DOCSLIB.ORG

NI 43-101 Songwe REE Deposit

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
NI 43-101 Songwe REE Deposit NI 43-101 Technical Report and Mineral Resource Estimate for the Songwe Hill Rare Earth Element (REE) Project, Phalombe District, Republic of Malawi Prepared by The MSA Group (Pty) Ltd for: Mkango Resources Ltd Authors: Scott Swinden Consulting Geologist Ph.D., P.Geo. Michael Hall Consulting Geologist Resources Pr.Sci.Nat., MAusIMM Effective Date: September 30, 2012 Date of Signature: November 22, 2012 Table of Contents 1 Summary......................................................................................................................................... viii 1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................viii 1.2 Property, Location and Ownership.........................................................................................viii 1.3 Geology and Mineralization....................................................................................................viii 1.4 Status of Exploration ................................................................................................................ix 1.5 Mineral Resources.................................................................................................................... x 1.6 Conclusions and Recommendations........................................................................................xi 2 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Scope of Work ........................................................................................................................ 12 2.2 Principal Sources of Information ............................................................................................ 12 2.3 Qualifications, Experience and Independence....................................................................... 13 3 Reliance on Other Experts............................................................................................................. 14 4 Property Description and Location...............................................................................................15 4.1 Property Location ................................................................................................................... 15 4.2 Property Description............................................................................................................... 16 4.2.1 Exclusive Prospecting Licenses (“EPL”) in Malawi ................................................... 16 4.2.2 EPL 0284/10 Phalombe ............................................................................................ 16 4.2.3 General Provisions .................................................................................................... 18 4.3 Overlapping EPLs................................................................................................................... 19 5 Accessibility, Climate, Local Resources, Infrastructure and Physiography............................ 20 5.1 Access .................................................................................................................................... 20 5.2 Climate.................................................................................................................................... 21 5.3 Local Resources and Infrastructure ....................................................................................... 21 5.4 Topography, Elevation and Vegetation .................................................................................. 22 6 History.............................................................................................................................................. 24 6.1 Ownership History .................................................................................................................. 24 6.2 Historical Exploration.............................................................................................................. 24 6.2.1 Pre-1981 Programmes .............................................................................................. 24 6.2.2 Post-1981 Programmes ............................................................................................ 25 6.2.2.1 Aeromagnetic Survey................................................................................. 25 6.2.2.2 Gravity Survey............................................................................................ 25 6.2.2.3 Radiometric Survey.................................................................................... 25 6.2.2.4 Airborne Electromagnetic (“EM”) Survey ................................................... 25 6.2.3 1986-1988 Japan International Cooperation Agency and Metal Mining Agency of Japan......................................................................................................................... 25 7 Geological Setting and Mineralization.......................................................................................... 30 7.1 Regional Geology ................................................................................................................... 30 7.2 Geology of the Songwe Carbonatite Vent.............................................................................. 32 7.2.1 Carbonatite ................................................................................................................ 33 7.2.1.1 Calcite carbonatite...................................................................................... 33 7.2.1.2 Fe-rich carbonatite ..................................................................................... 34 7.2.2 Fenite......................................................................................................................... 35 7.2.3 Breccia....................................................................................................................... 35 7.2.3.1 Feldspar-rich breccia.................................................................................. 36 J2137 Songwe REE Project Page: i NI 43-101 Technical Report – 22 November 2012 7.2.3.2 Carbonatite-rich breccia ............................................................................. 36 7.2.4 Silicate-rich dykes...................................................................................................... 36 7.3 Mineralization ......................................................................................................................... 36 7.3.1 Geological Domains .................................................................................................. 36 7.3.1.1 Carbonatite Domain ................................................................................... 37 7.3.1.2 Fenite Domain ............................................................................................ 39 7.3.1.3 Mixed Domain ............................................................................................ 41 7.3.2 Geometry of the Mineralization ................................................................................. 41 7.3.3 Thorium ..................................................................................................................... 43 7.3.4 Mineralogy ................................................................................................................. 44 7.3.4.1 Genetic Model for REE Mineralization ....................................................... 52 8 Deposit Types ................................................................................................................................. 53 9 Exploration ...................................................................................................................................... 56 9.1 Litho-geochemical Sampling .................................................................................................. 56 9.2 Ground Geophysical Programme........................................................................................... 