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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 76-3585 WAKTOLA, Aregay, 1942- ASSESSMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT, DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF PACKAGE OF AGRICULTURAL INNOVATIONS IN CHILALO, ETHIOPIA. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1975 Agriculture, general

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

(£) Copyright by

Aregay Waktola

1975

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. ASSESSMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT, DIFFUSION AND

ADOPTION OF PACKAGE OF AGRICULTURAL

INNOVATIONS IN CHILALO, ETHIOPIA

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Aregay Waktola, B.S., M.S.

*****

The Ohio State University

1975

Reading Committee: Approved By

Dr. Clarence Cunningham Dr. Robert McCormick Dr. Robert Warmbrod Dr. William Wayt Department of Agricultural Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to a large number of individuals for their encouragement and help during the conduct of this study. Foremost among the contributors to this study is the author’s adviser and chair­ man of his graduate committee, Professor Clarence Cunningham. His helpful guidance and counseling throughout the entire graduate program was a big asset. His debt to other members of the graduate committee,

Professors Robert McCormick, Robert Warmbrod, William Wayt and David

Francis is great. He is thankful to them for letting him engage in a research project which must at the time have seemed unattainable be­ cause of the political situations in Ethiopia.

At the United State Department of Agriculture grateful thanks are due to Mrs. Elaine Rondeau and Mr. David Winkelmann for their kind in­ terest and assistance in the author's graduate program. Similarly Dr.

Haile Woldemichael, Chairman of the Scholarship Committee, Haile

Sellassie I University deserves special thanks for his cooperation.

During the course of conducting the field work, office accom­ modation and professional facilities were made available at the Insti­ tute of Development Research (IDR) in Addis Ababa through the kind co­ operation and assistance of Dr. Assefa Mehretu and Dr. Tesfai Tecle.

Similar arrangements including lodging and financial grants were made by CADU (Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit) in Assela. Grateful

ii thanks are extended to Ato Henock Kifle, Executive Director, for his cooperation and assistance. Special appreciation is due to Ato Gugsa

Indeshaw, Ato Michael Beyene, Mr. J. Olsson, Ato Yohannes W. Michael,

Ato Alemayehu Mengistu, Ato Lema Kassaye, Wt. Hanna Kebede, Ato Habte

G. Selassie, Ato Lissanework Berhane Meskel, Ato Aberra Y. Ab, Ato

Yoseph Haile Selassie, Ato Bekele W/Abajifar and Ato Gudeta Nedessa all of CADU. The author is also indebted to all of the supervisors and

Extension agents who were very helpful to him.

Special thanks go to Dr. Dagnatchew Yirgu, Dr. Semu-Negus H.

Mariam, Mr. N. Fadda and Ato Solomon Beleta of the Institute of Agri­ cultural Research (IAR) for their cooperation in enabling this author get a substantial amount of research grant.

This researcher wishes to acknowledge a debt of gratitude to the interviewers whose dedication and understanding was a big asset. They are Beriso Tufa, Feleke Regassa, Girma Bikila, Kebede Seifu, Taye

Tsehaye, Teshome Terefe, Kifle Demboba, Ahmed Musa and Sheiko Negewo.

Thanks are due to Ato Degefu Hunde and Mr. Irineo M. Barrion of the

Secondary School in Assela for their assistance in the selection of the interviewers.

Grateful thanks are extended to Seyoum Solomon, Yilma Wube and

Amare Hibistu for their delightful fellowship and assistance. Thanks are also due to Terri Melvin and Jean Herring for help in editing parts

iii of the thesis. The author's debt to Mrs. Jeanette White is great for her help in typing and the final preparation of the thesis.

Finally the author owes a special debt of gratitude to Zewditu

Tadesse, Tsedale Waktola, Firdu Zawide, Taye Serfu, Getaneh Assefa,

Girma Wolde Selassie, Ashenafi Waktola and all the other members of his family for their understanding and encouragement throughout his entire graduate program.

iv VITA

October 26, 1942 . . . Born, Gereno, Soddo, Ethiopia

1967 ...... B.S., College of Agriculture Haile Sellassie I University

1969 ...... M.S., University of Wisconsin

1969-1972 ...... Lecturer and Acting Head, Department of Agricultural Education, College of Agriculture, Haile Sellassie I University

1972-1975 ...... Graduate Student, Department of Agricultural Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio U.S.A. U.S.A.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Extension Education (Agricultural Education)

Studies in Program Planning and Development. Professor Clarence Cunningham

Studies in Research. Professor J. Robert Warmbrod

Studies in Administration. Professor Robert McCormick

Studies in Foreign Agricultural Development. Professors William Wayt and David Francis

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

VITA v

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

Chapter

I. BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1

Introduction Background of the Study The Physical Setting Physical Features Climate and Natural Vegetation Soils Major Crops Grown in Ethiopia Livestock Production Methods of Cultivation Mineral Resources The Social Setting Population The Social Structure Systems of Land Tenure in Ethiopia Communal Ownership Individual Rights Pastoral Lands Government Ownership of Land Planning Experience in Ethiopian Agriculture Statement of the Problem Objectives of the Study Significance of the Study

vi REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE......

Introduction Development of Peasant Agriculture The Concept of Development The Problems of Agricultural Development The Evolution of the Package Concept Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations

THE CHILALO AGRICULTUREAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (CADU)....

The Project Historical Background Main Goals of CADU Administration Experimentation Department Veterinary Department Extension and Training Department Infrastructure Department Common Services CADU Autonomous Divisions

DESIGN AND CONDUCT OF THE STUDY......

The Population Samle Size Sampling Plan Data Collection Characteristic of the Sample Age Religion Marital Status Size of Family Land Ownership Farm Size Methodological Procedures in the Analysis of Data Development of Variables Dependent Variable Independent Variable Predispositional Variables Intervening Variables Situational Variables Hypotheses Chapter Page

V. ANALYSIS OF DATA - THE FINDINGS...... 143

Results and Discussion CADU Diffusion Strategy Adoption of Agricultural Technologies by Chilalo Farmers Hypothesis Testing Multiple Regression Analysis with Five Predispositional Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with Intervening Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with Situational Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with Pre­ dispositional and Situational Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with Pre­ dispositional and Situational Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with Inter­ vening Variables and Situational Variables Multiple Regression Analysis with All the Variables

VI. APPRAISAL OF SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE CADU PROJECT IN RELATION TO THE MAIN GOALS...... 185

The Investigator's Appraisal of the Project Experimentation Department Crop and Pasture Section Agricultural Engineering Section Animal Husbandry and Breeding Section Extension and Training Department Agricultural Extension The Marketing Division Farmers' Appraisal of CADU Impressions of Extension Agents, Supervisors and Department/Division/Section Heads Summary

viii Chapter Page

VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 235

Summary Background Research Design and Methodology F indings Conclusions Recommendations

APPENDIX

A. INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE...... 263

B. INTERVIEWER'S CODE...... 301

C. INTERINARY OF INTERVIEWERS...... 309

D. RAINFALL AND OTHER RELATED DATA RECORDED IN SELECTED AREAS OF CHILALO...... 311

E. SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES WHICH ARE BEING ESTABLISHED IN CHILALO AWRAJA...... 322

F. OBJECTIVES OF CADU DEPARTMENTS/DIVISIONS/SECTIONS.... 329

G. CURRICULUM FOR THE ASSISTANT AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS' SIX MONTHS THEORETICAL TRAINING...... 337

H. CORRESPONDENCE WITH SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS...... 342

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 345

ix TABLES

Table Page

1. Estimated Area, Yield, and Production of Major Crops (1970)...... 11

2. Area Estimated Rural and Urban Population by Province, 1970...... 16

3. Major Approaches to the Study of Development With Attendant Assumptions and Concepts...... 48

4. Altitude, Rainfall and Major Crops Grown in the Extension Areas of CADU...... 73

5. Distribution of Extension Areas by Development District and Year of Establishment...... 76

6. Composition of the Sample by Development District and Type of Farmer...... 109

7. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Ethnic Background...... 114

8. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Number of Wives ..... 115

9. Percentage Distribution of Farmers by Selected Characteristics of the First Three Children...... 116

10. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Farmers by Type of Tenure...... • 117

11. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Tenants by Type of Relationship with Landlords...... 118

12. Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Farm Size and Land Use...... 119

13. Adoption Scale...... 123

14. Value Orientation Scales...... 131

x Table Page

15. Variable Weights Used in the Computation of Diffusion Index...... 139

16. Values of and D for N = 1 to 9...... 140

17. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Diffusion Factors ...... 146

18. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Adoption Factors...... 152

18. Number of Respondents Who Made Comments on Some Characteristics of Wheat Varieties...... 155

20. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Between Diffusion and Selected Predispositional and Situational Variables..,,...... 158

21. Intercorrelations Among Diffusion Factors...... 162

22. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Adoption Factors and Diffusion Factors...... 166

23. Intercorrelations Among Adoption Factors.... 167

24. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Characteristics of Respondents and Their Adoption Behavior...... 170

25. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Predispositional Independent Variables...... 172

26. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Intervening Independent Variables...... 173

27. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Situational Independent Variables...... 174

xi Table Page

28. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Combination of Predispositional and Intervening Independent Variables...... 175

29. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Combination of Presidpositional and Situational Independent Variables...... 176

30. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with Combination of Intervening and Situational Independent Variables.^...... 177

31. Multiple Regression Analysis of Adoption of Innovations with All Categories of Independent Variables...... 178

32. Wheat and Barley Varieties Recommended Between 1968/69-1973/74...... 193

33. The Impact of Research on Mexican Wheat Production..... 194

34. Recommendations Made to Extension in 1970 and 1972..... 195

35. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Farmers By Type of Wheat Varieties Planted ...... 198

36. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Farmers By Type of Barley Varieties Planted...... 199

37. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Farmers By Use of Fertilizer and Certified Seed...... 201

38. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Farmers By Comments About the Effects of Fertilizer...... 203

39. Grain Purchases Made by the Marketing Division During 1971-72 and 1972-73..... 217

40. CADU Fertilizer Sales During 1971-72 and 1972-73...... 219

41. CADU Sale of Seeds, 1971-72 and 1972-73...... 219

xii Table Page

42. Total Number of Participants in CADU Credit Program, 1967-68 and 1972-73...... 220

43. Farmers' Appraisal of the Helpfulness of the Program to Them Personally...... 222

44. Farmers' Appraisal of the Helpfulness of the Model Farmers to the Small Farmers...... 222

45. Farmers' Appraisal of Improvement in Their Ability to Farm...... 223

46. Farmers' Appraisal of Progress Made in Accomplishing Farming Goals...... 223

47. Kind of Farmers Respondents Said Had Received the Mo3t Help from CADU...... 224

48. How Well Farmers Felt They Were Satisfied With Their Accomplishment in Farming...... 224

49. Composition and Size of CADU Staff...... 230

xiii i

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Hap of Ethiopia...... 6

2. Summary of Diffusion Models...... 59

3. A New Model of Affecting Change...... 61

4. Mapping and Geography Institute...... 68

5. Relief Map of Chilalo Awraja...... 69

6. A Profile Across the Rift Valley--Chilalo Mountain..... 70

7. A Profile of the Region Between Nazret and- River Wabe...... 70

8. Soil Map of Chilalo Awraja, 1971-1973...... 77

9. Internal Organization Chart, August, 1973...... 88

10. External Organization Chart...... 90

11. Map Showing Extension Areas Included in the Sample..... 112

12. Model of Relationships Among Categories of Variables Studied...... 128

xiv CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

The scope and magnitude of the world food crisis being exper­ ienced in almost all of the developing countries of Africa and Asia was not a surprise at all for people who followed the development trends at least since the 1950's. Over the years, there have been con­ troversies which were brought into sharp focus at the world conferences held in Bucharest and Rome on the question of population and food bal­ ance. The distribution of population and world resources has been at the heart of the controversies. While the industrialized countries of

Western Europe and the United States accused the third world nations for their failure in controlling population growth, the latter in­ sisted that the crisis was heavily influenced by the industrial coun­ tries who have been consuming world resources well beyond their share.

In any case, there is no escaping the fact that shortages of food have been a tremendous and continuing problem among the developing countries.^ It is a sad fact that the world has been hit and continues

Norman E. Borlaug, The Green Revolution, Peace and Humanity (Lecture on the occasion of the Award of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1970, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1970). CIMMYT Reprint and Trans­ lation Series No. 3, January, 1972.

1 2 to be challenged by erratic weather fluctuations. The rains have been very unpredictable. When they fail to come at a time and place they are wanted in appropriate amounts, the excess of drought or floods brings famine in those unfortunate areas; Ethiopia has been a primary' victim of recent times. Above all these, rigid social systems and benign disregard of the production problems by the leaders of the poor countries continued to stifle developments that would have saved mil­ lions of lives.

The developments implied in the sentence above are those asso­ ciated with the highly publicized concept described as the Green Revo­ lution. Due to diligent efforts by agricultural scientists over the last three decades or so, production increases in wheat, rice and maize were achieved. Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, recipient of the 1970 Nobel Prize for Peace, has the following to say about this development which was particularly experienced in India and Pakistan.

The Green Revolution in India and Pakistan, which is still largely the result of a breakthrough in wheat production, is neither a stroke of luck nor accident of nature. Its success is based on sound research, the importance of which is not self-evident at first glance. For, behind the scenes, half way around the world in Mexico, were two decades of aggressive research on wheat that not only en­ abled Mexico to become self-sufficient with respect to wheat production, but also paved the way to rapid in­ crease in its production in other countries. It was in Mexico that the high-yielding, Mexican dwarf varieties were designed, bred and developed. There, also, was'de­ veloped the new production technology which permits these varieties, when properly cultivated, to express their high genetic grain— yield potential— in general, double or triple that of the best yielders among older, tall strawed varieties.^

2 Ibid. One unique feature of the Green Revolution was the manner in which the improved technological inputs were made to work. As the com­ munity development tactics followed in the 1940's or 1950's proved to be ineffective to develop peasant agriculture, the attention of rural development experts was drawn towards the exploration of new strate­ gies, particularly in the organization and management of agricultural resources. This led to a new avenue of rural change known as the package program, devised to stimulate agricultural development by com­ bining social, economic and technological factors simultaneously. This way it was thought that' peasant agriculture would have greater chances

of success, and so efforts were concentrated along this approach. Ac­

cording to several studies, however, the results were found to be far below expectations in later years. Both technological and sociological 3 4 problems were cited as the limiting factors. ' This point was also

recognized by Borlaug when he said that the implications of the Green

Revolution oversimplify and distort the facts as works on yields of other important cereals, such as sorghums, millets and barley were yet 5 to be developed. On the social side, the new innovations tended to

favor the landed and well-to-do farmers more than the poor peasants as

the latter found access to the new ideas for a number of social and

economic constraints.

3 Walter P. Falcon, "The Green Revolution: Generations of Prob­ lems," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52 (December, 1970).

^Clifton R. Wharton Jr., "The Green Revolution: Cornucopia or Pandora's Box?," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 47 (April, 1969), pp. 464-476.

5 Borlaug, op. cit. Despite such imperfections; which, of course, were not well rec­ ognized until the 1970s, the package concept mentioned above was in­ corporated in Ethiopia’s Third Five Year Development Plan (1968-1973) which saw the establishment of the Chilalo Agricultural Development

Unit (CADU).^ Thus development efforts were intensively pursued since then and was just about time for a close look at their consequences when this researcher decided to make the study.

Thus, this investigator designed a research plan to assess the ex­ periences gained at CADU in terms of its impact on the transformation of peasant agriculture in Chilalo Awraja and elsewhere. Three questions were formulated to guide the study and achieve its intended objectives.

They were: (1) To what extent was the package of innovations designed to promote rural development in the project area and elsewhere in

Ethiopia on target and progressing toward the intended goals?, (2) What changes had been brought about among participating peasants in their adoption behavior?, and (3) What characteristics of individual farmers were closely associated with the adoption of improved agricultural in­ novations introduced through the package approach? Data upon which this study was based were collected from farmers who cooperated with the project for at least three years. CADU publications and research documents were also used as important sources of information for the study.

g Imperial Ethiopian Government, 3rd Five Year Development Plan 1968-1973 (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Berhanena Selam H.S.I. Printing Press, 1968).

^CADU, Tentative CADU Program 1970-1975, Publication No. 26, Addis Ababa, March, 1969. 5

Background of the Study (The Physical and Social Setting)

The Physical Setting

Physical Features

Ethiopia has been described as a country of land mass character­ ized by rugged mountains and plateaus with generally fertile soils, 8 9 sufficient rainfall and a considerable variety of climates. ’ It is located between three and eighteen degrees north latitude and thirty- eight and forty-eight degrees longitude on that part of the continent sometimes referred to as the Horn of Africa. Figure 1 provides the map of Ethiopia.

The country has an area of slightly more than 1.2 million square kilometers with an estimated population of 24.3 million (1970). Most of the population, totaling some 4.75 million households having an average family size of 4.65 persons, is found in the rural areas. The urban population was estimated at only 2*3 million.^

As mentioned in the first paragraph, the topography of Ethiopia is generally rugged. With mountains rising up to 4500 meters, deep

o John M. Cohen, "Effects of Green Revolution Strategies on Ten­ ants and Small-Scale Landowners in the Chilalo Region of Ethiopia," The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 9 (April, 1975), p. 335.

9 Assefa Bequele and Eshetu Chole, A Profile of the Ethiopian Economy (Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, 1969), pu IT

^Central Statistical Office (CSO), Statistical Abstract 1970, Addis Ababa, 1970. 6

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are not necessarily those recognized by the Imperial Ethiopian Governm ent) (The intejnational boundaries shown on this map

•VV , v ,

Fig. 1.— Hap of Ethiopia river valleys and plateaus having rolling uplands sometimes suddenly broken by valleys and strangely contoured hills.^ Stretching from the foothills of the mountains and plateaus the lowlands and deserts extensively cover the heartland of Ethiopia. The lowlands drop to as low as 120 meters below sea level at the Danakil Depression. Another feature of this topography is the Rift Valley that divides the high­ lands from northeast to southwest, thus separating the highlands of

Arusi, Bale, Hararge and Sidamo from the land to the northwest. One of Ethiopia's important rivers which provides irrigation waters flows through this valley. The other well known river is the Blue Nile which starts from Lake Tana in the northwest and flows to the Mediter­ ranean via Sudan and Egypt.

Climate and Natural Vegetation

There are three climatic variations locally classified as dega, weina dega and kola. Information provided by Tilahun Makonen explains 12 what these three zones represent.

Zone Climate Altitude Temperature Dega Temperate Over 2,400 meters 16°c Weina Dega Subtropical 1,800-2,400 meters 22°c Kola Tropical Less than 1,800 meters 26°c

^Christopher Clapham, Haile Selassies' Government (New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1969), p. 1.

12 Telahun Makonnen, "Interregional Competition in Ethiopian Agriculture" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Alberta, 1973), p. 24. 8

The relationship between temperature and elevation is clearly

shown by the above data. This explains why Ethiopia, though it is

close to the equator, enjoys a mild climate. The annual rainfall in

the tropical zones is usually below 750 millimeters, while it is around

1,500 millimeters in the subtropical regions, and up to 2,000 milli­ meters in the temperate areas*

The type of natural vegetation found in the country closely fol­

lows the climatic zones indicated above. This general pattern was 13 described by Huffnagel in the following manner

Since the differences in the climate and the topography of Ethiopia are marked, the landscape presents widely varied aspects of vegetation. They range from a scarce desert vegetation to Afro-Alpine plant communities. Uni­ form patterns are rather an exception, particularly in the central and eastern highlands. Many factors have caused changes in the natural vegetation. Heavy de­ forestation, followed by extensive cultivation and— in recent times--eucalyptus plantings, have left little of the original aspects of the highlands. In lower parts, overgrazing and burning have changed the vegetation pat­ tern.

Specifically, in the dega area (temperate) and parts of the weina dega (subtropical), the general vegetation consists of a more or

less herbaceous layer, which is 30-80 centimeters deep and composed

of Graminaceae and Cyperaceae, together with perennial herbs and scrubs 14 according to the description given by Huffnagel. He further indi­

cated that the Echinops Spp. are typical of this vegetation area. The

13 H. P. Huffnagel, Agriculture in Ethiopia, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1961, p. 78.

14Ibid., p. 83 more common trees are Acacia abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, pygeum

Africanuum and Gymnospovia Sp. Eucalyptus tree, introduced some 15 eighty years ago are found in the central highlands. The Kola area has steppe type vegetation consisting of high succulent herbs with some scrub, shrub and small trees; and, finally, the desert part 16 around the Danakil plains has scarce vegetation.

Soils

The soils of Ethiopia were extensively studied and reported by

Murphy.^ Huffnagel has also made brief account of the soils found in 18 Ethiopia. He distinguished two main soil types, namely, the red to reddish-brown clay loams, which are usually of good fertility and the black soils. According to him, although the red soils have an ex­ cellent permeability and air-water ratio, their lack of phosphorus is a great drawback. On the other hand, the black soils have a tendency 19 to dry out quickly and to crack. Huffnagel, quoting from Shantz and

Marbut, presented the following classification of Ethiopian soils:

Red Loam - Central Highlands

Chernozem - Lowest reaches of the western slopes toward the Sudan, most extensively in the Sobat River drainage

15Ibid.

16Ibid., p. 79.

^H. F. Murphy, A Report on the Fertility Status and Other Data of Some Soils of Ethiopia, Experiment Station Bulletin No. 44, College of Agriculture, Haile Sellassie I University, 1968. 18 Huffnagel, op. cit., pp. 35-50.

^ I b i d . , p. 37. 10

basin and in the northwest (south of Metema), and on the humid parts of the Somali plateau.

Brown Desert - Rift Valley and Danakil plains.

Chestnut-brown - Eastern part of the Somali plateau. 20 21 Red Sand - Southeast Ethiopia. ’

Tilahun Makonen, writing about the same subject, gave the fol­ lowing information.

In terms of soil reaction, the soils of the western prov­ inces of Wellega, Illubabor, Western Shoa, Kefa, Begemdir, and Gojam showed high acidity. On the other hand, the provinces of Harargie, Arusi, Wollo, Sidamo, Bale, Tigre, Eritrea and Eastern Shoa were less acidic. The western provinces receive high rainfall which subjects them to a high degree of leaching of the basic soil minerals and ^ results in a greater concentration of nonbasic minerals.

Major Crops Grown in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a land of hard working peasantry engaged in agri­ culture which is the backbone of the national economy. Eighty-five 23 percent of the population are involved in this activity. The crops grown include teff, barley, wheat, oats, maize, sorghum, millet and various pulses like peas, broad beans, haricot beans, lentils and horse beans. Coffee, cotton, and sugar cane are also grown. Table 1

20Ibid.

91 H. L. Shantz and C. F. Marbut, The Vegetation and Soils of Africa (New York: American Geographical Society, 1923).

22Makonnen, op. cit., p. 21.

23 Cohen, op. cit., p. 1. 11

TABLE 1 ESTIMATED AREA, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS (1970)

Crop Area Yield Production ( '000 ha) (qt/ha) (*000 tons)

Cereals Barley 1,734.8 8.6 1,495.6 Maize 847.1 10.7 909.0 Sorghum 1,203.2 8.6 1,036.8 Teff 2,197.3 6.1 1,342.6 Wheat 1,070.3 7.6 808.0 Other (Dagusa) 302.3 5.1 159.9 Ensete 198.5 24.0 476.5 Industrial Plants Cotton fiber 83.1 1.7 13.7 Ensete fiber 198.5 1.0 13.1 Sisal 4.0 • 7.7 13.1 Sugar cane 7.5 1,506.0 1,129.5 Tobacco 3.7 5.6 2.1 Oil Seeds Castor beans 21.9 5.6 12.8 Cotton seeds 83.1 3.3 27.4 Ground nuts 39.9 5.6 22.4 Linseed 120.0 5.2 62.1 Neug 403.2 6.4 258.6 Rape seed 14.2 4.1 5.8 Safflower 61.1 5.5 33.7 Sesame 140.5 4.9 69.4

Pulses Chick-peas 294.2 6.3 185.3 Field peas 135.0 9.4 126.4 Harricot beans 93.7 7.7 72.3 Horse beans 144.0 9.6 137.8 Lentils 174.4 6.1 106.5 Fenugreek 10.3 6.0 66.3 Fruits and Stimulants Fruits 5.9 13.7 80.9 Gesho — 10.2 93.2 Chat 97.9 9.9 6.7 Coffee 618.5 2.7 170.0 Vegetables Berbere 239.9 4.2 99.5 Potatoes 30.3 53.0 160.6 Yam 59.2 42.7 252.9 Misc. vegetables 100.5 25.5 256.6 12 presents the list of the major crops along with the estimated area, yield and total production of 1970. It may be pointed out that coffee earns the country much of its foreign exchange. Total export of coffee in 1969 was 88,383.4 tons at a value of Eth„$ 173,946,000 (Eth. 24 $1 = approx. US $0.40). It may also be understood that data on area, yield and production are estimates and that in many areas crops are grown for subsistence than market with different species-of crops oc­ cupying the land at the same season.

Livestock Production

Livestock production is an important component of Ethiopian ag­ riculture, It is not uncommon to find peasants maintaining a few head of livestock along with their other farming practices. The total live­ stock population; according to the 1970 survey although not precise for 25 the present, gives the following distribution.

Cattle 26,000,000 Sheep 12,000,000 Goats 11,000,000 Horses and Mules 2,800,000 Donkeys 3,800,000 Camels 1,000,000 Pigs 13,000 Poultry 48,000,000,

Ethiopian cattle are made up of Zebu breeds and their quality is reported to be miserably poor. The management of livestock is still largely traditional as in other aspects of agricultural production with more emphasis on numbers than quality of production. With improved

^Central Statistic Office, op. cit., p. 41.

25Ibid., p. 44. 13 management practices, Ethiopian livestock can be made a greater con­ tributor of the national economy.

Methods of Cultivation

The agricultural technology of the Ethiopian peasant has always been crude and inefficient by contemporary standards utilizing little capital and more labor. Traditional ox-drawn ploughs, hoes and digging sticks for soil preparation are still in wide use. Soil burning still goes on in many parts of the country. According to Kline jst _al., rea­ sons offered for burning are: (1) to destroy sod pieces and old roots, 26 (2) to kill insects and (3) to increase fertility. However, there are some agronomic problems associated with soil burning as Bengtsson

Warned. He wrote,

The positive effect of "guie" (soil burning) which the farmers have gained is briefly explained by the mineral­ ization and absorbation of organic matter. Hereby, nitrogen and phosphorous are released and give somewhat increased yield although there is no real observation verifying this. Nevertheless, the next year the yield is decreasing again and after a few years of cropping, the land has to be left for fallow in order to restore the fertility. The disadvantages of the loss of the organic matter is grave enough, but this loss will af­ fect the possibilities of tilling the land. On heavy clay soils, the content of organic matter is very valuable since the lower the content the more difficult the cultivation.

Efforts are now undertaken to influence farmers to abandon this practice and instead use proper tillage implements, insecticides and fertilizers.

26 C. K. Kline et al., Agricultural Mechanization in Equatorial Africa, Institute of International Agriculture, Michigan State Uni­ versity, December 31, 1969, pp. 2-43.

27 Bo Bengtsson, Cultivation Practices and the Weed, Pest and Disease Situation in Some Parts of the Chilalo Awraja, CADU, March, 1968, p. 12. 14

Because of the primitive technology mentioned above, and most of

all the legacy of the past in Ethiopian history which put too much

pressure on the peasants, little incentives were there to make farmers

more innovative and inculcate progressive outlooks. Aristocrats, war­

lords, landlords, religious notables, etc. have b§en supported by the

millions of small farms operated under primitive technology. These

groups of people contributed little other than aggression and intimi­

dation that kept the peasants miserably poor. This subject will be

treated in greater detail later in this chapter under social setting.

For the moment, suffice to indicate that the peasants* interest was

only to produce enough to meet their seasonal needs having cared less

to stock up food reserves for hard times which by no means were unknown

to them.

Mineral Resources

The mineral resources of Ethiopia are not yet well ascertained.

High priority was given to an extensive program of geological surveys

and exploration of mineral resources for many years, but to date, no

exciting discoveries of commercially exploitable minerals have been

reported. Since recent years, intensive efforts have been made to

locate oil fields and other minerals of economic importance, but a major breakthrough is yet to come. The only significant finding so

far is the discovery of potash deposits at Dallol, but because of the

depressed state of the world market, exploitation was not made 15 28 possible. Hence, the mining industry in Ethiopia is limited mainly to salt and gold and its contribution to GDP (Gross Domestic Product) 29 is minimal (0.3 percent in 1970).

The Social Setting

Population

As indicated earlier, Ethiopia's population was estimated at

24.3 million in 1970. This was made on the basis of sample surveys conducted in that year. No census has been out so far. According to the 1970 sample survey, 22 million people were reported to be in rural areas as compared to only 2.3 million residing in towns of over

2,000 inhabitants. Nevertheless, it was also reported that the urban population was increasing by about 6.5 percent, 4 percent of which was contributed by migrations from the rural areas. The population was expected to reach 27.6 million in 1975. In Table 2, the distribution of the rural and urban population by province is presented. The area of each province is also included, using the data obtained from the 30 1970 statistical abstract. It might also be interesting to note that over 70 languages are spoken in the country. Christianity and Islam are the dominant religions.

o o "Draft Policy of the Imperial Ethiopian Government on Agricul­ tural Land Tenure," August, 1972, p. 2. (Mimeographed.)

29 Ibid.

30 Central Statistical Office, op. cit., pp. 23-36. 16

TABLE 2

AREA ESTIMATED RURAL AND URBAN POPULATION BY PROVINCE, 1970

Population (f000) 7. Urban Area Province Population in Total Rural Urban the Province ('000.Km2)

Arusi 818.2 768.5 49.7 6.1 23.5

Bale (190.4)a (165.6) (24.8) (12.8) 124.6

Begemeder 1,294.6 1,209.4 85.2 6.3 74.2

Eritrea (1,836.8). (1,515.3) (321.5) (17.5) (117.6)

Gemu Goffa 668.1 635.6 32.5 4.9 39.5

Go jam 1,668.7 1,589.0 79.7 4.8 61.6

Hararge 3,215.6 3,049.4 166.2 5.2 259.7

Illubabor 659.6 635.6 24.0 3.3 47.4

Kefa 1,224.3 1,550.0 69.4 5.7 54.6

Shoa 5,051.4 4,006.3 1,045.1 20.8 85.2

Sidamo 2,369.2 2,252.8 116.4 4.9 117.3

Tigre 1,748.7 1,625.0 123.7 7.1 65.9

Wollega 1,214.2 1,164.6 49.6 4.1 71.2

Wollo 2,355.6 2,250.7 104.9 4.5 79.4

Total 24,319 22,027.0 2,292.0 9.4 1,221.4

a( ) - The population estimates are obtained from the NSS (National Sample Survey) first round, except for Bale and Eritrea which are based on the Ministry of Interior figures. 17

As can be seen from Table 2, the country is administratively di­ vided into fourteen provinces. The Chilalo region, which is the area of particular interest to the study, is located in Arusi. A descrip­

tion of this area is presented in Chapter III with greater detail.

The Social Structure

The Ethiopian society has been structured with the influence of

two important factors. First, the same mountains that protected the

country from outside intruders, with few exceptions, also were respon­

sible for the isolation, of the different communities occupying the

land. Until recently, it used to take months to travel from, say,

Harar in Eastern Ethiopia to Addis Ababa, the capital. So, varying

cultures and a way of life developed over the centuries to make the

country a land of diversity. Complex and differing land use and

ownership patterns were also developed which currently have challenged

further efforts towards a uniform policy for land reform and adminis­

tration. This subject will be treated in detail later under a separate heading.

Second, the history of Ethiopia, which stretches through many

31 centuries, lies with peculiar weight in the words of Clapham. To

give some appreciation to this long history, the quotation made by

Bequele and Chole from Jesman is given below.

Second only to Japan and Iran, Ethiopia can trace its direct lineage to the beginning of the Christian Era-- nearly 1,000 years before the rise of the kingdom of

31 Clapham, op. cit., p. 1. V 18

Axum--the direct ancestor of modern Ethiopia— the Horn of Africa entered into a period of expansion of the higher forms of social organization. City states al­ ready existed there and contributed to the development of the Axumite civilization when Rome had not yet been founded.32,33

By the Middle Ages, the country had grown bigger with powerful 34 emperors mastering absolute control over people and property. Con­

sequently, a rigid social structure developed in which central polit­

ical power revolved around the royal house, the church and the feudal 35 nobility. Bequele and Chole further amplified the system in the

following words.

The social hierarchy consisted of the royal house, a few top church officials and a small group of land­ owners who maintained political and military control at the top, and down below were the vast mass of clergymen, tenant farmers, small landowners and the ordinary people. Traders and other skilled profes­ sional men, who in any case were held in low esteem, belonged to the latter group. Traditional Ethiopia did not have a middle class in the sense known in Europe. ^

Ownership of land, in the final analysis, was the basis of power which remained undisturbed until recently. The peasant, by virtue of his being at the bottom of the social hierarchy, remained landless and

32 Bequele and Chole, op. cit., p. 3.

33 C. Jesman, The Ethiopian Paradox (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 1. 3 A Bequele and Chole, op. cit., p. 4.

35 Ibid.

Ibid., p. 13 nearly servants of the people above him. His religion also made him believe that, in the words of Bequele and Chole, ‘'this life is trans­ ient and of little value. It is only a bridge to the coming world-- hence, man should not indulge himself too much in worldly pursuit of 37 happiness and wealth." And so he remained silent until the social and political pressures of the '60s and '70s forced him to wake up.

Systems of Land Tenure in Ethiopia

A variety of land tenure systems stemming from the structure just evolved, described over the many centuries of Ethiopian history.

Nevertheless, for purpose of general discussions, the systems are categorized into four broad classes. These are (1) communal ownership,

(2) individual rights, (3) pastoral rights and (4) government ownership 38 of land. Much of the information included in relation to these sys­ tems of tenure was abstracted from documents of the Ministry of Land

Reform and Administration, CADU Publications No. 50, and the Draft

Policy of the Ethiopian Government on Agricultural Land Tenure that has

37tIbid. u-a

38 Draft Policy Of., op. cit., p. 3, 20 39 40 already been cited. * The latter two are essentially based on the information included in the former. Unless specified otherwise, the

following discussions are entirely based on these sources.

Communal Ownership

The communal land tenure system is generally found in the north­ ern provinces, namely, Eritrea, Tigre, Begemedeir and Gojam. Parts of

Wollo and Shoa also have such a system. The system works under two alternatives in granting land rights to individual members. They are

(1) membership in the extended family descended from a man who is re­ garded as having been the original settler in the area, or (2) residence in a particular village whose common property is considered to be the land. In either case, every child automatically inherits an equal share of the land to which either or both of his parents exercised rights. The obvious implication of such arrangement is, of course, land fragmentation which is, in fact, the major problem of the communal areas.

Although communal owners cannot transfer their part of the land through sale, gift or mortgage, the system allows them to make lease arrangements with potential tenants. The proportion of tenant holdings has always been small, 7, 9, and 13 percent for Tigre, Begemedier and

Gojam respectively in 1970.

39 Ministry of Land Reform and Administration, Report on Land Tenure Survey of Sidamo Province. Addis Ababa, September, 1969.

40 Arne Lexander, Land Ownership, Tenancy and Social Organization in the Waji Area, CADU Publication No. 50, March, 1970. 21

Individual Right9

On March 1975, the Provisional Military Administrative Council of Ethiopia declared a "Proclamation to provide for the Nationaliza­ tion of Rural lands." This proclamation was specially directed at owners under this category. Five types of individual rights as defined by the Ministry of Land Reform and Administration had been in opera­ tion previous to the proclamation.

Semon.— Land of which the primary or reversionary interest has been vested in the church is semon land. This carries the right to collect and retain for church use land tax, tithe and education tax from persons settled on the land at the rates laid down by law for other categories of land. Historically, the church had obtained landed property from the Government for its maintenance which was reaffirmed in Proclamation 2 of 1942. The church, in turn, apportioned its land to settlers as "church-gult" owners which gave services to the church in lieu of land tax, while still paying other taxes as required by law.

Church-gults were transferred to other persons who succeeded the orig­ inal holder upon termination of services. Holder of such lands have no right to sell, exchange, mortgage or pass on the land by inheritance or gift to any person.

Siso (Merit).— Out of the land possessed by the first settlers, two thirds was taken by the Government. The remaining one-third of land given to the balabat (local chief or nobility) was his Siso. In some cases, the balabat was allowed to retain one-fourth of his 22 previous holding. The remaining three-fourths was taken by the Govern­ ment. In any case, the balabat was entitled to impose taxes on per­ sons settled on his land and paid a certain portion to the Government.

Rist-Gult.— The main difference between rist-gult and siso lies in their origin. While Siso rights were awarded to the balabat under the arrangement described above, rist-gult are rights granted by the

Emperor to members of the royal family and meritorious servants of the crown. Otherwise, the system and rate of land taxation were the same in both Siso and rist-gult.

