected areas are gener- several examples of private sector ally managed by different government involvement in nature conservation in agencies in ministries or departments East Asia. For example, Amway of environment or forestry, although Japan Limited (AJL) established the other agencies are increasingly be- Amway Nature Centre, which has coming involved. In addition, aca- assisted in a wide range of nature demic institutions often play an im- conservation projects in Japan. The portant role in nature conservation Keidanren Nature Conservation efforts. For example, in China the Fund, also based in Japan, has made a Chinese Academy of Sciences, and its considerable contribution to nature specialized institutes, play an impor- conservation, with many programs tant role in aspects such as natural focused on protected areas, both in resource monitoring in protected ar- the region and internationally eas. An important issue in East Asia is (Matsukawa 1996). Another example the need to improve coordination is found in the public-service between different agencies which are corporation established in support of involved in protected area and natural the Nikko National Park in Japan. resource management. The initiative results from a In many parts of the world the partnership between prefectures, private sector is becoming cities and neighboring towns, and an increasingly involved in protected electric company and other related areas. There are few successful business enterprises. The corporation examples to date of private sector is aimed at cleaning park sites, management of protected areas, but providing visitor guidance and this appears to be an area with supervision, repair and maintenance potential in East Asia, although not of facilities, and research; experience without its pitfalls. Potential to date is positive.

50 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia Nongovernmental organizations aspect in relation to NGOs is the need (NGOs) are also becoming to build more effective and long-term increasingly active in conservation partnerships with government throughout the world. They often agencies involved in protected areas. have particular strengths in working In many parts of the world the with and through local communities. relationship between government and In East Asia, it is clear that NGOs NGOs is marked by suspicion. This have major potential in the future needs to be replaced by an attitude of establishment and management of co-operation, partnership and mutual protected areas. Such involvement benefit. ranges from international NGOs such As well as examining alternatives as WWF, the World Wide Fund for to supplement government manage- Nature, which is particularly active in ment of protected areas, there is a China and Mongolia, to small NGOs need to improve existing government involved in the establishment and structures and procedures in relation management of specific protected to protected areas. Options such as areas within countries in the region. amalgamation of conservation- Examples of NGO involvement in oriented departments with similar East Asia include the Wild Bird objectives and the development of Society of Japan, which owns a mechanisms for improving inter- number of bird sanctuaries, and the agency coordination are being National Parks Association of Korea, examined in many countries, such as which has been active since 1971 in Australia and Africa. One interesting encouraging the establishment of trend in many countries, particularly protected areas in South Korea. The in Africa, is the establishment of work of the Wildlife Conservation parastatal bodies with responsibility Society’s field division in China has for protected area management. Such made important contributions to agencies, which have been protected areas designed to conserve established in countries such as the giant panda and associated flora Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, have a and fauna. Its wildlife surveys in Tibet greater level of independence and (Xizang) and Xinijang led directly to autonomy than traditional govern- the identification of protected areas, ment agencies, particularly in relation including the 4.5-million-ha Arjin to the ability to generate and retain Mountains Nature Reserve and the revenue. This latter point is an 33-million-ha Chang Tang Nature important consideration for revenue Reserve, the world’s second-largest generation programs for protected protected area. It is anticipated that areas in East Asia. the role of NGOs in protected areas in There is no right answer to the East Asia will increase. A critical question “What is the ideal

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 51 Protected Areas in East Asia institutional structure for protected protected area manager in the 21st areas in East Asia?” The right century are increasing in scale and approach will depend on the unique complexity. The range of skills thus circumstances of each country; in needs to be broadened to include, for most cases it will involve a mix of the example: above options. In reviewing protected · Management skills, such as in stra- area trends in the 1990s, it is clear that tegic planning and financial man- the involvement of the private sector agement; and NGOs in protected area management has been significant. It · Cultural and social expertise, re- may be assumed that this trend will lating, for example, to partnership accelerate in the 21st century. While and stewardship skills, dispute this appears positive, it is important to resolution, and networking with a be clear on the respective roles of complex array of stakeholders; these sectors in relation to · Technical skills in project design, government. It is critical that there be report writing, and information clearly defined management objec- technology; and tives for each country’s protected area · Policy expertise, such as under- system as a whole, and that they standing the broader legal frame- provide the framework for the work and the other sectoral policies clarification of roles of different within which protected area activi- actors. ties need to be implemented. · The key message for East Asian This will require a change on the countries is that the number of part of protected area agencies, both approaches to managing protected in terms of recruitment strategies and areas will increase and that it is in training and career development. important to ensure that a range of The need for training protected area approaches are used, tailored to the managers in East Asia has never been needs and circumstances in each higher and it is critical that it be country. broader than the traditional focus on natural resources. Relevant training Improve management capacity centres should be developed and, for protected areas. Protected areas where they already exist, strength- management is evolving rapidly. ened, to increase management ca- Traditionally, the protected area pacity. Existing training efforts, such manager is an expert in the natural as those implemented through the sciences, and management is seen as Japan Environment Agency, should an exercise involving the application be strengthened and expanded. of expertise to natural systems. Training is essential, but it must focus However, the challenges facing the on the types of skills, as outlined