59 9.2.1 Magnetic survey ........................................................................................................ 59 9.2.2 Radiometric survey.................................................................................................... 60 9.2.3 Gravity survey............................................................................................................ 60 9.3 Geological Mapping................................................................................................................ 61 9.4 Surface Channel Sampling..................................................................................................... 62 9.5 Research Programmes .......................................................................................................... 64 10 Drilling.............................................................................................................................................. 66 10.1 Historical Diamond Drilling (1988).......................................................................................... 66 10.2 Stage 1 and Stage 2 Diamond Drilling (2011 – 2012)............................................................ 66 10.3 Core Recovery........................................................................................................................ 69 10.4 Collar Surveys .......................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite 2016
    2016 Minerals Yearbook FELDSPAR AND NEPHELINE SYENITE [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. Department of the Interior January 2020 U.S. Geological Survey Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite By Arnold O. Tanner Domestic survey data and tables were prepared by Raymond I. Eldridge III, statistical assistant. In 2016, feldspar production in the United States was representing 46% of the 2016 production tonnages listed in estimated to be 470,000 metric tons (t) valued at $33.1 million, tables 1 and 2. an almost 10% decrease in quantity and a 11% decrease in Feldspar was mined in six States (table 3). North Carolina value compared with 2015 (table 1). Exports of feldspar in 2016 was by far the leading producer State; the remaining five were, decreased by 61% to 5,890 t, valued at $1.5 million, and imports in descending order of estimated output, Virginia, California, of feldspar decreased by 69% to 36,900 t, valued at $3.4 million. Idaho, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. Production was from Imports of nepheline syenite (predominantly from Canada) 10 mines and beneficiating facilities—4 in North Carolina, 2 in increased by 27% to about 572,000 t valued at $73 million. California, and 1 in each of the 4 remaining States (table 3). World production of feldspar in 2016 was 23.4 million metric I-Minerals Inc. continued the mine permitting process for tons (Mt) (tables 1, 7). its Helmer-Bovill project in north-central Idaho; the mine Feldspars, which constitute about 60% of the earth’s crust, would produce potassium feldspar, halloysite, kaolin, and are anhydrous aluminosilicate minerals of two main groupings: quartz.
    [Show full text]
  • Country Environmental Profile for Malawi
    COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES EC Framework Contract EuropeAid/119860/C/SV/multi Lot 6: Environment Beneficiaries: Malawi Request for Services N°2006/122946 Country Environmental Profile for Malawi Draft Report (Mrs. B. Halle, Mr. J. Burgess) August 2006 Consortium AGRIFOR Consult Parc CREALYS, Rue L. Genonceaux 14 B - 5032 Les Isnes - Belgium Tel : + 32 81 - 71 51 00 - Fax : + 32 81 - 40 02 55 Email : [email protected] ARCA Consulting (IT) – CEFAS (GB) - CIRAD (FR) – DFS (DE) – EPRD (PL) - FORENVIRON (HU) – INYPSA (ES) – ISQ (PT) – Royal Haskoning (NL) This report is financed by the European Commission and is presented by AGRIFOR Consult for the Government of Malawi and the European Commission. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Government of Malawi or the European Commission. Consortium AGRIFOR Consult 1 Table of Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations 3 1. Summary 6 1.1 State of the environment 6 1.2 Environmental policy, legislative and institutional framework 8 1.3 EU and other donor co-operation with the Country from an environmental perspective 10 1.4 Conclusions and recommendations 11 2. State of the Environment 15 2.1 Physical and biological environment 15 2.1.1 Climate, climate change and climate variability 15 2.1.2 Geology and mineral resources 16 2.1.3 Land and soils 16 2.1.4 Water (lakes, rivers, surface water, groundwater) 17 2.1.5 Ecosystems and biodiversity 19 2.1.6 Risk of natural disasters 20 2.2 Socio-economic environment 21 2.2.1 Pressures on the natural resources 21 2.2.2 Urban areas and industries 31 2.2.3 Poverty and living conditions in human settlements 35 2.3 Environment situation and trends 37 2.4 Environmental Indicators 38 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Hiking Guide to Mount Mulanje
    Hiking Guide to Mount Mulanje by Drew Corbyn Hiking Guide to Mount Mulanje by Drew Corbyn This publication was produced by the Mountain Club of Malawi and sponsored by the Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust. Published January 2017. Contents Introduction ....................................................................................... 4 Mount Mulanje ................................................................................... 5 Routes and Peaks ............................................................................. 5 Mountain Huts .................................................................................. 7 Guides and Porters ........................................................................... 7 Forestry and Hut Fees ....................................................................... 8 Mountain Club of Malawi (MCM) ....................................................... 9 Climate and When to Trek ............................................................... 10 Environment .................................................................................... 10 Health and Safety ............................................................................ 11 Rock Climbing ................................................................................. 12 Interactive Guides ........................................................................... 12 More Information ............................................................................. 13 Getting There and Away…………………………………………………15 Table of
    [Show full text]
  • Multi-Page.Pdf
    Public Disclosure Authorized _______ ;- _____ ____ - -. '-ujuLuzmmw---- Public Disclosure Authorized __________~~~ It lif't5.> fL Elf-iWEtfWIi5I------ S -~ __~_, ~ S,, _ 3111£'' ! - !'_= Public Disclosure Authorized al~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sl .' _1EIf l i . i.5I!... ..IillWM .,,= aN N B 1. , l h~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Public Disclosure Authorized = r =s s s ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~foss XIe l l=4 1lill'%WYldii.Ul~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ itA=iII1 l~w 6t*t Estimating Woody Biomass in Sub-Saharan Africa Estimating Woody Biomass in Sub-Saharan Africa Andrew C. Miflington Richard W. Critdhley Terry D. Douglas Paul Ryan With contributions by Roger Bevan John Kirkby Phil O'Keefe Ian Ryle The World Bank Washington, D.C. @1994 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, US.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing March 1994 The findings, interpretations, and conclusiornsexpressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views and policies of the World Bank or its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The manLerialin this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommnercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the CopyrightClearance Center, Inc-, Suite 910,222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, US.A.