Maderia.--This was actually Government land granted to employees of the Government in lieu of pension or salary. Holders of maderia land could bequeath it to their descendants as long as the latter con­ tinued to render administrative and military services to the state, but they could not sell or mortgage the land. However, they could lease their land and collect rentals from persons settled on such holdings.

Gebar.--This was the most widely prevalent individual tenure.

Gebar was a system of land tenure under which a person who has acquired land by purchase, grant, or inheritance pays land tax directly to the

Government as prescribed by law. Since 1967 and up until 1974, such owners were required to pay land tax, agricultural income tax, educa­ tion tax and health tax directly to the Government. They could sell, lease or mortgage their lands and their rights were heritable. 23

Pastoral Lands

Pastoral lands are generally governed by customary rights that permit access to grazing land as well as water supplies. These lands are mostly found in the lowlands and the coastal plains.

Government Ownership of Land

This category may give the wrong impression that the land owned by the Government was unoccupied. This is not true. Some of the lands occupied by the pastoralists are included under this category and were even reserved for patronage grants to sustain and reward obedient of­ ficials, soldiers and other servants of the crown as described earlier.

Besides this, land was rented to concessioners on long term plans for agricultural development. Such crops as sugar cane and cotton are pro­ duced this way.

To conclude, it becomes obvious from the above facts that the real agricultural workers have been tenants and small farmers. It is estimated that more than half of the cultivated land was operated by tenants under exploitative arrangement. Not only were most of the landlords absentees, they charged tenants payments exceeding 50 percent 41 of the production without giving any assistance to the tenants. An­ other feature of the problem that stemmed from the traditional struc­ ture was the size distribution of holdings. The mean size, as reported

Johan Holmberg, The Credit Programme of the Chilalo Agricul­ tural Development Unit (CADU) in Ethiopia, A.I.D. Spring Review of Small Farmer Credit, Vol. VIII (February, 1973), pp. 2-3. 24 by Ilolmberg, was 2.5 hectares with the large majority of the 4 million farm families (85 percent of the population) cultivating areas even less than this. As a consequence, Ethiopian agriculture has always been characterized by low productivity despite the relatively favorable 42 natural conditions for farming. The feudal structure unwittingly re­ fused to accommodate necessary changes; and, as a result, saw its own destruction with the collapse of Haile Sellasies1 Government and its traditional brand.

Planning Experience in Ethiopian Agriculture

As can be imagined from the discussion presented thus far, the basis for preparing sound development plans never existed. Even the idea was of recent introduction. There has been neither the data base nor the will to commit resources, as scarce as they have been, for purposeful national goals. In this connection, Bequele and Chole had to write the following:

The decision taken by the Ethiopian government to adopt a system of planning, though it is a step in the right direction, has done little to stimulate the accelerated development of the economy. Considering in the light of what a planned economy is and should be, the Ethiopian planning experience is no more than an exercise in futility.^3

There have been three, Five Year Development Plans prepared since 1957. The first plan (1957-62) addressed itself to the

42 Ibid. 43 Bequele and Chole, op. cit., p. 111. 25 development of infrastructure, while the second one continued emphasis on roads, telecommunications and power. Land reform was also given high priority, but very little was done as the result. Possibly, it was the third plan that saw more activities perhaps largely because of the direct involvement of international agencies, most notably SIDA

(Swedish International Development Authority) which sponsored CADU and thus, has special significance to this study. Specific directions and policy orientations were spelled out with some clarity. The develop­ ment in agriculture was viewed at two levels, namely, commercial ag­ riculture and peasant agriculture. The policy statements advanced in relation to them are quoted below and will be used as frame of refer- 44 ences in various parts of this study when appropriate.

Commercial agriculture.--The rapid development of com­ mercial agriculture is the only way to get the rela­ tively quick increase needed in agricultural exports. It will clearly be essential to induce more foreign private investment, and to import the needed managerial and technical skills; these farming enterprises may be public or private in ownership and operation, but the really important consideration is that the activities be commercially and financially sound. The Government will, therefore, formulate policies to encourage the investment of.capital and skills for the development of large scale agriculture, and agro-industrial complexes, being in mind the desirability of close cooperation be­ tween foreign and local interests at every stage.

Policies for peasant agriculture.— Modernization of peasant subsistence agriculture in all areas of the country simultaneously is hardly feasible. It would merely mean dilution of effort and of limited resources. But no time should be lost in making a start in stra- ttegically selected areas in which, good results can

^Third Five Year Development Plan, op. cit., pp. 191-195. 26

soon be seen. It is the Government's intention to pro­ ceed rapidly with identification and preparation of promising areas for concentrated development in differ­ ent parts of the country. Immediate policy is to con­ centrate on the following three regional projects, where much of the identification and preparatory work have al­ ready been begun or completed: Chilalo in Arusi Province, Wolamo in Sidamo Province and the southern livestock re­ gion....The most promising approach to the successful de­ velopment of strategically selected areas is that known, as the package programme....The Government recognizes that most, if not all, of these package programs will be its direct responsibility.

Land reform.— The need for vigorous policies of land re­ form is, as has already been stressed, evident. Very little progress in agrarian reconstruction and develop­ ment, particularly in peasant agriculture, can be made under the existing conditions of tenure and farm size. The immediate concern of land reform is to overcome the apathy of the agricultural population, caused by tra­ ditional inequitable land tenure patterns, concentration of land ownership in a small group, insecurity of tenure, and exorbitant rent or share cropping arrangement.

Statement of the Problem

The background information given thus far should clearly demon­ strate the fact that the social and economic progress of Ethiopia rests upon the performance of the rural sector which is dominated by peasant agriculture. Logically, agricultural development becomes the primary focus of any change effort. By development it is implied a funda­ mental process of change which, in its simplest form, entails a pro­ gressive movement away from conditions generally assumed to be unsatis­ factory, inadequate, or problematic, to a desirable condition or state.

In peasant agriculture, the goal of development is undoubtedly changing the scope and efficiency of food production. The basic inputs to make this process work include improved technologies such as 27 fertilizer, improved seeds, insecticides, herbicides, better farming practices, transportation, communication, storage facilities and over­ all institutional adjustments needed to stimulate the functioning of these ingredients of agricultural development. The challenge in

Ethiopia, as in other developing countries, has been how to make the advances in science and technology express themselves in the intended manner so that the depressed rural society is made to change. As in­ dicated in the background statement earlier, there are four million peasant families in Ethiopia that carry the weight of the food needs of the country, but operating with a backward technology and in a rigid, traditional society. The salient characteristics of these farmers, coupled with limitations imposed by shortage of materials, manpower resources and viable institutional framework make the task of rural development immensely difficult.

Since 1968 or so, the Ethiopian Government through the coopera­ tion of several international agencies, has been engaged in develop­ ment programs through the package approach as indicated earlier. This phenomenon is defined in the Third Five Year Development Plan as fol­ lows :

The package concept implies the coordinated application of a number of related actions such as provision of transport, marketing■services and credit, as well as a related set of essential agricultural actions such as distribution of better seeds, dissemination of informa­ tion on improved agricultural practices, promotion of fertilizer, etc.^

Ibid. 28

In adopting the package concept in the Ethiopian context, the ex­ periences of India and Pakistan were heavily relied upon.^ The dangers associated with such imitations in development planning have been raised by several social scientists. Among them is Myint, who expressed him­ self in the following manner

There is no reason to suppose that economic policies con­ sidered appropriate for the advanced countries will prove to be equally appropriate to the underdeveloped countries. ...Further, given the wide differences that exist among the underdeveloped countries themselves with respect, say, to the degree of population pressure, the overall size of the economy, the general level of administrative efficiency, and the coherence of the institutional framework, etc., it is highly unlikely that any single standard model of de­ velopment planning will be appropriate for all of them.^7

In view of the above, it becomes important to examine the nature and outcome of the package programs conducted in CADU. Keeping this in mind, this investigator set out to study the appropriateness and accomplishments of CADU as a development agency. The attention was focused on two aspects of the program, namely, (l) the organizational character of the CADU projects and (2) the impact of the programs as forces of change in stimulating the behavior of small farmers. As part of the study, special effort was also made to describe the con­ textual environment under which the package programs were being oper­ ated. Furthermore, an attempt was made to provide additional insight

£x.(\ CADU, Tentative CADU Program 1970-1975, op. cit., pp. 7-12.

H. Myint, Economic Theory and the Underdeveloped Countries (New York: Oxford University Press^ 1971). 29 into the interpretation and application of the strategies implied by the diffusion and adoption processes which have been extensively treated in the literature of rural development. Finally, the questions that this study attempted to answer are spelled out below along with other objectives of the study.

Objectives of the Study

As specified at the conclusion of the introduction section, the study pursued three major questions. These were: (1) To what extent was the package of innovations designed to promote rural development in the Chilalo region of Ethiopia on target'and progressing toward the intended goals?, (2) What changes had been brought about among par­ ticipating peasants in their adoption behavior?, and (3) What charac­ teristics of individual farmers were closely associated with the adoption of improved agricultural innovations introduced, through the package approach? In attempting to find answers to these questions, the study focused on the following specific objectives.

1. Review and describe the physical, social and technological

context of the package program.

2. Describe the character and organization of the Chilalo Agri­

cultural Development Unit (CADU).

3. Investigate the adoption behavior of farmers resulting from

the efforts of CADU.

4. Identify and analyze the variables that are closely associ­

ated with the adoption of improved agricultural innovations

promoted through the package concept. 30

5. Make a general appraisal of the accomplishments of the

project.

Significance of the Study

The Chilalo project, which is the central concern of this study, has been in progress since 1967. Over the years that followed a number of issues have been raised, some for and some against the project, in light of certain social and political developments. One problem that raised the eyebrows of the critics of CADU was the alleged mass eviction of tenants from the project area on account of CADU's activities. The need for some critical examination of the entire development process has been expressed by several professional circles. Therefore, the significance of this study lies in any clues it might offer to respond to such concerns.

The findings of this study can also be useful in a wide range of decision-making situations affecting the development of peasant agri­ culture within the project area and elsewhere in the country. More specifically, the findings can:

1. indicate the extent to which the projects are on target and

progressing toward the intended objectives;

2. ascertain the appropriateness of the program and suggest in­

dications as to whether to continue, expand, or reduce the

present level of operation;

3. provide information that can help in endorsing or rejecting

some of the criticisms directed against the package programs; following from 3 above, it can provide guidelines for im­ provement and also indicate justifications in defense of the package approach; influence governments' agricultural policies at local, regional and/or national levels; and add some knowledge to the adoption research which has been under examination in several areas. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE

Introduction

The literature of development is very extensive and includes

several disciplinary areas in the social sciences. The broad view of

the references that have direct relevance to the purpose of this study, with particular attention to the adoption behavior of farmers in a

rural setting, are presented in two sections. The first section deals

with the analysis of how methodological problems in development are

conceived and processed by agencies assigned to the task of inducing

social change in a peasant society. Hence, the primary focus of anal­

ysis in this section will be the role of development agencies and the

theoretical orientation they use as the dominant conceptual framework

of their operational programs. A brief review of the origins and op­

erating assumptions of CADU is also included here to offer some per­

spective.

The second section reflects the more specific operational aspects

of affecting change in the development of peasant agriculture. Obvi­

ously, the diffusion and adoption of improved agricultural practices

and other related concepts become the essential features of a discus­

sion at such level. Therefore, both the theoretical and tactical

32 33 viewpoints advanced in relation to the diffusion and adoption of inno­ vations are dealt with.

Development of Peasant Agriculture

The Concept of Development

Geiger, writing on the subject of development, stated that a brief acquaintance with the published literature is sufficient to con­ vince the reader that there is no standard definition of the concept.*"

From his survey of the literature, he offered two conclusions: (l) the sense of development cannot be captured with a concise, nominal definition and (2) there is relativistic or comparative perspective to societal development. In reference to the developing countries, he broadly defined development as the process by which nations adapt to 2 new conditions in the modern world.

This investigator would propose that it is in the specification of the "new conditions" that ideological conflicts or congruence among nations rest. For example, to achieve greater freedom for all citizens is a professed aim of countries with varying ideological orientations.

But, the difference lies in their conception of freedom, its tasks, its motivating forces; and, above all, in its perspectives. The scope

*"H. Kent Geiger, "Social Development: Notes on the Vestments of a Concept," in Sociological Perspective of Domestic Development, George M. Beal, Ronald C. Powers and E. Walter Coward, Jr. (editors) (Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1971), p. 50.

^Ibid«, p. 57. 34 of development envisioned in this regard and the strategies followed by people in the pursuit classify them by ideological camps; i.e., capitalists, socialists, etc.

Marx saw the driving force of social development in the histori­ cal tendency of men to understand and control nature as they struggle for survival. They develop certain instruments, tools, forms of labor and experiences which he described as,productive forces. The character of these productive forces, along with what Marx called pro­ duction relations (property relations) define the level of development 3 attained by social groups. Havens, portraying Marx as one of the few theorists who attempted to advance a theory of social development, epitomized the fact that it was Marx who gave a clear picture of what 4 a fully developed society is. In his words, "The empirical observa­ tions are: (l) the presence of conflict between social classes,

(2) the presence of ownership of private property and (3) 5 the presence of relations of domination and subjugation." In the final analysis, the realm of liberty is realized with the disappear­ ance of conflicting classes. In other words, to attain a fully de­ veloped society, the goals of society should be oriented toward the abolition of authority where man existed in a conflict-free society

2 Ernst Fischer (editor), The Essential Marx (New York: Herder and Herder, 1970), p. 125.

4 A. Eugene Havens, "Quest for Societal Development," in George M. Beal et al., op. cit., p. 75.

5Ibid. 35 and contributed according to his capacities and earned according to his needs.^

In the Ethiopian context, after many centuries of relative stagnation, a dramatic movement has been in progress since recent years to make the country a modern, scientific, socialist state. The way the preambles were stated in the recent proclamation of the Pro­ visional Military Administrative Council of Ethiopia illustrates the prevailing views of social development in the country. Here are two relevant examples that illustrate the point:

Whereas, it is essential to fundamentally alter the ex­ isting agrarian relations so that the Ethiopian peasant masses which have paid so much in sweat as in blood to maintain an extravagant feudal class may be liberated from age-old feudal oppression, injustice, poverty, and disease, and in order to lay the basis upon which the Ethiopian peoples may henceforth live in equality, free­ dom and fraternity.

Whereas, rather than permit the exploitation of the many by the few it is essential to lay the basis upon which through work by cooperation the development of one be­ comes the development of all;...^

The Provisional Government undoubtedly derived its expression from issues raised by social agitators, especially since the latter part of the '50s. Thus, as Havens has epitomized, development is a social product and its attainment depends upon the organization of the

6Ibid.

^Provisional Military Administrative Council of Ethiopia, UA Proclamation to Provide for the Nationalization of Rural Land, 1967 E.C.," Ethiopian Herald, March 4, 1974. 36

society in question. Marx law of historical motion, implying the se­

quence of the various forms of social order; namely, primitive com­ munism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, etc., gave people of socialist orientation a theoretical framework to guide the direction

of social development in the context of their respective perspec- 9 tives. In spite of such common frame of reference, there still ex­

ists no concise definition of development even among the professed

socialists. Therefore, as Greiger concluded, development should be viewed in terms of comparative perspective rather than be limited to

simple, nominal definitions which would be of little help anyway.^

In Greiger’s own words:

The proper conclusion to be drawn from the depiction of various approaches to the meaning of the term de­ velopment is that the word development, in itself, has no consensual meaning, unless it be that of a world value. When so many men, from so many intellectual backgrounds, with so many different purposes in mind, fasten upon a single word so eagerly; the chief mean­ ing, if one is to be selected, is in their simulta­ neous commitment to it. Beyond this, meaning is to be found in their perspectives or approaches rather than in the word itself. We could, of course, state the conclusion less epigrammatically; development has many different "scientific" meanings, depending upon the social background, intellectual experiences, po­ litical purpose, cognitive mapping, etc., of the user. The conclusive point to be made is the same as the scientific tool, the clothing of the concept is more important than the concept. In either version, the practical implication is that the framework,

Havens, op. cit., p. 87.

9 Fischer, op. cit., p. 125.

^Greige, op. cit., p. 52. conceptual scheme, perspective, is what merits careful study and explicit rejection or acceptance; for on this basis alone can we aspire to know what is meant by development.H

To conclude, the general sense of development that flows in the mind of this researcher, especially in the context of countries like

Ethiopia, is the transformation of agrarian structure into a viable system that permits equality of life that is worth living through the efficient allocation and distribution of resources in terms of both the potentialities of the people, and the social and natural environ­ ment they commonly experience.

The Problems of Agricultural Development

Borlaug declared that the first essential component of social 12 justice is adequate food for all mankind. He warned that unless there is the right mixture of common sense and science and technology, the world is doomed. The scope and magnitude of the problems that confront the human race are very complex.^

The problems, implied by Borlaug, may be said to be two fold (1) physiological constraints stemming from the natural laws governing the supply of inputs required for agricultural production and (2) the social and technological impediments associated with food production.

11Ibid., p. 62.

12 Borlaug, op. cit.

13 Norman E. Borlaug, "The World Food Problem— Present and Future, In Shapping the Future. A Discussion at the 1971 Nobel Conference. Edited by John D. Roslansky (Netherlands: North Holland Publishing Co., 1972), pp. 19-38. 38

The stress that stemmed from the nature and distribution of ag­ ricultural resources in the developing countries has been formidable.

The shortages of resources, coupled with the constant challenge of weather, drought and floods have threatened the possibilities of life in many areas of the developing world. At the same time, population expansion in many of the countries have correspondingly imposed seri­ ous limits upon the well being of mankind in those areas. These facts have been well documented by recent publications and press reports so that detailed survey of the problem may not be necessary here. Suf­ fice to say that leaders and rural development experts have been so desperately frightened by the set of circumstances bred by erratic weather fluctuations that scientists have to date failed to give sat­ isfactory explanations from all available indications.

The second category of development problem mentioned above re­ fers to the social barriers that limit progress in the development of peasant agriculture. The social context of agriculture is well sum­ marized by Mosher in the following words.

The agricultural climate is made up of all of those in­ fluences and rules of the game within which both farming and agri-support activities must operate. It is com­ posed of social values and forms of social organization that flow from the general culture of the country or region. It includes the impact of legislation with re­ spect to land ownership and tenancy, the incidence of various types of taxation, the nature of the political and administrative processes, the degree of influence of farmers in political decision making and the degree of concern of the existing political elite; or of the general citizenary, about economic development in gen­ eral, and agricultural development in particular. It includes the rate of industrialization in the country as this affects both the off-farm domestic demand for farm products and the amount of non-farm employment available; the extent and terms of trade of foreign 39

demand for farm products, and the relative prices of farm inputs and the products of farm production.^

In view of the above, any strategy of agricultural development must consider the interaction of such multiple forces. Moreover, fresh thoughts and strategies that view the problem at both the national and global levels in a coordinated manner become imperative if human so­ cieties are to be saved from catastrophic endings. Encouragingly enough, such urgent considerations have been well recognized since recent years as the experiences of the '60s clearly demonstrate. There was an euphoria of victory over hunger in the '60s with the development of the high yielding wheat varieties. With the turn of the '70s how­ ever, the world got shocked with continuous failures in agricultural production which overshadowed the apparent achievements of the Green

Revolution. What went wrong to cause the world food crisis is still being debated without general consensus. This view has been touched up­ on in the introduction where the origins and status of the Green Revolu­ tion were presented. In any case, international efforts have been in progress, attempting to incorporate world wide experiences to solve regional or national problems. As the result, some linkage has been established to allow technological transfers and managerial talents in the planning and administration of peasant agriculture in the depressed areas of the world. The CADU project in Ethiopia, the Comilla project in Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and the Indian experiences are good ex­ amples of integration of international experiences.

To summarize, the peasants of the developing countries have been the foremost victims of agricultural fluctuations discussed above.

■^A. T. Mosher, "Agricultural Development," in Behavioral Change in Agriculture, J. Paul Leagans and Charles P. Loomis (.editors) (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971), p. 13. 40

This has been outrageous in the Ethiopian case where the mass of peo­ ple continue to suffer in a land that was considered of great agri­ cultural potential.. Behind the scene, however, some far reaching progress in the area of regional development aimed at increasing pro­ duction and social transformation has been going on in Ethiopia as well as other developing countries. The historical aspects and the experiences derived from integrated agricultural programs in CADU and elsewhere are briefly examined in the following section.

The Evolution of the Package Concept

The package concept has been described previously as a compre­ hensive approach dealing simultaneously with the crucial facets of rural development such as research, agricultural extension, provision of inputs, credit and other requirements of agricultural production.

The idea of such integrated rural development actually originated in

India. The story goes back to 1959 when a team of Ford Foundation experts came up with a 10-point program that was designed to stimulate

India's agrarian production. The elements that constitute the core of

the program were:

1. Adequate and accessible farm supplies

2. Adequate farm credit

3. Intensive educational program

4. Single individual farm plans

5. Stronger village institutions

6. Assured prices for agricultural production 41

7. Reliable marketing facilities

8. Rural public works

9. Evaluation and analysis

15 10. A coordinated approach.

India adopted this program which soon found its way to its neighbor,

Pakistan; which, accordingly, organized a comprehensive program at

Comilla East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. The Comilla project was in full swing when the Swedish experts were making preparatory plans for

Chilalo. From CADU reports, it becomes obvious that the experiences drawn from India and Comilla served as the primary basis of CADU plans 16 and operations. To illustrate, the basic operating strategy that guided the organizers at Comilla are outlined below as reported by

Raper.n 17

1. A viable private economic organization was needed which could serve as a basis for collaborative ef­ fort, and through which mechanization and other im­ proved methods could be introduced. The central need initially was for the creation of capital through savings.

2. The village would be recognized as the basic unit, with those families whose heads decided to do so, becoming members of a local voluntary group.

1 5 CADU, Tentative CADU Programme 1970-75, op. cit., p. 8.

^ I b i d . , p. 7.

^^Arthur F. Raper, Rural Development in Action: The Comprehen­ sive Experiment at Comilla, East Pakistan (New York: Cornell Uni­ versity Press, 1970), pp. 45-47. 42

3. Some linkage would be needed between these volun­ tary groups in the villages and the Academy.^® Since it would be impossible to work directly with individual members of these groups, some form of representation would be needed. The method sug­ gested was for each village group to select its representative, called the organizer, who would serve as fiscal agent and learner-trainer. Soon thereafter one or two alert farmers and early adopters would be selected as "model farmers."

4. A training method would follow logically from the above in which the organizers and model farmers would come to the Academy for weekly training sessions, followed by village meetings, where the ideas learned would constitute the "lessons" for the villages.

5. The early technical "inputs" would be furnished largely by a team of Japanese rice-cultivator demonstrators furnished by the Colombo plan, who would use the Academy's own farm and some land in nearby villages for demonstration plots, and who would teach at the weekly meetings and work with the model farmers.

6. Inasmuch as only the simplest techniques such as line sowing and improved fertilization could be adopted at first by individual villagers (con­ sidering the size of landholdings and other avail­ able resources), early emphasis would be given to these techniques and extended soon thereafter to joint planning, joint purchasing, credit and joint use of machinery.

Raper has characterized the Comilla project as one of the most effec­

tive community development efforts that has been made in a depressed

1 8 The Comilla Academy for Rural Development is the institution that has been directing the project according to Raper (p. 12). The overall plan for the Academy was developed around the needs of Pakistan public administration as identified by government officials, with major advisory assistance from a team of social scientists from Michigan State University. 43 19 area of a developing country. Even then he was worrisome about the widespread local and international applicability of the Comilla exper­ ience and CADU may, therefore, be considered as a test case. The

Chilalo organizers followed almost as a blueprint the operational as­ sumptions as well as the philosophical principles underlying the

Comilla project. It must be strongly emphasized at this point also that the basic assumption central to these package programs is that for development to be successful, the target population must want to improve its own position as well as that of the social system in which 20 it lives. Further, implicit in all CADU activities at least during the initial phases of the project was the assumption that; bringing the peasants into the market economy through technological advancement in the first instance, and then followed by programs of social and cultural concern in subsequent phases, would not only uproot the peas­ ants from their present dilemma but also increase their tax paying ability thus contributing to national development as well as exper­ iences that can be filtered out to affect similar change in the rest of the country. Furthermore, specific assumptions were made as in all other package programs which may be restated as follows:

1. Natural conditions existed in Chilalo suitable for

intensive production.

19Ibid.

20 Cohen, "The Chilal Agricultural Development Unit," op. cit., p. 20. 44

2. Transportation and marketing facilities were avail­

able to prime the development process.

3. The land tenure conditions were relatively favorable

when compared to conditions prevailing elsewhere in

the country.

4. The people of the area seemed desirous of progress,,

5. Possibilities exist to expand the experience gained

into a larger area in Arusi.2^

The CADU planners were aware of the existence of large commer­ cial farmers who had established themselves long before the conception of the package project. There were also other interest groups, like government officials who farm part-time as a sideline business and were keenly following development trends in the project area for personal

enrichment. Nevertheless, in 1967 the project was set in motion allow­

ing these interest groups to participate fully although the thrust of

the program was still earmarked to benefit the small farmers and the

peasantry in general. The specific details of the project in terms of

the objectives and operational program are covered in Chapter III.

Within three years of the life of the project, some consequences

of the project that were presumably considered dysfunctional to the in­

tent of the development effort at that time began to emerge. Not sur­ prisingly, more and more of the commercial farmers and part-time oper­

ators took away tenant lands and those of small farmers either through

21Ibid., p. 10. 45 outright purchase, or contractual arrangements; and in the extreme cases, by total eviction with little or no compensation. At the same time, there were strong sabotage and resistance by conservative tradi­ tional leaders in the area whose interests were damaged by the concen­ tration of development resources at the disposal of the peasantry.

This situation was described by Cohen as follows:

The project basically runs against many of the in­ terests of government officials, major merchants and businessmen, large landowners, traditional secular and religious leaders and a host of local notables. This is because there is generally a contradiction in any program to enlist their support for efforts extending beyond growth. The significant reforms required to stimulate all dimensions of change would greatly threaten those provincial elites whose present power and status are largely dependent on maintaining the traditional social order and the land tenure systems on which it, to a large extent, rests.22

At this point, CADU organizers reacted by establishing a policy barring the unintended interest groups from any form of participation in project activities, and, at the same time, threatened the govern­ ment to abort the project if a land reform bill was not submitted as ratified in the original agreement. The details of the elements of the agreement are covered in Chapter III. This measure didn't help the situation very much. It was pitifully recognized that the new policy was either difficult to administer, or it was too late for the thou­ sands of the families who became reduced to the status of a daily laborer in the green fields of Chilalo or vanished away to the hills of neighboring Bale province. Nevertheless, as a lasting outcome of this

22Ibid., p. 20. 46 process, was the fact that quite a few peasants turned to militancy and restlessness which was pronounced elegantly, along with other so­ cial and economic frustrations of the country, with the collapse of

Haile Sellassie's government and its traditional brand.

The question now becomes, how should such consequences be viewed in light of the objectives of CADU. Definitely, they are unintended and CADU1s original planners would have some cause for frustrations, given their philosophical assumptions. However, when viewed in the overall perspective of the context of the program, there shouldn't be any cause for frustration as the project has just produced results to which it was destined, whether or not the planners had realized such ultimate tendencies. CADU's pursuit of development, through the achievement of such economic goals as a matter of priority in the presence of such social imbalances in the area, suffered from a serious asymptotic fumble, in the opinion of this investigator. To illustrate this point, Galesky's profound observation with respect to such devel­ opment efforts is quoted below.

Programs of development cannot end existing social conflicts if the general socio-economic system remains unchanged. In such a situation, programs of development can stimulate rapid general change because they sharpen social conflicts and not because they stifle them. But it means that such development programs may lead to un­ anticipated results. Programs of development could be more effective if they are applied by a new political power which emerged during the process of change in the general socio-economic system. In such a situation, the new power would be temporarily free of basic social conflicts and programs of development could be more 47

flexible in creating a new socio-economic system and new social structure.^3

When CADU's experiences are analyzed in light of Galesky’s view­ point, the results seem to be logical, except that they were misin­ terpreted by the organizers,thus reflecting their definitional draw­ backs more than anything else. Havens offers a very interesting anal- 24 ysis that would clarify the issue under question herein. He draws heavily from the equilibrium and conflict models advanced by social scientists in delineating and processing development issues. In his analysis, Havens points out the essential differences between the two schools of thought; namely, the equilibrium and conflict models, with appropriate illustrations. He makes it clear that those who subscribe to the philosophical tenets of the equilibrium approach pursue develop­ ment goals by emphasizing technological solutions to the problems of social change. CADU’s strategists, for instance, fall under this category basically. On the other hand, adherents of the conflict model consider the equilibrium approach as a very simplistic view which ne­ glects social conflict as an essential component as well as an inter­ mediary product in the process of development. Table 3 outlines the specific elements and philosophical grounds of the two models as

Boguslaw Galesky, "Conflict and Change as an Aspect of Develop­ ment," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, No. 3/4 (1972), pp. 271-287.

0 / *A. E. Havens, "Methodological Issues in the Study of Develop­ ment," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, No. 3/4 (1972), pp. 254-270. TABLE 3 MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT WITH ATTENDANT ASSUMPTIONS AND CONCEPTS

Types of Approaches to the Major Assumptions Frequent Concepts Study of Development____

I. EQUILIBRIUM MODELS Individuals suffer depriva­ Modernization,learning curves, A. Behavioral tions that are contextually internalization, deprivation Kunkel (1970) determined; behavior can be attitudes, values, rational­ Lipset (1967) be changed at any time, de­ ity, adult socialization, Homans (1961) velopment will occur through intragenerational change. Parsons (1960) new learning experiences* Erasmus (1961) Eisenstadt (1966)

B. Psychodynamic Early childhood socializa­ Personality, backwardness, Hagen (1962) tion largely predetermines childhood experiences, status McClelland (1961) future behavior which may withdrawal, intergenerational impede innovativeness, change, modernization. cleavage between individual behavior and current social environment; development occurs through new sociali­ zation patterns.

Diffus ionist Simplistic dualism— societal Diffusion curves, rates of Rostow (1971) cleavage based on degree of change for ecological units, Hirschman (1958) use of modern technology; lagging sectors, produc­ Barnet (1953) development occurs through tivity, technological growth, Rogers (1969) new capital and techno­ modern!zation. Hoselitz (1960) Levy (1966) logical inputs. TABLE 3 (continued)

Types of Approaches to the Major Assumptions Frequent Concepts Study of Development____ II. CONFLICT MODELS A. Structionalist- Impossible to predict historical Pluralism, conflict, con- Non-Marxist outcomes; no revolutionary up­ flict-management, strata, Dahrendorf (1959) heavals necessary for development, means, ends, institutional Heilbroner (1963) parties present class interests to reform, power, structural Prebisch (19 70) seek new equilibriums under Pareto- dualisms, structural better solutions; moving equili­ change. briums, class formation not related to mode of production; rate of change dependent on intensity and violence of class conflict.

B. Marxist Mode of production underlies eco­ Imperialism, ownership of Szentes (1971) nomic actions and class structure; the means of production, Mafeje (1970) at level of social formation various concentration of resources, Baran (1957) classes may be present,depending on proletarianization, Dos Santos (1970) group's relationship to means of pauperization, class for­ Sunkel (1970) production; if tendency to move to a mation, class conscious­ two-class structure occurs at level ness, class struggle, de­ of social relationships, there will velopment. be a change in the mode of produc­ tion. Changes related to inter- societal historical relationships in the development of the mode of pro­ duction. 50 summarized by Havens. Notice that Havens has subdivided each model into categories specifying some basic assumptions and concepts char­ acteristic of each category.

Depending upon the ideological orientation of the observer, then, the CADU experience may thus be viewed as functional or dysfunctional.

While the equilibrium strategists frown with the trends of change, the advocates of the conflict model would naturally glare with immense satisfaction. The root of such pleasant interpretation stems from what

Marx described as the "law of historical motion." Fischer, quoting from "Preface to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy," writes:

In the social production of their life, men enter into definite relations that are indispensable and in­ dependent of their will; relations of production which correspond to a definite stage of development of their material productive forces... At a certain stage of their development, the material productive forces of society come in conflict with the existing relations of productions, or--what is but a legal expression for the same thing--with the property relations within which they have been at work hitherto. From forms of develop­ ment of the productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an epoch of social revolu­ tion. 25

Havens, armed with theoretical orientations, used the case of

Colombia's economic situation to illustrate the conceptual base of the conflict model. He briefly ran through Colombia's economic history and showed that the country was best characterized by concentration of resources in foreign and national hands, accompanied by a general trend toward proletarianization and pauperization of the broad masses thus,

25 Ernst Fischer (editor), op. cit., pp. 125-132. 51 26 2 7 m a way, manifesting the effects of the law of historical motion. *

Because the social character of production demands social ownership of 28 the means of production, conflicts would continue to grow sharper and sharper until a new social order that offers equality of opportunity to all members of the society emerges. Using Havens words:

What is being called for is a recasting of the vari­ ous pieces of knowledge that we have concerning develop­ ment into an applied, integrated approach. This process must begin with a definition of development that looks at social goals and how we achieve them. Based on this definition, it is necessary to decide what key concepts must be incorporated into the model and how they are interrelated. In drawing upon previous studies, we must determine what is significant; what is, in part, deter­ mined by the definition of development and the initial conceptualization. However, as analysis proceeds, this conceptualization may require modification. And, final­ ly, we must integrate these pieces of knowledge not only into a total picture of the development process; but, at the same time, indicate at what level change may pro­ ceed... And I believe the Marxist approach will provide the greatest insights regarding how to best approach these problems.29

30 Finally, this section can be closed with the vision of Bertrand who maintains (1) that development has to do with induced or insti­ gated change, (2) that development programs are oriented towards a

26 Haven, op. cit., p. 268.

27 Fischer, op. cit., p. 125.

2 8Ibid., p. 126.

29 Havens, op. cit., p. 265.

30 Alvin L. Bertrand, "Definitions and Strategies of Rural Develop­ ment - A Search for Coherence and Congruity," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, No. 3/4 (1972), pp. 233-249. 52 mission or goal and (3) development programs are unmistakingly and universally designed in terms of change which affects a larger social 31 entity. In this respect, he offers what he calls a value-free strategy for planning development programs.

1. There must be a conceptual perspective stressing that programs are designed to alter social struc­ tures so that individuals can more effectively cope with their environment.

2. Development schemes must be worked out so that a healthy complementary relationship exists between the centralized authority and the local population.

3. Development schemes be planned, insofar as possible, to take into account overriding cultural structures such as stratification systems, belief systems, land tenure systems or technological systems.

4. Be aware that such endeavors always have derivative influences which go beyond the objectives outlined.

5. Development planning not be indiscriminately pat­ terned on the host country model.^2

These statements, when viewed in the spirit of Havens, clearly specify the role of a development agency in its proper perspective. In assess­ ing the performance of the CADU project, such ideological orientation should be borne in mind for a correct and realistic interpretation.

The next section examines the disposition of the farmer as they react with predetermined development models. Questions of the follow­ ing type are kept in view as foci of analysis to establish a framework

3 1 Ibid., p. 238.

3 2 Ibid., pp. 238-240. 53 in understanding and predicting the adoption behavior of rural farmers,,

The questions are:

1. What are the inner drives and aspirations of peasants?

2. What do such peasants want and dream about, regardless of

pressures from a development agency?

3. Do they, in fact, wish to continue in the hard but secure

ways they have always known; or are they willing to walk

through, if not run, the avenues of purposeful change?

4. What can change agents do to create a climate that conditions

rural activities toward a specified and desirable goal in the

interest of the welfare of the target population?

Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations

The 1960s saw a tremendous increase in research on the diffusion 33 of innovations. In the words of Rogers, crucial elements in the diffusion of new ideas are (1) the innovation, (2 ) which is communi­ cated through certain channels, (3) over time, (4) among the members of a social system. It is well recognized in the literature that the success of any rural development program hinges upon the efficiency with which new ideas of change are formulated and disseminated to the farmer. This process is, in turn, a function of a number of factors which include the predisposition of the farmer with respect to (1) the

Everett M. Rogers with F. Floyd Shoemaker, Communication of Innovations: A Cross Cultural Approach (London: The Free Press, Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1971). 54 new Ideas or innovations themselves, (2 ) the agencies which promote the practices and (3) their own goals and aspirations*

There is an extensive accumulation of empirical results on dif­ fusion, all indicating that new innovations are imperative for change in agriculture. Rogers and Shoemaker have compiled hundreds of studies dealing with the diffusion of innovations. According to these authors, there are cross-cultural similarities as well as differences in the diffusion of innovations; and, therefore, diffusion models are not en­ tirely culture-bound. They listed and discussed generalizations drawn from diffusion studies to present a summary of what is known about the 35 diffusion of innovations.

Nevertheless, most of the studies were generally descriptive in nature and their theoretical value has been questioned seriously.

Among the people who are much concerned with this shortcoming is

Tapani Valkonen, of the Institute of Sociology, at the University of

Helsinki. He argues that progress on the diffusion of innovations 36 needs theoretical work much more than additional empirical findings.

