sign in sign up
<<
Home , Fats Navarro, Gil Evans, Shelly Manne

BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY (2003), 183, 255^259

Forty lives in the business: mental health on the verge of becoming absorbed into official academic culture.’ {{ in a group of eminent musicians And Shipton (2001) states, quite simply, that ‘Of all the musical forms to emerge GEOFFREY I. WILLS in the twentieth century, jazz was by far the most significant’. In order to increase the comprehensiveness of the study of artis- tic creative persons, therefore, it seems timely to focus on jazz musicians.

Present study Background Above-average levels of There is now a comprehensive literature In the present study I have not been as psychopathologyhavepsychopathology have been that convincingly demonstrates a link be- ambitious as Jamison, Post and Ludwig in tween psychopathology and creativity in terms of the size of the sample. I have tar- demonstrated convincingly in groups of the arts. Specifically, the work of Andrea- geted a particular period of jazz, which it outstandingindividualsoutstanding individuals workingintheworking in the son (1987), Jamison (1993), Post (1994) is possible to refer to as the classic era of arts.Currently,arts.Currently,jazz jazz musicians have not and Ludwig (1995) points to a connection American modern jazz, that lasted from been studied in this regard. between creativity and affective disorders, about 1945 to about 1960. Bebop, the first but there is also evidence of other psycho- manifestation of modern jazz, ‘Lies at the Aims Toinvestigate any evidence of pathology. As just one example of this, Post midpoint of what has become known as psychopathologyinpsychopathology in a group of eminent (1994) found that 40.4% of his sample of the jazz tradition . . . bebop is the point at which our contemporary ideas of jazz come jazz musicians. eminent exhibited DSM cluster C (anxious type) personality disorder traits. into focus’ (DeVeaux, 1997). By the early MethodMethod BiographicalmaterialrelatingBiographical material relating Jamison, Post and Ludwig studied 1960s, the music was changing again, lar- biographies of eminent creative persons in gely as a result of what was known as to 40 eminent AmericanAmericanmodernjazz modernjazz order to carry out their assessments. In The New Thing, The New Wave, or Free musicians was reviewed and an attempt the largest of these studies, Ludwig (1995) Jazz. In targeting a particular era of jazz, was made to formulate diagnoses using gathered biographical data on 1004 famous I am nevertheless mindful of the words of DSM ^ IV.IV.DSM men and women and concluded: HarrisonHarrison et aletal (2000) when they say that ‘My findings show consistently that members of ‘In reality, the parameters according to ResultsResults Evidence was provided of the artistic professions or creative arts as a which periods are demarcated are so mani- levels of psychopathologypsychopathologyinthe in the sample of whole . . . suffer from more types of mental diffi- fold and overlapping that valid periodiza- culties andanddo do so overlongeroverlongerperiodsoftheirlives periods oftheirlives tion may be almost impossible to achieve’. jazz musicians similar to those foundin than members of the other professions.’ Still, the period 1945–1960 gave promi- other previouslyinvestigatedpreviously investigated creative Eysenck (1995), in his overview of nence to a large group of innovative and groups, withthe exception of substance- creativity, felt that a number of studies virtuosic jazz musicians who form a conve- related problems. An interesting supported the theory that: nient and compelling group for study. Jazz connection between creativity and ‘..‘...thereisa . there is a commoncommongeneticbasisforgreat genetic basis for great musicians from other eras will form com- potential in creativity and for psychopathological parison groups who may or may not reveal sensation-seeking was highlighted. deviation . . . it appears to be psychopathology similar personal characteristics. in the absence of psychosis that is the vital Conclusions The link between element in creativity.’ psychopathology and creativityin the arts A recent book by Nettle (2001) METHOD wasgivenwas given further weight.Future studies of explores these themes further. SamplingSampling Between them, the workers mentioned jazz musicians usinglarger samples and Forty jazz musicians who are regarded above have studied psychopathology in fine generally as having emerged as innovators making comparison with groups from artists, architects, classical musicians (com- on their instrument and often regarded in different eras of music would give greater posers and performers), entertainers, ac- other ways, for instance as composers or clarification to this area. tors, playwrights and writers of fiction arrangers, in the period 1945–1960 were and poetry. One area of creative endeavour selected using the standard jazz texts TheThe Declaration of interest None.None. that has been given scant attention is jazz, Encyclopaedia of Jazz ((Giants of Jazz even though Jamison (1993) mentioned section) (Feather, 1960), Jazz Masters of three jazz musicians in her study and Lud- the FortiestheForties (Gitler, 1966) and Jazz Masters wig (1995) included seven in his. This is un- of the Fifties (Goldberg, 1965). Twenty-six fortunate because, as DeVeaux (1997) says: (65%) of the musicians were African ‘. . . there is little doubt that in recent years it American and 14 (35%) were Caucasian (jazz) has made substantive leaps toward be- coming ‘‘America’s ’’. . . it may well American. All were born in the period be . . . that jazz is in the same position as another 1912–1936 and all were deceased. The {{See editorial, pp.193^194, thisthisissue. issue. vernacular art form, film, was a generation ago: sample (Table 1) consisted of six