52 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia above, that will be necessary if pro- example, there is currently a proposal tected area managers are able to face to establish an Asian Regional the challenges of the next century in Network for the management of East Asia. World Heritage sites, which would Another key element of capacity is provide a forum for the exchange of the need to improve regional and information and experience on international cooperation on World Heritage matters. UNESCO protected areas. Benefits from this also foresees the development of include a broader exposure to issues Asian networks on biosphere reserves as well as the potential to develop to complement networks developed cooperative approaches to common at the national level, such as in China. protected area problems. The In fact, China, North Korea, South benefits of such regional approaches Korea, Japan, and Mongolia have can be clearly seen in a number of been cooperating since 1993 to parts of the world. For example, the establish an East Asian Biosphere South Pacific Regional Environment Reserves Network (Aruga 1996). Programme has developed into a very During the last decade many effective regional environmental body countries in the region have also in the Pacific and has strong support acceded to various international from governments of the region. In conventions and programs associated Africa, SADC, the South African with protected areas, such as the Development Community, has made Convention on Biodiversity, and a significant impact in increasing the these provide useful opportunities for levels of support for wildlife and cooperation between the countries environmental conservation, as well and territories in East Asia. There are as promoting technical exchanges also important opportunities for between countries. cooperation between specific Such regional networks should be countries in the region, through the encouraged in East Asia. A number of establishment and management of organizations have been active since transboundary protected areas— the 1960s in assisting countries in the contiguous protected areas between region to plan and develop their two or more countries. protected area networks. Bodies such WCPA plays a small but growing as UNESCO, WWF, and IUCN have role in strengthening networks in the all been involved, in partnership with East Asia region; there is considerable relevant national agencies. Ishwaran scope for broadening this role. Since (1996) notes the increasing activities the first regional meeting of WCPA in of networks in East Asia implemented East Asia (in Beijing, 1993), and the under UNESCO as World Heritage second (in Kushiro, Japan, 1996), sites and biosphere reserves. For there has been steady but significant

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 53 Protected Areas in East Asia progress. Activities have included the approaches to improve protected area development of a regional action plan management in the region. To work for protected areas; implementation effectively, these networks must have of seminars on topical protected area a clear focus and be adequately issues, such as tourism; and the funded and staffed. The strengthening fostering of communication and and harnessing of such networks is a exchange of experience between very important challenge for building protected area managers in the capacity for protected areas in the region. The implementation of four East Asian region in the next century. projects identified in the regional · The key message for East Asian action plan for protected areas is also countries is the need to build contributing to strengthening protected area capacity at all levels, protected area capacity in the region. with particular emphasis on One of these projects deals ensuring managers are equipped specifically with options for with the skills needed for the 21st developing an exchange program in century, as well as expanding and the region. Networks such as WCPA strengthening protected area can play a potentially valuable role networks in the region. and should be a critical component of

(Ed. note: This article is an abridged version of a paper delivered at the Third Conference on the Protected Areas of East Asia: Community Involvement in and Around the Protected Areas in East Asia, September 1999.)

References Aruga, Y. 1996. Networking of biosphere reserves in the East Asian region. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. [CNPPA was the former name of the WCPA.] Chimed-Ochir, B. 1996. Protected areas of Mongolia—Past, present, and future. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. China Man and the Biosphere Programme. 1996. China’s Biosphere Reserves. N.p.: Chinese National Committee for MAB. Kelleher, G., C. Bleakley, and S. Wells (eds.). 1995. A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas—Volume III: Central Indian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Africa, and East Asian Seas. Produced by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, and IUCN. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Green, M.J.B., and J. Paine. 1997. State of the world’s protected areas at the end of the twentieth century. Paper presented at the WCPA Symposium, Albany, Western Australia, November. Ishwaran, I. 1996. Sub-regional networking for global strategies and conventions. Paper presented to CNPPA working session, Indonesia, May. IUCN and World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN.

54 The George Wrights FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

IUCN. 1993. Parks for Life: Report of the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. ———. 1996. A Regional Action Plan for Protected Areas in East Asia.N.p.: IUCN/WCPA East Asia. ———. 1998. Economic Values of Protected Areas: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. Jim, C.Y. 1996. Recreational trampling in Hong Kong’s Country Parks: Experimental study and management implications. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. Matsukura, H. 1996. Keidanren Nature Conservation Fund, Japan. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. McNeely, J.A. 1997. Conservation and the Future: Trends and Options Towards the Year 2025. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. McNeely, J.A., J. Harrison, and P. Dingwall (eds.). 1994. Protecting Nature: Regional Reviews of Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. McNeely, J.A., and P.S. Wachtel. 1991. Soul of the Tiger. New York: Doubleday. Munasinghe, M., and J. McNeely (eds.). 1994. Protected Area Economics and Policy: Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank and IUCN. Phillips, A. 1998. Taking stock at the end of the century. Paper presented to the New South Wales (Australia) New Millennium Review. Sheppard, D.A. 1996. Protected areas in East Asia in the 21st century: Key challenges. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. Wong, F.Y. 1996. Community involvement in the Country Parks programme in Hong Kong. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July. Xue, D., and C. Tisdell. 1999. Valuing ecological functions of biodiversity in Changbaishan Mountain Biosphere Reserve in northeast China. In Proceedings of IUCN/WCPA – EA – 3 Seoul Conference. N.p.: WCPA East Asia. Yoshida, M. 1996. Perspective of ecotourism in Japan and East Asia. Paper presented at the CNPPA East Asia meeting, Kushiro, Japan, July.

David Sheppard , Protected Area Program, IUCN—The World Conservation Union, Rue Mauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland; [email protected] 1

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 55 Protected Areas in East Asia Rafael G. Senga Establishing Protected Areas in the Philippines: Emerging Trends, Challenges and Prospects

The Philippine Protected Areas System: An Overview he Philippines has always been considered one of the major biodi- versity hotspots in the world. For while it boasts of one of the high- est levels of diversity and endemicity of life forms and some of the Tmost unique habitats in the world, it is also home to some of the planet’s critically endangered species of wildlife, such as the Philippine eagle, one of the most magnificent raptors in the world and our country’s symbol of biodiversity conservation. The country’s habitats and ecosystems, which play a major role in maintaining ecological balance and in the day-to-day lives of Filipinos, are in constant threat, mainly from unwise resource use and devel- opment paradigms that tend to increase pressure on the world’s already scarce resources. The recent book Megadiversity by Russell Mittermeier of Conservation International, which documents the world’s seventeen most important countries in terms of biodiversity, concludes that the Philippines belong to the top five biodiversity hotspots in the world. In view of these reasons, the There are more than 200 pro- Philippine government, in coopera- tected areas in the Philippines, tion with the public and international ranging from large natural parks, to donors, embarked on a mission to landscapes and seascapes, to wildlife establish a system of protected areas sanctuaries and small watersheds that in the country. The last remaining form the initial components of the representatives of Philippine habitats NIPAS Act. Of these, however, less and ecosystems were set aside for than a quarter receive some form of conservation through innovative ap- protection, either through foreign proaches spelled out in the National funding or local initiatives. This is Integrated Protected Areas System because after the passage of the NI- (NIPAS) Act of 1992, a landmark PAS Act, very little money was allo- piece of legislation which provides cated by the government to effec- the framework for a decentralized, tively manage these reserves. community-based reserve manage- Currently, two major projects are ment strategy. piloting the implementation of the

56 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

Figure 1. General location of some of the protected areas mentioned in the text.