    [Show full text]
  • E-Cop18-Prop Draft-Widdringtonia
    Original language: English CoP18 Doc. XXX CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA ____________________ Eighteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties Colombo (Sri Lanka), 23 May – 3 June 2019 CONSIDERATION OF PROPOSALS FOR AMENDMENT OF APPENDICES II1 A. Proposal To list the species Widdringtonia whytei in CITES Appendix II without annotation specifying the types of specimens to be included, in order to include all readily recognizable parts and derivatives in accordance with Resolution Conf. 11.21 (Rev. CoP17). On the basis of available trade data and information it is known that the regulation of trade in the species is absolutely necessary to avoid this critically endangered species, with major replantation efforts underway, becoming eligible for inclusion in Appendix I in the very near future. B. Proponent Malawi C. Supporting Statement 1. Taxonomy 1.1. Class: Pinopsida 1.2. Order: Pinales 1.3. Family: Cupressaceae 1.4. Genus and species: Widdringtonia whytei Rendle 1.5. Scientific synonyms: Widdringtonia nodiflora variety whytei (Rendle) Silba 1.6. Common names: Mulanje cedar, Mulanje cedarwood, Mulanje cypress, Mkunguza 2. Overview Widdringtonia whytei or Mulanje cedar, the national tree of Malawi, is a conifer in the cypress family endemic to the upper altitude reaches of the Mount Mulanje massif (1500-2200 a.s.l.). This highly valued, decay- and termite-resistant species is considered to be “critically endangered” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species after years of overexploitation from unsustainable and illegal logging combined with human-induced changes to the fire regime, invasive competing tree species, aphid infestation, and low rates of 1 This document has been submitted by Malawi.
    [Show full text]
  • Trekking Hiking on Mount Mulanje
    MALAWI, GALLERY Malawi hiking Mulanje Exploring magic Mulanje Mountain, highest peak in TREKKING Southern Africa, the island in the sky. EXPEDITION 10 days with possibility of extension The calculation of the days excludes flights INDEX TRAVEL 2 Suggested season: from April to MEANS OF TRANSPORT AND November ACCOMMODATION 3 HIKE GUIDE 4 WHAT WE WILL SEE TRAVEL PROGRAMME 6 It is called magic mountain and island in the sky. It seems that J. R.R. Tolkien began writing about the fantastic world of the Middle-Earth FEE 7 described in The Hobbit, soon after a long journey in Malawi which included Mount Mulanje and its magical atmosphere. TRAVEL TIPS 8 We do not find it hard to believe: Mulanje is a place of inspiration, where you can feel the EQUIPMENT 9 uniqueness of this land. Maybe it is because of the many legends that inhabit the oral traditions of mysterious spirits, including Napolo, the creator of wind and storms, maybe ECO-TOURISM 10 because of its unique location that places it in the world network as a Planet Biosphere Reserve, maybe because of its slopes, covered with kilometers of tea hills TERMS AND CONDITIONS 11 that make the scene even more dreamy. Landscapes open in a spectacular way in huge and mild hills covered with the _________ unblemished green mantle of tea. Walking in the immense spaces of the plantations we will have the chance to meet the tea workers, who patiently pick up the young leaves on top of the plants, leaf after leaf, till they fill the big baskets they carry on their back.