255255

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. WILLS

trumpeters, three trombonists, four alto the category of cannabis-related disorder Heroin-related disorder saxophonists, one alto doubling tenor saxo- was omitted owing to a lack of information Twenty-one subjects (52.5% of the sample) phonist, five tenor saxophonists, three in the biographical material. were addicted to heroin at some time dur- baritone saxophonists, five pianists, five ing their lives. It must be noted that heroin bassists, four drummers, one guitarist, one use was widespread among modern jazz vibraphonist and two arrangers. musicians in the period after the Second Following the approach of previous RESULTSRESULTS World War and there were a number of researchers, biographical material was reasons for this. After the war there was a reviewed. Twenty-two musicians had bio- Family background dramatic increase in the availability of graphies devoted to them, in some cases Information on family psychiatric history heroin because supply routes from the Far more than one. Where biographies per seperse was rather patchy. It was ascertained that East and Turkey were re-opened by the did not exist, whole chapters devoted to in- four subjects (i.e. 10% of the sample) had Mafia. Heroin travelled via Marseilles dividual musicians in jazz histories and problems in this regard: ’s par- directly to and was made easily reference works were referred to, supple- ents, ’s maternal uncles and Bill accessible (Shapiro, 1988). It ‘flooded mented by jazz magazine interviews and Evans’s father had alcohol-related disor- urban black neighbourhoods to plague the articles, providing extensive information ders, whereas Stan Getz’s mother had lives of average working-class African- on personality, health and other details. depression and ’s brother died Americans’ (DeVeaux, 1997). Modern jazz by suicide. Erroll Garner’s twin brother was a revolutionary music that was rejected had severe learning difficulties. Seven sub- by the general public, and heroin, like the Ratings jects (17.5%) experienced an unhappy music, was defiantly anti-establishment Where possible, I attempted to transform or unstable early life: for instance, Dizzy (Hentoff, 1978). It thus tended to be the biographical data into psychiatric diag- Gillespie and remembered adopted by disaffected musicians. noses by using classifications and criteria being beaten by their father, and Charlie Heroin addiction was felt to be a from DSM–IV (American Psychiatric Asso- Parker’s father deserted the family when contributing factor to early death in five ciation, 1994). The categories used were: Parker was 10 years old. had of the subjects. A further subject, Chet heroin-related disorder,disorder, alcohol-related an acrimonious relationship with his Baker, lived until the age of 58 years but disorder, cocaine-relatedcocaine-related disorder, schizo- mother, who whipped him when he was remained a lifelong addict. Fourteen sub- phrenia and other psychotic disorders, young. On the other hand, he was one of jects overcame their addiction but five re- mood disorders and anxiety disorders. five subjects (12.5%) who came from lied on other substances, such as alcohol, The categories of family background, sen- well-to-do or middle-class backgrounds. cocaine and methadone, to sustain them. sation-seeking, late-life deteriorations and Davis’s father was a wealthy dentist and suicides also were added. Although the ranch owner. Serge Chaloff’s father was a use of cannabis by jazz musicians has been symphony orchestra pianist and his mother Alcohol-related disorder a topic for discussion (e.g. Shapiro, 1988), was a music conservatory teacher. Eleven subjects (27.5%) were dependent on alcohol and six (15%) abused alcohol at Ta b l e 1 Forty eminent modern jazz musicians and their instruments some stage during their lives. Eleven subjects (27.5%) were comorbid for other TrumpetTrumpet TromboneTrombone Alto saxophone disorders, such as heroin and/or cocaine J. J. Johnson dependence at certain times in their lives. Art Pepper Five of the alcohol-dependent subjects Bill Harris Paul Desmond eventually overcame their dependence. Chet BakerBakerChet Miles Davis Alto/tenor saxophone Howard McGhee Cocaine-related disorder Tenor saxophone Baritone saxophone PianoPiano Three musicians (Miles Davis, Art Pepper Serge Chaloff and Bill Evans) developed a dependence on cocaine. In each case it followed the ces- Stan Getz Erroll Garner sation of heroin use. In the case of Bill Hank Mobley Evans, there was a 10-year abstinence Bill Evans before the commencement of cocaine use. Bass DrumsDrums GuitarGuitar Other musicians known to use cocaine were Thelonious Monk and . Charlie Christian Oscar Pettiford VibraphoneVibraphone Charles Mingus Philly Joe Jones Shelly Manne ArrangerArranger Schizophrenia and other psychotic disordersdisorders Scott La Faro Gil EvansEvansGil Three subjects (7.5%) had psychotic disorders.disorders.