NIPAS Act: the Conservation of Pri- National Integrated Protected Areas ority Protected Areas Project, a Project, a five-year undertaking seven-year initiative funded by the funded by the European Union. Global Environment Facility (GEF) While the two projects share the through the World Bank, and the same broad objectives of biodiversity

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 57 Protected Areas in East Asia conservation and sustainable devel- endemicity and is a major flyway opment, they differ in their modes of for migratory birds from northern implementation. While the National Asia. Integrated Protected Areas Project is · Northern Sierra Madre Natural being implemented by a European Park—the largest and most im- consulting firm in partnership with portant protected area in the government, the Conservation of country in terms of biodiversity. It Priority Protected Areas Project is is home to 12 habitat types and 40 being implemented through an ex- species of wildlife (most of them perimental partnership between the endemic) included in the IUCN Philippine government and the pub- list of globally threatened species. lic. The former is represented by the · Subic-Bataan Natural Park —the Department of Environment and major protected area nearest to Natural Resources (DENR), while Manila and a test case to demon- civil society participation is done strate how the nation’s economic through the NGOs for Integrated development can take place suc- Protected Areas (NIPA), a consor- cessfully alongside the conserva- tium of Philippine nongovernmental tion of the country’s last re- organizations (NGOs) bonded to- maining forests. gether by a common vision of estab- · Apo Reef Natural Park—the big- lishing protected areas that are sus- gest atoll-type reef in the Philip- tainably managed by local communi- pines and a natural haven for ma- ties in collaboration with govern- rine life, bird life, and a variety of ment. Although the partnership got endangered plants. off to a rocky start, it has since · Mount Kanlaon Natural Park —an evolved into a viable model of coop- active volcano and the tallest peak eration between two important seg- in the Visayas group of islands, ments of society working towards the which is also a microcosm of the common goal of biodiversity conser- fragmented state of Philippine vation. ecosystems. The Conservation of Priority · Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctu- Protected Areas Project covers the ary—the most biologically diverse first ten priority reserves in the sys- marshland in the country, where tem: more than 200 species of birds · Batanes Protected Landscapes and from Japan, China, and Russia Seascapes—the northernmost spend the winter months. province of the Philippines, · Mount Kitanglad Range Natural composed of scenic islands and Park—the second highest peak in beautiful seascapes inhabited by the country and the headwater the indigenous Ivatans peoples. It catchment area for the major riv- has a high level of floral ers of northern Mindanao; home 58 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia to the Talaandig, Higaonon, and NGOs, and indigenous cultural Bukidnon tribes, as well as the communities. It is the highest policy- Philippine eagle. making body in Philippine protected · Siargao Islands Protected Land- areas and the venue for democratic scapes and Seascapes—a surfer’s participation of all sectors with a paradise with an extensive system stake in the effective management of of old-growth mangrove stands these reserves. The structure may be and rich marine reserves. cumbersome and unwieldy at times, · Mount Apo Natural Park—the but, through time, we strongly be- country’s tallest peak and host to a lieve that the PAMBs will evolve into diverse variety of endemic flora effective stewards of our country’s and fauna, including the Philip- last repositories of biodiversity—a pine eagle, and home to numerous monumental responsibility to the indigenous cultural communities. whole of humankind. · Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctu- In five years of implementing this ary—the only remaining large trailblazing project, NIPA and its marine turtle rookery in all of partners have established a founda- Southeast Asia. tion for models in different aspects of protected area management that The project employs a multi- could be replicated in the other pro- stakeholder approach among gov- tected areas of the Philippines and ernment, local communities, NGOs, possibly in other parts of the world. the scientific community, the private sector, and international partners. It Community-Based is anchored on a community-based Resource Management resource management strategy which Resource management plan- seeks to empower local communities ning. In the area of community- residing inside and within the buffer based resource management, a viable zones of parks to manage their own alternative model is taking shape resources and become active partners with the active participation of local in protected area management. Pro- communities in drawing up resource viding alternative livelihood oppor- management plans and creating local tunities and improving tenurial secu- resource management structures. rity of park residents are integral Community volunteers take part components of this strategy. right from the very start of the proc- Participatory management in each ess, such as in socioeconomic pro- park is ensured through the Pro- filing and natural resource invento- tected Area Management Board ries. In the case of Mount Kanlaon, (PAMB), a multi-sectoral body com- for example, local herbalist and posed of representatives from gov- wildlife experts from communities ernment, peoples’ organizations, inside the park were considered as Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 59 Protected Areas in East Asia important members of the resource long haul. inventory team owing to their famili- These DENR-deputized volun- arity with the native flora and fauna teer groups conduct regular patrol and their use to communities. The work within the vicinity of their scientific integrity of the exercise is communities, establish checkpoints ensured by the biologists and other in hotspot areas, apprehend violators technical experts of the project. and confiscate illegally gathered for- Community resource maps are est and aquatic products, and main- then drawn up which serve as one tain a community-based surveillance important basis in the formulation of system that alerts the DENR and management plans. This particular other law enforcement agencies to challenge of marrying community park law violations. approaches and scientific method- Biodiversity monitoring system. ologies is in itself an important part A biodiversity monitoring system of the whole experiment. The prepa- which encourages community par- ration of site-specific protected area ticipation has also been installed. management plans (which is on-go- Although the more technical compo- ing) essentially follows the same par- nents of the system need further re- ticipatory procedure to ensure that, finement to maximize community at the end of the day, park managers participation, determining resource- will have management plans that are use patterns through focused-group implementable and that stakeholders discussions form an important part in can call their own. establishing trends or changes in biodiversity in a specific area. The Community resource protection results of the biodiversity monitoring volunteer groups. Local communi- system are intended for the use of ties are likewise actively involved in PAMBs and local government units the protection and monitoring of in making decisions related to re- biodiversity in their respective areas. source use and management. Presently, community resource pro- tection volunteer groups in Mount Decision-Making and the PAMBs Kanlaon, Mount Kitanglad, Bataan, On the whole, the Protected Area Apo Reef and Batanes—numbering Management Boards are gradually nearly a thousand strong—are on the evolving into dynamic forces as envi- front line of enforcing park laws side- sioned under a decentralized reserve by-side with park rangers. With a management regime. The complexity current ratio of one park ranger for of the set-up cannot be overempha- every 6,000 hectares of parkland, sized, though, with different sectors these local volunteers provide a vital advancing their own resource-use link in protection efforts over the interests often clashing. But that is