According to his line of thinking, there are three requirements that are important in the construction of theories of diffusion of innova­ tions, but to which too little attention has been paid in current

n / Eugene A. Wilkening, "A Socio-Psychological Approach to the Study of the Acceptance of Innovations in Farming," Rural Sociology, Vol. 15 (1952), pp. 352-364.

35 Rogers with Shoemaker, op. cit., p. 347. 36 Tapani Valkonen, "On the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. X, No. 2 (1970), pp. 163-177. 55

empirical and theoretical work. These are: (l) the causal nature of

the theory, (2) the informative value of the theory, and (3) diffusion 37 theory and theories of social change.

Causality, in the purest sense, is undoubtedly difficult to prove even in the physical and biological sciences where much of the

exogenous variables can be controlled with relative efficiency. Such

efficiency in the social sciences is out of the question. Yet, some

level of sophistication in generating certain clues to explain how and why a certain variable behaves one way or another in explaining vari­

ations in a given phenomenon; i.e., the dependent variable is essential

to introduce desirable changes in a community. In the final analysis, what extension agents are asking is which variables have to be changed

and which ones can be easily changed in order to achieve intended goals.

Valkonen's position is that such questions can be answered only if re­

searchers develop valid designs and pursue them for proper interpreta­

tion. He says that there are relatively well-developed methodological

principles guiding such efforts to produce data for the confirmation or rejection of causal hypotheses. In his own words, "the significance of

a theory depends specifically on the extent to which it tells parsi­ moniously and understandably, why there are certain correlations among

a set of variables... In developing a theory, it is more important to know through what processes correlations have been brought about than

it is either to find the largest possible number of statistically

"^Ibid., pp. 162-166. 56 significant correlations, or to present a very high percentage of ex- 38 plained variation in a multiple regression analysis." Ezekial and

Fox had long ago recognized this when they wrote:

It is evident that a mere surface examination of a set of data cannot reveal which independent factors are important and which are unimportant. A variable which shows no correlation with the dependent variable may yet show significant correlation after the relation to other variables has been allowed for... A careful, logical examination of the problem, the selection of the factors to be considered on the basis of these qualitative con­ siderations, and then preliminary examination of all the intercorrelations among the selected independent factors will provide more trustworthy results.^9

Thus, Valkonen's points are well taken and are also justified appropri­ ately by the literature in education and psychology, where rigorously 40 41 controlled designs are reported to yield powerful results. ’ Fur­ ther, the availability of strong statistical procedures that can be used in controlling variables adds to the strength of the research. Yet, causality in the social sciences remains extremely difficult to show in the same sense that it is in the exact sciences. As Van Dalen further

3 8 Ibid., p. 163.

39 Mordecai Ezekel and Karl A. Fox, Methods of Correlation and Regression Analysis (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963), pp. 195-196.

^Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1972).

41Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966). 57 expatiates, "It is desirable to approach the methodology of the exact sciences in every way possible; recognizing that insofar as the ex­ perimenter falls short of such standards, his results are defective...

A well developed design provides the structure and strategy that con­ trol the investigation and extract dependable answers to the questions 42 raised by the problem hypotheses."

Valkonen1s second concern is about the informative value of the theory. In his own words,

When reading studies on the diffusion of innovations one sometimes has. the feeling that the results are self- evident or tautological. Very few people would find it surprising that change-proneness and innovativeness cor­ relate positively, or that the more frequently people read newspapers the earlier they tend to become aware of innovations. The low informative value of such results seems to follow from the fact that the variables studied are conceptually or causally too closely related. In fact, innovativeness could be taken as a component or an indicator of change-proneness and an awareness of news obviously requires information sources such as newspapers. If variables are closely related conceptually or causally, it is difficult to obtain results with a high informative value, although the variables themselves might be measured operationally,independently of each other. Furthermore, for the sake of scientific parsimony it seems important to require that the concepts used in a theory describe dif­ ferent phenomena rather than different aspects of the same phenomenon.^3

Finally, there is the question of the relationship between dif­ fusion theory and theories of social change. The adoption behavior of a farmer is directly influenced by the socio-psychological system in which he operates. The overall process of social change is the heart

4 2 Ibid., pp. 253, 288.

43 Valkonen, op. cit., p. 164. 58 of sociological theories well documented in the literature. If adoption of innovation is conceived as a component of social change, then it is very appropriate to integrate theories that explain adoption with the­ ories of social change. By the same token, theories of social change 44 must be applied in the study of adoption. This approach will thus produce knowledge that has system-wide application rather than confined 45 to a particular study group.

The research problem in diffusion has been discussed at length in this section in recognition of its importance for the interpretation of empirical findings which are the starting points of subsequent develop­ ment endeavors. It is also recognized that the substantial contribu­ tion made by diffusion studies play vital roles in conceptualizing models of effecting social change. The discussion thus far is not meant to dismiss earlier contributions of diffusion studies, but is intended to show areas of weaknesses that should be understood and taken care of in future efforts. Keeping this fact in view, the models that have been developed in the past are hereby summarized in Figure 2, which was 46 adopted from Zaltraan. et al. with some additional information included.

The table reveals the existence of some general pattern of thought processes employed in the development of the models by the respective

44 Valkonen, op. cit., p. 164.

^Ibid., p. 166.

46 Gerald Zaltman and Ronald Stiff, "Theories of Diffusion," Theoretical Perspectives in Consumer Behavior, S. Ward and Robertson (editors) (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice llall, 1973, p . 61. Lavidge & Steiner (1961) Rogers (1962) Colley (196l) Robertson (1971 Awareness Awareness Unawareness Problem Perception 1 I X r X Knowledge Interest Awareness — -“Awareness c- ■■ 1 ™"3| 1 | I V X Liking Evaluation Comprehension Comprehens ion<£— ? 1 I I Preference Trial Conviction ->Attitude<£-.i 1 1 ■i/ 4* ConvictionI Adoption Action «<■— ^Legitimation^— ■?

Purchase ->Trial-

w ^Adoption----- I ? Dissonance

Klongland & Coward (1970) Zaltman & Brooker (1971) Rogers & Shoemaker (1971) Valkonen (1970)

Awareness Perception Knov ledge Becoming Aware

Information Motivation Persuasion Willingness 1 i r Trial Legitimation Adoption^ ->Rejection ^ rejection I Trial acceptance Trial 4- Confirmation X Use adoption Evaluation I------Rejection A daption Resolution • Cn sD Fig. 2.— Summary of Diffusion Models social scientists. In the same manner, one can see some semantic as well as conceptual variations which may be attributed to essential

differences in the disciplinary areas represented by the social scien­

tists. From this it appears that a more unified conceptual framework

applicable to the several areas in the social sciences is possible and

is hopefully in the making. Such theoretical clarity is particularly

important to integrated development approaches of the CADU type where multi-disciplinary approaches are conceptualized and employed in the pursuit of development goals.

In view of the above, and in view of the role of a development

agency discussion in Section 1, the model shown in Figure 3 is adopted

for purposes of this study. This model was suggested by Brereton of

the University of Wisconsin in an article which appeared in the Journal 47 of Extension, Spring, 1972. Brereton developed this model to demon­

strate how a model developed by combining Lewin's disequilibrium theory and findings from diffusion studies may be used for more effective pro- 48 49 gramming to bring about behavioral change. ’ This researcher, how­ ever, has replaced the usual five stages of the adoption process con­

ceived and applied by Brereton with the three stages suggested by

^Philip R. Brereton, "New Model for Effective Change," Journal of Extension (Spring, 1972), pp. 17-27.

^Ibid., p. 23.

49 Kurt Lewin, "Frontier in Group Dynamics," Human Relations, I (1947), pp. 5-42. Unfreeze Current Behavior Move Refreeze New Behavior

Objective: Prepare for change Objective: Develop com­ Objective: Stabilize by developing awareness of the mitment to change as new behavior and reach innovation or the need to well as provide knowl­ those late to adopt change. edge and skills neces­ new behavior. sary to implement the change.

Individual characte'ristics T \ Analyze 1. Awareness 2. Willingness 3. Adoption

1 -3 " Social System "Characteristics

Possible techniques Possible techniques Possible techniques

. Sanctification by leadership . 1. Group training 1. Continual feedback 2. Widespread announcement through meeting . to clients of re­ mass media. 2. Specific information sults attained by 3. Problem definition through on application. the innovation • group meetings. 3. Use of specialist 2. Problem solving on 4. One-to-one relationship building. or consultant in ad­ emerging problems. 5. Information meetings. visory or support 3. Publicize successes 6 . Client Advisory Committee. role. to reach late 4. Demonstrations. adopters. 5. A d a p t a t i o n _____

Readiness Stage Action Stage Follow-up State

Fig. 3.— A New Model of Affecting Change 62

Valkonen already quoted with respect to earlier discussions. The three adoption elements are (1) becoming aware of innovations, (2) willing- 50 ness to adopt and (3) the actual adoption. The model also shows three program stages which may be regarded as the levels of change 51 which Havens alluded to in his analysis. Valkonen’s reasoning for suggesting the three adoption stages is that they are always necessary, and there cannot be any disagreement about their order and signifi­ cance. Thus, in his opinion, they form a sufficiently firm basis for 52 theoretical considerations.

The above analysis should logically lead to the examination of the characteristics of the farmer himself, who is central to the whole process. One aspect that has been of particular interest in diffusion studies is the nature of farmers' motivation in the adoption of agri­ cultural practices. A recent study on Indian farmers has shown eco- 53 nomic motivation as the main theme of adoption. Das and Sarkar found that (l) the farmers adopt the farming practices only for the economic gains, (2) the socio-cultural factors influence the farmers to adopt the farming practices mainly for economic gains and (3) the higher the

50 Valkonen, o£. cit., p. 166.

51 Havens, op. cit., p. 265.

52 Valkonen, op. cit., p. 166.

53 K. K. Das and D. R. Sarkar, "Economic Motivation and Adoption of Farming Practices," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 & 2 (1970), pp. 103-107. 63 economic motivation, the more favorable will be the attitude towards 54 improved farming practices. Results from a study conducted in Israel also tend to support the findings of Das and Sarkar, at the same time showing that modernization is conceived as a status symbol in villages where it has occurred. More specifically:

The data gathered through questionnaires and inter­ views in the Lakish region of Israel indicate a fairly clear trend toward a greater readiness on the part of the farmer to accept structural changes in the farm when he anticipated not only greater economic returns, but also improvement in his own and his family's status in the community. The investigations carried out in Lakish revealed that in those villages where settlers had achieved or were achieving a certain degree of moderni­ zation on their farms, the community accorded farmers a higher status in society at large. The status of the farmer was notably lower in villages where settlers clung to their traditional customs and farms had not yet begun to modernize,55

With regard to other personal and social characteristics of farmers, a study made in Eastern Nigeria documents the following find­ ings.

1. Responsive villages tend to be more integrated and co­

hesive, with less migration to ui'ban areas than unre­

sponsive villages.

2. They also tend to be somewhat folklike.

3. Their inhabitants tend to be more optimistic about their

economic features.

54 Ibid., p. 107.

55 Rannan Weitz, From Peasant to Farmer: A Revolutionary Strat­ egy for Development (New York: Columbia University P r e s s , 1971), p. 6 8 . 4. They are more likely to believe that by working hard they

can improve their position.

5. They have a more positive attitude toward the government.

6 . They tend to be more self-reliant.

7. They tend to be more fully inbued with (a) puritan ethic and 56 Cb) the entrepreneurial spirit.

As Smock and Smock indicate, the findings from the Nigerian case study tend to be contrary to conventional understandings, based on dif­ fusion research conducted in other areas, particularly the United 57 States. According to Rogers e_t al. diffusion research shows that systems typified by modern rather than traditional norms will have a faster rate of adoption. "A social system with modern norms is more change oriented, technologically developed, scientific, rational, cosmopolite and empathic." On the other hand, the Smock and Smock study shows that responsive villages tend to be more traditional and folklike and less cosmopolite. This contrast needs some further research work before any generalization is drawn.

Finally, the functional relationship between communication and the adoption of innovations must be underscored. According to avail­ able evidences in the literature, the quality of the communication net­ work determines the efficiency with which a steady flow of appropriate technological information is maintained. Almost all diffusion studies,

"^David R. Smock and Audrey C. Smock, Cultural and Political Aspects of Rural Transformation: A Case Study of Eastern Nigeri. (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972), p. 210. 65

directly or indirectly, have touched upon this fact. Communication is especially crucial in the CADU type projects where farmers are liter­

ally forced to face a bundle of production and development factors

simultaneously. The relative frequency with which farmers get con­

sultations and advice undoubtedly determines the degree to which 58 ideas are actually adopted.

In conclusions, from the ideas summarized in this chapter, any

development program must have a system-wide perspective. The Marxist

approach offers greater opportunity to conceptualize and understand the processes involved in social development. In the words of Karl N.

Deutsch, "Societies make adjustments to technological change; they ad­

just to demographic changes; they alter their values under the impact

of new technologies. Purposeful efforts to bring about behavioral

change are superimposed on these ongoing autonomous behavioral

changes... If behavior is, in its very potentialities, a function of

systems of human associations, then the key to behavioral change is 59 through the changing character of the system." What it takes in the

process is a will and diligence, especially on the part of those who

assumed leadership responsibility by will or force. Needless to say,

such qualities are present in people who have a sincere sense of mission in guiding the course of development.

58 P. N. Jha and G. S. Shaktawat, "Adoption Behavior of Farmers Toward Hybrid Bayra Cultivation," Indian Journal of Extension Edu­ cation, Vol. VIII, Nos. 1 & 2 (March-June, 1972), p. 25. 59 Karl W. Deutsch, "Development Change," in Behavioral Change in Agriculture, Leagans and Loomis (editors) (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1971), p. 194. CHAPTER III

THE CHILALO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (CADU)

The purpose of this chapter is to present a brief description of the Chilalo Awraji in terms of its geographical features, agriculture and the ongoing development program, i.e., CADU in line with the first two objectives of the subject (see p. 29). This subject is well treated in several CADU publications, especially Nos. 10, 11 and

1 2 3 26. ’ ’ Thus, much of the ecological description is based on informa­ tion provided in these publications. Additional data were also ob- 4 tained from the crop and pasture section.

The Chilalo Awraja is located on Ethiopia's eastern plateau in

Arusi Province. It is the largest of the three Awraja found in Arusi with an estimated area of about 10,000 square kilometers.^ The

Bengtsson, op. cit.

2 Sigurd Hakanson, Introductory Agro-Botanical Investigations in Grazed Areas in the Chilalo Awraja, Ethiopia. CADU Publication No. 11, March, 1968. 3 CADU, Tentative CADU Programme, op. cit., pp. 22-50.

^From notes of Ato Alemayehu Mengistu, forage specialist, Crop and Pasture Section. 5 Cohen, The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit as a Program Intermediary for Foreign Assistance in Ethiopia, A.I.D. Spring Review, Vol. VIII, February, 1973.

66 67 boundaries of Chilalo are: the Awash River in the North; the Wabi

Shebele River in the South; the high mountain ranges consisting of Mt„

Chilalo, Mt. Bada, Mt. Galema and Mt. Incolo in the East; and finally, the Western boundary is formed by the Rift Valley Lakes of Zewai and

Langano, with a line extending southeastward of Shashamane. [See the maps presented in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7.]

The area is generally classified into four ecological zones on the basis of variation in altitude. These are: (1) the lowland zone in the Rift Valley, (2) the highland zone between Etaya and Sagure,

(3) the highland zone south of zone (2) down to Mt. Kaka and (4) the highland zone south of Mt. Kaka.^ The altitude ranges from a low of

1,500m. in the Rift Valley area to over 4,000 m. in the highlands; the highest peak being Mt. Bada at over 4,000 m.

Climate has been a major concern of people all over the world; and, therefore, a brief review of the subject in relation to Chilalo is in order. At the outset; it may be pointed out as discussed previ­ ously that Ethiopia, like the Sahle regions of Africa, has been hard-hit by massive agricultural fluctuations and human sufferings as a conse­ quence of erratic rainfall distributions and extended droughts. To what extent the project area has suffered from such impediments is a necessary question to account for in studying the impact of the project.

In view of this, meteorological observations made by the Experimentation

£ CADU, Tentative CADU Programme 1970-75, op. cit., pp. 22-29.

^Ibid., p. 2 2 . 68

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7 (Secrcn . River.Wabe Profile A Nazret CD) & — Region Between of The 6 . - -A S.W. 7 uoo-t i r i 7t 000 rfeAxes s The ProffeRift e x A VfcSev-Chilato Mountain (Section ) B A «e»ew»UW U » w e » e *« jm, , • • . . : . /v

Department were closely examined to ascertain the occurrence of such climatic fluctuations, and if so, to what extent they have damaged the development efforts of CADU. His observations are briefly discussed below.

The amount and distribution of rainfall in the Chilalo Awraja have undoubtedly varied to some extent from year to year. This vari­ ation is also associated with altitude which is an obvious geographical truth well documented in the literature. This researcher was interested in learning if there was any significant change in the variations over the years, and so he used available weather data to test for mean dif­ ferences in the distribution of rainfall and temperatures for the Asella area. His finding: no significant difference. Appendix D presents rainfall and temperature data taken from the several meteorological stations.

Generally, there are two rainy seasons commonly found in Ethiopia.

The short rains, called Belg, usually occur from February to May; while the big rains, called Keremt, come after June, ending in October, and sometimes extend to November. This is followed by the dry season of

October to February. The big, rainy season is particularly crucial as it is the main growing season for most cereals cultivated in the project area.^’^’^ The general rainfall situations in the project

O Crop and Pasture Section, Report on Surveys and Experiments, C/U5U Publication No. 80, Asella, April, 1972, pp. 2-7. 9 Crop and Pasture Section, Report on Surveys and Experiments, CADU Publication No. 87, Asella, July, 1973, pp. 2-9. ^Hakanson, pp. cit., p. 3. 72 area are shown in Table 4. The main crops grown in each area are also included for further information.^ The alphabetical letters included in parenthesis correspond to the development districts; the respective

Extension areas to be discussed later.

To summarize, it is generally reported that at high altitudes the annual rainfall is between 750 and 1,500 millimeters, but it de­ creases to about 500 millimeters in the lower parts of the project area. The maximum temperature is said to be even (20-28°c) while the

1 2. minimum temperature mostly ranges from 10 to 15 c.

Likewise, the natural vegetation shows marked variation although very little of Chilalo Awraja is covered with natural vegetation due to intensive cultivation. Nevertheless, whatever vegetation is found it varies from thorny accacia with sparse undergrowth to thick alpine for- 13 est found at the foothills of Mt. Chilalo.

Finally, a brief note on the soils of Chilalo is in order. Draw­ ing from Murphy (1959, 1963)^ and Wenner (1967),^ Hakansson^ has

■'■''‘Stenciled information obtained from Crop and Pasture Section.

12 Holmberg, op. cit., p. 10.

13 Mengistu, op.cit., pp. 12-15.

^Murphy, o£. cit., pp. 14-35.

15C. G. Wenner, Reconnoitering Survey of the Water Resources in the Chilalo Awraja, Ethiopia, November 1966-February 1967. Stockholm: Stenciled report to SIDA.

16Siguard llakanson, Introductory Agro-Botanical Investigation in Grazed Areas in the Chilalo Awraja, op. cit. TABLE 4

ALTITUDE, RAINFALL AND MAJOR CROPS GROWN IN THE EXTENSION AREAS OF CADU

Extension Areas Cropping Main Crops Forage Crops

A. High Altitude (2,300-3,000 meters)— South Asella (A) Barley Perennial rye grass Adequate Precipitation Sagure (B) Wheat Cocksfeet Dighellu (B) Rapeseed Kikuyu grass Tijo (B) Potato Indigenous setaria Kersa (B) Field peas Red canary grass Lemu (B) Pea-oat mixture Bekoj i (B) Fodder beet Meraro (B) Swede and turnip Kore (c) Kofele (c) Change (B)

B. Medium High Altitude (1,000-2,200 Sire (D) Wheat Rhodes grass meters)--Adequate Precipitation (highland) Barley Columbus grass Huruta (D) Potato Sudan grass Ligaba (D) Maize Pea-oat mixture Ethaya (D) Teff Fodder beet Gonde (B) Horsebeans Degaga (c) Rapeseed North Asella (B) TABLE 4 (continued)

Extension Areas Cropping Main Crops Forage Crops

Medium High Altitude (2,000-2,300 Asassa (C) Wheat Rhodes grass meters)— Low Precipitation Gedeb (C) Barley Columbus grass Compared to Areas in A Wekentira (c) Field peas Sudan grass Munesa (B) Teff Pea-oat mixture Lole (B) Rapeseed Fodder beet Egu (B)

Low Altitude (1,600-1,900 meters)— Dhera (D) Maize Rhodes grass Low Precipitation Arata (A) Haricot bean Columbus grass Ogelcho (A) Wheat Sudan grass Chefe-Jilla (A) Barley Maiti (A) Teff Golja (A) Buckwheat Sire Soyadea (lowland) (D) described the soil characteristics of the area, particularly those of

South Asella and the Rift Valley slope. The information is summarized in CADU Publication No. 11. Such information can also be available in other CADU publications. According to Murphy’s analysis with respect to the Rift Valley area,

These soils should give response to a phosphate fer­ tilizer, and even though the nitrogen is high, experi­ mentation may show a good response to a combination of nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizer on wheat. For lime lov­ ing crops such as alfalfa; liming, along with a phosphate fertilizer, would be essential for high yields and for maintaining a stand.^

In relation to the Asella area, he wrote:

The reddish brown clay loam-clay soils in the Asella area are medium to strongly acid (pH 5-6) in the surface and are similarly acid throughout the profile. They are low in available phosphorus and quite high in organic matter and total nitrogen where not severely eroded. In some cases the available calcium is somewhat deficient. These soils have a forest-tall grass native vegetation. Corn and wheat are major crops.

It must be pointed out that Murphy's observations apply only to (1) the soils of Nazarett-Awash bridge to Asella and vicinity, including Sire area, (2) soils south of Awash bridge near Koka Village (approximately

95 km from Addis Ababa) to Meki Village, (3) soils northeast-southeast of Shashemane in Western Arusi, (4) some Awash Valley soils in Arusi,

(5) some soils in Eastern Arusi and (6 ) some soils south-southeast of

19 Nazareth in Arusi. Consult the map for the specific locations

^Murphy, op. cit., p. 14.

18Ibid. 76 outlined here. For further information, the soil map of Chilalo Awraja 20 is included, showing soil pH by extension areas.

In terms of agricultural production, unlike many other areas in

Ethiopia, both peasant agriculture and commercial agriculture were going on side by side. The peasants produced cereal crops on small holdings under complex and tenure systems as discussed previously in relation to the country as a whole. Mechanized farming has been operated on large

tracts of land; some exceeding 5,000 hectares, while peasant holdings were limited to an average of 3.8 hectares. Mostly fragmented into a

number of parcels ranging from 1 to 8 . Furthermore, over 50 percent of

Chilalo's farmers were tenants cultivating only 20 percent of the agri- 21 cultural land. In recent years, thousands of tenants have been

evicted as the result of expansion in the mechanized sector. By 1972,

the number of farm families evicted from the area was estimated at

3,000. This might well be a displacement of over 15,000 people, assum- 22 ing 5 persons in each displaced household.

The total population of Arusi was estimated at 825,000 (1970); of

this, more than half, or 395,000 people, live in Chilalo. The rest is

distributed between the other two Awrajas, namely, Tijo and Arba Gugu,

Only 6 percent P.T.O. of Chilalo population is urban; 82 percent of the

rural population is involved in the production of crops, while 17 per­

cent are engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism. The main crops grown by

20 Mengistu, op. cit. 21 Cohen, The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, op. cit., p • 8 . 22 Holmberg, op. cit., p. 27. 77

No. Extension Area

1 Kulumsa 2 Sagure 3 Hurutu 4 Bekoji 5 S. Assella 6 Tijo 7 Lole 8 Gedeb 9 Meraro 10 Egu 11 Kersa 12 Wekentera 13 Change 14 Dhera 15 Chefe Jilla 16 Gonde 17 Degaga 18 Asussa 19 Munessa 20 Sire 21 Golja 22 Metti 23 Kore 24 Dighellu 25 Elhaya 26 Ligaba 27 Kofele 28 Arata 29 Lemu 30 Ogelcho

o Very strongly acid

( Q) Strongly

Medium acid

Slightly acid

Neutral

Fig. 8 .— Soil Map of Chilalo Awraja, 1971-1973 Soil pH 78 the farmers are barley and wheat. Barley, accounting for some 42 per­ cent of the cultivated land in Chilalo,is grown mainly as a staple crop, while wheat, with 23 percent of the cultivated land is the main cash crop. Prior to CADU's influence, the yield of wheat was below 10

\ quintals per hectare, while barley yielded about 15 quintals per hec­ tare. Present levels of production will be indicated in later chapters.

Other crops include maize (10 percent), flax (9 percent) and teff (5 23 percent). For further information,see Table 4 on pages 70-71.

Holmberg reported that as the result of expansion of CADU activities, the livestock population was getting reduced. Data provided by him in­ dicate that the farm household on an average has 10.3 cattle (4.2 cows), 4.2 sheep, 1.4 goats, 2.4 horses, donkeys and mules, and 1.5 whens. 24

The Project

Historical Background

The idea of a regional development program was proposed to the

Ethiopian Government by the Swedish International Development Authority, representing the Government of Sweden, sometime in 1966. By March,

1966 it was agreed upon by the two parties, enabling SIDA to explore the possibilities of establishing pilot development schemes in Chilalo

2^Ibid., pp. 10, 27.

24Ibid., p. 10. 79 25 Awraja. The idea was experimental in nature and its basic aim was to verify the performance of integrated agricultural development strategy, popularly known as the package approach under the Chilalo setting. By doing so, it was stipulated that the foundations for ex­ panded regional agricultural development programs would be laid out which would cover appropriate areas elsewhere in the country. The philosophical basis which incidentally stemmed from the experiences of

India and Pakistan was the belief that, given the resource endowment and technological backwardness of countries like Ethiopia, a compre­ hensive and integrated strategy against the many forces that tend to limit development possibilities would offer the greatest chance of success in combating rural poverty.

Thus, the Swedish experts along with their Ethiopian counterparts set out to guide the direction of agrarian change in Ethiopia. At the outset, a general survey was conducted in search of a suitable area; and, subsequently, Chilalo was selected on the basis of its great po­ tential for agricultural production and the relative easy access it had to urban centers where markets are available. More specifically, the official bases for the selection of this awraja are said to be (1) the existence of natural conditions that endured for intensive production,

(2) the availability of transport and marketing facilities, (3) the relatively favorable land tenure conditions that existed when compared

25 SIDA Project Preparation Team, Report No. II on the Establish­ ment of a Regional Development Project in Ethiopia, May, 1967, p. 80 to conditions prevailing elsewhere in the country, (4) the people of the area seemed desirous of progress and (5) the existence of a possi­ bility to expand the experience gained in a larger area of Arusi

Province,o • 26

Although the general plan of CADU had earmarked a thirteen year time perspective, the specific projects have been developed and agreed upon by the Ethiopian and Swedish authorities annually in phases, culminating to three phases by the time the total agreement expires in 27 1980. The first phase covered the period September 1967 to December

1970. This was generally an experimentation and project preparation period; and, hence, the magnitude of the influence on the target popu- 28 lation was quite limited. The project was actually begun to secure the intended impact after 1970; when the second phase was initiated, operating until July 1975, when a new agreement for the third phase was expected to be signed. The general agreement, in any case, carried the 29 following specific understandings.

1. The two governments shall cooperate fully to insure that the goals of the Project be attained and that all resources made available for the Project be used optimally. All development activities in the Project

26 Cohen, "The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit," op. cit., p. 10.

^SIDA., Report II, op. cit., p. 2.3.

^CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, op_. cit., p. vii.

29 Agreement entered by the Ethiopian and Swedish Government on December 31, 1970. (Stenciled report.) 81

area for which agencies and institutions of the Ethiopian government, other than CASU, are respon­ sible shall be undertaken in cooperation with CASU.

2. In support of, but not included in the Project; the Ethiopian Government shall carry out, as specified in the plan of operation, agricultural tenancy and other land reform measures and undertake or cause to be undertaken such other measures as are essen­ tial pre-requisites for the accomplishment of the purpose of the project. In particular, the Ethiopian Government shall start the implementation through­ out the Project area of agricultural tenancy legis­ lation no later than one year after its promulgation.

3. The two Governments shall provide each other with all information which either of them shall reason­ ably request from the other with regard to the project and related matters, including all infor­ mation required to determine whether the goals of the Project are being attained; and in case of no attainment, the reasons for the deficiency and the remedies called for. The Ethiopian Government shall afford all reasonable opportunity for duly accredited representatives of the Swedish Government to visit any part of Ethiopia for purposes related to the Project and to inspect all relevant goods, records and documents.

4. The Ethiopian Government shall exempt from all custom duties as well as from import restrictions all goods and services imported for the purpose of the Project, and from all other governmental and municipal taxes; all goods produced and sold by CADU.30

Other elements of the agreement specify the plan of operation,

administrative system and procedure and contributions of the two Gov­

ernments, both in cash and in kind. The total cost of the Project

during Phase I was estimated at Eth. $12.4 million of which Eth. $4.2 million was borne by the Ethiopian Government; and the rest, i.e., 82 31 Eth. $8.1 million came from the Swedish Government. The Ethiopian

Ministry of Agriculture and SIDA were the two representative author­ ities charged with the responsibilities of maintaining the spirit of the agreement. The Article of the Agreement enabling the two bodies to exercise such authority states: "In matters relating to the implementa­ tion of this agreement and the plan of operation, the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture shall be competent to represent the Ethiopian Government, and the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) shall be 32 competent to represent the Swedish Government."

The agreement that proved troublesome in later years was that of land reform and tenancy regulation. When discussions on Phase II began in 1970, the Swedish delegation learned that the Ethiopian Government had not honored this very important obligation it had entered quite understandably. As a consequence, the Swedish Government suspended further negotiations until the Ethiopian Parliament was ready to accept the then land reform bill drafted by the Ministry of Land Reform and

Administration. Instead, the Swedish Government proposed a 6-month 33 expansion, which ran to December 31, 1970. This strong pressure, however, pushed the Ethiopian Government to reluctantly submit the Ag­ ricultural Tenancy Proclamation, 1970, to Parliament in November 1971.

3 1 tIbid. v ,

32 Ibid.

^CADU, Annual Report 1969/70, CADU Publication No. 51, pp. 3-4. 83

This writer was fortunate enough to observe the first day of discussion on this subject and recalls how disturbed were members by the impli­ cations of the proposed bill. Among them were those who felt that the bill would do little other than legalize the continued existence of feudalism in the country. These people were, obviously, few in number, but the majority reacted with vehemence as a direct threat to the sur­ vival of the century old system. And, so the bill was shelved. But, surprisingly, Sweden accepted the Government's action as a sufficient condition for the negotiation on CADU Phase II, and the agreement was 34 concluded soon thereafter. The fate of CADU III is totally unknown to this writer as he has not been abreast of - the dramatic events of the past few months.

Main Goals of CADU

As indicated previously, the expiration of CADU Phase I brought about some strains, threatening the continuity of the Project resulting from failure by the Ethiopian Government to keep up with its commit­ ments. But, when negotiations were completed after the Ethiopian parliament received the "Agricultural Tenancy Proclamation, 1970,"

Sweden reluctantly resumed sponsoring the Project to pursue its main goals at least for another- five years. The original goals were re­ stated to make the goals more explicit; otherwise, they remained the same. These goals, as they were presented in CADU Annual Report

1970/71, are quoted below.

O / CADU, Annual Report 1970/71, CADU Publication No. 65, p. 1. 84

The first main goal shall be the achievement of economic and social development throughout the Project Area.

The activities towards this end shall be so conducted as to ensure the participation of the Project Area popu­ lation and their assuming of increasing responsibility for those activities.

CADU shall endeavor to avoid adverse employment effects and to observe opportunities to create additional em­ ployment.

The activities shall be directed mainly towards farmers in low income brackets.

The second main goal shall be the continued finding of suitable methods for bringing about agricultural de­ velopment in Ethiopia when applied in an integrated manner.

The third main goal shall be to create possibilities for the application elsewhere in Ethiopia, as indi­ cated in the Third Five Year Development Plan, of the experience gained by CADU.

This implies the creation of financial resources through an increase in the tax-paying ability of the Project Area population and the training of staff.35

The second main goal above clearly implicates the underlying strategy followed at CADU. It is, basically, the package approach dis­ cussed previously which may now be described as (l) a coordinated ef­ fort, (2) dealing with the forces of change, (3) in a limited area of,

(4) groat potential for (4) purposes of effective rural transformation.

These foundations of the package concept were kept in view when the

Chilalo region was selected as mentioned in the discussion on the his­ torical backgrounds of CADU.

"^CADU, Annual Report 1970/71, p p . cit., pp. 1-2. 85

In spite of the comprehensiveness of the intended goals, heavy emphasis was placed on the attainment of economic development in the initial years. The rationale given by the original planners was that once farmers experience economic benefits, developments in the social area would come with less pains. The consequences of this assumption have been made apparent in Chapter II, and there is no need here to elaborate them further. Sequentially, the activities that attracted greater attention were (l) the provision of economic incentives to small scale farmers, (2) the development and adaptation of new inputs and methods, (3) the dissemination of information, (4) improvement of infrastructure and marketing facilities, (5) conservation of natural 36 resources and (6 ) planning, evaluation and administration.

Thus, the primary conceptual frame of reference that guides the integration of resources into a well structured, operational scheme is what has been described as the package concept. In the following few pages, the organization of activities designed and conducted in pursuit of the main goals is presented. The administrative set up is also re­ viewed to facilitate an understanding of how the Project has been op­ erating.

Administration

CADU has been an autonomous body, established to process the dy­ namics of change implied by the objectives discussed above. Like other

o £ SIDA, op. cit., p. 2:2. 86 37 agricultural projects of recent years, CADU has a definite time per-* spective during which interim the experimental nature of the Project and the manner of its administration would phase out to give way for local ventures under minimal Government support or intervention. Ac­ cording to the original plan of operation, the following three phases of the Project were distinguished:

1. Initiation and experimentation (3 years)

2. Expansion within the Chilalo Awraja (3 years)

3. Further expansion within the Arusi Province and phasing out

of assistance (6 years).

It was clearly specified that, though the overall responsibility for the activities within the project remained under the Ethiopian

Ministry of Agriculture, the Executive Director who heads the Project should be given extensive authority to handle the activities and make decisions on the basis of the plan of operation, budget and policy rules ratified by the Governments of Ethiopia and Sweden through their spe­ cialized agencies; namely the Ministry of Agriculture and SIDA respec-

• , tive Ly.38

The Executive Director is appointed by the Minister of Agriculture in consultation with SIDA. He has an assistant Executive Director,

37 Price J. Gittinger, Analysis of Agricultural Projects. The Economic Development Institute International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), pp. 2-24.

38 SIDA, op. cit., p. 11:1. 87 again, appointed by the Minister of Agriculture. The responsibilities of the Executive Director were specified as follows:

(1) planning of the work and budgeting

(2) submitting progress reports, including an annual report

(3) supervising and coordinating the work

(4) hiring, supervising and dismissing personnel in ac­ cordance with certain specified provisions (Appendix 16 of the original plan)

(5) cooperating with central Government, local authori­ ties and farmers' committees

(6) acquiring working capital for the marketing and credit activities.39

The Executive Director would have to seek approval by the Ministry of Agriculture and SIDA on matters that relate to (1) important modi­ fications of Work Programme and Budgets, (2) release of funds to start activities on the basis of approved feasibility studies and (3) studies and training abroad exceeding one year.^

As expected in the original plan, the internal organization under­ went gradual changes as emphasis shifted or expanded during its life operation. As such, the organizational structure at the time of this study was more complex than what was originally outlined. Figure 9 presents the organizational chart as existed as of August 1973.

39 CADU, Plan of Operation for the Chilalo Agricultural Develop­ ment Unit: (CADU) 1971-1974/ 73. Annex to the Agreement of December 31, 1970 between the Swedish Government and the Imperial Ethiopia Govern­ ment on co-operation for regional agricultural development (mimeo­ graphed report), p. 15.

40Ibid. PROJECT DIRECTION

Planning Market­ Cattle & Evalua­ Seed Audi t ing Di­ Breeding tion Division Section Section vision Section Section

Experimen­ Extension Veterinary Infrstruc- Common tation & Training Department ture Services Department Department Department Department

Crop & Agricul­ Diagnostic Adminis­ Road Pasture tural Ex- Unit tration — te.n-s.ion

Agricul­ Social Water De­ tural Develop­ Budget ment velopment

Animal Husbandry Training Building Accounts & Breeding

Purchase Inforrnati on 0 Stores Pores try Si Public Surveying He lations Personnel

Transpor t 5* Garage

Catering

J Staff Fig. 9.--Internal Organization Chart, Clinic August, 1973 89

As can be seen from the chart, CADU had five departments, three autonomous divisions and three sections. The specific objectives pur­ sued by each of these branches of CADU, as summarized from recent CADU documents, are presented in Appendix C. Thus, a relatively complex or­ ganization is made to operate in a simplistic, undifferentiated rural environment.