256

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. MENTAL HEALTH OF JAZZ MUSICIANS

Schizophrenia Rosolino, although not diagnosed as having hospital operations and answering the tele- Bud Powell had numerous admissions to depression, died by suicide after attempting phone. John Coltrane exhibited obsessive– psychiatric hospitals and was diagnosed as (successfully, in one case) to kill his two compulsive features related to excessive having schizophrenia. Many musician sons.sons. practising, consumption of sweet foods, colleagues believed that his illness was dieting, searching for the perfect mouth- triggered after he was beaten over the head Mood disorder due to a general medical piece and constantly exploring various by police when he was 21 years old. conditioncondition religions. In relation to Coltrane, it is inter- esting to note that obsessionality can have Although he exhibited schizophrenia-like Two subjects fell into this category: Miles an adaptive function in creativity, and Storr symptoms such as possible paranoid delu- Davis had depression as a result of pain (1972) discusses the use of ritual to induce a sions (fear of being attacked and murdered), caused by sickle-cell anaemia, whereas suitable state of mind. possible auditory hallucinations (laughing Gerry Mulligan experienced mood swings inappropriately to himself) and inappropri- caused by hypoglycaemia. ate affect (fatuous smile, grimace, fixed Sensation-seeking stare), throughout a 10-month hospital Dysthymic disorder Zuckerman (1994) has described sensation- admission in 1945 it was reported that ‘he seeking as ‘the tendency to seek novel, Two subjects, Paul Desmond and Bill talked garrulously to all who would varied, complex, and intense sensations Evans, appeared to have dysthymic disor- listen and was generally over-active . . . his and experiences and the willingness to take der. Both experienced low self-esteem, thoughts were flying away with him’ risks for the sake of such experience’. It guilty ruminations and a pessimistic out- (Gitler, 1966) and, therefore, a more accu- ‘seems to be a necessary but not sufficient look. In the case of Desmond, dysthymia rate diagnosis may be one of schizoaffective ingredient of an antisocial personality’ was related to alcohol dependence, whereas disorder, because schizophrenia was grossly (Zuckerman, 1994) and has been linked with Evans it was related to heroin overdiagnosed and mania was under- to borderline personality disorder (Reist dependence. diagnosed around the middle of the 20th et aletal, 1990). It seems possible, therefore, century. To complicate the picture further, that sensation-seeking is a characteristic one medical researcher suggested that Cyclothymic disorder of all DSM cluster B (dramatic type) Powell might have developed epilepsy as a Charles Mingus displayed symptoms of a personality disorders. Sensation-seeking result of his beating. These issues will not cyclothymic mood disorder, being mainly also has been linked to creativity, in the be resolved fully until the Powell estate hypomanic with irascible, paranoid and form of divergent thinking (McCrae, releases the medical records. grandiose features. Oscar Pettiford pre- 1987), and to a preference for complexity sented a similar picture, being irascible, and abstraction in art (Furnham & Substance intoxication delirium grandiose and unrealistic in his business Bunyan, 1988). dealings. When alcohol-free, he was In terms of the sample as a whole being Thelonious Monk experimented freely reported as appearing depressed. rated as exceptionally creative, I felt that it with a variety of drugs and appeared to would be interesting to look at the docu-thedocu- experience a particularly adverse reaction mentation of sensation-seeking tendencies to amphetamines. There were regular epi- Anxiety disorders in biographical material. sodes when he went without sleep for sev- Two subjects (5%), Art Pepper and John eral days, pacing up and down and not Coltrane, appeared to have anxiety dis- appearing to recognise anyone. After tak- orders. Art Pepper carried out obsessive– Disinhibition ing to his bed for a few days he would compulsive washing rituals and had phobic One of the sensation-seeking factors identi- then return to normal. This presentation anxiety regarding the sight of blood, fied by Zuckerman (1994) is disinhibition. conforms to a diagnosis of substance intoxication delirium, as described in DSM–IV.DSM–IV. Ta b l e 22Tab Mood disorders