60 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia precisely the essence of it all: creating enforce the decision and prevented a mechanism that will distill ideas three hundred members of the fed- into decisions that all local eration from embarking on a poten- stakeholders can call their own. A tially destructive mass climb. Al- radical departure indeed from the old though this has temporarily set back system, in which decisions affecting a looming alliance with the moun- reserves in faraway places were made taineering community, a series of in Manila. dialogues is planned to renew coop- A key element to the success of eration with this important empowering the PAMB is ensuring stakeholder. Nevertheless, this par- the authenticity of sectoral represen- ticular experience showed that a de- tatives that sit on the board. Certain cision arrived through consensus representatives of dubious affiliation among major stakeholders is more served on some interim PAMBs binding and implementable. during their initial five-year term. After the lapse of the first term, NIPA Strengthening of Indigenous and its site partners made sure to put Structures and Traditional in place a selection process that pro- Knowledge Systems duces genuine sectoral representa- Cognizant of the important role tives. Through this, all stakeholders that indigenous cultural communities are now assured that their interests play in managing these reserves, the are advocated by representatives they project puts special focus on the re- can trust. The process of an en- vitalization of indigenous social hanced capability-building strategy structures and the enhancement of for the new PAMBs can now proceed traditional knowledge systems. In in earnest to better prepare them for Mount Kitanglad, for example, the the new challenges that lay ahead. Higaonon, Talaandig, and Bukidnon Very recently, the strength of this tribes are now enforcing their tradi- decision-making structure was put to tional laws and practices on all park a severe test in Mount Kanlaon. The visitors to ensure respect for the Mountaineering Federation of the cultural and biological integrity of Philippines was able to obtain a court the mountain they consider sacred. order to restrain the PAMB from Aside from securing necessary per- enforcing a two-year-old trekking mits from the protected area super- ban which had been put into place to intendent, visitors are required by let the trails recover from the ravages the Council of Elders, which the of the most recent El Niño event and project helped strengthen, to per- unregulated trekking in the past. Be- form rituals to seek permission from lieving in the wisdom and legitimacy the mountain spirits so that no unto- of the PAMB decision, community ward incidents happen to them. members took it upon themselves to Admittedly, it is still a long way Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 61 Protected Areas in East Asia before the process of harmonizing demic community has been contrib- traditional beliefs and practices with uting valuable staff time toward the protected area laws is completed. conduct of biological and social re- Currently, there is tension between search. Some NGOs, on the other the protected area superintendent’s hand, are funding livelihood activi- office and the Council of Elders re- ties aimed at creating alternatives that garding the management of Mount will ease pressure on park resources. Kitanglad, and this is actually one of More importantly, the high level of the major concerns being addressed cooperation between the DENR and by the project. But we believe that by MUAD (the local NGO implement- creating the right atmosphere for ing the Conservation of Priority dialogue and negotiation, the inher- Protected Areas Project in this par- ent strengths of the two systems will ticular reserve) has surmounted the eventually complement each other to atmosphere of distrust that usually create a viable model in managing characterizes government–NGO re- protected areas with indigenous lations. peoples. By its very nature as a consortium, NIPA has built-in mechanisms to Building Multi-Stakeholder draw from the strengths and capaci- Partnerships for Biodiversity ties of its NGO members, which are Conservation engaged in diverse activities such as The foundations of these models biodiversity conservation, rural de- and their future sustainability would velopment, livelihood and enterprise not be possible without the multi- development, rural finance, gender stakeholder partnerships established issues, and indigenous cultural by NIPA at the local and interna- community concerns, among others. tional levels. Although efforts need further At the reserve level, the partner- streamlining to improve the involve- ships already exist (albeit at varying ment of some of its members, NIPA levels of development) among the serves as the only model in the local government units, park com- Philippines of a consortium that munities, NGOs, indigenous cultural groups together some of the biggest communities, DENR, and academia. and oldest NGOs engaged in differ- In Mount Kanlaon, for example, sev- ent facets of development work, eral city and municipal governments bound together by a common vision are now directly funding some of the of establishing a sustainably managed key activities critical for park man- protected areas system. NIPA also agement, such as protection work, collaborates with other NGOs in restoration of degraded habitats, and pursuing this vision. The Founda- the construction of interpretive and tion for Philippine Environment, a visitor centers. Likewise, the aca- national NGO managing an endow- 62 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia ment fund for conservation, has been sources and expertise with Conser- consistent in its support by way of vation International and Plan Inter- financing some of the more critical national in managing the Northern capability-building activities of Sierra Madre Natural Park have NIPA. Moreover, the strategic part- gradually led to a better management nership that NIPA has established regime in the country’s biggest and with government is an indispensable most important protected area. In the element in NIPA’s quest to realize same vein, NIPA’s partnership with this vision. foreign volunteer organizations is NIPA’s experience of collabora- contributing a great deal in technical tion with international partners in assistance to the sites. Volunteers to biodiversity conservation work has the national office and the sites from tremendously enriched its reservoir the Volunteer Service Overseas of resources and capacities in biodi- (Great Britain), the Peace Corps versity conservation, particularly in (USA), and the Overseas Service Bu- the areas of resource assessment, ca- reau (Australia) provide assistance in pability-building, biodiversity moni- the areas of management planning, toring, management planning, and resource inventory, watershed and funding for conservation