    [Show full text]
  • Malawi Location Geography
    Malawi Location Malawi is a landlocked country no larger than Pennsylvania located in the southeast on the continent of Africa. Countries surrounding Malawi are Zambia, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Also, Lake Malawi covers most of the country’s boarders to the east. The area of Malawi makes up 118,484 square kilometers or 45,735 square miles. 94,080 square kilometers is the land area for the country and 24,400 square kilometers of water. The capital of Malawi is Lilongwe The geographical coordinates are 13 30 S and 34 00 E and is about 830 kilometers long and about 160 kilometers wide. Geography The country of Malawi has three different regions: an upland central plateau, lowland area to the south, and a mountainous region to the north. The country also has different capitals in the different regions: The northern (capital Mzuzu), the central (capital Lilongwe) and the southern (capital Blantyre). Most of the country is a narrow elongated plateau shaped by the African Rift Valley with plains and hills and some mountains. The lowest point in the country is in the Shire river and the boarder with Mozambique which is 37 meters. Lake Malawi occupies much of the Rift Valley floor 2 (about /3rds) The highest point is at Sapitwa part of the Mount Mlanje at 3,002 meters. The country makes up most of the African Rift Valley which on the average is about 81 kilometers across. The central region of the country is a 1000 meter plateau Page 1 of 8 that is used mainly for agricultural production.
    [Show full text]
  • Mt Mabu, Mozambique: Biodiversity and Conservation
    Darwin Initiative Award 15/036: Monitoring and Managing Biodiversity Loss in South-East Africa's Montane Ecosystems MT MABU, MOZAMBIQUE: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION November 2012 Jonathan Timberlake, Julian Bayliss, Françoise Dowsett-Lemaire, Colin Congdon, Bill Branch, Steve Collins, Michael Curran, Robert J. Dowsett, Lincoln Fishpool, Jorge Francisco, Tim Harris, Mirjam Kopp & Camila de Sousa ABRI african butterfly research in Forestry Research Institute of Malawi Biodiversity of Mt Mabu, Mozambique, page 2 Front cover: Main camp in lower forest area on Mt Mabu (JB). Frontispiece: View over Mabu forest to north (TT, top); Hermenegildo Matimele plant collecting (TT, middle L); view of Mt Mabu from abandoned tea estate (JT, middle R); butterflies (Lachnoptera ayresii) mating (JB, bottom L); Atheris mabuensis (JB, bottom R). Photo credits: JB – Julian Bayliss CS ‒ Camila de Sousa JT – Jonathan Timberlake TT – Tom Timberlake TH – Tim Harris Suggested citation: Timberlake, J.R., Bayliss, J., Dowsett-Lemaire, F., Congdon, C., Branch, W.R., Collins, S., Curran, M., Dowsett, R.J., Fishpool, L., Francisco, J., Harris, T., Kopp, M. & de Sousa, C. (2012). Mt Mabu, Mozambique: Biodiversity and Conservation. Report produced under the Darwin Initiative Award 15/036. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London. 94 pp. Biodiversity of Mt Mabu, Mozambique, page 3 LIST OF CONTENTS List of Contents .......................................................................................................................... 3 List of Tables .............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Re-Examining the Past and Rethinking The
    University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations 1-1-2013 Re-examining the Past and Rethinking the Future at Mount Mulanje Forest Reserve, Malawi: New Directions for Local Engagement Mary Christian Thompson University of South Carolina - Columbia Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the Educational Administration and Supervision Commons Recommended Citation Thompson, M. C.(2013). Re-examining the Past and Rethinking the Future at Mount Mulanje Forest Reserve, Malawi: New Directions for Local Engagement. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/2497 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Re-examining the Past and Rethinking the Future at Mount Mulanje Forest Reserve, Malawi: New Directions for Local Engagement By Mary C. Thompson Bachelor of Arts University of Tennessee, 2004 Master of Arts University of South Carolina, 2008 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2013 Accepted by: Edward R. Carr, Major Professor John Kupfer, Committee Member Brent McCusker, Committee Member Caroline Nagel, Committee Member Lacy Ford, Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies © Copyright by Mary C. Thompson, 2013 All Rights Reserved. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the immense support that the following people have given me during the preparation of this dissertation without which I would not have succeeded.