Substance-induced psychotic disorder MusiciansDiagnosis

Miles Davis developed sickle-cell anaemia Miles Davis Mood disorder due to sickle-cell anaemia, with depressive features and used excessive amounts of cocaine Paul DesmondDysthymic disorder and barbiturates to control the arthritic Bill Evans Dysthymic disorder pain. As a result, he developed paranoid de- Major depressive episode lusions and auditory hallucinations, search- Stan Getz Major depressive disorder, recurrent11 ing in his house for imaginary people whose 11 voices he thought he heard. Charles MingusMajor depressive disorder, recurrent, superimposed on cyclothymic disorder Gerry MulliganMood disorder due to hypoglycaemia with mixed features Charlie ParkerMajor depressive episode11 Mood disorders Art PepperSubstance-induced mood disorder with depressive features11 Eleven subjects (28.5%) definitely or prob- Oscar PettifordCyclothymic disorder (?) ably fell into this category (Table 2). Four Frank RosolinoMajor depressive episode (?) subjects received in-patient treatment for a depressive disorder and one subject, Frank 1. In-patient hospital treatment.

257257

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. WILLS

This is typified by a liking for parties, social wounding the other) and then killed him- did not determine the presence of specific drinking, sex with many partners, new and self. J. J. Johnson, having been ill for a mental disorders, stating only that 23% often illegal experiences and experimenta- number of months, died by suicide at the of the sample population had significant tion with drugs. Five of the subjects age of 77 years. psychiatric impairment. The Epidemiolo- (12.5%) shared a remarkably similar pro- gic Catchment Area Study (Robins & Re- file regarding disinhibition. These were DISCUSSION gier, 1991) found incidences of 6.8% for Chet Baker, Charlie Parker, Art Pepper, mood disorders, 1.5% for schizophrenia, Shortcomings of the study Stan Getz and Serge Chaloff. Chet Baker’s 14% for alcohol dependence and misuse favourite drug experience was ‘the kind of Ludwig (1995) and Post (1994) discuss and 6% for drug dependence and misuse. high that scares other people to death – a the shortcomings in their studies and the speedball. It’s a mixture of cocaine and same criticisms can be levelled at the pre- Drug-related problems sent one. Information was taken from soft heroin’. Charlie Parker consumed enor- There was a much higher rate of drug- biographical data and interpreted as facts. mous quantities of food, used heroin in related problems in the present sample than A single investigator attempting to trans- increasing amounts, was known to drink in those of Ludwig and Post, with 52.5% of late descriptions of subjects in biographies 16 double whiskies in a 2-hour period and jazz musicians having heroin addiction at into specific DSM diagnoses cannot entered into hundreds of affairs with some time during their lives. As has been achieve high levels of validity and reliabil- women. Art Pepper described his appetites noted previously, heroin use was wide- ity. Biographers may be biased in the way thus: ‘I always prided myself on being able spread for a number of reasons among that they select and interpret facts, and to stay up longer than anybody else, drink modern jazz musicians after the Second information is retrospective. Ideally, the more than anybody else, take more pills, World War, but as modern jazz gradually subjects should have been selected from shoot more stuff, or whatever’. Stan Getz became more accepted, and as younger mu- a list provided by a group of experts. was dependent on heroin and alcohol and sicians saw the harm caused to their older The present sample of 40 subjects is small was a prolific womaniser. Serge Chaloff colleagues, usage began to fall off (Hentoff, and rose to prominence in a very specific was described by a colleague as being like 1978), so a more