The external organization or relations of CADU were also properly 41 laid out as shown in Figure 10.

The composition of the Ministrial Committee according to the plan of operation attached to the 1970 Agreement included the following:

Minister of Finance Head of the Planning Commission Office Minister of Interior Minister of Land Reform and Administration Minister of National Community Development and Social Affairs Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources A representative of the Prime Minister's Office Other members co-opted on decision by the Minister of Agriculture.^

This committee was chaired by the Minister of Agriculture. Ob­ viously, the agencies represented had in one way or another related to the Project. The responsibilities with which this committee was charged was a review of (1) matters relating to CADU that were to be submitted to the Council of Ministers by the Ministry of Agriculture,

(2) matters concerning CADU falling under the jurisdiction of a Ministry or body other than the Ministry of Agriculture and (3) the progress of

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid., p. 14. Ethiopian Swedish Government Government

Ministry Ministrial SIDA Committee Agriculture

CADU Executive Awra j a Director Project Development Departments Committee Autonomous Divisions F armer1s Committees

op o o M i^-

op OR. Sfceoic&

Fig. 10.— External Organization Chart. 91

the Project and its implementation on the basis of plans, budgets and

reports. It was the responsibility of the Executive Director to prepare 43 the agenda on matters of urgency and interest to the committee.

The Awraja Development Committee was composed of officials of the

local administration who, in most cases, were representatives of the

Ministries included in the above committee. The chairman was the Ex­

ecutive Director, and it was hoped that this committee would help to

insure cooperation at the local level. But, the experiences according

to the CADU reports were not that positive as many of the members tended

to oppose the direction of change CADU had been introducing to the area.

Nevertheless, the lower level committees, the Extension Area Development

Committees and the Model Farmer's Committees were better involved in the affairs of the project. Appendix E presents a summary of the composi­

tion, duties and activities of the three committees mentioned here; and 44 therefore, might be consulted for additional information.

Finally, a brief account of the structure and activities of each of the Departments/Divisions/Sections is presented. Consulting Ap­ pendix E might help to get a clearer view of what has been occurring in the project area if so desired.

Experimentation Department

The Experimentation Department, as its name implies, is the in­ novative organ of CADU. It also plays a vital role in national

43Ibid. ^Michael Beyene, On Evaluation of Innovation Dissemination Strategy and Process in CADU Project Area. Assela: CADU Planning and Evaluation Section, December, 1973. (Mimeographed.) 92 research programs by cooperating with the Institute of Agricultural

Research (IAR), the College of Agriculture and other research oriented public and private agencies. The following information was drawn 45 heavily from the study conducted by Michael Beyene and a number of 46 47 other CADU publications. ’

Applied research is the primary concern of the department. Ac­ tivities include investigation into crop production, animal produc­ tion, agricultural engineering and forestry. There is a specialized section for each area as shown in the organizational chart. The crop and pasture section works on research problems in field and forage crops with emphasis on wheat, barley, maize, rape, beans, grasses and fodder beets. In animal production, the focus is on the improvement in the production and handling of milk. As the whole of Arusi is noted for its livestock potential in the country, the work in this field is a matter of great importance. Investigations into breeding, feeding and management methods for dairy cattle, sheep and poultry are in progress. Exotic dairy cattle, primarily Friesian and Jersey, are used to upgrade local breeds through cross-breeding and proper management practices and the indications are reported to be very encouraging. The

Agricultural Engineering Section is responsible for the study and pro­ duction of improved farm implements in the areas of soil preparation,

^Beyene, op. cit. , pp. 4-14.

46 CADU, Proiect Description, CADU Publication No. 62, April, 1971.

^Implement Research Section, Progress Reports, CADU Publication Nos. 32, 52, and 79. 93 crop handling and transportation. Efforts have been concentrated on the development and production of mouldboard ploughs, harrows, threshers, winnowers, and seed cleaners, transportation equipment and grain storage. But, the progress is reported to have been lagging be­ hind the crop and animal production sections. Finally, the Forestry

Section seeks solutions for the development and conservation of forest resources; and, consequently, the soils of the project area. Improved tree species for both fuel and timber are planted, and there are edu­ cational programs for farmers designed to achieve the same. Appendix A provides a summary of the specific objectives of the Experimentation

Department by the sections briefly discussed here.

Veterinary Department

In an area of great livestock potential, adequate attention must be given to veterinary programs. Livestock diseases and poor manage­ ment systems have been drastically limiting production not only in

Ethiopia, but also throughout East Africa. And, there has been re­ gional effort internationally to combat these problems cooperatively.

This department, in a way, shares the responsibility by working on preventive as well as curative measures in the control of livestock diseases. Farm vaccinations are carried out against brucellosis 333,

FMD 386, Rinderpest, and African horse sickness; just to mention a few.

On the curative side, treatments of infections, diseases and parasites are among the services made available to the farming community. More­ over, artificial insemination service is available at a cost of 94

Eth. $2,000 per four services. The department has modern semen pro­

duction and deep freezing facilities for this purpose.

Extension and Training Department

This is the educational arm of the project. It has the sole re­

sponsibility, in collaboration with the other units, for the diffusion

of innovations produced by the Experimentation Department and other

relevant branches of CADU. Experimental results are formulated into a practical and usable package in cooperation with the innovative depart­ ment for their dissemination in the project area. A description of the

set up of the Extension area might help to understand the scope and in­

tensity of work done by the Extension and Training Department.

Thus, the project area is divided into four Development Districts,

These Development Districts, along with their respective date of es­

tablishment, are listed below.

A. Asella Development District - 1969/1970 B. Bekoji Development District - 1971/1972 C. Kofele Development District - 1971/1972 D. Dhera Development District - 1972/1973

These Development Districts were established in accordance with

the following guidelines: (1) a district should be of reasonable size

to justify the investments required to establish necessary facilities,

48 Ibid., pp. 10-13.

49 CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, CADU Publication No. 77, Vols. I and II.

50l CADU, Tentative CADU Program 1970-75, op. cit., pp. 71-79. 95

(2) a district should not be too large and cause unnecessary high

transportation costs, (3) a district should, if possible, coincide with

administrative divisions, (4) a district should preferably cover an area with similar natural conditions, climate, land use, etc., (5) a district center should be established in a town or administrative

center located as central as possible in the district. Essential pro­ visions considered for each development district include (1) offices for Extension service, (2) training facilities for model farmers and other categories of people to be trained, (3) a demonstration farm, (4)

an experimental sub-section for crops and forestry, (5) a unit for veterinary services, ( D a marketing unit and (7) a unit for public 51 health services.

The Extension areas that were brought under each Development Dis­

trict are shown in Table 5. Notice that Bekoji Development District has the largest number of Extension areas because of its size and popu­

lation. It should also be pointed out that in each Extension area, there is one Extension office and one marketing center. The Extension office is generally staffed by one agricultural Extension agent, one

assistant agent and one women's Extension agent. The marketing center

is managed by one trade center foreman and one assistant foreman. The marketing center, however, is under the Marketing Division discussed

later. The ideal farming population that this set up is supposed to 52 serve ranges from 1,500 to 1,800.

51 CADU, Tentative CADU Programme, op. cit., p. 48. 52 Ilolmberg, op. cit., p. 18. TABLE 5

DISTRIBUTION OF EXTENSION AREAS BY DEVELOPMENT DISTRICT AND YEAR OF ESTABLISHMENT

Development District/Extension Area Year of Establishment

I. Asella Development Center 1. Asella South (Bilalo) 1968/1969 2. Asella North (Asella) 1968/1969 3. Gonde 1968/1969 4. Arata 1972/1973 5. Ogellcha 1972/1973 6 . Cheffe Jilla 1972/1973 II. Bekoji Development District 1. Golja 1971/1972 2. Lole 1970/1971 3. Egu 1971/1972 4. Kersa 1970/1971 5. Munesa 1971/1972 6 . Bekoji 1970/1971 7. Lemu 1970/1971 8 . Meraro 1970/1971 9. Sagure 1968/1969 10. Tijo 1971/1972 11. Dighelu 1969/1970

III. Kofele Development District 1. Assasa 1971/1972 2 . Wekentra 1972/1973 3. Kofele 1971/1972 4. Kore 1971/1972 5. Degaga 19 71/1972 6 . Gedeb 1972/1973

IV. Dhera Development District 1. Ethaya 1968/1969 2. Iluruta 1968/1969 3. Sire (highland) 1970/1971 4. Sire (lowland) 1970/1971 5. Changis 6 . Dhera 1972/1973 7. Ligaba 1971/1972 97

Organizationally, there are four sections which guide the activ­

ities of the field staff indicated above. These are: (1) Agricultural

Extension, (2) Social Development, (3) Training and (4) Information and

Public Relations.

The Agricultural Extension section disseminates improved agri­

cultural technologies in the project area. The dominant activities

that constitute the core of this educational program include soil prep­

aration methods, use of improved seed varieties, application of ferti­

lizers, crop protection measures and other practices essential for ag­

ricultural development. A variety of Extension methods including

demonstrations, field days, and individual and group contacts are used

in this educational drive. Something that has been touched upon previ­

ously is the use of model farmers to help establish such contacts and

facilitate the transfer of improved technologies. These farmers are

selected by their peers in their locality with some additional input

from Extension agents. Certain criteria shown in Appendix are used

in the process. In any case, the amount of influence a farmer has over

his fellow men and his readiness to adopt and help communicate improved

technologies in his area of influence give a person greater chances of becoming a model farmer. Apart from getting recognition in the area,

such farmers also enjoy material gains as the produce of the demon­

stration plot on their farm is left for them, although inputs and re­

lated costs are covered by the Project. Each Extension area is planned

to have 15 model farmers which consists of approximately 1,500-1,800

farmers. Usually, there are one Extension agent and one assistant

agent in such area, and a supervisor at the district level. Where a 98 home economics program exists, there are home economics girls; one for each Extension area.

The social development section is assigned the task of providing educational programs on matters of social affairs that include home economics, youth development and self-help cooperative projects. In home economics, the emphasis is on child care, nutrition, hygiene and home improvement. The section makes occasional surveys on basic com­ munity needs, and on the basis of findings, self-help cooperative pro­ grams are promoted to meet community needs deemed necessary.

All the village level workers get their preparation from the training section. Students are recruited from the 10th grade and above and are given instructions and field experiences on the practical as well as the theoretical aspects of their prospective roles. The dis­ tribution of the educational program is reported to be six months of

theoretical training, 12 months of on-the-job training, and, finally,

^ c i■ ■ 53,54,55 four months of follow-up training.

Actually, the training program is a joint effort of CADU and the

Extension and Project Implementation Department of the Ministry of Ag­ riculture (EPID). Through such efforts, attempts are made to train

Extension agents needed for the CADU program as well as the minimum package programs operated by EPID.

53 Beyene, op. cit., p. 15.

■^CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, op. cit.

55Ibid. 99

Finally, the fourth but equally important section is Information and Public Relations. Over the years, CADU has had serious public re­ lations problems partly arising from allegations of massive tenant eviction from the area, and partly from local opposition by wealthy influentials and traditional leaders whose interests have been threat­ ened by the trends of development in the project area. To counteract such opposition, the section prepares and releases information materials claiif,ing the basic goals, philosophies and principles behind the

integrated agricultural development program. It also conducts educa­

tional campaigns along with the other units of the Extension and Train­

ing Department. Furthermore, it serves as a storage house for infor­ mation and knowledge documented by the several departments and sections of CADU.

Infrastructure Department

Infrastructure is another backbone of the project that accounts for a substantial share of the CADU budget. The importance of rural road construction has been well recognized in all of the Ethiopian ag­ ricultural development policies. However, the realization of rural road programs has not been as great as the needs because of conflicting views and interests among -the leaders aside from problems of capital

investment. In Chilalo, however, the nature and organization of the project have offered greater flexibility to plan and implement its own program of rural road construction, and there has been visible progress in that direction. The Infrastructure Department has been created to intensify such crucial development in the area. Also included in the program of this department are buildings, water development and sur­ veying. In this way, CADU has been attempting to insure the distri­ bution and utilization of scarce resources more effectively; and, at the same time, bring remote rural communities and their produce into the main arena of a developing society. Organizational and operational requirements for such effort are great and their status literally de­ termines the extent to which success in agricultural development is realized.1- a 56

Common Services

Administrative and managerial competence are crucial for agri­ cultural development. Development projects fail to achieve their in­ tended goals largely because of weaknesses in resource management, budgeting, personnel management and the like. Ethiopian institutions are well known for such deficiencies. In fact, it is a truism to talk about corruption and incompetencies in the public administration of

Ethiopian agriculture. In the face of huge needs for food and fiber in the country, development administrators were truly great liabilities.

In this context, the CADU Project; with its considerable autonomy in personnel as well as fiscal matters and a vibrant development policy, may be regarded as a unique rural institution where every possible ef­

fort has been in progress to control the traditional and organizational constraints when such problems exist in their highest form at the parent 101

institution, the Ministry of Agriculture.”*^ It is not intended to im­

ply here that CADU has an efficient organizational set-up and adminis­

tration. CADU has to prove it yet. But, the point is, practical steps

in this direction were at least in the making when this researcher was

observing the progress on several occasions during the past five years.

The Common Services Department essentially represents the internal

administrative wing of CADU. Basic administrative functions such as

accounting, procurement, personnel management, legal services, mainte- 58 nance, storage and security all come under this department. Recruit­ ment of qualified staff is repeatedly cited as the major drawback that

explains some of the frustrations of the innovative branches which di­

rectly suffer from any flaws observed in the common services. With the

advent of quantitative and qualitative expansion of CADU, the problem

should be expected to continue as the complexity of the organization would increase consequently. The current organizational chart is a

clear testimony of the trend when viewed in light of earlier organiza­

tional set-ups when the project was in its embryonic stage.

CADU Autonomous Divisions

CADU has converted three areas of activity into autonomous di­ visions in accordance with its overall development policies. It must be remembered that, in the final analysis, all development programs are

57 . Cohen, The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, op. cit., p. 13.

■^CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, op. cit. 102 expected to be in the hands of the local population, one way or the other, when the project as it is organized and administered now, expires by 1980. The specific rationale given for such a move at the present time include (1) such autonomy allows flexibility, especially in the conduct of commercial ventures associated with the Project and (2) it paves the way for eventual takeover of such activities progressively by 59 local communities under cooperative arrangement. At the moment, three such divisions are in existence. These include (l) CADU Marketing Di­ vision, (2) CADU Seed Division and (3) CADU Cattle Breeding Division.

The regulations and provision establishing these autonomous bodies are included in Appendix C. Appendix A also outlines the specific roles of these divisions.

As Appendix A reveals, the CADU Marketing Division is aimed at offering economic incentives to the target population; (l) locating marketing outlets and establishing fair prices, (2) provision of credit for purchases of inputs released by the project, (3) creation of saving schemes to facilitate capital formation and (4) promotion of coopera­ tive movements in the Project area. With respect to credit, it has been the policy of CADU, at least since 1970 or so, to include only those farmers whose operation is less than 40 hectare for tenants, and below 25 hectare for owner-operators. The justification for this lies in the fact that wealthy farmers do not need credit to make appropriate investments on their farm, CADU policy also restricts the sale of improved inputs to such wealthy farmers, unless the demands of the

Ibid., p. iv. smaller farmers are well satisfied. This policy directly stems from

CADU's philosophical orientation dictating the creation of peasant in­ stitutions and development to counteract the power pockets in the area 60 which continue to put the peasantry under great stress.

Since the operating assumptions of the Seed and Cattle Breeding

Divisions are essentially the same as in the Marketing Division, no further detail will be included here, other than a suggestion for a close examination of the relevant portion of Appendix F . CHAPTER IV

DESIGN AND CONDUCT OF THE STUDY

The primary purpose of this research was to find out what hap­ pened to the peasants of Chilalo Awraja by virtue of the package pro­ grams introduced since 1967. More specifically it was an attempt-to assess the extent to which desirable changes, as set forth by the ob­ jective of CADU, were brought about through the influence of the package approach. Implicit in this purpose was the intent to provide interpre­ tive or explanatory information about the outcome of the program. Ac­ cording to Steele, there are at least six dimensions of effectiveness that should be applied to programs. These are, effectiveness in terms of (1) results, (2) attaining objectives, (3) intent of program, (4) impact and significance, (5) contribution to mission and (6) use of re­ sources. Such dimensions of program evaluation were kept in view in the design, conduct and analysis of the data of this investigation.^"

The general format of the research was essentially ex post facto design. As such, this investigator had no way of manipulating the in­ dependent variables selected for the study. The manifestations of these variables had already existed among the farmers under consider­ ation. So what in a sense this researcher did was to determine the

^"Sara Steele, Six Dimensions of Program Effectiveness, Madison,. Wisconsin, Division of Program and Staff Development, University of Wisconsin, October, 1972.

104 105 degree to which the farmers possessed the measures of the dependent variable relative to the measures of the independent variables. In other words, the extent to which the dependent and independent variables were closely associated was of particular interest to the study. This was emphasized because it in a way reflects the status and performance of the project in question.

Recognizing the difficulties of making interpretations and infer­ ences from this kind of research design, the researcher has restricted his generalizations and conclusions to the accessible population only.

Inferences to the target population at large is not warranted because of the failure to build a control or comparison group in the design for several reasons. A comparison group from among the nonparticipating farmers within the project area could not have been drawn for what

Campbell and Stanley describe as the reactive effects of experimental 2 arrangements. There is no way of assuring the effects of the treat­ ment variables (CADU operating programs) had not been experienced by the nonparticipating fanners. Similarly, because of ecological reasons significant to this study, selection of control or comparison group from outside the project area would present serious limitations. Be­ sides, the occurrence of other developmental events unrelated to the package program could present a threat to the validity of interpreta­ tions or inferences from the findings. In order to isolate and account for the influence of such events, a thorough review of the situation was made. Moreover farmers were asked to indicate the type and extent of contacts they had with sources external to CADU. The findings

2 Campbell and Stanley, op. cit. 106

showed that such influences were really very minimal thus discounting

the problem of internal validity specified above*

Secondly, even if the possibility of applying certain statistical

procedure existed to equate or account for variation between the study

and control group, this researcher was not in a position to consider

it. He designed the research from thousands of miles away from the

location of the study and he simply had no access to relevant infor­

mation to make necessary adjustments. Above all this would have been

time consuming and costly for the kind of information that might have

been added as the result.

Another issue of interest in the discussion of research design is

instrumentation. The results of the study could be influenced by the

persons collecting the data. In this study attempts were made to min­

imize the influence of this threat by careful selection and preparation

of interviewers as described later in this chapter.

Finally, it is appropriate to point out that a random selection

of respondents were made from the accessible population. Details of

this are given in the following sections.

The Population

The target population for which the development programs at CADU were designed was that group of peasant farmers who cultivate small

landholdings almost invariably under traditional modes of production.

The eligible population of this study, however, consisted of only these

farmers who had been cooperating with CADU for three years or more and

located in the primary influence area, i.e. Chilalo Awraja. This includes both small landowners and tenant operators of the same cate­ gory. Because of the lack of complete sampling frame and shortages of time and financial resources to prepare one, this researcher was com­ pelled to use CADU credit record books as a substitute. These record books obviously did not include those farmers who might have not par­ ticipated in CADU credit programs but yet enjoyed other educational and technical services offered by the organization. Therefore the study suffers from limitations associated with the exclusion of such farmers.

The credit records used for this purpose were those of the 1971/72 period.

Sample Size

Backstrom and Hursh discuss six determinants of sample size which are (1) homogeniety of the population, (2) the kind of sampling proce­ dure being used, (3) time, money, equipment, (4) the number of cate­ gories by the data are to be analyzed, (5) precision of sample estimates 3 and (6) the degree of confidence." Some degree of homogeneity was assumed in view of the fact that the target population belonged to the same category, i.e. small farmers in the low income bracket. The time and financial resources of the researcher were very limited. Consider­ ing these factors and the kind of analysis he contemplated to do, this researcher decided to take a sample as small as possible. Consequently he chose a margin of error of 6 percent with a 95 percent confidence

Charles Backstrom and Gerald D. Hursh, Survey Research, North­ western University Press, 1963, pp. 25-33. 108 limit as acceptable levels of tolerance for the purposes of this study.

With these considerations and other assumptions outlined below, a •

sample size of 203 was estimated in the following manner.

.2 n o ,2 a where

n = sample size o d = acceptable margin of error for the proportion being

estimated

t = risk willing to take that actual margin of error may

exceed acceptable margin of error

p = estimated proportion of the elements in the population

in the category of interest

q = 1 - p.

Assumptions:

d = +_ 6 percent

t = 1.96 (95 percent confidence level)

p = 7 5 percent (it is assumed that 75 out of 100 will

possess the variable of interest

q = 1 - 0.75 = 0.25

(1.96)2(0.75)(0.25) n = ------»------= 203. (.06)2

Following the above estimate a sample size of 216 was drawn as

presented below. 109

Sampling Plan

As described in Chapter III, the project area was divided into

four development districts, namely (1) the Asella Development District,

(2) the Bekoji Development District; (3) the Kofele Development Dis­

trict and (4) the Dhera Development District. Asella, Bekoji, Kofele

and Dhera are used from here on in reference to the respective dis­

tricts.

Bekoji was the largest with 11 Extension areas and the remaining

districts had nearly equal number of Extension areas, as can be seen

in Table 6 . This necessitated the use of a proportional probability

sampling procedure to get fair representation according to the size of population of each district. Hence it was decided to select randomly 6

Extension areas from Bekoji and 2 from each of the other three dis­

tricts. Furthermore, only those Extension areas which were established

during and before 1971/1972 period were considered. This was obviously

to assure the availability of farmers that satisfy the two or more years of participation required for the study.

TABLE 6 COMPOSITION OF THE SAMPLE BY DEVELOPMENT DISTRICT AND TYPE OF FARMER

No. of Eligible Required No. of No. of Farmers Development Extension Extension Selected District______Areas______Areas______Model Regular Total Asella 3 2 6 30 36 Bekoj i 11 6 18 90 108 Kofele 4 2 6 30 36 Dhera 4 2 6 30 36

TOTAL 22 12 36 180 216 110

In view of the above, a multi-stage sampling procedure was em­ ployed. At the first stage of sampling the appropriate number of Ex­ tension areas was selected at random from each district. At the second

stage, three model farmer areas were randomly selected from each Ex­

tension area. Finally a random selection of five farmers from each model farmer area was made. In the end the three model farmers and

the corresponding 15 regular farmers were taken from each Extension area to be included in the sample as illustrated in Table 6 . In each area three substitute farmers were also randomly selected to replace

those corresponding original farmers who might not be available at the

time of the interview. Several substitute farmers were actually used

for the same reason.

The Extension areas included in the sample were as follows:

Asella Beko]i Eligible______Selected____ Eligible Selected

1. Asella South (Bilalo) 1. Asella South 1 . Gol j a 1. Golja 2. Asella North (Asella) 2. Gonde 2 . Lole 2. L emu 3. Gonde 3. Egu 3. Tijo 4. Kersa 4. Bekoji 5. Munessa 5. Egu 6 . Bekoj i 6 . Munnesa 7. I-emu 8 . Tijo 9. Sagure 1 0 . Dighellu 1 1 . Meraro

Kofele Dhera

1. Assasa 1. Assasa 1 . Etaya 1. Etaya 2 . Kofele 2. Kofele 2 . Huruta 2. Huruta 3. Gedeb 3. Liguba 4. Degaga 4. Sire Ill

Data Collection

The data were obtained from the respondents through personal in­ terviews. The questionnaire included in Appendix A was used as the instrument to get the primary data. The items were developed with the help of a number of persons including the members of the graduate com­ mittee of this researcher and other knowledgeable staff members at Ohio

State University, University of Wisconsin, Michigan State University and Cornell University. People from other institutions in Ethiopia, namely CADU, IAR (institute of Agricultural Research) and IDR (insti­ tute of Development Research) have made a substantial contribution. As a matter of fact, the original draft of the instrument was extensively discussed and revised in group and individual meetings with the relevant staff members of CADU, IAR and IDR respectively. Extensive published and unpublished documents were kindly made available by CADU1s project director. Finally, it may be pointed out that questions previously used by other investigators (Rucks, Smoke and Smoke, and Warland) were included along with several original questions designed especially for the investigation.

The final draft of the instrument was translated into Amharic and

Galegna by the colleagues of this investigator at the Haile Sellassie

I University. The Amharic version was the one that was used in the field. The Galegna translation served as a reference by the inter­ viewers as the discussions were generally in Galegna, but recorded in

Amharic on the questionnaire.

Nine interviewers were selected from 12th grade students majoring in agricultural education at the high school in Asella. The criteria used in the selection were honesty, fluency in both the local languages and high standing in class. The agricultural teacher and another 112

1 - Bilalo 2 - Gonde 3 - Golja 4 - Lemu 5 - Tijo 6 - Bekoji 7 - Egu 8 - Munesa 9 - Asasa 10 - Kofele 11 - Etaya 12 - Huruta

Asella Development District B. Bekoji Development District C. Kofele Development District D. Dera Development District

Fig. 11.--Map Showing Extension Areas Included in the Sample. 113

staff member of the school were of great help in scrrening the stu­ dents.

This investigator took two weeks to train the interviewers and to make appropriate logistic and administrative arrangements. During the

training weeks a prepared interview guide shown in Appendix B was dis­

tributed to the students. Moreover they were also asked to pretest the questionnaire to see if there were serious problems with and at the same

time to give some interviewing experience to the students. This was done on 30 small farmers in the Asella area. The results were dis­ cussed with the interviewers noting difficulties they had encountered.

Some adjustment was made in the instrument and finally the actual field work was started on July 31, 1974 as shown in the iterinary included in

Appendix C. The questionnaire took an average of 90 minutes to ad­ minister. Interviewers were unable to get hold of six farmers which

included two from Bekoji, three from Kofele and one from Dhera, thus reducing the sample size to 2 1 0.

Further information was obtained from Extension agents, supervi­ sors, and Department/Division/Section heads through personal interviews.

A short questionnaire was also prepared and distributed to Extension agents of which 33 were completed and returned. A thorough review of all relevant CADU publications was made to aid the analysis.

It may be noted here that although the research was conducted dur­

ing a period of dramatic political crisis in Ethiopia along with deadly droughts spread in many parts of the country, the researcher was for­

tunate enough to complete his study without serious difficulties. The rains posed some minor problems. Otherwise, all concerned people and

situations were very cooperative beyond the expectations of the in­ vestigator. 114

Characteristic of the Sample

Data collected on selected characteristics of the respondents are briefly described in this section just to sketch the profile of the peasantry upon which the research was focused. The variables discussed below include age, religion, marital status, family size and factors related to land and cropping pattern.

Age

With respect to age, 167 respondents (77 percent) were between 21 and 50 years old. Seven respondents reported less than 21 years of age while 40 farmers (nearly 19 percent) reported ages between 51 and 70 years.

Ethnic background.--The frequency and percentage distribution of the respondents by their ethnic background is given in Table 7.

TABLE 7

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ETHNIC BACKGROUND

Ethnic Background Number Percent

Arusi Gala 77 36.7

Shoa Gala 87 41.4

Amhara 45 21.4

Other 1 0.5

TOTAL 210 100.0 115

Religion

There were 1’39 (66 percent) Christians and 71 (34 percent) Mos­ lems. This distribution is not quite surprising when compared with data on ethnic background. Arusi Galas are generally known to be Mos­ lems while Shoa Galas and Amharas are mostly Christians.

Marital Status

One hundred ninety one (91 percent) respondents were married, 13

(6.2 percent) were divorced, one was widowed and five respondents said they were single. As t.o the number of wives, nearly 20 percent of the farmers had more than one wife as Table 8 demonstrates. As a rule, the

Moslems were expected to have more than one wife, while Christians do not. In this case it is perhaps the Arusi Galas that have contributed to the proportion of the respondents with more than one wife. The

Amharas and the Shoa Galas are generally Christians as indicated above.

TABLE 8

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OF WIVES

Number of Wives Number Percent

No wife 10 4.8 One wife 154 73.3 Two wives 39 18.6 Three wives 3 1.4 Four wives 4 1.9

TOTAL 210 100.0 116

Size of Family

The size of family ranged from one to 38 members. Seventy re­ spondents (20 percent) reported that they had one to five members in their family while 107 respondents (51 percent) reported family compo­ sition of six to ten members. There were 26 respondents (12.4 percent) with family size ranging from 11 to 15 persons, while six farmers had a family size of over 15 persons. To get insight as to the characteristics of the children, information about the first three children was tabulated as shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIRST THREE CHILDREN

Sex Availability for Farm Work Children Male Female Fully Partly Never (70 (7.) (7.) (7.) (7.)

1st child 57 33 28 26 37 2nd child 47 36 15 25 41 3rd child 39 29 11 18 38

Land Ownership

Ownership of land is a standard variable examined in this type of investigation. According to the information gathered, 150 respondents

(69 percent) were owner operators, while 60 (31 percent) were tenants.

The proportion of tenants is considerably lower than generally reported in past studies about the area. The type of tenure reported by owner 117 operators is presented in Table 10. As the table reveals, the majority of the respondents were classified as Gebars and the proportion of the other types was really very minimal.

TABLE 10

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY TYPE OF TENUREa

Type of Tenure Number Percent

Gebar 120 57.1 Simon 3 1.4 Maderia 6 2.9 Rist Gult 10 4.8 Merit 2 1.0 Missing Data 69 32.9

TOTAL 210 100.0

aFor definition of the types of tenure refer to the description given on pp. 21-22.

Additional information was sought from the tenants about their landlords. Regarding their family relationship with the landlords, 32 responding tenants (53.3 percent of the tenants) reported that they were relatives of one kind' or another with landlords. The distribution of these farmers by the type of relationship they indicated is shown in

Table 11. With respect to the residence of the landlords, the data in­ dicated that 65 percent of the landlords were residing on the farm or elsewhere in the rural villages while 35 percent were reported to be 118

city dwellers. Further indications were that the majority of the land­

lords were engaged in farm related activities and the rest were working

as government employees, merchants or have just retired.

TABLE 11

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TENANTS BY TYPE OF RELATIONSHIP WITH LANDLORDS3

Type of Relationship Number Percent

No relationship 28 46.7 Father 14 23.4 Grandfather 5 8.3 Brother 2 3.3 Uncle 5 8.3 In-laws 6 10.0

TOTAL 60 100.0

aThe relationships shown correspond to the landlord, i.e land­ lord being father, grandfather, etc.

Farm Size

On the whole, the majority of both tenants and owner operators were found to be small farmers with over 80 percent of the respondents

having farm sizes of less than 5 hectares. In fact, the vast majority were in the less than 2 hectares category. In Table 12, the land use

patterns of all the respondents is shown. From the table it becomes

obvious that both tenants and owner-operators let some portion of the

land for pasture. The Chilalo Awraja and Arusi as a whole is well 119 known for the livestock production and the land use pattern is a clear indication of this fact.

TABLE 12

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY FARM SIZE AND LAND USE

Land Use Farm Size Cropland Pastureland Wasteland

Owner operator 0.25 - 2 hectares 17 53 17 2.25 - 4 hectares 34 30 2 4.25 - 9.5 hectares 55 27 More than 10 hectares 29 17 1 Missing data 71 83 130

Tenants 0.25 - 2 hectares 3 11 — 2.25 - 4 hectares 13 5 — 4.25 - 9.5 hectares 23 5 — More than 10 hectares 4 __— Missing data 17 39 60

TOTAL 210 210 210

The characteristics of the farmers will be further indicated in

Chapter V where the more important findings of the study are reported and analyzed. The abo,ve presentation was just meant to familiarize the reader with the sample of farmers included in the study.

Methodological Procedures in the Analysis of Data

This section discusses the methods and procedures followed in the selection and measurement of the variables of the study. It also 120

identifies the hypotheses advanced for the study including the statis­

tical measures and analysis used to test the hypotheses.

Development of Variables

Dependent Variable

Adoption of improved agricultural inputs and practices is the de­

pendent variable of the study. Conceptually adoption has been visual­

ized as the ultimate target of the diffusion strategy followed by CADU.

Nevertheless, it should not convey the notion of a simple unitary deci­

sion or act on the part of the target population, i.e. the small farmers.

It is viewed as a comprehensive process of thinking and doing simultane­

ously or at different stages that the farmers undergo over a period of

time. Further it implies full understanding of the agricultural problem 4 and its solution. The underlying theoretical principles behind the

adoption model discussed in Chapter II have powerful implications for

the treatment of the concept as an index of agricultural development.

The scaling of adoption in operational terms should therefore reflect as

much of the properties of the concept which may be generally classified

into two components, namely, the cognitive component and the behavioral

Bruce R. Crouch, "Innovation and Farm Development: "A Multi- Dimensional Model," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, Nos. 3/4 (1972), pp. 430-449. 121 5 6 component of adoption. * Supe writing on this subject states, "Be­ havioral adoption (overt) involves an actual use of the practices and cognitive adoption (covert) includes obtaining knowledge and critical evaluation of the practice in terms of individual situation...the former part is called adoption behavior while the latter part is called the rational behavior... To adopt or not to adopt is a function of the rational behavior of the farmer."^ This classification must be regarded as a matter of convenience for analysis and not as a distinct mutually exclusive categorization one leading to the other as implied by Supe.

It does not neatly follow that way. The two are well integrated and imbeded in the same frame of reference. For analytical purposes, how­ ever, it helps to view them separately as suggested.

A question follows as to how these components of adoption may be operationalized to achieve a valid qualitative and/or quantitative measure. There seems to be no single standard answer for this question especially in relation to agricultural production. This is epitomized by Crouch by his statement, "Although the underlying theoretical prin­ ciples remain consistent, the component parts of this model will obvi­ ously vary from one agricultural industry to another. Within any one industry, regional and district variations will apply, due to the

S. V. Supe, "Farmers' Information Source Credibility and Its Relation to Their Rational and Adoption Behavior," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VII, Nos. 1 & 2 (1971), p. 29. g C. E. Ramsey, R. A. Poison and G. Spencer, "Values and the Adoption of Practices," Rural Sociology, Vol. 24, pp. 35-47.

Supe, op. cit., p. 29. applicability of some farm practices to specific regions of produc-

g tion." Keeping this fact in view, this researcher selected the in­ novations included in Table 13 as a frame of reference to investigate the status of adoption in the project area. From the table the two components of adoption, namely the cognitive (knowledge) and the be­ havioral (use) aspects may be noted. At this point one limitation in­ volved in their measurement should be revealed. Earlier it was implied that knowledge constitutes awareness, comprehension and understanding.

At any one point farmers can be in one level or another of this con­ tinuum and must therefore be observed accordingly. However, the mea­ surement of the adoption factors did not allow to separate these levels of knowledge. Therefore for the purposes of analysis in this study a yes response by a farmer was regarded to correspond to a fairly reason­ able understanding of the phenomenon in question and farmers were scored equally as such in spite of the variations that might exist.

This is one limitation. The other consideration was that j>eople who have adopted were assumed to be interested in the practice similarly.

A further limitation associated with the actual use of innovation con­ stitutes the failure of this researcher to examine whether the practices or innovations were applied correctly according to specified quantities and time framework. These are very crucial to the study of the adoption

Crouch, op. cit., p. 443. 123

TABLE 13

ADOPTION SCALE

Knowledge Use Total Adoption Items Score Score Score

I. Improved Varieties Wheat 1. Kenya 1. 10 15 25 2. Kentana 10 15 25 3. Supremo 10 15 25 4. Yaktana 10 15 25 5. Romany 10 15 25 6 . Penjamo 10 15 25 7. Salmaya 10 15 25 8 . Laketch 10 15 25 9. Kanga 10 15 25 Barley 10. Unitan 10 15 25 11. Mari 10 15 25 12. Atlas 10 15 25 13. C. 63. 10 15 25 Sub Total 130 195 325

II. Certified Seeds 15 15 (maximum) 1. One time in three years 5 2. Two times in three years 10 3. Three times in three years 15

IV. Soil Management Practices 25 25 (maximum) 1. Soil burning -5 2. Cow dung 5 3. Commercial, fertilizer 20

III. Improved Implements 1. Plough 10 5 2. Ox-cart 10 5 3. Sowing-bag 10 5 4. Thresher 10 5 5. Harrow 10 15 Sub Total 50 35 85

Grand Total 180 270 450 124 9 behavior of farmers. But to make such a thorough investigation in a general study of this kind is really difficult and laborious. In view of this, this researcher was obliged to consider indication of use as a sufficient measure. As the broad objective of the study were to (1) determine the extent to which the CADU programs were on target and progressing in the intended direction and (2) to examine the behavioral changes induced by the program among participating farmers, the level of measurement undertaken in this study may be considered as quite realistic.

Table 13 reveals the items selected and the manner in which each is quantified as rationalized in the previous discussion. Notice also that in total, wheat varieties carry much greater weight than barley varieties as the number of varieties included in the latter were fewer.