    [Show full text]
  • 10 Best Mountain Treks in Africa 1 MOUNT KILIMANJARO TANZANIA
    10 Best Mountain Treks in Africa From the Atlas Mountains of Morocco all the way down to South Africa’s Drakensberg, Africa has got the best and most popular trekking destinations with Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in the continent at the top of the list. 1 MOUNT KILIMANJARO TANZANIA Climbing Africa’s highest mountain peak is not for the faint of heart. At 19,336 feet high, Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s highest peak. Every year at least 20,000 people attempt to climb up the mountain through the 5 different climatic zones. Situated in the Kilimanjaro National Park in Tanzania, this geological wonder is any mountaineers dream climb. There are different routes up Mount Kilimanjaro. Each route has a degree of difficulty in climbing, traffic and scenic beauty. The longer the route you take the less difficult the climbing is and the more you enjoy trekking up the mountain. The least difficult routes are Marangu and Rongai; the more difficult routes are Machame, Shira, and Lemosho. The longer routes have more difficult hiking but you'll be more acclimatized and your chances of reaching the summit are therefore higher. Kilimanjaro National Park is rich in unique bird life, wildlife and beautiful flora. We suggest getting to know the area before your trek, as there is so much to enjoy before your climb. Due to the proximity to the equator and warm Indian ocean, much of the mountain slopes are rich areas of forest, with 195 unique bird species that call this home. As you ascend the mountainous terrain, the landscape changes from lush forest to alpine moorland, interspersed with valleys and ravines.
    [Show full text]
  • Alkaline Magmas in Zones of Continental Convergence
    1 Alkaline magmas in zones of continental convergence: 2 The Tezhsar volcano-intrusive ring complex, Armenia 3 4 Krzysztof Sokół1,2, Ralf Halama1*, Khachatur Meliksetian3, Ivan 5 P. Savov4, Gevorg Navasardyan3, Masafumi Sudo5 6 7 1 School of Geography, Geology and the Environment, Keele University, Keele, ST5 5BG, 8 United Kingdom 9 2 (Present address) School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of St Andrews, 10 St Andrews, KY16 9AL, United Kingdom 11 3 Institute of Geological Sciences, Armenian National Academy of Sciences, 24a Marshal 12 Baghramian Avenue, 0019, Yerevan, Republic of Armenia 13 4 School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom 14 5 Institute of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht- 15 Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany 16 17 * Corresponding author contact information: 18 Ralf Halama 19 School of Geography, Geology and the Environment 20 Keele University 21 Keele, ST5 5BG, United Kingdom 22 E-mail: [email protected] 23 Phone: +44 (0) 1782 7 34960 1 24 Abstract 25 Alkaline igneous rocks are relatively rare in settings of tectonic convergence and little 26 is known about their petrogenesis in these settings. This study aims to contribute to a 27 better understanding of the formation of alkaline igneous rocks by an investigation of the 28 Tezhsar volcano-intrusive alkaline ring complex (TAC) in the Armenian Lesser Caucasus, 29 which is located between the converging Eurasian and Arabian plates. We present new 30 petrological, geochemical and Sr-Nd isotope data for the TAC to constrain magma genesis 31 and magma source characteristics.
    [Show full text]
  • Production, Reserves, and Processing of Feldspar and Feldspathoid Rocks in the Czech Republic from 2005 to 2019—An Overview
    minerals Article Production, Reserves, and Processing of Feldspar and Feldspathoid Rocks in the Czech Republic from 2005 to 2019—An Overview Jan Zahradník 1,2 , Jakub Jirásek 3,*, Jaromír Starý 4 and Martin Sivek 2 1 LB MINERALS, s.r.o., Tovární 431, 330 12 Horní Bˇríza, Czech Republic; [email protected] 2 Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Vysoká Škola Báˇnská-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 15/2172, 708 00 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic; [email protected] 3 Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic 4 Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3, 118 21 Praha, Czech Republic; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 5 July 2020; Accepted: 10 August 2020; Published: 17 August 2020 Abstract: This paper aims to characterize and interpret the trends in reserves, resources, and mine production of feldspar and feldspathoid rocks during 2005–2019 in the Czech Republic. With over 101 Mt of total resources and 22 Mt of reserves, feldspar belongs to the crucial industrial minerals of the Czech Republic. With annual outputs of approximately 400–450 kt of feldspars and 20–35 kt of feldspathoid rocks (nepheline syenite), the Czech Republic ranks among the top European and world feldspar producers. Most of the production comes from leucocratic granitoid rocks (key active deposit: Krásno-Vysoký Kámen), followed by sedimentary rocks (key active deposit: Halámky), and granitic pegmatites (key active deposit: Luženiˇcky).Nepheline syenite is mined at a single deposit. All deposits are extracted from open pits (quarries).
    [Show full text]