recent sample of jazz era that had a strong influence on them as Charlie Parker: ‘He had such an amazing musicians undoubtedly would not show individuals. Nevertheless, objective data tolerance for doing whatever he did to him- the same rate of addiction. self that he hardly ever knew it was a prob- were available in the form of documented lem . . . never got enough of anything’. behaviours, such as medical or psychiatric Consideration of occupational Miles Davis appeared to exhibit ex- illnesses. Often there were several biogra- stress treme disinhibition. He misused a variety phies of one subject, each written from a of substances, including heroin, alcohol, different standpoint and providing cross- In a previous large-scale study (Wills & barbiturates and cocaine. He had many corroboration of data. Cooper, 1988), the effects of occupational sexual relationships, sometimes simulta- stress on mental health and substance neously, and he had a liking for orgies Statistical comparisons with other misuse in popular musicians were ex- and voyeurism. Other subjects, including studies plored. Arguably, the fullest picture is Dexter Gordon, Paul Chambers and Philly It was interesting to compare and contrast provided by using the diathesis–stress Joe Jones, demonstrated voracious multiple rates and types of mental health problems model (Meehl, 1962). One may ask why appetites.appetites. in the sample of jazz musicians with those Dizzy Gillespie survived to become an of previously documented creative groups. elder statesman but his fellow innovator Charlie Parker died aged 34 years. Re- Thrill- and adventure-seeking Overall, the statistics for jazz musi- cians were comparable with those of com- search (see Ludwig, 1995) shows that, Thrill- and adventure-seeking is another posers and musical performers provided with regard to psychopathology in the sensation-seeking factor identified by by Post (1994) and Ludwig (1995). For arts, for substantial numbers the predispo- Zuckerman (1994). In the present sample, instance, 28.5% of jazz musicians had sition for mental disorder is established Chet Baker and Miles Davis had a love mood disorders compared with 41% of long before they launch their careers. of fast sports cars, and Scott La Faro, a musical performers (Ludwig) and 34.6% There is also a greater tendency in their notoriously reckless driver, died in a car of composers (Post); and 10% of Lud- families for mental illness and they show accident at the age of 25 years. On one wig’s and 1% of Post’s composers had a more problems during childhood and ado- occasion after a drinking session, Stan Getz psychotic illness compared with 7.5% of lescence than members of non-artistic successfully swam across London’s River jazz musicians. Figures for alcohol prob- professions. Thames.Thames. lems were similar, with 40% of Ludwig’s musical performers, 21.2% of Post’s com- Wider implications of sensation- Late-life deteriorations posers and 27.5% of jazz musicians. seekingseeking and suicides Thus, the present study tended to confirm Despite the social reasons for drug usage, it It was felt that from the age of 54 years previous findings regarding mood dis- is interesting to look at it in relation to the Thelonious Monk had a dementing process orders and alcohol problems in creative topic of sensation-seeking. caused by excessive drug usage. He died persons. Comparable statistics for the Sensation-seeking, mainly in the form from a cerebral aneurysm, aged 64 years. general population during the time period of disinhibition and thrill- and adventure- At the age of 52 years Frank Rosolino studied are not easily available. The Mid- seeking, was described in biographical shot his two sons (killing one and seriously town Manhattan Study (Srole et aletal, 1962),1962) material relating to many of the current

258

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. MENTAL HEALTH OF JAZZ MUSICIANS