This must be quite understandable in light of what has been said in

Chapter III with respect to the major crops of the project area and where CADU's research and development efforts have been concentrated.

To recapitulate what has been said in Chapter III, wheat and barley are the two major crops grown in the project area with wheat being the main cash crop and barley grown as a staple crop. Moreover, much of CADU's research and development activities have been centered around wheat im­ provement programs. This by all means is consistent with the economic goals established for the area. Consequently about 95 percent of all

9 Michael G. Finn, "Supervised Agricultural Credit in Peru: Tech­ nique Adoption Productivity, and Loan Delinquency in Plan Costa." Un­ published Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1972, pp. 88-89. 125

seeds sold and distributed to farmers in the project area during the

period of interest to this study was reported to be wheat of different varieties. And therefore the aspects of wheat should logically con­

stitute the major portion of the adoption scale.

The scoring of the adoption items was initially a matter of

judgement on the part of this researcher based on his knowledge of the

agriculture of the area and his understanding of the theoretical base

that motivates human behavior in such kind of setting. Thus a score of

10 points was assigned for knowledge of a given innovation and addi­

tional 15 points if that innovation was actually applied on the farm.

The logic behind this stems from the fact that it takes much more con­

viction, understanding and courage for farmers to take such steps. Ac­

cordingly a farmer who has applied the innovation earns a higher score

than a farmer who has knowledge of the innovation but could not make up his mind for final action in the direction of adoption. With respect

to use of certified seeds, 5 points were given if the farmer had made

only a single application during the three years in question, 10 points

for two applications and 15 points for three successive applications.

The reasoning is simple and logical: it is a good practice to purchase

and use certified seeds each season instead of planting seeds from previous harvests as the chances of contamination and deterioration are

great due to poor storage facilities which are the rule rather than the

exception in the project area as well as elsewhere in Ethiopia. Farmers

should find little reason to hesitate in purchasing certified seeds as

long as such inputs are made available to them at comparable prices.

Regarding soil management, soil burning is considered as an undesirable 126

practice for basic agronomic reasons and so farmers were assigned a

negative score of 5 if they have continued practicing it, 5 points are

given for the use of cow dung and 20 points for the application of commercial fertilizers. No knowledge scores were assigned to these

items as the participating farmers were found to know them from pre­

liminary examination of the data. Finally some clarification is in

order in connection with the use of improved implements. CADU, by the

admission of the administrators themselves, has not been as successful

in this area as in other activities. Consequently harrows were the only items that were made readily available to farmers in sufficient

quantities although efforts were in progress with respect to the other

items. So this researcher decided to give 15 points for the use of harrows and 5 points for each of the other implements.

In brief the maximum scores that could go into the computation of the adoption index were thus set at 180 and 270 for knowledge and use of innivations respectively as shown in the figure. The reliability coefficient of this scale was determined to be 0.57 using the General

Kuder-Richardson formula.

Independent Variables

Three categories of independent variables were used to explain and understand the change process that took place in relation to the main goals of CADU. These variables were predispositional variables,

intervening variables and situational variables. The conceptual frame­ work for the classification and definition of these broad categories of 127 of independent variables was drawn from the works of Neilson.^ First the schematic model showing the general types of relationships among the categories of the variables is presented in Figure 12.^ The de­ pendent variable of the present study is represented by the circle of behavioral variables. Drawing upon the definitions provided by Neilson brief discussions on each of the broad categories of independent vari­ ables is presented below.

Predispositional Variables

Predispositional variables constitute the internal forces within the individual which gives him the inclination to react or behave in a certain way in a given behavioral situation. Factual beliefs, goals, attitudes and personality factors are examples of predispositional 12 variables. The variables used in the present study are selected rural values and beliefs adapted from the study by Beal, Bohlen and

Warland.^

James Neilson, The Change Agent and the Process of Change, Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 17, East Lansing, Michigan, 1967.

11Ibid., p. 25.

12Ibid., p. 24.

13 George M. Beal, Joe M. Bohlen and Rex H. Warland, Rural Value Orientations and Farm-Policy and Actions, Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Iowa State University of Science and Technology Research Bulletin 561, May, 1968, pp. 161-178. 128

Predisposi­ tional Variables

Behavioral Variables Outcomes

• u

Situational Variables

Fig. 12.--Model of Relationships Among Categories of Variables Studied. 129

The values and beliefs included in the study are (l) collective action, (2) traditionalism, (3) debt avoidance, (4) risk aversion and

(5) maximization of income. These values and beliefs were selected from among the thirteen rural value orientations studied by Beal et^ al. in Iowa. The definitions of each of the five values and beliefs as 14 given by the authors are summarized below.

1. Collective action: a value advocating that problems should be solved and business decisions should be made through cooperation with others.

2. Traditionalism: a value advocating that "past tested" methods rather than relatively new, untried methods should serve as guide for decision-making in farming.

3. Risk aversion: a value advocating that a farmer should use

assured and predictable practices in his farming operation to reduce risk as much as possible.

4. Maximization of income: a value advocating that farming

should be considered primarily as a business operation and a means to

economic ends, such as yield and profit.

5. Debt avoidance: a value advocating that capital should be

accumulated rather than borrowed before purchasing any goods, services

and property for either maintenance or expansion purposes.

This researcher also used the questionnaire developed by the

above authors to select appropriate value and belief items relevant

for the Ethiopian context. A pretest made on the Ethiopian farmers to

U Ibid., p. 162. 130 see the appropriateness of the items among other things resulted in little modifications. Thus the items shown in Table 14 were used to determine the predisposition of the Chilala farmers with respect to their value orientations. Unlike the Iowa study only two categories, namely, agree-disagree, were used because of the orientation and back­ grounds of the Ethiopian farmers. Apart from being illiterate they were not really used to scaling observations that imply intensity of agreements or disagreements. Other procedural details can be found in Beal et a l . ^ Perhaps one other point may be clarified here. In the

Iowa study, as described by the authors, agreement with positive items

(those regarded as indicating a positive position with respect to the defined value or belief dimension) was scored positively and disagree­ ment with a positive item was scored negatively. The scoring procedure was reversed for negative items. The same pattern was followed with one exception. In this case the range of responses was from +1 to -1 as only two categories are involved. To get a positive scale, the scores were transformed by adding 1 to each value so that the possible range of responses on any given item was 0 to 2 as compared to 0 to 16

m the Iowa study.

Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are those factors which may either impede

or stimulate action. In this study attention is confined to CADU's

^Ibid., pp. 162-163.

16Ibid., p. 177. 131

TABLE 14

VALUE ORIENTATION SCALES

Items

I. Collective Action Items

An individual farmer can usually make better farm management decisions than a group of farmers*

The solution of the agricultural problem is going to depend on each farmer giving up a part of his independence.

Farming would be extremely difficult without the advice and help of neighbors.

Farmers must stick together in order to get things done even if they have to give up some of their individual freedom.

A basic cause of the agricultural problem today is that too many farmers want to go their separate and individual ways without regard for other farmers.

The performance of most groups is usually above the level of that which many of the group members could accomplish on their own.

Groups usually produce good solutions when confronted with a problem.

Farmers are too independent, if they are going to solve the farm problem, they are going to have to work together.

It will never be possible to organize enough farmers to make col­ lective action possible.

Unless farmers stick together the price, situation in agriculture is going to get worse.

Farmers can work together.

II. Traditionalism Items

About the only thing that science has accomplished for the farmer is to make life more complicated.

I think traditional ways are the best way of doing things. 132

TABLE 14 (continued)

Items

It is more important for farmers to make decisions on the basis of past experience and rules of thumb than to try to find new ways of doing things.

The farmer who gets ahead fastest is the one who sticks to the old proven ways of doing things.

A farmer is better off to continue traditional farming practices since many of the new fangled ideas are not suited to his farm operation.

There is no reason for man to explore outer space.

III. Maximization of Income

If a farmer could make more money in another occupation he should leave farming.

Making money is the most important consideration in farming.

Making as much money as possible is a very important consideration.

IV. Risk Aversion Items

It is better to make a small profit each year than to attempt some­ thing where there is a chance of losing.

In farming a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

A farmer ought to save as much as possible to guard against the risks that are always present in farming.

A farmer should diversify his farming operation to hedge against a bad year.

A farmer should always have some money laid aside in case of emergency.

A farmer should try to reduce the risk or uncertainty in farming by keeping his operation diversified, even though it may mean the loss of some future income. 133

TABLE 14 (continued)

Items

V. Debt Avoidance Items

Farm families would do well to wait until they have accumulated their own money rather than borrow for farm production purposes.

In being a successful farmer it is most important to do the best you can with what you have without going into debt.

Farmers should wait until they can accumulate their own capital rather than to borrow for farm production purposes.

Most farmers who enlarge their operations by borrowing make more profit than farmers who are small operations free of debt.

A farmer should never borrow money for operating capital.

When you borrow you are really putting idle money to better use.

Rather than going in debt, a farmer should do with what he has.

You make friends with people you borrow from.

The major goal of young families should be to stay out of debt.

A farmer should strive to increase the size of his business rather than to get out of debt. 134 diffusion strategy designed to stimulate the adoption behavior of the farmers in the direction of the intended g o a l s . ^

As the theoretical frame of reference set forth in Chapter II has established, the transfer of useful agricultural technologies and ideas from the experiment station to the farmer is the backbone of rural development. The transfer of technology deliberately imposes a condition of change specifically on the agricultural systems. The de­ gree to which such impact is effected determines the measure of success that can be attained in rural transformation.

Given the nature of rural poverty and the general descrepancy be­ tween the demand for food and production, in countries like Ethiopia, a technological revolution can undoubtedly help to solve the chronic problem of food. The problem appears to be linked with not only the production of technologies but also to a great extent with the pattern of distribution and adaptation of available agricultural technologies.

As a matter of fact the world is witnessing an era of technological explosion right now amidst serious production fluctuations in many of the developing countries. Nevertheless some of the efforts in research and development along this line have proved to be wasteful exercises since results don't find their ways to where they belong. The basic missing factor it seems is a well organized and operated Extension program that serves the needs of agriculture. Similarly there is a poverty of well formulated agricultural information in many areas in spite of what has been said just now which makes any Extension effort

^Neilson, op. cit., p. 26. 135 worthless. The moral of the story is therefore, while agricultural re­ search problems are formulated and investigated, possible strategies for adaptation and dissemination in the target areas should be con­ sidered at the same time. Research and Extension are interrelated con­ cepts within the overall umbrella of agricultural education. The qual­ ity of the diffusion strategy developed by Extension to spread the fruits of research becomes very crucial in this regard.

Diffusion is defined as the spread of agricultural information from the source, usually experiment stations, to the ultimate users.

This is the vital role of Extension systems. Such agencies can make substantial contribution if they are properly equipped with appropriate resources of skill, personnel, material and influence over both in- 18 novators and adopters. Their primary responsibility are identified as (1) disseminating information, (2) maximizing interaction, (3) facilitating behavioral change and action, and (4) providing service 19 and support for integration.

A variety of Extension methods have been developed over the years to discharge the responsibilities outlined above. In the case of CADU two major strategies were used to insure the dissemination and utiliza­ tion of agricultural technologies in the project areas. These include

(l) direct influence by the Extension agents and other CADU field workers by way of individual contacts on the farms, group contacts on

18 K. N. Singh et al., Research in Extension Education for Ac­ celerating Development Process (New Delhi: Czxton Press Pvt. Ltd., 1970), pp. 294-386.

L9Ibid., p. 333. 136

experimental and demonstration plots where results and methods are

demonstrated specially during field days and occasional office calls

on the part of the farmer himself. Cooperative meetings are also uti­

lized for exchange of information and other agricultural concerns. (2 )

The model farmer strategy offers an excellent opportunity for Extension

agents to spread their influences over wider geographical area. To

this effect demonstration plots are established on model farmers' plots under mutually agreed upon arrangements. Farmers in the model farmer

area are strongly urged through various means including the model farmer himself, to make observations of model farms. Model farmers are given

appropriate training to handle educational as well as leadership role as

representatives of the local farming community.

Thus, in the final analysis, diffusion represents the sum of the

activities advanced by both the Extension agents and the model farmers.

An important contributing factor in both cases however is the readiness

of the participating farmers to undertake changes by searching and ac­

quiring information relevant to their needs. In this sense to the ex­

tent that they help make it possible for information to reach their com­ munity and their individual farms, they play a significant role in the

diffusion process. This fact has not received substantial attention in

the past and the idea of diffusion thus far has been viewed as the sole

responsibility of the agent by definition.

The above is intended to suggest the conceptual view of diffusion

and its elementary components. In terms of actual measurement to meet

the needs of this study, the following activities were specified as

sufficient indicators. These are (1) farm visit by Extension agents, 137

(2) farm visit by model farmers, (3) farmer's attendance at CASU demonstrations, (4) farmer's visit to Extension center, (5) farmer's visit to model farms and (6 ) farmer's attendance at cooperative meet­ ings. A critical examination of these activities should suggest that one activity in a way pre-supposes another. For instance, the Exten­ sion agent must have first established a credible working relationship with the local leaders and also with the farmers at large to initiate a model farm strategy through which ideas could flow to individual farmers who would be encouraged to visit model farms, demonstration farms, and so on. Therefore initially at least the relative diffi­ culty lies with strategy one and if that is handled properly then the others follow with relative ease. These six diffusion items were given weights accordingly to arrive at a reasonable quantitative measure.

The following criteria were also borne in mind when this scheme was adopted: (l) the directness of the event in terms of the delivery and acquisition of information; (2) the degree of initiative taken by the party involved in facilitating the occurrence of a given activity.

Here Extension agent's initiatives are scored higher than farmer's initiative made in pursuit of agricultural information. This is done so because the primary unit of concern is measuring the extent to which ideas were diffused as implied by the objectives of the study. The third criteria considered was the relative quality of information ex­ changed. In this sense direct contacts would result in better qualities and amounts of information.

The frequency of the occurrence of each activity was given par­ ticular attention. Considering the problems associated with size of Extension personnel, geographical distribution of farmers and the under­ developed communication technology prevailing in the area, it was felt unrealistic to expect more than three contacts under each category on the average. Therefore the maximum expected number of such visits during the three years in question was set at 9 for each of the dif­ fusion items and those farmers who responded "many times" to the rele­ vant questions, were automatically assigned a value of 9. A further assumption made was that the initial contacts have more significance to the farmer than the later ones although these also make substantial contribution. To arrive at a reasonable score that would take care of such differences a logarithmic function shown below was developed to compute the relative measures. In view of the assumption made above it was felt that 50 percent of the total exchange relevant to agricultural production would occur during the first three meetings and the relative impact of later contacts would increase at a faster decreasing rate from there on. While Table 15 presents the weighting factor employed in computing the diffusion scores, Table 16 and the corresponding curve shows the general character and distribution of the scores before weighting.

The distribution of values for N is equal to 1 through 9 is given in Table 16. The corresponding values of D are shown in the table.

The values of D are then substituted in the equations shown in

Table 15 in accordance with how many times each event was observed.

Finally the composite diffusion index is derived by summing up the scores of the six diffusion items. 139

TABLE 15

VARIABLE WEIGHTS USED IN THE COMPUTATION OF DIFFUSION INDEX

Diffusion Items Score

1 Farm visit by Extension Agent 6K + D

2 Farm visit by model farmer 5K + D

3 Farmer's attendance at CADU demonstrations 4K + D

4 Farmer's visit to Extension center 3K + D

5 Farmer's visit to model farms 2K +D

6 Farmer's attendance at cooperative meetings IK + D 7 7 Composite diffusion index 2 IK + X i=l 1

K is a constant.

D is the diffusion variable computed as follows:

D = [0,1]

D = 1 - aYN

where a is a constant = 1 Y is a value that varies with N N is the number of times contacts were made.

Assumption: D = 0.5 for N = 3 3 .5 = 1 - Y

Y 3 = 1 - .5 = .5

Y =3J o T T = 0.79

D = 1 - (0.79)N 140

TABLE 16

VALUES OF AND D FOR N = 1 to 9

f4 D=l-K» (0.79)n = 1-C0.79)n

1 0.79 0.21

2 0.62 0.38

3 0.42 0.51

4 0.39 0.61

5 0.31 0.69

6 0.24 0.76

7 0.19 0.81

8 0.15 0.85

9 0 . 1 2 0 . 8 8 141

Situational Variables

Situational -variables are factors in the environment within which the individual lives and operates. Such variables influence the manner in which the individual receives the stimuli intended to gauge him act in a certain line of action.^

The main situational variables considered in the analysis include

(l) age, (2) ethnic background, (3) religion, (4) marital status, (5) family size, (6 ) education of children, (7) leadership, (8) locality,

(9) type of farmer, i.e. whether model farmer or ordinary farmer and

(1 0 ) ownership of land,' i.e. whether owners or tenant operator.

Finally, the behavioral variables shown in Figure 7 refer to the dependent variable, adoption of improved agricultural technologies and practices by small farmers, discussed previously. In short these vari­ ables imply behavioral actions taken by the individual through the in­ fluence of the independent variables. Outcome variables are the ulti- 21 mate results of the individual's behavior. This category includes measures of income, level of living and the goals of the farmer in gen­ eral which are considered important by him. In this study such outcome variables were not investigated because of the scope of the research as the limited by the objectives of the study outlined in Chapter I.

20 Neilson, op. cit., p. 25.

21 Ibid., op.cit., p. 26. 142

Hypotheses

The general hypothesis derived from the objectives of the study was that changes that had been brought about by the CADU project on selected measures of the dependent variable were significant enough to justify the package concept as an effective method in developing peas­ ant agriculture. The more specific hypotheses tested in this study are:

1. There is no relationship between selected characteristics of

farmers and diffusion of innovations.

2. There is a positive relationship between diffusion of in­

novations and the adoption behavior of farmers.

3. There is no relationship between selected characteristics

of farmers and their adoption behavior.

The test of these hypotheses is presented in Chapter V. Pearson's

Coefficient of Correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to determine the degree of association between the dependent and the independent variables. Furthermore data were also analyzed on the basis of frequency counts and percentage distributions obtained from

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) computer runs. The findings were used in making logical observation and assessment of the program in an effort to answer the questions raised in Chapter I. CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF DATA - THE FINDINGS

The purposes of this chapter are (1) to describe and discuss the findings of the study with respect to the adoption behavior of the small Chilalo farmers in terms of the dependent variable selected for the study and (2) to test the specific hypotheses stated in Chapter

IV.

Results and Discussion

CADU Diffusion Strategy

The spread of useful technologies and ideas is the key ingredient of any program of agricultural development. When this is accompanied by appropriate levels of adoption on the part of farmers, there are greater chances of achieving rural transformation. Adoption, by and large, depends upon the effectiveness of the information sources and how willing are the farmers to react with them. This transfer of in­ formation generally defined as diffusion has been conceptualized as a process aiming at (1 ) disseminating information, (2) maximizing inter­ action, (3) facilitating behavioral change and action and (4) providing

143 144

service and support for integration. It is a very challenging job

that requires careful consideration in the design of the information

system and the selection of the sources therefrom. In this connection

Rajaguru and Satapathy stated:

When rural people are exposed to different sources of in­ formation, they generally try to absorb the ideas only on selective basis depending upon the merits of reliance of such sources. Furthermore, when they remain in contin­ uous contact with new researches and apply these valuable knowledge in their enterprise with the help of change agents then only they can participate actively in agri­ cultural programme.2

The authors concluded that for effective agricultural development

the sources of information have to be strengthened to play a much more 3 vital role.

The diffusion strategy adopted in CADU has been described in

Chapter IV and elsewhere. To recapitulate, Extension agents and model farmers are the primary sources that provide information to the farmers

in the project area. To find out the extent to which farmers utilize

these and other sources, the respondents were asked the following three

questions.

S. L. Mathur, "Innovation-Diffusion Research" in K. N. Singh et al. (editors), Research in Extension Education (New Delhi: Czxton Press Pvt. Ltd., 1970, p. 233.

2 G. S. Rajaguru and C. Satapathy, "Effectiveness of Sources of Information in the Adoption Process of High Yielding Varieties by the Farmers of Prui District in Orissa," Indian Journal of Extension Edu­ cation, Vol. VII, Nos. 1 & 2 (1971), pp. 72-75.

3Ibid. 145

1. During the last three years were you ever visited on your

farm by -anybody of the following to provide you with ag­

ricultural information?

2. During the last three years, have you ever been in the of­

fice of any of the following to ask for agricultural infor­

mation.

3. During the last three years did you ever attend a meeting

such as demonstrations, field trips, etc. organized by any­

one of the following with the purpose of providing agri­

cultural information?

The sources included in these questions were CADU Extension

agents, model farmers, agents from other government agencies, farmer

organizations, relatives and others (see Appendix A). The sources

external to CADU were considered in this study to determine whether or

not agricultural information was coming in to the area during the de­ velopment period in question. Review of literature and the researcher’s

personal knowledge aided in the identification of such potential sources

of information. It should be remembered that the agreement made by the

Government of Ethiopia and Sweden restricts the involvement outside

agencies without the consent of theproject. The pertinent data ob­

tained through the above questions are presented in Table 17.

If in Table 17, the percentage distributions of the respondents who indicated one or more contacts with the sources are added for each

source, it would reveal that 66 percent and 48 percent of them visited

Extension center and attended CADU demonstrations respectively. The

comparable figures for the contacts with model farmers are 25 percent 146

TABLE 17

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY DIFFUSION FACTORS

Frequency of Contacts 0 1 2 3 4 5 Many Total Diffusion Factors 7o % 7o % % 7. % %

Farm visit by Exten­ 44.8 6.7 5.7 13.3 4.8 0.5 24.3 100 sion Agent (N=210)

Farm visit by Model 74.8 2.4 4.3 3.3 1.4 - 13.8 100 Farmer (N=210)

Attendance of CADU 51.9 6.7 12.9 12.4 4.3 1.9 10 100 demonstration (N=210)

Farmer’s visit to Ex­ 34.8 5.7 11.9 15.2 3.8 2.9 25.7 100 tension Center (11=210)

Farmer's visit to Model 75.7 4.3 2.9 4.7 0.5 0.5 11.9 100 Farms (N=210)

Attendance at Coop 91.4 - 1.0 0.5 1.0 - 6.2 100 meetings (N=210)

Farm visit by other government agency 95.7 3.3 0.5 - - - 0.5 100 (n=2 1 0 )

Farm visit by com­ 98.1 1.4 - - -- 0.5 100 mercial agenc (N=210)

Farm visit by grain 98.1 1.0 - - - - 1.0 100 merchant (N=210)

Farm visit by 85.2 0.5 2.4 _ 11.9 100 relatives (N=210) 147

TABLE 17 (continued)

Frequency of Contacts 0 1 2 3 4 5 Many Total Diffusion Factors % 7. % 7. 7. 7o 7o 7.

Farmer visiting other 97.1 1.9 0.5 0.5 - - 100 government agency (N=210)

Farmer visiting com­ 99.5 0.5 - --- 100 mercial farm (N=210)

Farmer visiting 91.4 1.0 1.9 1.0 0.5 - 4.3 100 relatives (N=210)

Attendance at other 98.1 1.0 0.5 - 0.5 100 government demon­ stration (N=210)

Attendance at com­ 100 — — - - - - 100 mercial shows (N=210)

Attendance at other 99 1.0 --- 100 demonstrations (N=210) 148

for model farmers visiting the farms and 24 percent for the farmers

own visit to model farms. Attendance of cooperative meetings was re­ ported by only 6 percent of the respondents. On the other hand, 56 percent of them reported that they were visited by Extension agents.

Thus the more or less direct contacts of the Extension agents were the vital sources from which the farmers got agricultural information and ideas concerning development. This should not be very surprising.

As Singh and Sahay pointed out, farmers try to obtain information from 4 their most credible sources. Similar observation was made by Supe in his study of Indian farmers. He reported:

The data seems to provide evidence that in making a rational decision and then adopting new farm practices informal sources of information were not effective. It may be due to the inability of these sources to provide information about innovations to the farmers. This view is supported by Copp _et al. when they say that the peers are less effective in developing a cognitive structure leading to adoption... These findings are in conformity with other researches where other farmers were found to be ineffective in communicating informa­ tion about innovations involving high level of tech­ nical knowledge.^

Similar observations were reported by Lionberger in his study of low income farmers. He found that the farmers seek direct information

I. B. Singh and B. N. Sahay, "Communication Behavior of Kosi Farmers in Relation to High Yielding Varieties Programme," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 3 4 4 (1970), pp. 20-31.

5 Op. cit., p. 31.

£ J. H. Copp, M. L. Sill and E. J. Brown, "The Function of Infor­ mation Sources in Farming Practices Adoption Process," Rural Sociology, Vol. 24 (1958), pp. 146-157. 149

sources when the information required is complex and technical in na­ ture. It is interesting to note that particularly when the Chilalo farmers were asked to express their feeling about the assistance they get from Model Farmers, about 39 percent of them said they were helpful and 41 percent of them stated that Model Farmers were not that helpful.

Twenty percent of the farmers failed to give any indication. The kind of help indicated by those who favored the Model Farmers includes such

statements as (1) they tell us to go and pick fertilizers, (2) they advise us to repay loans on time, (3) they tell us to attend meetings, demonstrations, etc., and (4) they show us improved methods of pro­ duction. Negative responses include (1) their advice does not make any difference to me, (2.) they don't give us any help except enriching

themselves and (3) they are not capable; I am as good as they are. As

CADU's diffusion strategy heavily rests on the use of model farmers, the impressions shown by the respondents call for some critical exami­ nation of the appropriateness and/or effectiveness of the approach.

Further analysis on farmers' appraisal of the program is presented in

Chapter VI.

From the data and discussion above it becomes ‘obvious that the most important diffusion activities were (l) Extension agent's visits to individual farms, (2) farmers' attendance at CADU demonstrations

(field days) and (3) farmers' visits to Extension center. At the center of these activities, however, is the Extension agent. He plays a crucial role in supplying services and knowledge of improved farm practices to the small farmers. Therefore it may be concluded that the preparation of skillful and knowledgeable Extension workers in adequate numbers deserves some particular attention. From the personal

observation of this researcher, the assignment of one Extension agent

and his assistant for farmers ranging from 1,500 to 1,800 as mentioned

previously, is not enough. Besides, since transportation is limited

to horseback a greater degree of contact between agents and farmers

can hardly be maintained under present circumstances. This was the

feeling this researcher got from his discussions with Extension agents

and supervisors. More detail in this regard appears in Chapter VI.

Hence CADU officials must try to upgrade both the number and quality

of the field staff as concluded above.

Adoption of Agricultural Technologies by Chilalo Farmers

Technological explosion in agriculture, since recent years, has

become the rule of the day in many areas of the world. Although

Ethiopia is a late comer in this regard phenomenal change is taking over

with the establishment of comprehensive projects like CADU, WADU and

others. The Institute of Agriculture (IAR) and the College of Agricul­

ture are the main research centers where new ideas and methods are

tested. As a consequence of research developments the Chilalo farmer

in particular is witnessing unprecedented changes in himself and his

surroundings primarily due to the intensive research and development

activities deliberately imposed upon the area by CADU. This study has aimed at exploring the behavioral changes induced in the project area and this section presents the findings.^

It is a well documented fact that the adoption behavior of a farmer hinges to a large extent upon situational factors which include his socio-psychological system and the degree of his exposure to im­ proved practices and ideas. In the words of Galkwad, ''Adoption of an improved practice by a farmer is necessarily based on his capacity to acquire and absorb information about new techniques and on his capacity

g to convert this knowledge to practice." Furthermore, most diffusion studies have shown that not all farmers in a community adopt new ideas at the same time. Some accept readily, the majority accept slowly and some never get detached from old ideas. Such differential behavior in the adoption of improved practices are also exhibited by the Chilalo farmers as Table 18 demonstrates.

A close examination of Table 18 shows that commercial fertilizers have been adopted at a very high rate. Ninety nine percent of the respondents indicated knowledge of fertilizers which have been used by

95 percent of the respondents. Still there were farmers (13.3 percent) who continued with the old practice of soil burning considered undesir­ able for serious agronomic reasons. Animal manure was used by nearly

43 percent of the respondents.

^H. F. Lionberger, Adoption of New Ideas and Practices (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1960).

g V. R. Gallcward, "Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Inno­ vations" in K. N. Singh et al. (editors), Research in Extension Edu­ cation (New Delhi, 1970), p. 339. TABLE 18 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ADOPTION FACTORS

Knowledge Use Source Do n ' t Known Be- Known Adoption Know for 1967 After 1967 Not Used Used Total CADU Other Factors N % N 7. N 7 N 7o N % N 7» N 7o N %

Wheat Kenya 1. 55 26.2 31 14.8 124 59.0 158 75.2 52 24.8 210 100 138 65.7 17 8.1 Kentana 75 35.7 1 0.5 134 63.8 165 78.6 45 21.4 210 100 116 55.2 19 9.1 Supremo 23 11.0 - - 187 89.0 114 54.3 96 45.7 210 100 166 79.0 21 10.0 Yaktana 83 39.5 1 0.5 126 60.0 162 77.1 48 22.9 210 100 111 52.9 16 7.6 Romany 25 11.9 - - 185 88.1 125 59,5 85 40.5 210 100 161 76.7 24 11.4 Penjamo 180 85.7 - - 30 14.3 209 99.5 1 0.5 210 100 30 14.3 - Salmayo 109 51.9 - - 101 48.1 185 88.1 25 11,9 210 100 93 44.3 -- Laketch 13 6.2 -- 197 93.8 65 31.0 145 69.0 210 100 184 87.6 13 6.2 Kang a 116 55.2 - - 94 44.8 187 89.0 23 11.0 210 100 92 43.8 2 1.0

Barley Unitan 200 95.2 -- 10 4.8 207 98.6 3 1.4 210 100 9 4.3 1 0.5 Mari 189 90.0 - - 21 10.0 207 98.6 3 1.4 210 100 20 9.5 1 0.5 Atlas 181 86.2 - - 29 13.8 198 94.3 12 5.7 210 100 28 13.3 1 0.5 C.63 199 94.8 - - 11 5.2 207 98.6 3 1.4 210 100 11 5.2 oa -

Certified Seeds •A. -t. 1971 A * * 147 70.0 63 30.0 210 100 63 30 -- JU 1972 ~k o * * ** 185 88.1 25 11.9 210 100 25 11.9 —— JU 1973 ** A * 197 93.8 13 6.2 210 100 13 6.2 - - 152 TABLE 18 (continued)

Knowledge Known Known Use Source Adoption Don't Before After Factors Know 1967 1967 Not Used Used Total CADU Other N % N % N % N % N%N % N % N %

Soil Management Practices Soilburning * * * * * * 182 86.7 28 13.3 210 100 Cow dung * * * * * 120 57.1 90 42.9 210 100 - - - Commercial fertilizers 1 0.5 1 0.5 208 99 9 4.3 201 95.7 210 100 202 96.2 8 3.8

.Improved Implements Plough 39 18.6 1 0.5 170 81.0 197 93.8 13 6.2 210 100 168 80.0 3 1.4 Ox-cart 60 28.6 - 150 71.4 206 98.1 4 1.9 210 100 147 70.0 3 1.4 Sowing hag 132 62.9 - - 78 37.1 202 96.2 . 8 3.8 210 100 78 37.1 - - Thresher 114 54.3 - - 96 45.7 193 91.9 17 8.1 210 100 94 44.8 2 1.0 Harrow 29 13.8 - 181 86.2 167 79.5 43 20.5 210 100 179 85.2 2 1.0 Regarding crop varieties, those that were well known and used to some extent were of wheat varieties. Much work awaits in the develop­ ment and distribution of barley varieties. Almost all of the farmers were planting local varieties of barley. Among the wheat varieties with high degree of adoption were Laketch, Supremo and Romany in that order. Yaktana, Kentana and Kanga have been used to some degree as shown in the table. The respondents were asked to comment about their experiences with these varieties and the relevant data are given in

Table 19 to give some indications of how these farmers felt about the varieties. With respect to the use of certified seeds, Table 18 shows that only 30 percent of the respondents planted certified seeds in 1971 whereas 12 percent and 6 percent of the farmers used such seeds in 1972 and 1973 respectively. According to reports from the marketing division the decline in the purchase of certified seeds was caused by sudden drops in wheat grain prices experienced over the three years. This is­ sue will be further discussed in Chapter VI.

The adoption of improved implements perhaps with the exception of harrows (20 percent) was not that successful. Farmers were generally well aware of them but failed to acquire them for various reasons which include the price, weight and level of efficiency of these implements at least according to the scattered information made available by some of the farmers. When this researcher asked the Head of the Agricultural

Engineering Department, he was told that development in this area was lagging far behind when compared with other research and development ef­ forts. This point will be further elaborated in the next chapter. TABLE 19

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS WHO MADE COMMENTS ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT VARIETIES

Characteristics Disease Shatter­ Cultural Suscep- Cold ing of Food Yield Practice tibility Tolerance Seeds Value Not Not Not Not Wheat Varieties Good Good Difficult Difficult No Yes Tolerant Tolerant No Yes Good Good

Kenya 1 26 1 3 2 9 2 3 4 6 - - 1 28 .

Kentana ' 2 2 3 k 1 7 3 9 16 8 1 3 2 9

Supremo 1 1 5 6 1 0 5 2 2 2 1 2 - 1 + 0 1 1 9

Yaktana 1 2 0 2 7 1 2 7 2 5 9 - 2 - 7

Romany 2 6 6 5 106 3 2 8 1 3 2 2 2 1 5

Penjamo 2 ------1

Salmayo 2 16 2 1 2 7 1 - - 3 - 1

Laketch 1 1 3 9 3 8 6 - it 7 8 2 3 - ^ 3

Kanga 7 6 - 7 - - 1 1 1 1 - -

Boundi 3^ 30 5 7 k 1 9 2 0 7 1 1 2 8 155 156

Hypothesis Testing

This section presents the results of statistical analysis made to test the hypotheses advanced in this study. Zero-order correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to explain the relationships re­ vealed by the data. On the basis of previous research evidence and theoretical considerations, the following hypotheses stated in their null form were proposed.

1. There is no relationship between selected characteristics of

farmers and diffusion of innovations.

2. There is no relationship between diffusion of innovations and

the adoption behavior of small farmers.

3. There is no relationship between selected characteristics of

farmers and their adoption behavior.

The independent variables as specified in Chapter IV were cate­ gorized as predispositional, intervening and situational variables and the general types of relationships among them and the dependent vari- 9 ables were shown in a schematic model as hypothesized by Neilson*

Five values and beliefs scales were selected and adapted for the study from the works of War l a n d ^ as indicators of the predisposition of the respondents. Drawing from the results of past research evidence and his personal knowledge of the .CADU program, this researcher developed a set of diffusion items designed to measure the degree of Extension contacts farmers had over the three year period which is the primary focus of

9 Neilson, op. cit., p. 25.

^Warland, op. cit. 157 this study. This diffusion factor was quantified and processed to yield a composite diffusion index as described early in this chapter. Simi­ larly many situational variables were selected on logical and research grounds but as the multiple regression program eliminated many of them only 10 such variables were considered in this analysis. The highlights of those excluded were described and discussed in Chapter III which briefly presented the profile of the respondents besides describing the methodology of this research. Finally, the dependent variable, adoption behavior of small farmers, was available in a quantified form as in the diffusion index. The discussions that follow present the relevant data while reflecting on the specific hypotheses outlined above.

Hypothesis 1: There is no relationship between selected char­ acteristics of farmers and diffusion of inno­ vations.

As it should be clear from the discussions throughout this report, diffusion of innovations is the variable of . as much interest as adop­

tion. The basic hypothesis underlying the entire application of the package concept has been that farmers in small geographic areas given intensive education and exposure to improved agricultural practices would not only improve their level of production and life, but their ex­ periences can also be filtered out to other agricultural areas to ef­ fect system-wide development covering the entire country. The degree of contact farmers have with sources of agricultural information is re­ garded as a factor playing a dominant role in the process. What facil­ itates the occurrence of Extension contacts in peasant areas is there­ fore the primary question of interest in this analysis. TABLE 20

PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION BETWEEN DIFFUSION AND SELECTED PREDISPOSITIONAL AND SITUATIONAL VARIABLES

PrediSDOsitional and Intervening Variable Situational Variables DIFFUSEDCADUDCENTER DMODELDCOOPDAGENTDFARMS

Predispositional: values + beliefs Collective action -0.075 0.048 0.034 -0.139* -0.055 -0.041 -0.117* Traditionalism -0.046 -0.138* 0.050 -0.03 0.009 -0.094 -0.055 Maximization of income -0.156* -0.24 ** -0.090 -0.05 -0.078 -0.051 -0.03 Risk aversion -0.189** -0.085 -0.096 -0.216** -0.028 -0.085 -0.131* Debt avoidance -0.15* -0.0165** -0.204 -0.083 0.09 -0.052 -0.050

Situational Age of farmer 0.056 0.019 0.096 -0.108 0.0 0 2 0 .202** -0.064 Number of wives 0 .220** 0.081 0 .1 12* 0.131* 0.010 0.162** 0.227** Family size 0.173** 0.071 0.183** -0.015 -0.06 0.213** 0.129* Age of first child 0.061 0.032 0.124* -0.077 -0.067 0 .221**-0.101 Total number of male children 0.134* 0 .120* 0.027 0.064 -0.05 0.146* -0.133* Total number of female children 0.062 0.056 0.003 0.044 0.08 0.015 0.010 Number of other dependents -0.015 0.126 0.007 -0.071 -0.110 -0. 0 0 2 -0.04

*Significant at P = 0.05. **Significant at P = 0.01. Notes for Table 20:

DIFFUSE Composite diffusion index. DCADU Farmer's attendance at CADU field demonstrations score. DCENTER Farmer's visit to Extension center or office score. DMODEL Model farmer's visit at individual farms score. DCOOP Farmer's attendance at cooperative meetings score. DAGENT Extension agents' visit at individual farms score. DFARMS Farmer's visit at model farms score. 160

Table 20 presents zero-order correlation coefficients computed in order to determine the degree of association between diffusion of in­ novations and selected characteristics of the respondents. Both the composite diffusion index and the individual scores of the diffusion item were correlated with the predispositional and situational variables shown in the table. This is done to show the contribution of each fac­ tor in the make up of the observed relations. Further, the intercor­ relation coefficients among the diffusion factors are given in Table 21 for additional information and analysis.