activities, range management, ecotourism, and among others. Our partnership with environmental education. Strength- the World Bank-GEF, now in its fifth ening these multi-level partnerships year, is an experiment in itself, being will definitely be high in the NIPA the first of its kind in the Philippines agenda for the coming years. (and probably the world) in which these multilateral agencies have Challenges and Threats engaged with civil society to push Among the various challenges biodiversity conservation. A lot of confronting the Philippine protected lessons have been learned by both areas system, nothing is more serious sides which can be used to improve than the lack of a conducive policy future partnerships between them environment that can enhance and and with others. sustain what have been started by the Our current collaboration with Conservation of Priority Protected other international NGOs has like- Areas Project and the other biodiver- wise been very fruitful. Our coop- sity conservation projects. After the eration with the Nordic Agency for enactment of the NIPAS Act in Development and Cooperation 1992, a series of government-spon- (NORDECO) in biodiversity moni- sored laws that directly impinge on toring resulted in a system that com- the integrity of protected areas were bines scientific methodologies with passed. The most notable of these community approaches. Further- are the Mining Act of 1995 and the more, our efforts to combine re- Fisheries Act of 1998, which, along Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 63 Protected Areas in East Asia with existing forestry laws, further come up with an effective strategy to expose our dwindling natural re- make our politicians appreciate the sources to unbridled exploitation. urgency of passing the protected area Although these interests are legally bills pending in Congress. barred from conducting their opera- The need to improve the pace and tions in our protected areas, the gov- quality of management planning in ernment has been ambivalent in en- our protected areas is equally forcing relevant laws, in part due to daunting. The participatory nature of the higher priority given to economic the process has proven to be cum- growth—which more often than not bersome and time consuming. But comes at the expense of the envi- there is simply no other way to do it, ronment. and we are in the process of explor- The failure of government to issue ing options that will hasten the proc- policy decisions that will strengthen ess without sacrificing the quality of the NIPAS Act also reflects the low the plans for the management of our level of priority that protected areas protected areas. occupy in the policy agenda. Up to Lastly, the grinding poverty in now, the protected area superinten- communities within and adjacent to dent’s office has not been an integral protected areas, if not systematically part of the official DENR structure, addressed, will further increase the which makes it doubly difficult for pressure on these precious life-sup- the superintendent to enforce park port systems. It is a well-known fact laws and secure adequate allocations that, outside of the indigenous peo- for their operations. ples, the majority of protected area Likewise, the prolonged delay in residents are very poor migrants the issuance of appropriate tenurial driven to the inhospitable slopes of instruments for both indigenous terrestrial reserves by the severe lack communities and tenured migrants of economic opportunities and land- threaten the sustainability of the holdings in the lowlands. Social in- community-based initiatives that the equities, specifically those pertaining project has started. Without tenurial to land ownership, are still an essen- security, park communities have tial feature of Philippine society and fewer reasons to be effective stewards remain the greatest threat to the of resources around them. protected areas and biodiversity of The task of gazetting priority our country. protected areas is crucial. The failure of Congress to pass site-specific Prospects for the Philippine protected area bills that will perma- Protected Area System nently establish these reserves tre- Undoubtedly, the foundations of a mendously weakens the foundations viable protected area system attuned of the system. The project has yet to to the conditions of a developing 64 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia country like the Philippines is slowly ated by government, we believe that being established. But let nobody be enough goodwill have been estab- deluded into thinking that from here lished between civil society and its on it will be smooth sailing all the government partners to go a long way. The threats and challenges are way toward putting environmental just too formidable to dismiss lightly concerns at the top of the policy and will need the concerted efforts of agenda. all stakeholders to surmount. More With two years left in the Conser- importantly, the necessary follow- vation of Priority Protected Areas through to what CPPAP and the Project, one of the most important other biodiversity projects have tasks of NIPA and its partners is in- started is crucial if Philippine pro- fluencing government, specifically tected areas are to have a fair chance the DENR, to integrate protected of surviving the onslaught of current area management into its organiza- and future threats to their integrity. tion and elevate biodiversity conser- Given the current state of our vation in its order of priorities, at a economy, however, we recognize the par with or even higher than its cur- importance of further strengthening rent resource-use priorities. Given our collaboration with international the long period of time before the partners to address the following poverty of the Philippines is allevi- broad areas of concern: ated, this much-needed political will on the part of our government will at · Strengthening of community- least give our protected areas a based resource management breathing spell. systems; Finally, influencing the public to · Capacity-building (training) of create a society more responsible to protected area managers; its natural environment is definitely a · Improvement of tenurial security linchpin. Without this, no effort in of park residents; biodiversity conservation can be · Restoration of degraded habitats; sustainable in the Philippines. NIPA · Biological and social research; believes that in its efforts to create and workable models in protected area · Information, education and management, it is putting forward communication activities. some of the most powerful argu- Although we still need to see a ments for creating just such an envi- better policy environment being cre- ronmentally responsible society. Rafael G. Senga, NGOs for Integrated Protected Areas (NIPA), IPAS-PCU Building, Ninoy Aquino Parks & Wildlife, North Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Metro Manila 1100, Philippines; [email protected] 1