sample, suggesting that their substance- related problems were part of the wider CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS spectrum of their appetites and not simply the result of the influence of their working && Evidence of a link between psychopathology and creativity in the arts is given environment. further support. The connection between sensation- seeking and creativity is a topic worthy of && Further illumination of the creative process mightbe gained by an intensified study further investigation. One may speculate of its link with sensation-seeking. that those high in creativity and sensation- && seeking may represent a subset of persons Psychopathology is neither necessary nor sufficient for creativity. who are attracted to becoming performers LIMITATIONS in the field of as a whole, when one also considers the biographies && Information was taken from soft biographical data and interpreted as fact. of a number of eminent deceased rock musicians. One can carry this speculation && A single investigator attempting to translate descriptions in biographies into further, for instance when looking at the specific DSM diagnoses cannot achieve high levels of validity and reliability. bohemian artistic world of fin-de-siefin-de-siecle`cle && The present sample of 40 subjectsis small androse to prominence in a very specific Paris. Januszczak (2002) refers to the ether addiction of the poet Max Jacob, the ab- era that had a strong influence on them as individuals. sinthe addiction of the playwright Alfred Jarry, the opium smoking of Picasso and the alcoholism of Utrillo, Toulouse-Lautrec and Modigliani. The latter also used hash- ish and cocaine. GEOFFREY I.WILLS, PhD,13PhD, 13 Mile End Lane, Davenport, Stockport, Cheshire SK2 6BN, UK. E-mail: gwilsgwils@@btopenworld.com At the present time, of course, the con- nection is pure conjecture. Solely with re- (First received 30 October 2002, final revision 26 February 2003, accepted 17 March 2003) gard to jazz musicians, there is a need to study larger samples and to make compari- Ludwig, A. M. (1995) The Price of Greatness: Resolving sons with groups from different eras of the despite this. Connections with sensation- seeking are highlighted, suggesting an the Creativity and Madness Controversy.NewYork: music.music. Guilford Press. avenue for further exploration. McCrae,R.R.(1987)Creativity, divergent thinking and Non-pathological sample openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social characteristics REFERENCES PsychologyPsychology,, 5252,1258^1265. To maintain a sense of perspective in the Meehl, P. E. (1962) Schizotaxia, schizotypy, American Psychiatric Association (1994) DiagnosticDiagnostic schizophrenia. American Psychologist,, 1717, 827^838. present study, it needs to be stated that and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn) many of the sample were exemplary, (DSM^IV).Washington, DC: APA. Nettle, D. (20 01) Strong Imagination: Madness, Creativity and Human Nature..Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Oxford: . well-balanced human beings. For instance, Andreason, N. C. (1987) Creativity and mental illness: Clifford Brown was regarded universally prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree Post, F. (1994) Creativity and psychopathology: a study relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry,, 144144,1288^1296. as being kind, generous, conscientious of 291 world-famous men. British Journal of Psychiatry,, 165165,,22^34. 22^34. and highly intelligent. Eric Dolphy was DeVeaux, S. (1997) The Birth of Bebop: A Social and known to be gentle, unassuming, helpful Musical History. London: Picador. Reist, C., Haier, R. J., DeMet, E., et aletal (19 9 0) Platelet MAO activity in personality disorders and normal Eysenck, H. J. (1995) Genius:Genius:The The Natural History of and considerate. John Coltrane, Thelo- controls. Psychiatry Research,, 3030,221^227., 221^227. nious Monk and Erroll Garner generally Creativity.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A. (eds) (1991) PsychiatricPsychiatric Feather,Feather,L. L. (1960) The Encyclopaedia of Jazz.NewYork:.NewYork: were liked very well. Pepper Adams was Disorders in America:The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Horizon Press. an exceptionally cultured person who Study..NewYork:TheFreePress. New York:The Free Press. was interested in art history and literature, Furnham, A. F. & Bunyan, M. (1988) Personality and Shapiro, H. (1988) Waiting for the Man: the Story of art preferences. European Journal of Personality,, 22,67^74. and his friends regarded him as an excel- Drugs and Popular Music. London: Quartet. lent museum guide. Many musicians, such Gitler, I. (1966) Jazz Masters of the Forties.NewYork: Shipton, A. (2001) ANewHistoryofJazz. London:.London: Macmillan. as Miles Davis, Art Blakey and J. J. John- Continuum. son, overcame early problems to become Goldberg, J. (1965) Jazz Masters of the Fifties.New Srole, L., Langer,T. S., Michael, S. T., et aletal (19 62) York: Macmillan. very successful and highly respected elder Mental Health in the Metropolis: the Midtown Manhattan statesmen of jazz. Harrison, M.,Thacker, E. & Nicholson, S. (2000) TheThe Study. New York: McGraw-Hill. This study offers a further perspective Essential Jazz Records, Volume 2. London: Mansell. Storr, A. (1972) The Dynamics of Creation. London:.London: on the link between psychopathology and Hentoff, N. (1978) The Jazz Life..NewYork:DaCapo. New York: Da Capo. Secker & Warburg. creativity in the arts, and adds weight to Jamison, K. R. (1993) Touched With Fire: Manic Wills, G. & Cooper,Cooper,C. C. L. (1988) Pressure Sensitive: the finding that outstanding workers in Depressive Illness and the ArtisticTemperament.New Popular Musicians under Stress. London: Sage. the arts can suffer from above-average York:The Free Press. Zuckerman, M. (1994) Behavioural Expressions and levels of mental health problems but Januszczak,W. (2002) French undressing. SundayTimes Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking.Cambridge: manage to produce exceptional work Magazine (London),, 13 Jan.,18^23. Cambridge University Press.

259259

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 28 Sep 2021 at 11:09:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use.