An examination of Table 20 indicates that diffusion is negatively related with three values and beliefs scales, namely, maximization of income, risk aversion and debt avoidance. The respective correlation coefficients are -0.16, -0.19 and -0.15. Although the coefficients are not that high certain tendencies are made clear. With increased exten­ sion contacts farmers tend to have less aspirations for maximization of income, become more risk oriented and willing to go into debt for pro­ ductive purposes. The finding relative to maximization of income may sound quite incongrous with findings of past studies particularly in the United States. This study suggests that as the degree of Extension contacts increases farmer's aspiration for the maximization of indi­ vidual income levels tend to get lowered as noted just above. This is a very interesting finding and it may be partially explained by the fact that at least since recent years CADU's strategy has been geared increasingly towards the creation of social consciousness among farmers and moving them in the direction of social rather than individual 161

goals. Perhaps the farmers' response is just a reflection of this pro­

gram orientation. Further study in this regard is necessary.

From the data it also appears that diffusion is unrelated to col­

lective action and traditionalism scales. However, when the individual

diffusion factors are considered certain relations are made apparent.

Significant negative correlations are shown between collective action

and Model Farmers' visits of individual farms and between collective

action and farmers visits of model farms with coefficients of -0.14 and

-0.12 respectively. This is perhaps a reflection of the tendency of

Model Farmers to pay greater attention to individualistic farmers in

order to convince them about the values of cooperative efforts which the

central aspect of CADU programs. Similarly negative relationship is

indicated between traditionalism and farmers' attendance at CADU demon­

stration (r = -0.12). All of the value and belief scales are found to

be unrelated with farmers' visits of Extension center, farmers' attend­

ance of cooperative meetings and agents' visits of individual farms.

The intercorrelation matrix in Table 21 shows how the diffusion

factors are related to each other. According to the table, Extension

agents' visits of individual farms is significantly related with all of

the factors with one exception, namely, farmers' attendance at co­

operative meetings. The latter variable is positively related to model

farmer oriented activities as shown in the table. This finding looks

contradictory to the one observed in relation to collective action and

Model Farmers Activities (Table 20). The collection action scale is

shown to be negatively correlated with both model farmer oriented 162 contacts. When one considers cooperative activities as an organized form of collective action, the contradiction becomes revealing.

Nevertheless, on the basis his personal knowledge of the operations in the area, this researcher has the following reasoning as a logical ex­ planation of why these variables behaved the way they did.

TABLE. 21

INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG DIFFUSION FACTORS

DCADU DCENTER DMODELDCOOPDAGENT DFARMS

Attendance at field 0.071 0.061 0.158* 0.178** 0.096 days (DCADU)

Farmers* visit at 0.043 0 . 0 1 0 0.327** 0.155* Extension Center (CENTER)

Farm visits by model 0.161* 0.259** 0.516** farmer (DMODEL)

Attendance at co­ 0.049 0.304** operative meetings (DCOOP)

Farm visit by agent 0.155* (DAGEiJT)

Farmers' visit at model farms (DFARMS)

‘^'Significant at P = 0.05. **Significant at P = 0.01.

Historically cooperative ideas, the way they are organized today, are of very recent introductions. In fact, CADU can claim as a pioneer institution for at least the project area in this regard. This is not to say that social actions never existed in the area. There have been many types but by and large were informal in nature with relatively different ideologies. To promote cooperative movement in the area, CADU had to first influence the model farmers who basically are local leaders in their own right and through them the vast number of farmers were reached. The organization of the program in general, has given certain powers to model farmers over the regular farmers. For example, local committees which screen out eligible credit applicants from those who are not, are nearly entirely composed of model farmers and this has served as a substantial power base for them to influence certain de­ cisions of other farmers, say in this instance to participate or not to participate in formal cooperative programs regardless of their own per­ sonal intentions. Thus, though the correlation coefficients in question are not dramatically high, they truly indicate the social tendencies in the project area.

In view of the above it may be appropriate to make additional comments on the relations revealed by the data in Table 21 with respect to model farmer contacts and risk aversion tendencies of regular farmers.

In this case it appears that model farmers' experiences are sought and checked to verify the usefulness of certain ideas and innovations. This naturally increases the degree of contact and according to the data, such interactions have tended to improve the risk orientation of par­ ticipating farmers in CADU. Similar findings are also reported 164 elsewhere.^ From this it would seem very advisable for Extension workers to make maximum use of model farmers whenever risk related problems are encountered. In doing so the competence of this group of farmers must be well assured.

Finally, a brief discussion about the relationships between dif­ fusion and the selected situational variables is in order. Again the relevant data are included in Table 20.

The variables that have indicated positive relationships are (a) number of wives (r = 0.22), (b) family size (r = 0.17) and (c) total number of children (r = 0.13). The data do not show any meaningful relationship with remaining situational variables. Again, this is not an unusual observation as several other studies of diffusion have in­ dicated similar tendencies.

Thus, in general, the findings of this study tended to support the hypothesis of no relationship between selected characteristics of farmers and diffusion of innovations. With the exception of (1) maxi­ mization of income, (2) risk aversion, (3) debt avoidance, (4) number of wives, (5) family size and (6 ) total number of male children which indicated significant relationships.

Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship between diffusion of innovations and the adoption behavior of farmers.

Gurcharn S. Barsan and Harold R. Capener, "Factors Related to the Acceptance of New Ideas and Techniques in Farming," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. IV, Nos. 1 & 2 (1968), pp. 29-39. 165

The degree of contact farmers have with the sources of useful ag­ ricultural information has already been regarded as a factor playing an important role in shaping the adoption behavior of farmers. The purpose of this analysis is to confirm this viewpoint and at the same time de­ termine what types of Extension contacts have been meaningfully em­ ployed in the furtherance of project goals in Chilalo. It is assumed that greater direct or indirect contacts result in higher levels of in­ formation dissemination which in turn is expected to generate desirable adoption behavior. The degree of association observed between dif­ fusion and adoption reflects upon the performance of the CADU project.

It is with this premise that particular attention was given to the analysis of diffusion and adoption in this particular study. Tables

22 and 23 present data relevant for this discussion.

The study of Table 22 (the first column) makes it obvious that in total the adoption behavior of farmers is significantly related with the diffusion of innovations (r=0.3l), thus supporting the hypothesis. The composite diffusion score also shows positive relationship with all of the elements of adoption shown in the table. Regarding the individual diffusion factors,it is interesting to note that adoption and all of its elements for that matter with the exception of soil practices have stronger positive relations with such factors as attendance at demon­ strations (r=0.34) and cooperative meetings (r=0.32). This should be considered as a very encouraging indication of change as such farmers1 activities imply relatively greater initiative on their part to seek solutions for farm problems. The significant relationship between use of TABLE 22

PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN ADOPTION FACTORS AND DIFFUSION FACTORS

Diffusion Factors Adoption DIFFUSION DCADU DCENTER DMODELDCOOP DAGENTDFARMS

Adoption Behavior (N=210) 0.309** 0.344** 0.300** 0.039 0.362** 0.127* 0.071

Knowledge of Varities (N=210) 0.198** 0.251** 0.153** 0.095 0.076 0.019 0.090

Use of Varities (N=210) 0.215** 0.242** 0 .202** 0.064 0.106 0.084 0.035

Knowledge of Implements (N=210) 0.171** 0 .2 2 2** 0.158** 0.068 -0.006 0.101 0.01

Use of Implements (N=210) 0.350** 0.250** 0.181** 0.195** 0.139* 0.195** 0.229**

Use of Improved Soil 0.134* 0.039 0.160** 0.061 -0.043 0.144* 0.045 Management (N=210)

Use of Certified Seed (N=210) 0.185** 0.117* 0.071 0. 0 6 1 0.158** 0.074 0.184**

'-Significant at P = 0.05. **Significant at P = 0.01.

aDCADU = Farmer's attendance at CADU demonstrations (field days). DCENTER = Farmer's visit to model farms. DMODEL = Farm visit by Model Fanners. DCOOP = Farmer's attendance at cooperative meetings. DAGENT = Farm visit by Extension agent. DFARMS = Farmer's visit to model farms. 4

TABLE 23

INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG ADOPTION FACTORS

VARKNOWL VARUSEIMPLKNOW IMPULSE SOILPRACCERTSEED

Knowledge of Varieties 0.469** 0.384** 0.226** -0.032 0.282** (VARKNOWL) (N=210) Use of Varities (VARUSE) 0.172** 0.367** 0.097 0.286** (N=210) Knowledge of Implements (IMPLKNOW) (N=210) 0.197** 0.003 0.135* Use of Implements (IMPULSE) (N=210) 0.091 0.209** Soil Practices (SOILPRAC) 0.209** (N=210) Use of Certified Seed (CERTSEED) (N=210) 0.106

'^Significant at P = 0.05. **Significant at P = 0.01. 167 168

improved implements and certified seeds with model farmer related ac­ tivities may be partially explained by the fact that farmers get these

inputs on credit through influence of model farmers. As indicated earlier, model farmers participate fully in the processing of credit applications which obviously increases their interaction with farmers who purchase these inputs.

In any case on the whole the Extension agents were the most pre­

ferred sources with respect to such technical knowledge and application.

This point was also implied previously. Rajaguru and Satapathy have

12 also reported similar trend among Indian farmers. From this, two im­

portant implications become evident: (l) more Extension efforts should

be directed to the planning and organization of field demonstrations and

related activities at the center; and (2 ) individual contacts between

Extension agents and farmers have to be expanded. However, since the

resources of CADU in terms of Extension personnel and communication

facilities are very limited, the utilization of model farmers as agents

of change remains to be imperative. As Misra e_t al. have reported such

persons can be made more competent to serve a useful purpose through 13 proper selection, training and supervision. Their knowledge, skill

and attitudes have to be upgraded relative to the problems they are made

to handle. By the same token, other farmers need intensive orientation

12 Rajaguru and Satapathy, op. cit.

13 L. Misra, L. N. Kar and S. Sahoo, "Efficiency of Lay Leaders in Influencing Farmers for Adoption of New Farm Practices," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 C 2 (1970), pp. 119-121. 169 and persuasion to make use of the facilities on the model farms before they make long trips to Extension centers for all kinds of problems.

Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between selected characteristics of farmers and their adoption behavior.

An attempt was made here to identify the characteristics of farmers that are associated with adoption. The findings of past studies have not been quite conclusive in this regard and this study was expected to shade some light.

The only characteristics that were found to be significantly re­ lated were traditionalism and risk aversion. Both are negatively cor­ related as Table 24 demonstrates. This means that the higher the ad­ herence to traditionalism the lower is the preference to adopt new ideas. Similarly, the higher the adherence to risk aversion, the lower is the preference to adopt. In other words, risk oriented farmers have greater tendency to adopt new ideas. With respect to the specific adoption factors, again traditionalism and debt avoidance show negative correlations with adoption of improved varieties. Knowledge of im­ proved implements tend to be related with collective action (r = 0.19), traditionalism (r = -0.216) and maximization of income (r = 0.171) but these relations are not reflected in the composite adoption index. In any case it can be safely said from this that change agents must pay special attention to these value systems when adoption programs are planned and implemented.

The findings reported thus far dealt with the relationships be­ tween adoption behavior of farmers and each of the independent TABLE 24

PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS AND THEIR ADOPTION BEHAVIOR

Characteristics ADOPT VARKNOWL VARUSE IMPLKNOW IMPLUSE SOILPRAC CERTSEED

Predispositional Collective action 0.083 0.007 0.053 0.186** 0.024 -0.041 -0.004 Traditionalism -0 .221**-0 .202** -0.142* -0.216** -0.032 0.021 -0.032 Maximization of income -0.062 -0.016 0.012 -0.171** -0.062 -0.013 -0.040 Risk aversion -0.015 -0.054 -0 . 0 0 2 -0.041 -0.091 -0.117* -0.054 Debt avoidance -0.188** -0.123* -0.185** -0.101 -0.082 -0.080 0.027

Situational Age of farmer -0.082 -0.145* -0.015 -0.028 -0.061 0.029 -0.013 Number of wives 0.013 -0.097 -0.009 0 .111* 0.128* 0.083 0.015 Family size 0.027 -0.084 0.043 0.072 0.070 0.107 0.020 Age of first child -0.04 0.164** 0.065 -0.035 -0.013 0.089 -0.001 Total number of male children 0. 0 0 2 0.052 -0.029 0.157* -0.032 -0.09 0.017 Total number of female children 0.021 -0.028 0.023 0.066 -0.04 0.078 0.004 Total number of other dependents 0.113 -0.042 0.123 0.105 0.181* 0.105 0.038

‘"Significant at P a 0.05. **Significant at P = 0.01. ADOPT = Adoption behavior of farmers. IMPLUSE = Use of improved implements. SOILPRAC = Soil management practices carried VARKNOWL = Knowledge of improved varieties. out on the farm. VARUSE = Use of improved varieties. CERTSEED = Purchase of certified seeds. IMPLKNOW = Knowledge of improved implements. 171 variables. However, as stipulated by Neilson's model presented in

Chapter IV of this study, the independent variables don't simply behave in isolation. Rather they interact with each other to explain the variance of the dependent variable. Keeping this in view several re­ gression runs were made to examine the proportion of the variance of the dependent explained by the independent variable which is adoption of improved innovations and practices. Table 25 gives a summary of the re­ sults of the multiple regression analysis. Changes contributed by the 2 individual variable in the coefficients of multiple determination (R ),

the regression coefficients and the beta values are all included in the table.

As the summary table indicates, all the three categories of inde­ pendent variables discussed previously, namely, predispositional, in­ tervening and situational variables were examined to determine the ex­ tent to which they can explain the variation in adoption of innovations.

Seven runs of multiple regression models were used for this purpose.

They are outlined below.

Run 1. Regression model with predispositional variable.

Run 2. Regression model with intervening variable.

Run 3. Regression model with situational variable.

Run 4. Regression model with predispositional and intervening variable.

Run 5. Regression model with predispositional and situation variables.

Run 6 . Regression model with intervening and situational variables. 172

TABLE 25

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH PREDISPOSITIONAL INDPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Traditionalism 0.22 0.049 0.049 -3.21 -0,19**

Debt Avoidance 0.27 0.071 0. 0 2 2 -2.61 -0.14**

Collective Action 0.28 0.075 0.005 1.69 0.77*

Maximization of income 0.28 0.076 0.0004 -0.55 -0.18**

Risk Aversion 0.28 0.076 0.00005 -0.32 -0 . 0 1

Constant 174.50

-'Significant at .05 level

-'-'Significant at .01 level

Number of cases = 210 173

TABLE 26

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH INTERVENING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Attendance of Cooperative 0.36 0.130 0.130 84.54 0.27** Meetings

Attendance of CADU Field 0.47 0.220 0.089 60.84 0.31** Days

Farmers’ Visits to 0.51 0.265 0.045 34.82 0 .2 0 * Extension Center

Farmers' Visits to Model 0.52 0.269 0.044 22.98 ■ 0 .1 1 * Farms

Model Farmers’ Visits to 0.52 0.271 0.002 -9.49 -0.05* Individual Farms

Agents' Visits of Indi­ 0.52 0.272 0.0003 -3.15 -0.02 vidual Farms

Constant -278.9

-'Significant at .05 level

**Significant at .01 level

Number of cases = 210 174

TABLE 27

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH SITUATIONAL INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable RR2 Change B Beta

Number of wives 0.31 0.0 99 0.099 59.26 0.528*

Assela District 0.40 0.158 0.059 30.55 0.189*

Number of Female Children. 0.43 0.193 0.035 16.24 0.321*

Number of Male Children 0.46 0.213 0.020 -2.52 -0.064

Arusi Gala 0.49 0.242 0.029 -56.03 -0.383

Number of Other Dependents 0.51 0.262 0 . 0 2 1 13.13 0.261

Age of Farmer 0.54 0.287 0.024 -1.02 -0.261

Shoa Gala 0.55 0.301 0.014 -15.87 -0.129

Ability of First Child to 0.554 0.307 0.009 12.81 0.103 Read and Write

Belcoji District 0.56 0.313 0.006 -12.08 -0.098

Family Size 0.562 0.316 0.003 -5.12 -0.227

Age of First Child 0.563 0.317 0.001 -0.34 -0.043

Constant 153.02

*Signifleant at .05 level **Significant at .01 level Number of cases = 210 175

TABLE 28

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH COMBINATION OF PREDISPOSITIONAL AND INTERVENING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Attendance of Cooperative 0.36 0.130 0.130 74.301 0.238** Meetings3

Attendance of CADU Field 0.47 0. 2 2 0 0.089 62.828 0.326** Days3

Farmers' Visits to Exten­ 0.51 0.265 0.045 30.923 0.185* sion Centera

Traditionalism 0.56 0.313 0.048 -4.409 -0.229*

Farmers' Visits to Model 0.57 0.323 0 . 0 1 31.101 0.142* Farms3

Maximization of Income^ 0.575 0.330 0.008 4.908 0 .1 1 2 *

Debt Avoidance^ 0.577 0.334 0.003 -1.909 -0.093

Risk Aversion^ 0.579 0.336 0.002 2.252 0.056

Collective Action^ 0.58 0.338 0.002 -1.308 -0.049

Farm Visits by Model 0.583 0.340 0.002 -14.012 -0.078 Farmers3

Farm Visits by Extension 0.584 0.341 0 . 0 0 1 6.29 0.040 Agents

Constant -311.26

intervening bPredispositional -'Significant at .05 level **Significant at .01 level Number of cases = 210 176

TABLE 29

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH COMBINATION OF PREDISPOSITIONAL AND SITUATIONAL INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Number of Wives3, 0.314 0.099 0.099 56.00 0.499*

Traditionalism 0.407 0.165 0.067 -7.45 -0.387*

Assela District3 0.500 0.250 0.085 41.74 0.259*

Arusi Gala3 0 .551 0.303 0.052 -74.97 -0.512*

Total Number of Female 0.573 0.328 0.025 6.23 0.123* Children3,

Age of Farmer3 0.596 0.354 0.026 -1.66 -0.338*

Number of Other Dependents3 0.617 0.381 0.0263 4.57 0.09

Total Number of Male 0.629 0.396 0.015 -11.75 -0.296* Children3

Ability of First Child to 0.642 0.412 0.015 21.38 0.172 ci Read and Write

Shoa Gala 0.652 0.425 0.013 -15.09 -0.123

Belcoji District3 0.657 0.432 0.007 -10.007 -0.081

Maximization of Income^ 0.66 0.436 0.005 -3.733 -0.085

Collective Action 0.663 0.440 0.004 1.342 0.0513

Age of First Child3 0.664 0.441 0.0014 0.54 0.067

Family Size3 0.665 0.442 0.0012 3.654 0.162

Debt Avoidance 0 .666 0.443 0.0004 0 .556 0.027

Constant 170.47

aSituational; ^Predispositional; Number of cases = 210 ’"'Significant at .05 level; **Significant at .01 level 177

TABLE 30

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH COMBINATION OF INTERVENING AND SITUATIONAL INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Attendance of Cooperative 0.361 0.131 0.131 104.69 0.335** Meetings3

Number of Wives 0.472 0.223 0.092 54.07 0.482**

Bekoji District*3 0.543 0.295 0.071 -27.9 2 -0.226**

Farmers' Visits to Exten­ 0.603 0.364 0.069 41.52 0.248** sion Center3

Attendance of CADU Field 0.635 0.404 0.040 20.59 0.107** Days3

Arusi Gala*3 0.647 0.419 0.015 -35.73 -0.244**

Total Number of Female 0.657 0.433 0.013 13.54 .0.268** Children*3

Total Number of Male 0.672 0.452 0.019 0 .66 0.017* Children*3

Number of Other Dependents*3 0.680 0.463 0. 0 1 0 13.46 0.268**

Age of First Child*3 0.692 0.479 0.16 -1.17 -0.144*

Farm Visits by Model 0.695 0.483 0.005 -7.13 -0.039* Farmers3

Asella District*3 0.699 0.489 0.006 18.11 0.112

Family Size*3 0.703 0.493 0.004 -5.27 -0.233

Farm Visits by Extension 0.704 0.495 0 . 0 0 2 -9.94 -0.064 Agents3

Farmers' Visits of Model 0.704 0.496 0.0004 -7.68 -0.035 Farms3

Constant -9 7.74 aIntervening; bSituational; Number of cases = 210 ^Significant at .05 level; **Significant at .01 level 178

TABLE 31

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS WITH ALL CATEGORIES OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

RSQ Variable R R2 Change B Beta

Attendance of Cooperative 0.361 0.131 0.131 78.82 0.252** Meetingsa

Number of Wi ves*5 0.472 0.223 0.092 52.74 0.470**

Bekoji District*5 0.543 0.295 0.071 -27.09 -0.219**

Farmers * Visits of Exten­ 0.603 0.364 0.069 38.53 0.230** sion Center3

Traditionalism0 0.642 0.412 0.049 -6.12 -0.317**

Arusi Gala*5 0.682 0.465 0.053 -62.83 -0.429**

Attendance of CADU Field 0.702 0.492 0.027 22.58 0.117* Days3

Assella District*5 0.713 0.508 0.015 20.69 0.128*

Age of Farmer3 0.721 0.520 0. 0 1 2 -0.81 -0.162*

Number of Other Dependents*5 0.726 0.528 0.008 7.37 0.146*

Total Number of Female 0.735 0.541 0.012 7.37 0.145* Children*5

Total Number of Male 0.742 0.551 0 . 0 1 1 -5.42 -0.136* Children*5

Debt Avoidance0 0.744 0.553 0.003 2.30 0 .1 1 2 *

Risk Aversion0 0.745 0.555 0 . 0 0 1 -2.28 -0.057

Shoa Gala*3 0.746 0.557 0. 0 0 2 -9.38 -0.076

Collective Action0 0.747 0.559 0 . 0 0 1 -1.26 -0.047

Constant -108.41

intervening ^Situational cPredispositional -'Significant at .05 level **Significant at .01 level Number of cases = 210 179

Run 7. Regression model with all the independent variables, i.e. predispositional, intervening and situational.

Multiple Regression Analysis with Five Predispositional Variables

The data in Table 25 reveals that this set of variables acting by themselves were the weakest of all the categories outlined above in ex- 2 plaining variance in the dependent variable. The total R of this analysis was 0.076. The independent variables which contributed sig­ nificantly to the prediction of the dependent variable were tradi­ tionalism, debt avoidance, collective action, and maximization of in­ come. Beta values for these independent variables were significant at

.01 level except for collective action which was significant at .05 level. Risk aversion did not show significant contribution to the ex­ planation of the variance of the dependent variable.

Multiple Regression Analysis with Intervening Variables

This category of independent variables indicated higher explan­ atory power than the predispositional variables discussed above. The contribution of all the factors with the exception of agents' visits of individual farms were significant. The list is led by attendance 2 2 of cooperative meetings with R =0.13 as compared with R =0.27 for the total as shown in the table. The beta values for attendance at cooperative meetings and attendance of CADU field days were significant at .01 level. ’ 180

Multiple Regression Analysis with Situational Variables

Twelve independent variables were fitted in the regression model.

Of these only three variables, namely, number of wives, district (in­ dicating locality) and number of female children were found to sig­ nificantly contribute to the explanation of the variance of adoption 2 2 with R = 0.10, 0.06 and 0.04 respectively as compared to the total R of 0.32. When compared with the intervening variables they seem to ex­ plain higher proportion of the variance in the dependent variable.

Multiple Regression Analysis with Predispositional and Situational Variables

The combined effect of predispositional and situational variables were found to explain 34 percent of the variation in adoption. Two predispositional variables, namely, traditionalism and maximization of income were found to be significant while the rest of this group proved to be nonsignificant when combined with intervening variables. On the other hand, among the intervening variables, model farmers' visits at individual farms and agents' visits of individual farms did not show significant contribution. Again, attendance at cooperative meetings explained 13 percent of the variance followed by attendance of CADU field days 9 percent, traditionalism 8 percent and farmers' visits at

Extension center about 5 percent. 181

Multiple Regression Analysis with Predispositional and Situational Variables

As Table 25 shows, 44 percent of the variation is explained by

this set of independent variables higher than all the sets discussed above. At this stage, the regression model completely eliminated risk

aversion and the significant level of maximization was reduced to non­

significant along with other predispositional variables excepting tra­ ditionalism. On the other hand the significance of more situational variables was revealed than in set 3 above. More specifically, number of male children, ethnic background (Arusi Gala) and age of farmer sig­ nificantly contributed to the prediction of adoption.

Multiple Regression Analysis with Intervening Variables and Situational Variables

Nearly 50 percent of the variation in the dependent variable was explained when both intervening and situational independent variables were fitted in the regression model. Three situational variables were eliminated while the significance of agents' visits to individual farms was revealed in this case unlike the previous analyses. A close exami­ nation of the table also shows that of the situational variables, num­ ber of other dependents, Bekoji district and age of first child also came out with contribution at .01 for the former two variables and .05

for the latter. 182

Multiple Regression Analysis with All the Variables

Out of the 23 independent variables included in all categories, 13 were found to explain significantly variance in adoption of innovation.

Of these 2 (traditionalism and debt avoidance) were predispositional variables, 3 (attendance at crop meetings, attendance at CADU demon­ stration and farmers' visits at model farms) were intervening variables and 8 (number of wives, Asella district, number of female children,

Arusi Gala, number of other dependents, age of farmer and Bekoji Dis­ trict) were situational variables. These variables explained 56 percent variance in the adoption of innovations.

It might be interesting to note that one of the variables that persistently contributed to the explained variance was number of wives.

People who are familiar with the area may not be very much surprised knowing the role of women in the production and marketing of agricul­ tural products. In this part of the country and in Hararge Province which this researches knows very well, the women equally if not better participate in the cultivation of crops and other matters family affair.

It is logical to presume as suggested by the data that a person having a greater number of wives has greater chances of adopting innovations.

The number of wives will tend to increase the degree of contact of the farmer with sources of agricultural information directly or indirectly.

Similarly, the diffusion factors, namely attendance at coopera­ tive meetings, attendance at CADU field days and farmers' visits at

Extension center are important variables thus supporting the contention 183

that direct contact between agents and farmers could make a difference

in the adoption of innovations as implied in earlier discussions.

To summarize, the range of the explained variance by the several combination of the factors of change is from 7.6 percent for the pre­

dispositional variables to nearly 56 percent for all the variables operating in interaction.

The six individual factors contributing heavily to the proportion of explained variance are (1) farmers' attendance at cooperative meet­

ings, (2) the number of wives of the farmer, (3) the district where

farmers are located, (4) farmers' visits to Extension centers, (5)

farmers' attendance at CADU field days and (6 ) farmers' traditionalism values. Similar findings are reported by Coughenour in his study of farmers in Washington County, Kentucky. His findings are summarized as

follows:

With minor exceptions, measures of economic production or income, contact with information sources and abilities and attitudes, favorable to the understanding and use of improved practices have been found to make significant contributions to the variance in adoption score. On the other hand, age and education of the farmer and measures of his participation in formal organizations have been shown in nearly all analyses to contribute little to vari­ ance in adoption scores.14

One finding of the present study that perhaps conflicts sharply with Coughenour report is farmers' participation in formal organization as measured by attendance in cooperative meetings in this particular

14 C. Milton Coughenour, "The Functioning of Farmers' Character­ istics in Relation to Contact with Media and Practice Adoption," Journal of Rural Sociology, Vol. 25, No. 3 (September, 1960), p. 297. 184

case. As noted above, this variable was found to have the greatest

contribution in explaining variance in the adoption behavior of farmers.

This is perhaps because of the status of cooperative movement in Chilalo.

At the time of the study, the idea was not quite popularized and de­

veloped to include the participation of the farmers across the board.

Thus it may be concluded that on the whole using selected indi­

vidual variables in combination would explain a higher proportion of

the variance in adoption behavior. In this study the highest value ob- 2 tained was R of 56 percent. Interpretation of this finding is a matter

of individual judgement. This researcher feels that it can safely be used for the prediction of adoption behavior at least among Chilalo

farmers. Nevertheless further research along this line is in order to get better results. Perhaps revision of the manner in which the dif­

fusion and adoption factors are quantified may yield better results.

Maybe it is because of this reason that the correlation coefficients are

generally found to be lower than expected at least by this researcher.

The weighting system might have suppressed the revelation of better cor­

relation coefficient. This statement does not, of course, exclude the possibility of finding entirely different relationships. Any way it helps to review the technique with some additional ideas and judgement

from people who know the project area very well including the nature of

the technologies and the people for whom they are developed. CHAPTER VI

APPRAISAL OF SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE CADU PROJECT IN RELATION TO THE MAIN GOALS

Perhaps a restatement of the major questions raised for this study may clarify the intent of this chapter. Thus (1) To what extent was the package of innovations designed to promote rural development in the

Chilalo region of Ethiopia on target and progressing toward the intended goals?, (2) What changes had been brought about among participating pea­ sants in their adoption behavior?, and (3) What characteristics of in­ dividual farmers were closely associated with the adoption of improved agricultural innovations introduced through the package approach?

Therefore, this chapter is designed to present the highlights of selected CADU activities and their accomplishments to ascertain the ap­ propriateness and effectiveness of the programs upon which this investi­ gation was focused. The major activity areas selected for this analysis

include (1) Experimentation, (2) Extension and Training, (3) Marketing

and (4) Project Administration. In the first segment of this discussion,

this researcher's appraisal of the performance of the selected programs

are presented. Then the impressions of the farmers regarding the role

and contribution of the welfare of the farming community and to indi­ vidual farmers are discussed. Finally, results of interviews conducted with Extension agents, supervisors and Department/Division/Section

185 186 head with respect to their perception of goal fulfillment and adminis­

tration are summarized. In reading this analysis the questions stated

above should be kept in mind to have proper perspective.

Information used in this report was obtained from three sources:

(l) data collected from farmers through interviews, (2 ) information ob­

tained from Extension agents, supervisors and heads, and (3) careful

examination of relevant CADU publications and records. The way inter­

views were conducted has been already discussed in Chapter IV and fur­

ther elaboration is not necessary. Regarding Extension agents, super­

visors and heads, a prepared questionnaire was sent to all Extension

agents of which 33 were returned. This is less than half of what was

expected by this researcher. In the case of the supervisors, this

researcher was fortunate enough to have a one hour discussion with

them as a group. At that time they were in one of their periodical meetings and this investigator's request to meet with them was kindly

granted and arranged by the head of the Extension and Training De­

partment. Finally, Department/Division/Section heads were inter­

viewed in their respective offices. The questions raised with all the

categories of persons mentioned here were on matters ranging from

specific departmental activities to operations at the project level.

In this connection,it may also be pointed out that the researcher's

intimate knowledge of the project and personal associations were of

considerable value. 187

The Investigator's Appraisal of the Project

The description of the project along with the physical and envi­ ronmental settings was presented in Chapter III. It may be recalled here that the overall goals of the project were to achieve economic and social development, to create increased awareness and responsibility therefrom for the development process and to verify methods of agricul­ tural development that could be applied within the project area and elsewhere in the country.’*' The ultimate expectation of the development strategy was the transformation of rural communities into progressive and self-reliant entities enjoying life without the pressures of poverty and oppression.

In this section therefore, progress made in the direction of the main goals are briefly outlined and assessed in relation to relevant and specific objectives identified for the activity area in question.

The areas selected for this analysis are already specified in the first part of this chapter. Each department will be appraised in light of the main objectives of the study.

Experimentation Department

As the name suggests, this is the place where new agricultural technologies are innovated and/or adapted. Activities include applied research on improved crop varieties, agricultural implements, animal husbandry and reforestation methods described in Chapter III. In re­ lation to CADU's main goals, these activities focus upon the second

^Cohen, "Effects of Green Revolution," 0 £. cit., p. 339. 188 main goal which is stated as "The continued finding of suitable methods for bringing about agricultural development in Ethiopia when applied in an integrated manner." Four specialized sections have been created in the pursuit of this objective as mentioned in Chapter III. The sections are (1) Crop and Pasture, (2) Agricultural Engineering, (3) Animal Hus­ bandry, (4) Forestry. The highlights of the activities carried out in each area including the opinion of this researcher about them are sum­ marized and discussed below under separate headings. The first two sections are treated in greater detail while the discussions on the other two are kept brief.

Crop and Pasture Section

It may be said that it is the Crop and Pasture Section which gave the project a solid foundation for the development activities. The ob­ jectives stated for this section were sharp and pointing at the domi­ nant crops extensively grown in the region. Except for some minor elaborations the objectives have been kept unchanged and logically ori­ ented toward the attainment of sufficient knowledge in relation to crop production so that the promising varieties are identified and their cultural practices well established. In more specific terms, the ob­ jectives are stated as (1) undertaking surveys to increase knowledge about agricultural conditions and limitations, (2) finding of new crops and varieties, (3) determination of optimal growing techniques for dif­ ferent crops and varieties, (4) establishment of methods for pasture improvement, (5) control of seed with respect to trueness of variety, cleanliness and germination, (6 ) improved knowledge of soil conditions 189 in the area and determination of possibilities of drainage and erosion control, (7) establishment of suitable methods for seed control and 2 (8 ) training of Extension staff in the new techniques.

Since the main crops in the project area are wheat and barley heavy emphasis was placed on the study and development of improved varieties and their corresponding cultural practices. As described in

Chapter III, wheat is grown as a cash crop whereas barley is produced for consumption purposes. In being consistent with the first main goal of "achieving economic and social development throughout the project area" much of the experimental effort and investigation was concentrated on wheat and its requirements. There were of course other crops in­ cluded in the research, namely, teff, maize, various pulses and oil crops, vegetables and forage crops.

With respect to the first objective of the section, continuous meteorological, crop and pest surveys were made in order to gain knowl­ edge about the agricultural conditions of the project area. Needless to emphasize the importance of meteorological data for agriculture as it is well understood and documented in the literature. Prior to 1966 weather data about the project area were sketchy and incomplete. CADU therefore made special effort to accumulate appropriate weather data by establishing a number of meteorological stations at appropriate loca­ tions. By 1973 there were 15 such stations throughout the project area

^CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. 1, p. 6. 190 3 operating in close cooperation with the Civil Aviation Department.

Records obtained from each station are compiled and published for use 4 in the planning of development programs in the area. Thus it may be concluded that this section had appropriately acted in line with the objective stipulated in this regard.

Regarding the experimental variety trials, the efforts were not any less impressive. Over the years promising varieties of wheat, barley, and other crops important to the area have been selected and developed which in one way or another found their way into the hands of the farm­

ing population. According to the observations made by this writer and his discussions with staff members in the section careful and scientific approaches are followed in the process of selecting high yielding vari­ eties or studying certain properties of a given crop. Ato Yohannes W.

Michael, an agronomist in the section, described the procedure to this writer in the following manner.

First, the objectives are clearly identified. Example, Oil Crop:

To produce high-yielding, disease resistant varieties with a high oil content that mature early and have a suitable composition of fatty acids.

The screening procedures proceed by getting new entries from breeders and firms. These are selected for their resistance to disease, and

tested for their early maturity in single rows. Then selection of the entries are made to be observed in a nursery plot designed for each

3 Report on Surveys and Experiments carried out in 1971. CADU Publication No. 80, Crop and Pasture Section.

^Ibid. 191 * variety the second year. Preliminary yield testing is then made by

comparing with one or two established varieties and local seeds. In

the same manner observations and trials are made on cultural practices

such as date of planting, spacing and seeding rate with the selections made from the preliminary yield tests. The best varieties are then multiplied and reselected by observing them along with national trial programs. Finally before they are released to farmers they are planted on Extension demonstration fields for the same properties investigated in the main experiment stations.

The above description is included to show how the research pro­ grams are conducted. For all practical purposes, this writer believes that the activities of the section are methodologically sound and satisfactory. Perhaps one serious concern this investigator has is with the absence of a well established and experienced researcher at­ tached to the section. The research workers met at the time of the . study were really young, both in age and experience. Several of them had only two or three years of experience after their college education except the section head who has been there starting with the early days of the Project. Furthermore there have been quite a few resignations and departures for one reason or another which have tended to keep the staff size small and young.