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 65 Protected Areas in East Asia Pakkawadee Panusittikorn Tony Prato Conservation of Protected Areas in Thailand: The Case of Khao Yai National Park

The General Setting hailand is a country rich in natural resources. Its mild year-round climate and high humidity and rainfall support a biologically diverse flora and fauna that include tropical, deciduous, and mangrove for- Tests. Each forest type provides a unique habitat for plants and ani- mals. Thailand’s tropical climate supports not only fertile forests, but also colorful and fragile coral reefs and marine ecosystems. There are 3,000 km of coral reefs along Thailand’s coastline (Gray et al. 1994). Thailand’s rich bio- diversity is evidenced by the 3,000 species of fungi, 600 species of ferns, over 1,000 types of orchids, and 282 mammalian species (Gray et al. 1994). Spe- cies such as the Asian elephant, tiger, and hornbill are endangered. Some for- ests contain valuable trees such as teak, rosewood, bamboo, and rattan. These tree species are in high demand for furniture making, housing, and the export market (Gray et al. 1994). Thailand’s 513,115 sq km of Thailand has a tropical climate land is divided into four natural re- with wet and dry seasons (Nuttonson gions (Mewongukurd 1987). The 1963; Vithayarut 1988). The two mountainous Northwest region con- northern regions of Thailand receive tains natural forests, ridges, and most of their moisture from tropical deep, narrow valleys. The Northeast storms and typhoons. The Central region is a plateau that occupies one- region is influenced by both mon- third of the total area of Thailand soon and local storms and has similar (Nuttonson 1963). It has very favor- weather to the two northern regions able soils and climate, which sup- (Nuttonson 1963). South Thailand, ports agricultural production (Don- which is surrounded by seas, has the ner 1978). The Central region con- highest rainfall in the country. tains the most valuable land in Thai- Climate, soils and other bio- land (Nuttonson 1963). The South- physical features determine the spa- ern region is mountainous and con- tial distribution of Thailand’s ever- tains two enormous mountain ranges green and deciduous forests. Tropi- (Donner 1978). cal evergreen forest is the predomi-

66 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia nant type. Teak, which is located in along with other indicators, such as the northern forests, is the most valu- the value of exports and imports able and abundant tree species (Bangkok Bank 1996). However, (Royal Forestry Department 1996). many Southeast Asian economies Thailand’s natural forested areas collapsed in 1998 because of funda- provide ecological services—such as mental economic problems. providing clean water and air, miti- Natural Areas gating floods and droughts and pest and National Parks control—that benefit people and The Royal Forest Department communities (Daily 1997). Man- was established in 1896 to manage grove forests play a key role in pro- the country’s forests. The first act to tecting coastal areas from strong conserve wildlife was the Wild Ele- winds and wastewater. phant Protection Law in 1900. This Thailand is historically an agri- law was enacted because of signifi- cultural country. The main agricul- cant declines in elephant popula- tural export commodities are maize, tions. The Wild Animals Reservation cassava roots, rubber, and sugarcane and Protection Act of 1960 (Bangkok Bank 1996). Export value (WARPA) regulates the establish- of livestock products has continually ment of wildlife sanctuaries and non- increased, whereas timber exports hunting areas (Gray et al. 1994). have declined slightly because of the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand’s ban (since 1989) on logging in natu- first, was established in 1962. Three ral forests and mangrove conserva- additional national parks and one tion. wildlife sanctuary were established in Water is crucial for Thailand’s the 1960s (Dixon and Sherman economic development and trans- 1990; Ghimire 1994; Gray et al. portation system (Donner 1978). 1994). Thailand has two major rivers, the During World War II, the Chao Pharya and Mekong, and other population of Thailand was 15 mil- local rivers, such as the Chi and Mun lion and the forested area was about in the Northeast. Riverine areas 70% of total land area. Forested comprise the heart of cultivation in lands have since decreased signifi- the Central Plain and Northeast re- cantly due to rapid post-war eco- gions. nomic development and population Rapid growth in the Thai econ- growth, so that in 1995 only about omy has resulted in increased de- 26% of the country was forested mand for land, energy, agricultural (Gray et al. 1994; Royal Forestry products, raw materials and invest- Department 1996). Expansion in ment. Real gross domestic product farmland and construction of dams, trended upward in the mid-1990s roads, and other infrastructure

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 67 Protected Areas in East Asia caused significant losses in natural forests, botanical gardens, and arbo- areas. In addition, over-fishing, retums (Royal Forestry Department shrimp farming, dynamiting, and 1996). The total size of Thailand’s booming tourism degraded ecosys- protected areas is approximately tems in general (Gray et al. 1994). 84,616 sq km, or 16% of the coun- Some natural areas have been dam- try’s land area (Royal Forestry De- aged as well because of these pres- partment 1996; Thaiparks.com sures. 2001). Tables 1 and 2 show the dis- In 1989, a ban was placed on tribution of national parks in Thai- logging in Thailand’s natural forests, land by region and size, respectively. including the national parks. Since To achieve the Thai government’s then, many areas have been estab- goal of conserving 40% of the coun- lished as national parks and wildlife try’s forested land area, several man- sanctuaries (IUCN 1992). Currently, agement plans have been issued in Thailand has 95 national parks the last decade (IUCN 1992). The (Thaiparks.com 2001), 42 wildlife reforestation plans have a goal of us- sanctuaries, 50 non-hunting areas, ing natural resources in a sustainable 57 forest parks, and several other manner. protected areas, including mangrove

Table 1. Regional distribution of national parks in Thailand. Source: Thaiparks.com 2001. Region Percent North 38 Central 20 Northeast 18 South 23

Table 2. Size Distribution of National Parks in Thailand. Note: Data for two national parks are missing. Sources: Gray et al. 1994; Thaiparks.com 2001.

Size (sq km) Number Percent More than 1,000 14 15 801-1,000 5 5 601-800 7 8 401-600 15 16 201-400 26 28 0-200 26 28 Total 93 100

