Forty Lives in the Bebop Business: Mental Health in a Group of Eminent Jazz Musicians

BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY (2003), 183, 255^259 Forty lives in the bebop business: mental health on the verge of becoming absorbed into official academic culture.’ {{ in a group of eminent jazz musicians And Shipton (2001) states, quite simply, that ‘Of all the musical forms to emerge GEOFFREY I. WILLS in the twentieth century, jazz was by far the most significant’. In order to increase the comprehensiveness of the study of artistic creative persons, therefore, it seems timely to focus on jazz musicians. Present study Background Above-average levels of There is now a comprehensive literature In the present study I have not been as psychopathologyhavepsychopathology have been that convincingly demonstrates a link be- ambitious as Jamison, Post and Ludwig in tween psychopathology and creativity in terms of the size of the sample. I have tar- demonstrated convincingly in groups of the arts. Specifically, the work of Andrea- geted a particular period of jazz, which it outstandingindividualsoutstanding individuals workingintheworking in the son (1987), Jamison (1993), Post (1994) is possible to refer to as the classic era of arts.Currently,arts.Currently,jazz jazz musicians have not and Ludwig (1995) points to a connection American modern jazz, that lasted from been studied in this regard. between creativity and affective disorders, about 1945 to about 1960. Bebop, the first but there is also evidence of other psycho- manifestation of modern jazz, ‘Lies at the Aims Toinvestigate any evidence of pathology. As just one example of this, Post midpoint of what has become known as psychopathologyinpsychopathology in a group of eminent (1994) found that 40.4% of his sample of the jazz tradition . bebop is the point at which our contemporary ideas of jazz come jazz musicians. eminent composers exhibited DSM cluster C (anxious type) personality disorder traits. into focus’ (DeVeaux, 1997). By the early MethodMethod BiographicalmaterialrelatingBiographical material relating Jamison, Post and Ludwig studied 1960s, the music was changing again, lar- biographies of eminent creative persons in gely as a result of what was known as to 40 eminent AmericanAmericanmodernjazz modernjazz order to carry out their assessments. In The New Thing, The New Wave, or Free musicians was reviewed and an attempt the largest of these studies, Ludwig (1995) Jazz. In targeting a particular era of jazz, was made to formulate diagnoses using gathered biographical data on 1004 famous I am nevertheless mindful of the words of DSM ^ IV.IV.DSM men and women and concluded: HarrisonHarrison et aletal (2000) when they say that ‘My findings show consistently that members of ‘In reality, the parameters according to ResultsResults Evidence was provided of the artistic professions or creative arts as a which periods are demarcated are so mani- levels of psychopathologypsychopathologyinthe in the sample of whole . suffer from more types of mental diffi- fold and overlapping that valid periodiza- culties andanddo do so overlongeroverlongerperiodsoftheirlives periods oftheirlives tion may be almost impossible to achieve’. jazz musicians similar to those foundin than members of the other professions.’ Still, the period 1945–1960 gave promi- other previouslyinvestigatedpreviously investigated creative Eysenck (1995), in his overview of nence to a large group of innovative and groups, withthe exception of substance- creativity, felt that a number of studies virtuosic jazz musicians who form a conve- related problems. An interesting supported the theory that: nient and compelling group for study. Jazz connection between creativity and ‘..‘...thereisa . there is a commoncommongeneticbasisforgreat genetic basis for great musicians from other eras will form com- potential in creativity and for psychopathological parison groups who may or may not reveal sensation-seeking was highlighted. deviation . it appears to be psychopathology similar personal characteristics. in the absence of psychosis that is the vital Conclusions The link between element in creativity.’ psychopathology and creativityin the arts A recent book by Nettle (2001) METHOD wasgivenwas given further weight.Future studies of explores these themes further. SamplingSampling Between them, the workers mentioned jazz musicians usinglarger samples and Forty jazz musicians who are regarded above have studied psychopathology in fine generally as having emerged as innovators making comparison with groups from artists, architects, classical musicians (com- on their instrument and often regarded in different eras of music would give greater posers and performers), entertainers, ac- other ways, for instance as composers or clarification to this area. tors, playwrights and writers of fiction arrangers, in the period 1945–1960 were and poetry. One area of creative endeavour selected using the standard jazz texts TheThe Declaration of interest None.None. that has been given scant attention is jazz, Encyclopaedia of Jazz ((Giants of Jazz even though Jamison (1993) mentioned section) (Feather, 1960), Jazz Masters of three jazz musicians in her study and Lud- the FortiestheForties (Gitler, 1966) and Jazz Masters wig (1995) included seven in his. This is un- of the Fifties (Goldberg, 1965). Twenty-six fortunate because, as DeVeaux (1997) says: (65%) of the musicians were African ‘. there is little doubt that in recent years it American and 14 (35%) were Caucasian (jazz) has made substantive leaps toward becoming ‘‘America’s classical music’’. it may well American. All were born in the period be . that jazz is in the same position as another 1912–1936 and all were deceased. The {{See editorial, pp.193^194, thisthisissue. issue. vernacular art form, film, was a generation ago: sample (Table 1) consisted of six 255255 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. WILLS trumpeters, three trombonists, four alto the category of cannabis-related disorder Heroin-related disorder saxophonists, one alto doubling tenor saxo- was omitted owing to a lack of information Twenty-one subjects (52.5% of the sample) phonist, five tenor saxophonists, three in the biographical material. were addicted to heroin at some time dur- baritone saxophonists, five pianists, five ing their lives. It must be noted that heroin bassists, four drummers, one guitarist, one use was widespread among modern jazz vibraphonist and two arrangers. musicians in the period after the Second Following the approach of previous RESULTSRESULTS World War and there were a number of researchers, biographical material was reasons for this. After the war there was a reviewed. Twenty-two musicians had bio- Family background dramatic increase in the availability of graphies devoted to them, in some cases Information on family psychiatric history heroin because supply routes from the Far more than one. Where biographies per seperse was rather patchy. It was ascertained that East and Turkey were re-opened by the did not exist, whole chapters devoted to in- four subjects (i.e. 10% of the sample) had Mafia. Heroin travelled via Marseilles dividual musicians in jazz histories and problems in this regard: Art Pepper’s par- directly to New York and was made easily reference works were referred to, supple- ents, Stan Getz’s maternal uncles and Bill accessible (Shapiro, 1988). It ‘flooded mented by jazz magazine interviews and Evans’s father had alcohol-related disor- urban black neighbourhoods to plague the articles, providing extensive information ders, whereas Stan Getz’s mother had lives of average working-class African- on personality, health and other details. depression and Bill Evans’s brother died Americans’ (DeVeaux, 1997). Modern jazz by suicide. Erroll Garner’s twin brother was a revolutionary music that was rejected had severe learning difficulties. Seven sub- by the general public, and heroin, like the Ratings jects (17.5%) experienced an unhappy music, was defiantly anti-establishment Where possible, I attempted to transform or unstable early life: for instance, Dizzy (Hentoff, 1978). It thus tended to be the biographical data into psychiatric diag- Gillespie and Charles Mingus remembered adopted by disaffected musicians. noses by using classifications and criteria being beaten by their father, and Charlie Heroin addiction was felt to be a from DSM–IV (American Psychiatric Asso- Parker’s father deserted the family when contributing factor to early death in five ciation, 1994). The categories used were: Parker was 10 years old. Miles Davis had of the subjects. A further subject, Chet heroin-related disorder,disorder, alcohol-related an acrimonious relationship with his Baker, lived until the age of 58 years but disorder, cocaine-relatedcocaine-related disorder, schizo- mother, who whipped him when he was remained a lifelong addict. Fourteen sub- phrenia and other psychotic disorders, young. On the other hand, he was one of jects overcame their addiction but five re- mood disorders and anxiety disorders. five subjects (12.5%) who came from lied on other substances, such as alcohol, The categories of family background, sen- well-to-do or middle-class backgrounds. cocaine and methadone, to sustain them. sation-seeking, late-life deteriorations and Davis’s father was a wealthy dentist and suicides also were added. Although the ranch owner. Serge Chaloff’s father was a use of cannabis by jazz musicians has been symphony orchestra pianist and his mother Alcohol-related disorder a topic for discussion (e.g. Shapiro,

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