In spite of the problem just mentioned the results of the section have been very encouraging. It is appropriately claimed by CADU that at least by 1970, the experimental activities had reached a stage to allow the release of distinct recommendations and answer questions 192 5 raised by farmers. Table 32 shows wheat and barley varieties recom­ mended to the Extension Service between 1968 and 1974. The yields in­ dicated are experimental results, but according to sources in the

section farmers were expected to get at least 50 percent of the yields observed on experimental plots. These yields were very comparable to those reported elsewhere. This may be compared with results reported by Borlaug (see column 3 of Table 33)^ The varieties introduced to the project area are the Mexican dwarf varieties with which Borlaug and his colleagues worked at CIMMT in Mexico. It may be appropriate to point out that ecological variations were taken into account when experiments were designed and recommendations were released. Accordingly this is clearly indicated in the recommendations made in 1970 and in 1972 as shown in Table 34.^’^

There are ample evidences indicating that wheat and barley pro­ duction was dramatically expanded as the result of the new varieties 9 and recommended practices. According to Cohen participating farmers have increased their production by 60-90 percent. Later discussion will

"*CADU, Annual Reports, CADU Publication No. 51, 1969/70, p. 21. g Norman E. Borlaug, Wheat Breeding and its Impact on World Food Supply, Proceedings, Third International Wheat Genetics Symposium. Canberra 5-9, August, 1968.

^Planning and Evaluation Section, General Agricultural Survey 1972, CADU Publication No. 82, February, 1973.

g Crop and Pasture Section, Reports on Surveys and Experiments Carried Out in 1972, CADU Publication No. 87, Asells, July, 1973, p. 15. 9 Cohen, "Effects of Green Revolution," op. cit., p. 340. TABLE 32

WHEAT AND BARLEY VARIETIES RECOMMENDED BETWEEN 1968/69-1973/74

1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73 1973/ 74 Variety qt/ha qt/ha qt/ha qt/ha qt/ha qt/ha

Wheat

Kenya 1 - - - A 27.0

Kentana Fontana X Mayo 48 31.7 36.2 24.3 - --•

Supremo K X Y 48 - 21.3 27.9 --- Yaktana 54 23.3 -• 28.8 - --

Romany 24.8 43.0 35.5 26 --

Penjamo - ■ - - - --

Salmayo - - - A A - Laketch (8156) 37.6 30.4 53.4 19.32 28.4 28.7

Langa (FW) -- - 26 34 25

Barley

Unitan -• 25.8 V* - - ■ - Mari (Local Selection) -• 29.7 A 30.4 -- Atlas - 34.3 - 35.9 - -

C-63 - — ■ — - 37.28 58.9 40.4

*Recoimnended but yield data not available - Not recommended. 194

TABLE 33

THE IMPACT OF RESEARCH ON MEXICAN WHEAT PRODUCTION

Cultivated Area Yield Production Year 10^ hectares Kg/hectare* 10 metric tons

1945 500 750 330 1946 520 800 390 1947 550 820 430 1948 590 850 500 1949 600 880 560.

1950 625 900 600 1951 635 920 640 1952 650 940 710 1953 670' 960 770 1954 680 980 800

1955 790 1110 850 1956 780' 1200 1200 1957 770 1352 1200 1958 840 1592 1337 1959a 937 1351 1265

1960 840 1417 1200 1961 816 1700 13 73 1962 777 1800 1400 1963 787 2200 1800 1964 846 2600 2200

1965 668 2368 1565 1966° 723 2250 1627 1967 860 2790 2400

aA year with heavy losses from infestations of the English grain aphid.

^Considerable loss from frosts and severe leaf rust.

*100 Kilogram = 1 quintal. TABLE 34 RECOMMENDATIONS MADE TO EXTENSION IN 1970 AND 1972

1970 1972

A. Improved varieties to be demonstrated Wheat: Asella and N. Asella Wheat: For the whole area = Kanga. At high Romany, Laketch (8 1 5 6 ), FW/68 and altitude where no rust occurs, Laketch INIA-6 6 . Romany & Laketch should may be grown. be planted 26/6-5/7, FW/ 6 8 and Barley: High sJltitude = C-63 or Beka INIA 66 about 14 days later. Low altitude = D7-02-72 South Asella Salmayo & Romany Teff: High altitudes = D7-01-35^ Low altitudes = D7-01-99 Barley: Malting barley-Atlas 57, Beka, Maize: All altitudes = H6ll Zephyr Cheak peas = should not be grown Feed barley-Unitan, C-6 3 , Mari Horsebeans = selection 20d (Dighelu) Teff: DZ-01-35I+ Field peas = Local. When available the Maize: H6 ll, H6 1 3 B, H632 introduced variety Mahandenfer Flax: Redwood, I9 6 7 -I Alemaya should be grown at medium and low Rape: Asassa selection altitudes. B. Fertilizer Soybean = (lowland only) Clark 63A or Calland Wheat: Tall varieties 100-150 kg DAP Harricotbeans = Lowland only 8156 & FW/68 150 kg DAP+50 kg urea Ethiopia 10 or Mexican lk2 Barley: Atlas 57 100 kg DAP Other varieties 150 kg DAP Teff: 100 kg DAP Maize: 200 kg DAP + 50 kg urea Flax: 100 kg DAP Rape: 100 kg DAP + 50 kg urea 195 TABLE 34 (continued)

1970 1972 c. Weed control - hand weeding Lentils = Local Crop: Wo. of hand weeding Linseed = Redwood until further notice Wheat 1-2 Rapeseed = Awasa selection Maize 2-3 Sunflower = Wot recommended to be grown until Barley, broad better market is available beans, peas, 1 flax Rape 0-1

D. Weed control - chemical control 196 197 also present indications that tend to support this estimate. Moreover, to determine the extent to which the new innovations and practices were adopted by participating farmers, the respondents were asked to indi­ cate the type of varieties they had planted between 1971 and 1973.

Farmers responses were categorized by the area let to each variety as shown in Tables 35 and 36.

Table 35 reveals that in every category the proportion of farmers planting improved wheat has been progressively increasing between 1971 and 1973. In 19 71, 136 or nearly 65 percent of the farmers had planted improved varieties whereas the proportions for 19 72 and 1973 were 76 and

83 percent respectively. The story with respect to barley is entirely different. According to Table 36 nearly all of the farmers growing barley were using local varieties and not improved ones. The noticable increase in the proportion of farmers producing barley during the three year period is perhaps due to the economic and educational incentives offered by CADU rather than improvement in the agronomic properties of barley. In fact, the experimental works on barley have lagged far be­ hind wheat and definite recommendations were not strongly made by the section according to the agronomists with whom this researcher met.

Furthermore improved barley varieties were found to be very susceptible to attacks by barley fly which partially explains the superiority of the local barleys.^

^CADU, Preliminary Final Report for the Period 1967-70, CADU Publication No. 43, p. 2. TABLE 35

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY TYPE OF WHEAT VARIETIES PLANTED

Local Varieties Improved Varieties 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 19 73 Area Planted in Hectares N% N % N % N 7. N Yo N Y

0.25 - 2 21 10 17 8.1 11 5.2 84 40 83 39.6 98 46.7 2.25 - 4 3 1.4 3 1.4 4 1.9 28 13.3 35 16.7 29 13.8 4.25 - 9 4 1.9 3 1.4 3 1.4 18 8.6 35 16.7 29 13.8

More than 9 6 3.0 6 3.0 10 5.0

Total planting 28 13.3 23 11 18 8.6 136 64.9 159 76.0 176 83.3 TABLE 36

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY TYPE OF BARLEY VARIETIES PLANTED

Local Varieties . Improved Varieties Area Planted in Hectares 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973 N 1o N 1o N 1° N $ N 1o N %

O .25 - 2 122 58 133 6 3 . 3 ll*0 6 6 . 7 3 1.1* 6 3.0 3 1.1*

2.25 - k 32 15.2 33 15.2 32 15.2 ------b .25 - 9 12 5.7 10 5.0 10 5.0 ---- 1 0.5

More than 9 6 3.0 6 3.0 7 3.3 ------

Total planting 172 8 1 . 9 182 86.7 1 8 9 90.0 3 1.1* 6 k 1.9

Total not planting 38 18.1 28 13.3 21 10.0 207 98.6 205 97 2 06 9 8 . 1

Total (planting + not planting) 210 100 210 100 210 100 210 100 210 100 210 100 199 200

The use of fertilizer and certified seeds is another aspect that was used to explain the adoption behavior of farmers in Chapter V and

elsewhere. The investigation in this regard revealed that while

greater success was enjoyed by the project in promoting the application

of fertilizer, the effort did not produce any significant change in the

use of certified seeds (see Table 37). By 1973 over 85 percent of the

respondents obtained fertilizer from CADU, while only 6 percent of the

farmers got certified seeds during the same' year. According to CADU

sources, there were four casues that were probably responsible for the

decline in the sale and distribution of certified seeds. These were

(1) farmers who believed that the price of Eth $34.00 per quintal for

certified seeds was too high, particularly in comparison with farm gate

prices for grain failed to purchase seeds, (2 ) farmers had acquired

their own seed from previous purchases, (3) a local market for the

sales of CADU seeds had developed and (4) previously released seeds were still performing well with few exceptions.^ In view of his per­

sonal observation and discussions with farmers, this researcher agrees with these explanations. On several occasions farmers had complained

to this investigator that CADU's input prices were extremely high in

relation to what farmers were receiving for their produce. The most

frustrating aspect of the situation was that initially CADU used to

give a much higher price for wheat but in later years because of the

decline in wheat market CADU was unable to get higher prices. Accord­

ing to CADU reports it was because of huge quantities of wheat imported

^CADU, Annual Reports 1971/72 and 1972/73, Vol. 2, p. 48. TABLE 37

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY USE OF FERTILIZER AND CERTIFIED SEED

______Fertilizer Certified Seed______Quantity in kg. 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973 ______H % II % N N % 1 T ~ % N %

50 2 0.1 - - 2 0 . 1 3 l.b 1 0.5 3 1.1* 100 27 13.0 32 15.2 32 15.2 30 1U .3 16 7.6 8 3.7 150 6 3.0 10 5.0 1 1 5.2 - - - - 1 0.5

200 32 15.2 be 22.0 Uo 20 19 9.0 b 1.9 - - 250 k 1-9 2 - 1 .0 9 k.3 - - 1 0.5 - - 300 20 10.0 27 1 3 . 0 27 13.0 2 1.0 2 1.0 - -

350 1 0.5 i* 1 . 9 2 0.5 ------■1*00' 1U 6 . 7 15 7.1 20 9.5 5 2.b - - - - U50 - - 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 -- - -

500 11 5.2 13 6.2 13 6.2 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0 . 5

More than 500 17 8 . 1 19 9.0 23 ' 11.0 2 1.0 - - 1 0 . 5 Total using 13U 6 3 . 8 1 6 9 80.0 180 8 5 . 7 63 30 25 12 lb 6.0 Total not using 76 36.2 ki 20 30 lb.3 Ikl 70 185 88 197 3k

Total (using + not using) 210 100 210 100 2 10 1 0 0 210 100 210 100 2 1 0 1 0 0 202 from Australia that caused the prices to go down and not necessarily 12 as the result of increased production locally. In any case to show how justified the farmers were to express disappointments the nature of the price fluctuations are shown below.

Average Price of Wheat Paid to Farmers, 1967-197313

Year Eth $/qt

1967-68 18.94 1968-69 21.44 1969-70 23.50 1970-71 22.48 1971-72 19.19 1972-73 13.13

To complicate matters, input prices were going up in an unexpected rate as the result of the energy crises felt all over the world and the fertilizer prices in Ethiopia were bound to go as high as Eth $120.0/qt. by the 1974-75 growing season from a price ranging from $38 to $45 during the previous year. All people associated with CADU were unhappy and very skeptical about the future of the project due to the nature of the input and output markets.

Otherwise, the farmers of Chilalo have proved that they are re­ ceptive to new ideas and innovations that have economic value. More and more of them were abandoning old practices such as burning soil as

13 Michael Beyene, An Analysis of CADU Credit Programme 1971/72- 1972/73, CADU Publication!^. 92, Asella, January, 1973, p. 12. 203 a measure of improvement. The study showed that only 13 percent of the farmers reported as having burnt soils during the 1971-1973 period.

When asked to comment about their experiences with fertilizers, the re­ spondents indicated favorable reactions as presented in Table 38. The table indicates that farmers follow closely with what happens as a con­ sequence of inputs like fertilizers. This is not to suggest that their observation is valid or not. It is up to the agronomist to judge this and perhaps organize relevant educational programs to help farmers make valid observations and understandings given the circumstance that sur­ round their operation.

TABLE 38

FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FARMERS BY COMMENTS ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF FERTILIZER

Do n ' t No Improves/ Know Effect Controls Total Effects N % N % N % N 7.

Effect on fertility 7 3.3 19 9.0 184 87.6 210 100

Effect on yield 1 0.5 12 5.7 197 93.8 210 100

Effect on pest 28 13.3 139 62.2 43 20.5 210 100

Effect on disease ' 24 11.4 159 75.7 27 12.9 210 100

With regard to the other objectives of the section not discussed so far, this researcher has observed some development. Continuous physical and chemical analysis of soils and crops were in progress-. The section has reportedly developed well established procedures for seed 204 testing and control and if this researcher's observations are correct, the laboratory set-up was very impressive. Each year sample of crops are analyzed for planting values before they are distributed to farm­ ers. Nevertheless the section's work in the area of soil erosion and control was not quite visible. Finally, the section collaborates with the Extension and Training Department in the training of the field staff.^

Thus in view of the analysis presented in this section it can be concluded that the Crop and Pasture Section has accomplished satis­ factory results in developing and influencing farmers to adopt new in­ novations and ideas. No major deviations from original objectives were either reported or observed by this investigator. Poor communication was the major problem reported by the section. Otherwise activities were progressing according to plan.

Agricultural Engineering Section

The Agricultural Engineering Section is involved with research and development of improved farm implements. Its specific objectives are stated as follows: (1) development of tools for soil prepara­ tion, (2 ) production of tested implements and tools for distribution to farmers, (3) train Extension staff in the use of new implements and

(4) train local artisans in the production and maintenance of new implements.^

^CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, op. cit., pp. 7-8.

1 5 Ibid., p. 19. 205

A number of farm implements were considered in the experimental trials for subsequent development. The trials were conducted in the context of specific farming techniques in which each implement is used.

The farming techniques implied are those aspects of soil tillage and crop handling. With respect to soil tillage the focus has been on soil and water conservation, hoeing, seed saving, and weed control, among other things. In crop handling the areas of concentration include har- 16 vesting, threshing, winnowing, transportation and grain storage.

Consequently the following implements were included in the several ex­ perimental studies. They are (1) mould board ploughs, (2) spike-tooth harrows, (3) sowing bags, (4) wheel barrows, (5) local hoes, (6 ) ox­ carts, (7) hand sieves, (8 ) scythe, (9) simple winnower (blower), (10) pole stove, and (1 1 ) sowing bags.^

The evidence obtained regarding the accomplishment of the section was not as striking as the section previously discussed although cer­ tain possibilities were ascertained from the experimental trials. Most of the implements mentioned above were modified and/or constructed in

CADU with the exception of the mouldboard plough. The mouldboard plough was actually designed and constructed by the Ethio-Metal Tool Factory in Addis Ababa. CADU,'however, took the bulk of the production (total production in 1971 was 500) and distributed them in the project area

16 Implement Research Section, "Progress Report No. II," CADU Publication No. 52, p. 1.

^ C A D U Publication No. 43, op. cit., pp. 3-5. 206

after they were tried and demonstrated. However, the farmers' reaction

at least on the basis of the sample included in the study, was not

quite favorable. When farmers were asked to indicate the problems

they observed with the mouldboard plough several of them said that it was heavy for the oxen. Only 36 persons or 17 percent of the farmers responded in this manner and the rest failed to give any indication.

On the other hand, harrows were relatively successful when re­ ported as having been purchased and used on the farms. When they were asked to comment on the efficiency of the harrows 107 farmers or 51 percent of the respondents indicated that they were quite efficient.

Only 6 people or nearly 3 percent of the respondents said the harrows were inefficient while 46 percent of the farmers failed to give any

indication. Similarly ox-carts were rated efficient by 27 percent of

the farmers who responded to the question, 2 percent said they were

inefficient and close to 71 percent of the farmers did not respond.

Threshers were popular among 30 percent of the farmers. The reasons

given by those farmers who expressed some interest in harrows, ox­

carts or threshers said that they could not get them because of the high prices charged by CADU. Interestingly enough these implements were built or modified in the case of the threshing machine right on 18 the CADU farm unlike the mouldboard plough.

With respect to experimental results the section has produced

some valuable information. From review of the research reports in this

Implement Research Section, Progress Report No. Ill, CADU Publication No. 79, p. 13. 207 area, this investigator was able to locate the following conclusions drawn from studies conducted prior to 1971 and are quoted here as they appeared in the report.^

1. The local plough can preferably be replaced by an ox- drawn mouldboard plough in combination with a spike- tooth harrow. Although no significant differences in yield have been proved, the trend is positive for the introduced method which also saves around 50 percent in working time for man and oxen in comparison with the local method.

2. A changeover from the old method of covering the seed with the local plough to the use of a spike-tooth harrow has in the trials shown a remarkable increase of the yield. A farmer who is not using mouldboard plough benefits from using a harrow for covering of the seed.

3. The traditional time for the first ploughing of cul­ tivated land within the project area is May. The trials clearly indicated that an earlier date for the first ploughing is beneficial.

4. Storage of grain under conditions prevailing in the project area is not a problem if the storage period is limited to the time December-September.

5. Bulk storage in steel-sheet constructions is a prob­ lem due to condensation of water if the storage period is extended into October. The water con­ densation creates optimal living condition for fungi, bacteria and insects.

6. Storage in bags in any type of a shelter is probably a possible method, only the bags can be protected from rodents and rainfall.

This investigator was in the project area at the time when the section head was preparing a summary report covering the entire period

19Ibid., pp. 13, 19. 208 *

1967-1974. He was able to interview the section head and what he gath­ ered was an account of total disappointment. It seemed that after 1970 or so, the section was unable to move ahead with its objectives. The adoption of improved implements by Chilalo farmers had been very low compared with other innovations as shown in earlier discussions. The interest of the farmers with many of the implements tested and dis­ tributed to the farmers excepting the ox-cart and the threshing machine was very minimal. According to the section head, technologically the threshing machine introduced to the area was quite successful but the limiting factor for widespread use had been the price and certain prob­ lems associated with maintenance and low capacity. The section head estimated that over 3 1/2 million quintals of grain were produced in the project area annually, but the threshing service made available was only for 13,000 quintals. He said cheaper ways of producing threshers have to be found. Furthermore, the investigator was able to gather that the demand for ox-carts was in excess of what CADU has been able to produce through the section.

The outstanding problems indicated to this investigator were (a) lack of qualified staff members and technicians, (b) difficulties of getting raw materials according to desired specifications and (c) problems associated with the popularization and systematic distribution 20 of the implements within the project area. Thus progress has yet to come in the resolution of these problems and others implied in the above discussion if the objectives are to be attained.

20 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 209

Animal Husbandry and Breeding Section

The study did not sharply focus on the activities related to developments in livestock production. Rather the emphasis was on the technologies advanced in the area of crop production. But since live­ stock production is an important traditional enterprise in the Chilalo region it was felt appropriate to treat the subject very briefly by way of examining, the contributions made by CADU in this regard.

The objectives of the Animal Husbandry and Cattle Breeding Section is stated as the establishment of optimal breeding, feeding and manage­ ment methods for dairy cattle, sheep and poultry as reported in the

1971-72 operational programs. Originally the emphasis was placed on the 21 production of meat and milk with cattle only. The activities directed towards this end over the years include (1) research and experimenta­

tion, (2) multiplication of grade cattle, (3) disease control, (4) semen 22 production, (5) cattle Extension Service and milk collection schemes.

The outstanding effort made by the section was the introduction of crossbred cattle to livestock areas of Chilalo. According to CADU reports, experimental results indicated the inferior capacity of the indigenous cattle with respect to milk production estimated at 200-300 23 liters per cow per year. Moreover the same report claimed that even

21 SIDA Project Preparation Team, CADU Report No. 11, op. cit., p. 4:1.

22 Persson/AGY, Summary of Research Activities at Animal and Hus­ bandry and Breeding Section (unpublished mimeographed report 20-4-73), pp. 1-3. 23 CADU Publication No. 43, op. cit., p. 5. 210 with improved management and feeding methods the local breeds proved to be low producers. On the other hand, increased production in terms of yield was reported with the introduction of two exotic breeds, namely, Friesian and Jersey. These breeds were crossed with the local cattle and the crosses were upgraded in terms of milk production as well as the size of the animal, with the Friesian crosses proving 24 superiority which led to the abandonment of the Jersey breed.

Experimental trials with respect to poultry and sheep were started lately and results have to come up yet. The indications so far are that feeding systems for the lambs were determined with some certainty 25 according to the reports.

In terms of other accomplishments the section head indicated to this investigator that a number of the cross-breeds were distributed to the farmers through the Extension Service since 1970.

It might be appropriate to include brief comments about the Vet­ erinary Department here as it is a part of the overall program of animal production.

At the Veterinary Department, the specific objectives pursued are specified as (l) increased knowledge of prevailing livestock diseases,

(2) suppression of livestock diseases through preventive services, (3) increasing the number of cross-bred cattle through artificial insemina­ tion, (4) production of semen from cross-bred bulls, (5) creation of a

Persson, p. 2.

^^CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 9. 211 cadre of inseminators and vaccinators and of Extension staff trained in veterinary aspects, and (6) control of milk hygiene*

The semen laboratory was the only institution of its kind in the country at the time of the study as claimed by the head of the Animal

Husbandry Section. The Veterinary Department provides AI services to farmers at nominal prices. For example, in 1971-72 116 farmers had had their cows served by the AI scheme and this writer observed a number of farmers applying for the same service when he was conducting the interviews. At that time, according to the information he gathered, over 800 farmers were participating. It seemed to him that farmers were really interested in the program but he did not examine the nature of it because of limitations of time and other considerations. Other activities of the department include vaccinations for a number of cat­ tle problems such as rinderpest, GBPP, Anthrax, brucellosis and others.

In 19 72-73 276,663 vaccinations were carried out as compared to

167,119 vaccinations in 1971-72.

Again, although the problem of livestock production in the area is still formidable, the steps initiated so far appear to be very im­ pressive. There are problems of staff and materials that require special attention as in other sectors of the CADU project. The veter­ inarians have indicated to this writer that the absence of specialists for laboratory work in the diagnostic unit had imposed considerable limitations in the investigation of livestock diseases.

Finally, it should be mentioned that the production and sale of grade cattle and other services related to livestock production are handled through the Cattle Breeding Section. At the time of the study 212 . there were over 3,700 cattle,mainly dairy, at the station in Gobe where the operation was managed in collaboration with the Animal Husbandry

Section and the Veterinary Department,,

Extension and Training Department

The Extension and Training Department is the engine that moves the package of innovations developed through experimental trials. Its pri­ mary unit of concern is the first main goal of CADU, i.e. the achievement of economic and social development through the creation of awareness, understanding and active involvement of the target population. Due to the nature of the research problem set forth in this study, the investi­ gation was concentrated on two components of the Department, namely, agricultural Extension and training. The Home Economics unit and the

Information and Public Relations Sections are discussed only briefly.

Agricultural Extension

The agricultural extension unit had experienced such vigorous geo­ graphical expansion that by 1971-72 thp entire project area was covered.

When this study was conducted, there were 30 Extension areas pursuing the following objectives of the department. These are (l) adoption by farmers of new products, methods and inputs for agricultural development through demonstrations, advise and assistance with respect to credit ap­ plications and (2) improved knowledge of agricultural conditions through 26 an annual analysis of demonstration results.

CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 19. 213

CADU diffusion strategy has been described in earlier chapters.

The model farmers have been viewed as key channels of communication.

They were intended to facilitate interaction between the project and the target population by way of which new innovations and ideas were to be transferred to the small farmers. Consequently all Extension agents carried out the agricultural programs by working primarily with the model farmers throughout the development years.

According to CADU reports, nearly all of the package of innova­ tions intensively demonstrated in the area were planned for the model farmers. A preliminary report that was prepared covering 1967-70 had to say the following:

In general the farmers at this stage with few ex­ ceptions do not search for possibilities to develop their agriculture. Due to the high rate of illiteracy it is not possible to describe the possibilities in writ­ ing. Although one may awaken the interests by dis­ cussions the farmers must see the results of the in­ novations with their own eyes before getting convinced. In order to avoid the impression of something foreign it is best to establish the demonstration on the farmers own land and with his own help. This was the basic philosophy of the Extension approach.^7

If the first statement included in the above quotation is assumed correct, then it can be said on the basis of the findings of the study that Chilalo farmers have shown dramatic change in their behavior.

The analysis in Chapter V has clearly shown that farmers were searching for information out in the Extension center and demonstration areas.

It was found that their adoption was primarily as a consequence of

27 CADU Publication No. 43, op. cit., p. 7. 214 contacts made by them through visits and attendance of field demon­ strations. They did not appear to appreciate what was going on in the plots of the model farmers. The Extension agent and his set up at the

Center remained to be the crucial sources of technical knowledge and innovations. The frequency of contact between ordinary farmers and model farmers was found to be small. In total, nearly 75 percent of the respondents said that they had not made any contact with model farmers.

Regarding actual accomplishments, during 1971-72 and 1972-73, 300 and 380 model farmers respectively were said to have been exposed to a package of innovations which included demonstrations on improved soil 28 29 preparation, fertilizer, weed and pest control for wheat. ’ During these two years, a total of 280 and 300 field days were organized throughout the project area attracting over 12,500 farmers during

1971-72 and 15,000 during 1972-73.

The development of grass-roots organization briefly described in

Chapter III along with other organizational matters was going on pro-’ gressively. By 1973, 390 model farmers and 22 Extension area committees had been established and the total number of model farmers was brought 30 to over 400 in that year. As noted in Chapter III, with details given in Appendix E the model farmer area committees' were established to

?8 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. I, _o£. cit., p. 19.

29 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, op.cit., p. 19.

30 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 20. 215

serve as a laison between the project and the target population. So

far the primary responsibility that has been discharged by this group

of farmers was in the area of screening and processing credit appli­

cations which numbered 17,000 in 1972-73 as against 13,000 reported 31 during the previous year. This role could undoubtedly result in some

displeasures by farmers whose applications might be rejected and con­

sequently disrupt other essential relations between model farmers and

regular farmers.

Finally, a brief comment about CADU's agricultural school is in

order. The school was established with the collaboration of EPID (Ex­

tension and Project Implementation Department of the Ministry of Ag­

riculture) . It began its operation in July, 1970 when 32 trainees were 32 enrolled. The primary objective of the school is the training of

village level workers. Over the years several changes and adjustments were going on in terms of the length of training and in 1972 it was

planned to have 22 months of training consisting of six months initial

theoretical training followed by 12 months of practical training and a

final four months of review period at the Training Center. According

to the reports examined by this writer, a course for 32 assistant Ex­

tension agents, 22 assistant marketing foremen, 22 women's Extension

agents and six cooperative- agents was offered during 1971-72. Simi- 33 larly, about the same number of agents were trained in 1972-73.

31Ibid.

3^CADU,Annual Reports, 1970-71, CADU Publication No. 65, p. 41.

33 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. II, o p . cit., p. 24. 216

Moreover, during that year inservice training was given for 50 Ex­ tension supervisors and assistant supervisors from EPID. Finally it should also be pointed out occasional seminars were organized for model farmers.

In conclusion it may be said that the Extension and Training De­ partment has pursued its objectives according to plan with minor de­ viations. However, to make its efforts more viable and rewarding the department needs to review its underlying policies especially with re­ gard to the training and utilization of model farmers. It is not ad­ vocated here that the basic strategy should be abandoned. But rather it is a call for some measures by which ordinary farmers could be en­ couraged to make use of the facilities and information made available through the model farmer approach. Above all the model farmers must be proved competent to handle educational matters before their active participation is enlisted.

The Marketing Division

The CADU Marketing Division was established as an autonomous body during 1971-72 development year. The primary purpose for creating this and the other two divisions, namely, seed and cattle breeding, was to facilitate the gradual transfers of responsibilities assumed by CADU to the target population before the phasing out of the project which was expected to be sometime by 1980. The primary tasks that the Marketing

Division was charged to accomplish were (l) establishment of economic incentives by insuring market outlets and fair prices including premium for improved quality, (2) provision of inputs recommended by the 217

Extension and Training Department, (3) assistance in the acquisition of such inputs through the provision of credit, (4) promotion of capital accumulation for development through saving schemes and (5) assistance 34 in the creation and management of cooperative societies.

In line with the first three objectives mentioned above the in­ tegration of production credit with marketing was given high priority.

Accordingly the Division has been conducting aggressive campaigns di­ rected toward the promotion of input sales and purchases of products from the farmers. There were both encouraging and disappointing re­ sults as will be illustrated using the transactions made during 1971-72 and 1972-73. The volume of grains purchased by the Division during 35 36 these two periods are shown in Table 39. ’

TABLE 39 GRAIN PURCHASES MADE BY THE MARKETING DIVISION DURING 1971-72 AND 1972-73

1971-72 1972-73 Quantity Average Price Quantity Average Price Crop qts. Eth $ qts. Eth $

Wheat 93,887• 19.19 52,872 13.13 Barley 12,149 10.28 3,050 10.10 Flax 3,327 16.50 9 18.22 Peas 1,068 16.50 159 12.80 Rape 904 14.90 3,817 16.70 Maize 1,900 8.14 4,250 11.65

3 A CADU Publication No. 77, op. cit., p. 41.

"^Ibid., pp. 46-48.

36 CADU Publication No. 77, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 46. 218

As can be seen from the table, wheat accounted for the greatest share of the transaction. The total values of the purchases were re­ ported as Eth $2,028,840 and Eth $849,322 respectively for the two pe­ riods in question. Contrary to the expectations and price forecasts made by the Division, wheat prices fell drastically during 1971-72 and

CADU was put under severe losses. As a consequence of this the Di­ vision reduced its campaigns the following year as there was a big volume of unsold wheat from previous purchases. Moreover the price of­ fered to the farmers even for the smaller purchases made during the next year was reduced considerably which agitated anger and disappoint­ ments among the farmers. The total impact of the situation has been discussed earlier in relation to the adoption of inputs by the farmers and needs no elaboration at this point. The most affected input in the final analysis was the sale of seeds. The impact on fertilizers was less dramatic as can be seen from Tables 40 and 41.

As the two tables clearly indicate, credit sales were drastically lowered with respect to seeds and fertilizer. From this, it would ap­ pear logical to assume that farmers were forced to use their own sources of seed by price fluctuations and not just because of poor performance of seeds supplied previously. Given sufficient pricing adjustments, the farmer still remains as a potential user of certified seeds.

Keeping the above problems aside, it may be concluded that gen­ erally the Marketing Division has made significant contribution towards the achievement of the main CADU goals. By and large there has been a 219

TABLE 40

CADU FERTILIZER SALES DURING 1971-72 AND 1972-73

Quantity 1971-72 Quantity 1971-72 Type of Sale Quintals Quintals

Credit Sales 34,563 32,051 Cash Sales 5,139 6,966 Sales to Bilalo Coop 627 — Transfer to A.I.D. Bank 7,420 -- Disposed by AIMS — 13,748 Internal Transfer 1,936 1,460 Loss 23 25 Stock 51,304 69,440

TABLE 41

CADU SALE OF SEEDS, 1971-72 AND 1972-73

Quantity 1971-72 Quantity 1972-73 Type of Sale Quintals Quintals

Credit Sales 4,659 1,640 Cash Sales 740 888 Sales to Bilalo Coop 5 -- Sales as Grain 6,404 3,093 Internal Transfer 46 Loss 2 1 Stock on 7.7.72 4,342 3,022

Source: CADU Publication No. 77. 220 sizable increase in credit participation as the following figures dem­ onstrate in Table -42.

TABLE 42

TOTAL NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS IN CADU CREDIT PROGRAM, 1967-68 AND 1972-73

Year Number of Loan Agreements Amount of Credit Eth $

1967-68 189 15,700.00 1968-69 868 158,461.00 1969-70 4,769 502,875.00 1970-71 14,146 1,437,517.00 1971-72 12,642 1,063,120.00 1972-73 13,302 958,500.00

The highest participation was obtained in 1970-71 when farmers . got good prices for their products. The price of wheat at that time was Eth $22.48 as compared to Eth $13.13 in 1972-73. The 1973-74 figures were not released when the study was made, but from interviews conducted with the head of the Division, this writer was led to believe that participation had in fact gone up to over 25,000 farmers. The Di­ vision head claimed improved efficiency in the administration of credit more than anything else.

The discussion on the contributions made by the Marketing Division cannot be complete without some reference to the effort made in ad­ vancing cooperative movements in the project area. But unfortunately there isn't much positive to say about success in this area. From all 221 indications the program did not move forward according to expectations.

When this writer was conducting the study, there was only one recog­ nized cooperative organization located at Bilalo although a number of others were in the making. Nevertheless since the collapse of the previous regime, it is reported that over 150 cooperative societies are formed in Chilalo in accordance with the socialist system declared by the Provisional Government recently. This writer, however, does not have details to make further comments.

Farmers1 Appraisal of CADU

Farmers' attitudes towards the project were examined to see how the project's contribution was identified and assessed by the target population. Farmers were asked to respond to several questions aimed at their impressions about the results of the program. As Neilson pointed out, what people think and feel has an important influence on their behavior that may determine the continuity and/or expansion of the program. 37

Farmers' responses to the questions raised in relation to the several aspects of the program are presented in Tables 43 to 48.

On the whole, the respondents thought that the CADU program was very helpful to them. According to Table A3, farmers with negative im­ pression about the project were few. There were only 12 respondents who said not very helpful or not at all helpful, whereas the vast majority

37 Neilson, The Change Agent, op. cit., p. 69. TABLE 43

FARMERS' APPRAISAL OF THE HELPFULNESS OF THE PROGRAM TO THEM PERSONALLY

N %

Very helpful 1 7 3 8 2 . 4

Helpful 16 1 7 . 6

Somewhat helpful 9 4 . 3

Hot very helpful 6 2 . 9

Not at all helpful 6 2 . 9

Total 2 1 0 1 0 0 . 0

TABLE 4 4 FARMERS' APPRAISAL OF THE HELPFULNESS OF THE MODEL FARMERS TO THE SMALL FARMERS

N i

Not helpful 8 5 40.5

Helpful . 81 38.6

No response 4 4 21.0

Total 2 1 0 100.0 TABLE 45

FARMERS' APPRAISAL OF IMPROVEMENT IN THEIR ABILITY TO FARM

N 1o

Ability has not changed 6 2.9

Ability has improved 185 88.1

Ability has declined 16 7.6

No response 3 l . k

Total 210 100.0

TABLE 46

FARMERS' APPRAISAL OF PROGRESS MADE IN ACCOMPLISHING FARMING GOALS

N 1o

No progress 11 5.2

Increased production 190 90.5

Increased farm'size 115 5^.8

Increased income 117 55.7

Reduced debt 71 33-8 TABLE 47

KIND OF FARMERS RESPONDENTS SAID HAD RECEIVED THE MOST HELP FROM CADU

N 1o

Small owner cultivators 139 66.2

Tenants 126 60.0

Larger farmers 58 27.6

Model farmers 100 47.6

Older farmers 76 36.2

Younger farmers 75 35.7

All farmers 35 16.7

TABLE 48 HOW WELL FARMERS FELT THEY WERE SATISFIED WITH. THEIR ACCOMPLISHMENT IN FARMING

N %

I am well satisfied with my achievement 178 84.8

I am satisfied with my achievement 18 8.6

I am somewhat satisfied with my achievement 7 3-3

I am dissatisfied with my achievement 7 3.3

Total 210 100.0 225 of them indicated the helpfulness of the project. A question was also asked to find how the respondents felt about the helpfulness of the model farmers. The responses were almost equally divided (see Table

44). Over 40 percent of them said model farmers were not helpful while nearly 39 percent said they were helpful. Twenty one percent of the respondents failed to give any indication in this regard. This finding is somewhat consistent with those reported in Chapter V with respect to the nature of contacts ordinary farmers had with model farmers. CADU has to yet come up with some measures to improve the situation as im­ plied by earlier discussions.

Table 45 presents farmers* responses to the question, nIn what ways do you feel that your ability to farm has improved during the last three years?" As can be seen from the table, it was the feeling of the majority of the respondents that some improvement has occurred in their ability to farm. In this connection the farmers were also asked to in­ dicate the kind of progress they had made in accomplishing their farm­ ing goals. Their responses are in Table 46. Furthermore, Table 47 shows how much satisfied farmers were with their accomplishments.