68 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

The legal authority for Thai- wildlife species. There are 50 non- land’s protected areas is the WARPA hunting areas in Thailand, some of of 1960 and the National Park Act of which allow educational and limited 1961 (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988; recreational activities (Arbhabhirama Dixon and Sherman 1990; Gray et et al. 1988). Non-hunting areas are al. 1994). There are four main types under the authority of the Wildlife of protected areas in Thailand: na- Conservation Division. Compared tional park, wildlife sanctuary, non- with wildlife sanctuaries and national hunting area, and forest park. The parks, non-hunting areas are smaller, purpose of a national park is to pre- protection is afforded only for spe- serve a natural area for educational cific species, and fishing, recreation, and recreational activities, which are tourism, logging, and collection of defined by the National Park Act of plants and herbs are allowed (Dixon 1961 (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988). and Sherman 1990). The National Park Division of the A forest park is smaller than a Royal Forest Department adminis- national park and contains features ters all national parks according to considered valuable for recreation, established guidelines (Dixon and e.g., waterfalls and caves (Dixon and Sherman 1990). The Royal Forestry Sherman 1990). There are 57 forest Department receives assistance from parks in Thailand. the Tourism Authority of Thailand Other kinds of protected areas and related organizations in survey- include botanical gardens (15 total), ing and establishing new national which are reserved for collecting and parks. planting native and exotic rare and A wildlife sanctuary is designed economically valuable plant species; to conserve habitat in which wildlife arboretums (47 total), used for col- can breed and expand in a natural lecting and preserving useful plants setting (Dixon and Sherman 1990). and flowering plant species (Dixon Educational and research activities and Sherman 1990); and designated are allowed. The Wildlife Conserva- watersheds, which are classified tion Division of the Royal Forestry based on the land-use activities that Department has responsibility for occur within them. The level of pro- managing wildlife sanctuaries. Of tection afforded watersheds depends Thailand’s 42 wildlife sanctuaries, on physical characteristics of the Haui Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai landscape, such as elevation, slope, Naresuan were the first to be estab- geology, and soils (Arbhabhirama et lished. al. 1988). A non-hunting area is protected Most of the income from national from hunting and capture of animals parks and other protected areas (ex- and dedicated to conserving specific cluding wildlife sanctuaries) is de-

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 69 Protected Areas in East Asia rived from recreation and tourism. ernment has allowed construction of Those activities are thus primary a cable car from the foothill to the motivations for establishing natural temple area. and protected areas in Thailand. Despite the official ban on log- Problems in Protecting ging, deforestation continues in National Parks Thailand’s protected areas. A pri- As with the country’s natural en- mary cause is the increasing demand vironment as a whole, the protected for agricultural and forest products, areas of Thailand have been de- and the conversion of land to aquac- graded by rapid growth in popula- ulture. Local residents and hill tribes tion; exploitation of timber, land and contribute to deforestation by prac- energy; tourism; and residential de- ticing shifting cultivation, which has velopment. As far as recreation is degraded the quality of soil and wa- concerned, national parks are espe- ter, particularly in national parks lo- cially popular for hiking, camping, cated in the northern and northeast- and sight-seeing. Currently, Thai ern regions of Thailand. Resident tourists outnumber foreign tourists populations can be high; for exam- in the national parks because of a ple, approximately, 4,000 Hmong lack of promotion and tourist infor- and Karen people live in the Haui mation written in foreign languages Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai Nare- (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988). suan wildlife sanctuaries (Arbhab- The intentional and uninten- hirama et al. 1988). Furthermore, tional acts of tourists disturb fragile many national parks are surrounded ecosystems. For example, the Phi Phi by local villages whose residents tend Islands (Phuket) are popular because to run out of forested land because of their beautiful coral reefs and much of it is clear-cut to make way beaches. The white sand beaches of for agricultural production (Arbhab- the islands have been degraded by hirama et al. 1988). The resultant growth in resorts and poorly planned illegal poaching and logging in na- human waste disposal. Tourists who tional parks have had a negative im- break off pieces of coral reef as sou- pact on endangered species, includ- venirs, or who anchor their boats to ing hornbills, elephants, and tigers. reefs, have caused extensive damage. There is illegal local and interna- Tourist-related developments have tional animal trade, which the Royal degraded other protected areas. For Forestry Department is not able to example, Doi Suthep National Park control. in the North is well known for its Management of Thailand’s na- Buddhist temple. Roads, parking tional parks focuses on direct and lots, and other tourist facilities have indirect protection. Direct protection been built in the park, and the gov- is the responsibility of National Park

70 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

Division headquarters, which has a problem. Poor relationships branch in every national park. Their between local people and law job is to control illegal activities and enforcement agencies have resulted provide visitor services for tourists. in inefficient management and Rangers patrol the vicinity of park major conflicts. Law enforcement boundaries to deter illegal activities is used to try to control the illegal and create goodwill in local commu- use of forested land. This of course nities. Indirect protection relies on negates the traditional rights of radio, television, and brochures to local people to use the land now increase nature appreciation. included in the parks for Although the National Park Divi- agriculture and other activities. sion of the Royal Forestry Depart- While villagers have not received ment putatively manages natural re- compensation for these losses, the sources according to a plan, on-the- Royal Forestry Department has ground management has not offered to relocate them to areas achieved its goals because of two outside of and adjacent to parks. problems with the national park sys- However, many national park tem: managers believe that relocation of such settlements is not feasible. · The inadequate budget of the The Royal Forestry Department Royal Forestry Department limits has been unable to solve this prob- effective management. Since the lem (Ghimire 1994). Thai government is less concerned with biological conservation than Khao Yai National Park economic development, only a In 1962, Khao Yai was estab- small portion of the national lished as Thailand’s first national budget is allocated to the park (Figue 1). This biologically di- management of protected areas. In verse park contains numerous en- 1995, the budget for forest dangered species, including ele- conservation was the equivalent of phant, gaur, hornbill, and tiger. The US$347 million—just 1.2% park is home to 200 Asian elephants, percent of the forestry de- 318 migrant and resident bird spe- partment’s total budget of US$2.86 cies, three species of hornbills, and billion (Kaosa-ard 1995). This 5,000 species of butterflies (Gray et relatively small budget hinders the al. 1994; Thaiparks.com 2001). The park’s ability to control illegal park supplies agricultural water to activities, such as poaching. four provinces. Due to its rich biodi- · Unauthorized settlements of local versity, Khao Yai is also a magnet for villagers and hill tribes in national illegal collecting, logging, and parks have become a serious poaching.

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 71 Protected Areas in East Asia

Figure 1. General location of Khao Yai National Park.

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Khao Yai has a total area of trekking, and wildlife watching 2,169 sq km. The park has (TDRI 1995). The park provides elevations in excess of 1,000 m and housing accommodations and other many valleys and plateaus. Along facilities, including a visitor center, a with some grasslands, the park big open room for presentations, contains hill evergreen, dry restaurants, and a small souvenir evergreen, dry mixed deciduous, and shop. Lodging and camping facilities secondary-growth forests, with most have a limit of 1,900 people. areas being in tropical rain forest Trekkers are limited to 100 per day, (TDRI 1995; Kasetsart University and visitors to the open room, to 1993). 500. Half of the revenues generated Since Khao Yai is only 200 km by Khao Yai come from tourism and from Bangkok, Thailand’s capital the other half from the government and largest city, it is a popular desti- (TDRI 1995). nation for Thai and foreign tourists. The Forestry Faculty of Kaset- The number of tourists visiting the sart University has identified several park increases every year. The five problems in the park. Insufficient law most popular tourist activities in the enforcement capabilities have ham- park are visiting waterfalls (Figure 2), pered the ability to protect the park’s viewing scenery, leisure walking,

Figure 2. Two of Khao Yai’s renowned waterfalls: Haew Surat (l) and Haew Narok.

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 73 Protected Areas in East Asia natural resources. Local villagers en- Wildlife in the park is directly gage in illegal logging and poaching threatened by human activities and in the park. The arrest rate remains many species are almost extinct on a high, even though a previous devel- local basis. Poaching has thrived be- opment plan tried to reduce illegal cause it is profitable for local restau- uses of the park. Forested areas of rants surrounding the park to use Khao Yai are subject to continuous certain organs of animals in prepar- human disturbance for several rea- ing expensive dishes. Continued de- sons: struction of wildlife habitat has oc- · The insufficient amount of avail- curred due to conversion of forest- able agricultural land causes vil- land to agricultural land in areas ad- lagers to move to areas adjacent to jacent to the park. Increased use of Khao Yai, and limited income pesticides has harmed wildlife. Ex- sources cause them to collect and otic species have increased disease sell forest products from the park. transmission and compete with na- · Sections of the park itself contain tive species for habitat. Finally, there permanent villages, including are not enough experienced wildlife roads and other infrastructure. specialists to monitor wildlife popu- · Local villagers, both inside and lations and protect their habitat. outside the park, lack the knowl- Park Administration edge and goodwill needed to Since Khao Yai is large, admini- support conservation. stration of the park requires highly · Development plans made by other qualified personnel and effective co- governmental departments often operation between officials of the contradict the goals of park National Park Division and the four management, e.g., expanding ag- provinces that the park covers. Ad- ricultural projects encourage vil- ministrative management of the park lagers to cut forested areas. has been stymied by three factors. Increasing pressure from visita- First, the current administrative tion has caused several problems as structure is not compatible with the well. Human waste has become a number and scope of management problem because disposal facilities tasks and the large size of the park. are insufficient and the methods Second, the quality and quantity of used, such as incineration and bury- personnel are insufficient, and the ing, are inadequate. Public health park budget, very limited to begin measures in the area’s restaurants are with, is declining. The 2000 budget below standards, which results in was 18 million baht (US$453,000), periodic outbreaks of disease in both significantly less than the 1998 humans and animals. budget of 27 million baht (US

74 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia

$680,000) (U. Suphanpong, per- Conclusion sonal communication). Third, coor- The case of Khao Yai National dination of policy and management Park illustrates well the challenges activities among departments has faced by park managers and those been inadequate. Currently, promo- concerned about conserving the bio- tion done by the Tourism Authority diversity and natural resources of of Thailand conflicts somewhat with Thailand’s protected areas. The the conservation of park resources. country faces unrelenting pressures Fourth, private land development, in on natural resources from population the form of golf courses and resorts, and income growth, which have re- is degrading the park’s natural re- sulted in rapid depletion of forests sources. and associated biodiversity and en- The Forestry Faculty of Kaset- croachment of protected areas. In sart University has responsibility for addition, there are long-standing studying park management problems equity issues related to the treatment and preparing the master manage- of local people in and near the parks. ment plan (Khao Yai Management In this respect, Thailand is typical of Master Plan II) for the Royal Forest many rapidly developing countries. Department. The plan is based on Hopefully, rational planning efforts, terms of reference issued by manag- such as Kasetsart University’s plan ers of national parks and wildlife for Khao Yai National Park, will re- sanctuaries, and aims to resolve ex- sult in a higher level of protection for isting problems and improve park Thailand’s protected areas. administration.

References Arbhabhirama, A., J. Elkington, P. Ingkasuwan, and D. Phantumvanit. 1988. Thailand Natural Resources Profile. New York: Oxford University Press. Bangkok Bank. 1996. Bangkok Bank Limited Annual Report 1992. Bangkok: Bangkok Printing Co., Ltd. Daily, G.C. 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Dixon, J.A., and P.B. Sherman. 1990. Economics of Protected Areas: A New Look at Benefits and Costs. Covelo, Calif.: Island Press. Donner, W. 1978. The Five Faces of Thailand. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Ghimire, K.B. 1994. Parks and people: Livelihood issues in national parks management in Thailand and Madagascar. Development and Change 25, 195-229. Gray, D., C. Piprell, and M. Graham. 1994. National Parks of Thailand . Bangkok: Thai Wattana Panish. IUCN. 1992. Conserving Biological Diversity in Managed Tropical Forests. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. Kaosa-ard, M. 1995. Sharing the benefits and costs of forest conservation. TDRI Quarterly Review [on-line]. Web site: http://www.info.tdri.or.th/demo/forest.htm. Mewongukurd, S. 1987. Siam Almanac. Bangkok: Siambarn. Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 75 Protected Areas in East Asia

Nuttonson, M.Y. 1963. The Physical Environment and Agriculture of Thailand. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Crop Ecology. Royal Forest Department. 1996. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1996. Bangkok: Frengfa Printing, Ltd. TDRI [Thai Development Research Institute]. 1995. Green Finance: A Case Study of Khao Yai. Bangkok: TDRI [on-line]. Web site: http://www.thaiparks.com. Thaiparks.com. 2001. Web site: http://www.thaiparks.com. [In Thai.] Vittayarut, P. 1988. Geography of Thailand. Bangkok: Uksornbundit.

Pakkawadee Panusittikorn, 2300 Avent Ferry Road, Apt #F5, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606; [email protected] Tony Prato, Department of Agricultural Economics, 130 Mumford Hall, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211 USA; Pra- [email protected] 1

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