The data reveal positive indications implying that by and large the Project had made substantial contribution to the area and that farmers were generally impressed. This investigator has made observa­ tions to make him believe that the small farmers were extremely dis­ pleased and frustrated with problems of social and economic origin such as government policies on land related issues, input and output prices and the general exploitative nature of the local administration. 226

Otherwise the small farmers were undoubtedly convinced that CADU was created to safeguard and promote the interests of peasants. This ob­ servation may be appreciated with a close examination of Table 48 where farmers' responses to the question, "What kind of people received the most help from CADU?" The majority of them said small owner cultivators and tenants. This is a clear indication that the project had impres­ sively popularized its overall mission among the peasants.

Impressions of Extension Agents, Supervisors and Department/Division/Section Heads

The Extension agents are the backbone of the intensive program being operated at CADU. Their importance has been clearly established by the findings of this study. In this section an attempt is made to briefly expose the impressions these agents and their superiors have about the project and its philosophical foundations. As previously discussed, data for this purpose were collected through personal inter­ views and questionnaires sent out to the field staff by this investi­ gator.

From data supplied by the agents, it was understood that all of them moved into the job after they received training at CADU's agricul­ tural school. The data further revealed that most of them came with rural backgrounds. It was not surprising to find that all of them had had some high school education as it is a requirement of the position they were holding. When they were asked about the education they received at CADU, their impressions were not quite positive. They wished they had more intensive training in both the theoretical and ' 227 practical aspects of peasant agriculture to competently handle the challenging job of rural development.

Regarding the philosophy and mission of the project, these agents were remarkably positive. Furthermore, this writer has seen enough of the agents to convince him that they understood the whole idea behind the package concept but were limited by such factors as transportation, illiteracy of the farmers and the size of the area they were assigned to work. Nevertheless if their responses are true they seemed to derive personal satisfaction from the program in spite of their frequently ex­ pressed frustration stemming largely from supervisory and administrative circles. They repeatedly indicated to this writer that the supervisory and administrative staff were not quite sympathetic with their situ­ ation. Otherwise they said that they had built up sufficient rapport with the target population in their respective areas.

In the view of the agents who responded to the questions asked by this investigator, the following were among the weaknesses of the staff stationed at the headquarters: (l) power struggle among the leaders,

(2) poor understanding .about the challenges of rural life, and (3) no consideration for the field staff in terms of guidance, training and personal comforts. When they.were asked to point out the inconveniences they were faced with in terms of personal comforts, housing, transpor­ tation, and salary issues were among the frequent problems cited.

As the overall reaction of the agents towards the leadership did not seem quite favorable in view of the above observations, it ought to be a matter of concern for the administration. It is in the hands of 228 the field agents that in the final analysis the destiny of the program rests. The morale of the agents must be kept high. Needless to say that their quest for guidance and better training is well justified from what this investigator saw in the project area.

The impressions of the supervisors were quite parallel to those of the agent. At the meeting the researcher made brief introductory remarks about his study and invited the supervisors to comment frankly about the project as they saw it. As in the case of the Extension agents, the supervisors were solidly behind the goals and policies of the project. Like the Extension agents, they expressed some reserva­ tions about the performance of the staff at the headquarters. In their opinion (1) headquarters personnel who were in the administrative branch had very little appreciation of field activities, (2) responses were rarely made to suggestions, recommendations and complaints from the field staff for whom they were responsible and thus supervisors were placed on the spot, (3) no arrangement was in existence that would facilitate cooperation and coordination among the field personnel par­ ticularly between Extension agents and marketing agents. In this re­ gard it was indicated that personal conflicts of the heads of the two branches of the project were more responsible to intensify the problem than differences at the local level. Finally the supervisors insisted that more matured and well trained agents were necessary and therefore educational programs must be offered more frequently than was the case.

With regard to the target population the supervisors expressed complete satisfaction with the cooperative and receptive attitude of 229 th e small farmers. Had it not been for the support of the small farm­ ers, it would have not been possible to stand fast against rich land­ owners, commercial farmers and other local notables.

The last but by no means the least group of people interviewed were Department/Division/Section heads. Fifteen persons directing the several branches of the project relevant to this study were included.

They were individually interviewed by the investigator on matters of importance to the Project.

The first question raised was on the staffing situation. The shortage of qualified staff was the outstanding problem identified by the heads. The composition and size of the staff in each Department/

Division/Section are presented in Table 49 to give the general picture of the situation. High level staff are generally those with degrees and holders of lower diplomas are categorized as middle level while locally trained and employed people are classified low level or simply as other categories.

Generally speaking, it appeared to this writer that the Depart­ ment/Division/Section heads upheld the ideals and policies of the or­ ganization with few exceptions. Three people expressed their disagree­ ment with the CADU credit policies which in effect excluded the par­ ticipation of big farmers from all CADU activities. They felt that the policies should not have been as stiff as they were stated and imple­ mented. According to this group some form of link would have helped in easing the social conflict that was building up in the area. 230

TABLE 49

COMPOSITION AND SIZE OF CADU STAFF

Staff Size rv • • /<3 High Middle Low Department/Division/Section Level Level Level

Project Direction Planning and Evaluation 4 1 3 Munesa Operation Unit 1 2 16

Legal 1 - 4 Experimentation Crop and Pasture 6 6 14 Agricultural Engineering 1 3 28 Animal Husbandry and Breeding 3 3 58 Forestry 1 2 8 Extension and Training Agricultural Extension 2 2 76

Home Economics (unit) - 3 32 Training - 5 3 Information and Public Relations 1 3 5 Infrastructure Road 24 84 350 Water Development 2 6 16

Survey 1 1 -

Building 84 36 - Common Services Accounts 1 1 4 Administration . 1 2 -

Personnel 1 2 - Purchase and Stores 1 2 15 Transport and Garage 1 4 45 Staff Clinic 3 3 2

Catering - 1 32 Marketing 4 12 134 Seed Division 1 2 38 Cattle Breeding 1 2 74 Regarding the overall administration of the project, the heads were clearly divided. There were those who strongly felt that every­ thing was going on well and according to plan while others adamantly opposed to the ways administrative matters were handled by the Project

Director and his close associates. The latter group talked about the emergence of sharp conflict among the staff for reasons very unrelated to project goals. Their frequent comments revolved around the follow­ ing dysfunctional leadership behavior: (l) favoritism under the guize of progressive outlook determined administrative decisions, (2) social consciousness among a certain group of people was being used as an ex­ cuse for promoting and employing school friends and other relations and

(3) project administration strictly follows what one head described as a think-tank approach. What he meant by this was that administrators more often than not depend exclusively on group decisions and recom­ mendations. He felt that at times it was necessary for individuals to provide leadership on their own when certain circumstances demand.

It was interesting for this investigator to note that supporters of the administration by and large tended to deny sharp conflict emerging among the staff. In their opinion a sense of commitment and high morale among the staff was building up rather than was deteriorat­ ing as claimed by the other group. This investigator tried to check if there were essential difference in the understanding and/or interpre­ tation the basic philosophy and principles of CADU. The differences were not that great as he probed into the orientation of each inter­ viewee. But there was a subtle characterization of one group by the other as responsible elements for any failure in the progress of 232 the Project. This was by no means a happy story for this writer to learn.

One other subject that was raised by this investigator was about the discussions that were going on at that time concerning the phasing out and the possible integration of the project with EPID (Extension and Project Implementation Department). With the exception of three section heads all the people interviewed felt that it was too early to consider the phasing out of the project. They felt that what the project had achieved by then was only the economic aspect with the social development goals lagging far behind expectations. In the words of one section head, "CADU must be allowed to show its total impact on all of the main goals originally declared." So far the limiting fac­ tors had been social and structural constraints imposed by national policies rather than the weaknesses of the CADU strategy according to another respondent. However, three section heads representing the core of the CADU program felt that the organization had unnecessarily limited its scope of development to the project area losing sight of some of the original intentions and operational plans. These people were referring to the third main goal which states: "the creation of possibilities for the application elsewhere in Ethiopia of the exper­ iences gained by CADU. They favored immediate transformation of the comprehensive program to the minimum package type so that influences could be spread on a wider scale. In spite of the scattered differences of opinion mentioned above, the general impression of the CADU staff may be said to be very favor­ able towards the objectives of CADU. Almost every one has realized that while there had been ample evidences suggesting that CADU's progress towards the attainment of economic goals was commendable, its failure in the social development area was a matter of great concern and dis­ appointment. Aggressive push towards this end was called for by the people who were interviewed.

Summary

To summarize, this chapter provided some insight as to the ef­ fectiveness of the project at least in terms of the expressed objectives by the several sections of CADU. Generally speaking, each branch of the project strictly followed the spirit behind the plans of operation and objectives without much deviation. This is just a confirmation of what has been reported in several of CADU's publications and annual reports.

More specifically, the innovations developed by the Experimentation

Department wi?:h the exception of the Agricultural Engineering Section were success; disseminated in the project area. The main inno­ vations that g ,r. to the farms of the target population were improved varieties of wheat as well as fertilization and cultural practices of the major grain crops. It was also noted that Extension agents intro­ duced these innovations primarily by working with the model farmers.

Nevertheless from the findings of the study the model farmers were found to have played less role in influencing the adoption behavior of farmers. It appeared that direct contacts made either through 234

individual visits or by way of field days with the Extension agents

appeared to be more responsible for the adoption of innovations in the

Chilalo area.

Some problems were also made obvious by the analysis presented in

this chapter. The most limiting factor affecting the participation of

the farmers was the erratic behavior of the grain market as acknowl­

edged in the CADU annual reports and also sharply expressed by the

farmers themselves. While input prices were going up by unpredictable

rates, the prices offered to the farmer for his grain were lowering

thus causing frustrations among all concerned people. Otherwise the

farmers were receptive and appreciative of what was going on, on their

behalf. Their appraisal of the program showed that CADU had enjoyed

the expressed support of the target population. In this regard, CADU's

objective which states: to give the local population an increased 37 awareness and responsibility for development work, is achieved to

some extent in the context of what has been reported in this chapter.

Finally, Extension agents, supervisors and Department/Division/

Section heads were found to be favoring the conduct and operational plans of the program with few exceptions. The outstanding problem ob­

served from their expression was some administrative difficulty linked primarily with personnel matters. Institutional constraints arising

from problem of landownership and the feudal structure of the society were reported as important limiting factors.

37 Cohen, The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit as a Program Intermediary for Foreign Assistance in Ethiopia, op. cit., p. 11. CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purposes of this chapter are: (l) to present a general sum­ mary of the backgrounds, methodology and findings of the study, (2) to offer conclusions on the basis of these findings and (3) to forward recommendations aimed at resolving observed deficiencies and strengthen­ ing the highlights of the CADU project in the development and adminis­ tration of package programs.

Summary

Background

Ethiopia has been described as a land of small farmers engaged in the production of crops and livestock. It is one of the'least developed countries in spite of its substantial agrarian potential. Geographical and historical factors were distinguished as the outstanding problems of stagnation in Ethiopian agriculture, which is the dominant economic activity. The productivity of the peasantry, which accounts for over

85 percent of the population, has been very low primarily for reasons of social constraints stemming from the feudal structure of the society and the nature of the undeveloped technology. Traditional methods of cultivation with ox-drawn ploughs, hoes and digging sticks are still in wide use.

235 236

Recognizing the importance of peasant agriculture in Ethiopia,

integrated rural development policies were adopted for the Third Five

Year Development Plan to activate this sector of the Ethiopian economy and produce enough to feed the already hungry people, victimized by deadly natural and political events. The theoretical basis for the adoption of the package concept is reflected in the following CADU statement:

Broadly speaking and reduced to fundamentals, given the limited resources; the choice is between an approach that attempts to distribute the resources over as wide an area and to as many peasants as possible, or to con­ centrate the resources on a sharply limited geographic region where they can have the greatest impact. The Government has chosen the second alternative. It is be­ lieved that such an approach would have a much greater stimulating effect on the economy. Secondly, the severe constraints of trained and skilled staff, and the present poorly developed infrastructural framework dictate con­ centration of efforts. Even where the available data is not sufficient to warrant the selection of one region over another, certain economies are bound to ensue by virtue of the concentration of activities and resources in a limited area.l

Thus, the Chilalo region was selected on the basis of the follow­ ing assumptions: (1) natural conditions existed in Chilalo suitable for intensive production, (2) transportation and marketing facilities were available to prime up the development process, (3) the land tenure conditions were relatively favorable when compared to conditions pre­ vailing elsewhere in the country, (4) the people of the area seemed desirous of progress and (5) possibilities exist to expand the exper- 2 ience gained into a larger area in Arusi.

^CADU, Tentative CADU Programme 1970-75, op. cit., p. 3.

2 Cohen, The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, op. cit., p. 10. 237

The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, CADU, was formally established in September 1967 following the agreement reached between the Ethiopian and Swedish Governments to that effect. Sweden offered considerable assistance to insure the implementation of the regional development program. Consequently, drawing upon knowledge gathered through preliminary survey of the local situation; and international experiences, mainly from India and Pakistan, a package of activities were designed in pursuit of three main goals. They were (l) the achievement of economic and social development throughout the project area, (2) the continued finding of suitable methods for bringing about agricultural development in Ethiopia when applied in an integrated manner and (3) the creation of possibilities for the application in 3 Ethiopia of the experiences gained by CADU. The activities included in the package were: research, Agricultural Extension, provision of . inputs, credit, marketing of outputs, training, provision of infra­ structure and other facets of rural development.

Research Design and Methodology

The general format of the research was essentially ex posto facto study. It was designed in search of answers to three key questions set forth about the CADU project. The questions were: (1) To what ex­ tent were the package of innovations designed to promote rural develop­ ment in Chilalo on target and progressing toward the intended goals?,

(2) What changes have been brovight about among peasant farmers

3 CADU, Annual Report 1970-71, op. cit., pp. 1-2. 238 participating in the package programs with respect to their adoption behavior?, and (3)' What variables are closely related to the adoption of technological innovations?

The sample used in this investigation was small farmers who have been participating in the CADU credit program for at least three years. The entire target population could not be considered due to lack of a sampling frame. Hence, a sample of 216 farmers was selected at random using the 1971-72 CADU credit records. Six farmers could not be reached by the interviewers and so the sample size was limited to

210, consisting of 150 owner-operators and 60 tenants.

Three categories of independent variables were studied. These are (1) predispositional variables, (2) intervening variables and (3) situational variables. Predispositional variables, according to

Neilson, constitute the internal forces within the individual which make him predisposed to react or behave in a certain way in a given behavioral situation. Intervening variables are those which tend to either impede or stimulate the action of the individual. In this study, CADU's dif­ fusion strategy was considered an intervening variable. Finally, sit­ uational variables are those factors in the environment within which 4 the individual lives and reacts. The dependent variable was adoption of improved technologies and practices.

Three hypotheses were formulated, based on the objectives of the study. They are: (l) there is no relationship between selected char­ acteristics of farmers and diffusion of innovations, (2) there is a

4 Neilson, op. cit., pp. 24-25. 239 a positive relationship between diffusion of innovations and adoption behavior of farmers and (3) there is no relationship between selected characteristics of farmers and their adoption behavior* Zero-order cor­ relations were used in testing these hypotheses. Multiple regression analysis was also performed to see how the variance of the dependent variable is explained by combinations of the independent variables.

An appropriate interview schedule was designed to secure data per­ tinent to the purposes of the study. Moreover, a brief questionnaire and interview schedule were prepared to get information from Extension agents, supervisors and Department/Division/Section heads. A number of

CADU publications and other materials were carefully reviewed and the information thus secured was included in the analysis.

F indings

The findings of this study are summarized in relation to the ques­ tions mentioned previously. They are restated again to guide the pre­ sentation of the findings: (1) To what extent were the package of in­ novations designed to promote rural development on target and progress­ ing toward the intended goals?

This question specifically points at the three main goals of

CADU, summarized above under backgrounds. The primary unit of con­ cern in this study was the first main goal, namely, the achievement of economic and social development throughout the project area. The emphasis has been at examining the extent to which new innovations and ideas were developed and incorporated in the integrated approach to 240 rural development. The methodological considerations include: (a) research in crop and livestock production, (b) dissemination of the re­

sults of research, (c) provision of economic incentives, (d) provision of infrastructure and (e) relaxation of social and institutional con­

straints, mainly land reform.

Thus, in summary of the results of research, high yielding wheat varieties have been developed and adapted to fit the ecological condi­

tions of the project area. The popular varieties were Laketch, Supremo,

and Romany in that order. Yaktana, Kentana, and Kanga have also been recommended. Regarding barley, no definitive results were obtained with

improved varieties. Local selection of barley varieties were found to be superior. Nevertheless, as the result of application of fertilizers, barley yields were considerably improved. These experimental results were comparable to those reported in Mexico where the popular dwarf wheat varieties were developed.

Implement research and production were not as dramatic as the progress in improved varieties and fertilizer use. Harrows were, per­ haps, the only implements successfully developed for use in the project area. Developments of appropriate tools for tillage and crop handling

are yet to come.

Concerning animal husbandry and breeding, the inferiority of the

indigenous cattle was ascertained. Two exotic breeds, namely, Friesian

and Jersey, were introduced. Experimental results proved the superi­ ority of the Friesian crosses; and, hence, the Jersey breed was aban­

doned. The establishment of a liquid nitrogen plant and the production of semen were among the big successes claimed by the Project. 241

Agricultural Extension work has been expanded, and by 1971-72 the entire project, area was covered with a network of 30 active Exten­ sion areas. The diffusion strategy was heavily inclined toward the use of model farmers. Most of the intensive demonstrations made were for model farmers. Field days were used for the mass of regular farmers.

Between 1971 and 1973 nearly 600 field days were held throughout the project area. Farmers seemed to benefit more from this technique and their visits to the Extension centers than from the model farmers from whom they were expected to derive the most benefit.

To facilitate the- participation of the target population in the administration of the development projects, grass-root organizations such as Extension Area Committees and Model Farmer Area Committees were established and had been quite active. Their role, however, was limited to the screening and processing of credit applications.

The training school was started in July 1970. Field workers have been trained for both CADU and EPID. The school was offering seminars and orientation programs for newly elected model farmers.

Provision of economic incentives was among the elements of eco­ nomic and social development mentioned above. In this regard, three autonomous divisions were established. They are: the Marketing, Seed, and Cattle Breeding Divisions. Marketing of produce, sale of inputs, promotion of cooperative activities and veterinary services were the major components of the economic incentives. Central to these activi­ ties was the CADU credit program which expanded from 189 loan agreements in 1967-68 to over 13,000 in 1972-73.^

^CADU, Annual Report 1971-72 and 1972-73, op. cit. 242

The development of infrastructure was among CADU's important activity. Production targets for 1973-74 was completion of 46 km of feeder roads, drilling of ground and surface water supplies and con- g struction and maintenance of buildings. At the time of the study two stretches of roads; namely, Ethaya-Huruta and Bilalo-Egu, were almost completed but not opened for public use.

With respect to land reform, CADU had put substantial pressure upon the Government to legislate and implement a fair land reform and tenancy regulation, but without much success. Nevertheless, intensive effort was made to mobilize the target population and make them aware of their rights and opportunities for a better life which could come through cooperation. The credit policy of CADU, excluding big land­ lords and commercial farmers, sharpened the social conflict existing in the area which along with other developments elsewhere in the country led to the destruction of the old system.

2. What changes have been brought about among the farmers par­ ticipating in the CADU Project:

The manner in which the farmers responded to the diffusion strat­ egy was a matter of interest in relation to this question. Firstly, among the Extension methods employed by CADU, farm visit by the Exten­ sion agent, farmers' visit at Extension Center and farmers' attendance of field days/demonstrations attracted more participation. Nearly 56 percent of the respondents said that they were visited by Extension

^Ibid. agents one or more times during the last three years; 66 percent of them reported as having visited an Extension Center one or more times, and 48 percent said they had attended field days/demonstrations. The comparable figures for farm visit by model farmers and farmers1 visits at model farms were 25 percent and 24 percent respectively. Only 9 per­ cent of the respondents said that they had attended cooperative meet­ ings one or more times.

Secondly, when the adoption pattern was examined,the vast majority of the farmers were found to be quite familiar with the improved wheat varieties. The list of improved varieties known by the farmers was led by Laketch (94 percent), followed by Supremo (89 percent),Romany (88 per cent), Kenya 1 (74 percent), Kentana (65 percent), Yaktana (62 percent),

Salmayo (48 percent), Kanga (45 percent) and Penjamo (14 percent). In terms of use of improved varieties, of those farmers who indicated knowl edge of the varieties, the percentage distribution was as follows:

Laketch (69 percent), Supremo (46 percent), Romany (41 percent), Kenya 1

(25 percent), Yaktana (23 percent), Kentana (21 percent), Salmayo (12 percent), Kanga (11 percent) and Penjamo (less than 1 percent). Regard­ ing barley, the improved varieties were unknown by most farmers. To be specific, Atlas was known by 14 percent, Mari 10 percent, Unitan and

C-63 by 5 percent each. Similarly, the proportion of farmers who used any of these varieties was less than 5 percent. When farmers were asked about certified seeds, 30 percent of the respondents said they had pur­ chased seeds from CADU in 1971,12 percent in 1972 and 6 percent in 1973.

Conversely, knowledge and use of fertilizer were dramatically high, scoring 99 percent and 95 percent respectively. As in certified seeds, 244

purchases of implements were very minimal with the exception of harrows

reported by 20 percent of the respondents. Nevertheless, the majority

of the respondents knew about the existence of the improved implements;

namely, mouldboard plough, ox-cart, sowing bag and thresher, but were

not very interested in them.

3. What variables are closely associated with the adoption of

improved practices in Chilalo?

As indicated previously, three hypotheses were formulated and

tested in attempting to answer this question. The findings are hereby

summarized for each hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: There is no relationship between selected characteristics of farmers and diffusion of innovation.

Among the predispositional variables, maximization of income, risk

aversion and debt avoidance were negatively correlated with diffusion

having correlation coefficients of -0.16, -0.19, and -0.15 respectively.

Diffusion was found unrelated to collective action and traditionalism

scales. Concerning the relationship between diffusion and situational variables, the data indicated positive relationship with Ca) number of wives (r = 0.22), (b) family size (r = 0.17) and (c) total number of

children (r = 0.13).

Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship between diffusion of innovations and the adoption behavior of farmers.

In total, the adoption behavior of farmers was found to be sig­ nificantly related with the diffusion of innovations (r = 0.31), thus

supporting the hypothesis. When the relationship between adoption 245

and the individual diffusion factors were considered, similar positive

coefficients were found with such factors as attendance of CADU demon-

strations/field days (r = 0.34) and cooperative meetings (r = 0.32).

Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between selected characteristics of farmers and their adoption behavior.

Both predispositional and situational variables were used, and

the only significant correlations observed were those of traditionalism

and risk aversion. Both were negatively correlated with coefficients

of -0.22 and -0.19 respectively.

Finally, multiple regression analysis was performed to determine

the extent to which the variance in adoption could be explained by the

categories of independent variables acting individually and in combi­

nation. Thus, when each category was considered alone, 8 percent of

the variance was explained by the predispositional variables, 27 per­

cent was explained by the intervening variables and 32 percent by the

situational variables. Similarly, the combined effects were as fol­

lows: predispositional and intervening variables explained 34 percent

of the variance in the dependent variable, 44 percent of the variance was explained by combining predispositional and situational variables,

nearly 50 percent by intervening and situational variables and 56 per­

cent by combining all three categories of independent variables.

Conclusions

A number of conclusions can be made on the basis of the findings

of this study and other relevant data examined by this investigator. 246

Here are the outstanding conclusions which have both policy and prac­

tical implications,,

1. The CADU project proved to be on target from the standpoint of technical, educational and con­ textual considerations.

Initially, the principal beneficiaries of CADU were unintended

farmers consisting of big landlords and commercial farmers.^ This was

however corrected in 1970 when a policy was established to exclude such

farmers from virtually all CADU activities. As a result of this mea­

sure in 1971-72 over 97 percent of the total credit participants were

g small farmers. Therefore, there should be no question as to the

nature of the target population. It has been kept right on target as

dictated by the original agreement of the Governments of Ethiopia and

Sweden.

The accomplishments of the project in terms of research, Exten­

sion, provision of inputs through credit arrangements and other related

services have been remarkable as noted in the relevant sections of this

report. One fact that impressed this researcher was the way the main

goals were translated into specific objectives around which the es­

sential activities were organized and carried out. These objectives are

reported in Appendix F. The statements were specific pointing at a

realistic activity area which were by and large accomplished with minimum deviations.

^Henock Kifle, Analysis of the CADU Credit Programme 1968/69- 1970-71, CADU Publication No. 66, p. 42.

g Michael Beyene. An Analysis of CADU Credit Programme 1971/72- 1972-73. CADU Publication No. 92, p. 5. 247

Regarding the technological aspects of the project the emphasis has been appropriately placed on wheat and barley as these are the major crops of the area. The achievements in wheat have been remarkable both in terms of varietal development and adaptation as well as ferti­ lization. Local varieties of wheat have been almost replaced by im­ proved varieties as indicated by the data of Table 29. It can be noted from the table that over 83 percent of the farmers had adopted improved varieties of wheat which is a strong measure of success in this regard.

In barley however no definite accomplishments have been gained with respect to improved varieties. Yet yields of barley have been substan­ tially improved through the application of commercial fertilizers. The work in animal husbandry are impressive as well.

Such achievements notwithstanding, CADU has clearly failed to achieve its objectives in the development of appropriate implements for tillage and crop handling. In seven years of experience the outstand­ ing achievement in this regard was the development of the harrows.

However the pace of development in implement research in general was disappointing. The high-yielding varieties cannot express their optimum potentials without improved methods of cultivation and crop handling. The traditional tools and technologies are not efficient enough to meet the requirements of the new varieties and inputs for better results.

In respect to the Extension program, geographical coverage was attained according to plan. The distribution of inputs has been handled quite successfully. However, other educational aspects of the program did not seem to be comprehensive enough to stimulate the 248 behavior of peasants in the management of their crops. The work habit3 of these small farmers have not been changed. They not only fail to budget their time according to operational requirements, but they also spend much of their time, especially during the cultivation stage, as daily laborers on the big commercial farms, thus neglecting their own work. In the opinion of this writer, it is a problem which requires some serious thoughts and educational planning. Perhaps the recent proclamation of the Provisional Military Government may restrict farm­ ers to their own operation, but it can't be a substitute for the edu­ cational program implied above.

The Extension agents, being the center of CADU's diffusion strat­ egy and policy implementation, were found to be crowded with a heavy work load. The model farmer approach did not appear worthwhile, es­ pecially with respect to the dissemination of technical knowledge to the regular farmers. Moreover, there have been poor coordination and collaboration of efforts between Extension agents on one hand, and mar­ keting agents on the other. A lack of coordination between two groups of field workers is unhealthy in terms of both individual and organi­ zational performance. One factor this researcher has noticed was that while the Extension agents are very busy during the growing season, the marketing agents become almost idle. The situation is reversed after harvest time when marketing agents get busy in collecting loan repay­ ments and distribution of inputs for the next season. Thus, this pat­ tern of activity clearly demonstrates the need for a formal arrangement whereby the activities of both groups are linked. In this regard, this 249 investigator would like to propose that a committee of field workers be established under the chairmanship of the Extension agents in each Ex­ tension area. This committee must be assigned the task of preparing operational plans and arrangements for coordination of activities with­ in the framework of the programs and budgets at the project level.

The present policy of assigning one Extension agent and his as­ sistant for 1,500 to 1,800 farmers is inadequate even if coordination is achieved as proposed above. The communication technology in the project area is limited to horseback and footwork so that agents cannot give adequate attention to the target farmers in their respective areas.

As in the above branches of CADU, the Marketing Division had en­ joyed both successes and setbacks. On the success side, the partici­ pation of the target population has really been accelerated over the years, with the possible exception of 1971-72 when it suffered serious loses and embarrassment. On this point Cohen has provided pertinent analysis. Thus:

The drop in wheat prices was due to the importation of a large quantity of wheat in January 19 72 by the Ethiopian Grain Corporation. Because of shipping prob­ lems the grain arrived all at once, and storage facilities became overloaded with wheat because of the just-completed harvest. (Ethiopia is an importer of wheat, but Chilalo provides some 12 percent of the total national output.) This had disastrous effects for CADU and the target farmers, because CADU has been primarily pushing wheat. Because CADU activities particularly threatened the formerly lucrative trade of merchants and middlemen, they tried to use the fall in wheat prices to 250

stimulate rumors that CADU was merely depressing the market to make great profits. An interesting coalition among provincial elites developed, in an attempt to dis­ credit CADU and its marketing and cooperative activities. This is the main reason why credit and input sales dropped substantially below 1972 growing-season expectations. It should be noted that for a time during the decline of wheat prices CADU tried to guarantee a price floor. This proved to be a very costly undertaking, since CADU was not large enough to be successful. Hence, that market­ ing aspect suffered large financial losses for the pe­ riod. It should also be noted that during the successful early years of CADU, unusual market conditions helped maintain high wheat prices and low fertilizer prices. A rise in world fertilizer demand and a more realistic de- . cline in wheat prices began in 1972 and should lead to dramatic changes in price structures as well as poten­ tially damaging prospects for the project's future suc­ cess in stimulating increased participation in the pro­ gram and utilization of improved technology and innova­ tions.^

From the above, it becomes clear that there was no collaboration or understanding of the operations of the Ethiopian Grain Corporation by CADU. For example, huge wheat importations could have influenced

CADU to review production patterns, or the Grain Corporation could have been asked to reduce imports on account of local production and thus have avoided erratic price fluctuations. It is very well known that

CADU cannot stabilize prices on its own. It calls for a national policy

9 John M. Cohen, "Rural Change in Ethiopia: The Chilalo Agricul­ tural Development Unit," Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 22, number (July, 1974), p. 595. 251 * beyond the control of CADU. Yet, CADU can have greater influence to­ ward such policy if it closely monitors the behavior of the market and how the relevant institutions are reacting. In spite of yield increases resulting from the application of inputs, farmers would not accept them unless input and output prices are well balanced to generate reasonable

surplus or profit.

In spite of the difficulties mentioned above, farmers have bene­ fited from the programs of CADU. However, the full impact of the

Project has not been realized according to the expectations projected by the original planners because of certain unintended developments which have been characterized as dysfunctional by some observers with whom this investigator disagrees. This point may be clarified with a

critique of assessment made by Tendler. Tendler, using secondary data, made the following assessment about CADU.

The program was one of the few which was successful in promoting the adoption of modern inputs and increasing the yield of farmers. At the same time, it was just as much a disaster in that the adoption of modern tech­ niques and resulting increases in outputs led to an in­ crease in the value of land, great inerest in increased production by large landholders, and the resulting eviction of smallholders by those who wanted to con­ solidate their lands and cash in on the new innova­ tions .

The authenticity of the facts included above are not questioned

by this investigator. His disagreement lies with the interpretation

given to the course of events that accompanied the technological gains

attained by CADU. Considering the long term plans of the project and

10 Judit Tendler, "The Objectives of Small Farmer Credit Programs" in A.I.D. Spring Review of Small Farmer Credit (February, 1973), pp. 2-3. the state of social climate within which the project was made to op­ erate, such painful consequences suffered by the small farmers must have been recognized as a necessary condition of social change; at least in the short run resulting from sharp social tensions triggering the beginnings of durable agrarian transformation. The tension was further sharpened when CADU courageously implemented its participation policy that excluded the non-target population comprising the pro­ vincial elites, big commercial farmers and landlords from all activi­ ties. The consequences of this policy and other social issues pre­ vailing in the project area and elsewhere in the country led to the destruction of the feudal structure and its traditional brand as evi­ denced by the events of the past. A new era of social development is setting which has been long over due. In view of this system of wide implications, this researcher would not characterize CADU’s impact as disastrous. Rather, the contributions have been fundamental, except that they were not anticipated nor planned for by the original de­ signors. They were just painful but necessary experiences guiding the development towards the intended goals. How the project leaders can skillfully manipulate and use the opportunities made available through the current revolutionary upheavals remains to be seen.

Tendler has also described CADU as an example of what seemed to her to be an unhealthy addiction to goals. In her own words,

In the early stages of the project, it was decided that coops would be promoted at a later stage, after the credit and modern input programs were instituted. This sequence would unburden the first phase of the program from the difficult institutional task of cooperative organization. When CADU initiated promotion of coops later on; however, it found little interest among the 253

beneficiary population. Hence, that aspect of the pro­ gram was considered a failure; something to which more funds and hard work should be devoted.-H

Again, this researcher must disagree with Tendler in that the co­ operative program she referred to never got off the ground, that it can't be said it was a failure. Until the last two years or so there was no seriously organized cooperative program in the project area. The reasons were two-fold according to CADU reports and this researcher's observations. Firstly, CADU was unable to organize itself to manage the promotion of cooperative ideas in the project area. The main reason repeatedly given by CADU was lack of a highly motivated and qualified staff for this job. It was only in February, 1972 that the cooperative unit was activated by transferring it from the Extension and Training

Department to the Marketing Division, even then, without a staff to head 12 it until 19 73. Secondly, existing Government regulations posed seri­ ous difficulties. The most troublesome regulation stated, "No society shall, without sufficient cause, refuse admission to membership any per­ son duly qualified under Article 14 of the Proclamation and the Society's

13 rules." According to this regulation, non-target population were en­ titled to membership, contrary to the policies of CADU as discussed pre­ viously. Citing constitutional rights and the spirit of the Government proclamation, the big farmers of Chilalo challenged CADU's attempts to

^*Ibid., p. 8.

^ CADU, Annual Reports 1971-72 and 1972-73, op. cit.

13 CADU,"An Appraisal of CADU's Experience in Cooperative Promotion,"June, 1972, p. 5 (mimeographed report). 254

limit the establishment of cooperative societies to the small farmers,,

The issuing authority, namely, the Ministry of National Community De­

velopment and Social Affairs, remained reluctant to register and

recognize CADU1s emerging cooperative societies.^

Therefore, the farmers of Chilalo cannot be described as having

had no interest. In fact, the contrary was true. Farmers were in­

cessantly pushing the Project to initiate cooperative programs in all

of the Extension areas. In 1971 alone, there were six areas ready for

establishment and many more were reported in later years, had it not

been for the difficulties discussed above. Incidentally, this re­

searcher anticipates little obstacle for the current movement aimed at

establishing peasant associations in accordance with the recent Govern- 15 ment declarations, at least in the Chilalo area.

Finally, brief remarks about the administration of the Project

are in order in view of what has been discussed in Chapter VI. CADU,

as an autonomous body within the Ministry of Agriculture, has enjoyed

a certain degree of flexibility. There have been occasional changes in

the organizational format to accommodate expanded activities, shifts in

program emphasis and/or adjustment to improve performance. Cohen ex­

pressed his impressions about the organization in the following manner.

Managerial effectiveness has proven to be high, both in terms of achieving direct and immediate project pur­ poses and objectives, and in terms of enhancing the

^ C A D U , Annual Reports 1971-72 and 1972-73, op. cit.

1 iJJohn W. Bruce, "Ethiopia: Nationalization of Rural Lands Proclamation," Land Tenure Center Newsletter, Number 47, January- March 1975, pp. 1-15. 255

ability of the Project to survive and to continue to perform effectively in the future. The managerial ef­ fectiveness of the Project has been especially enhanced by the budget and analysis activities of the Planning and Evaluation Section.16

Considering the status of adminstrative capability elsewhere in the country, including the parent institution, the Ministry of Agriculture,

CADU’s organizational structure is commendable. It has the quality of a modern institution with definite authoritative as well as clearly de­ fined staff positions. The usually observed setbacks of corruption and mismanagement of resources found in other institutions are not pronounced in CADU.

Such qualities notwithstanding, this researcher has sensed a grow­ ing sentiment of displeasure and mistrust among the staff with the performance of the administration. Favoritism and benign neglect of the field staff were among the weaknesses mentioned frequently around the project area. This researcher has observed threats of resignations and actual departures by some of the senior staff members on account of personal and organizational reasons. It is, undoubtedly, a very un­ desirable development and must be arrested before it gets blown up out of proportion.

The external relations of CADU with other development agencies seemed unhealthy too. From the observations of this writer and his

talks with some highly positioned people, it appeared to him that there was a tendency of keeping CADU out of the reach of other development

16 Cohen, "The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit," op. cit., p. 50. 256 institutions such as EPID (Extension and Project Implementation Depart­ ment) and WADU (Wollamo Agricultural Development Unit). The reasons given by some respondents at CADU was to protect the project from cor­ ruptive influences of such institutions, among other things. Whether the allegations were true or not the fact remains that it is a devi­ ation that cannot be accounted for convincingly. Such attitudes should, therefore, be suppressed in the interest of the fundamental goals of CADU; one of which is "the creation of possibilities for the application in Ethiopia of the experiences gained by CADU."

2. Intended behavioral changes were brought about among the farmers of Chilalo who cooperated with the Project.

By behavioral changes it is strictly implied the changes in the knowledge and adoption of improved innovations and ideas incorporated in the development package. In this context, it can be concluded that significant accomplishments have been achieved. Linkages between the

Project and the target population were well established to allow inter­ actions between the development agents and the small farmers with one exception though. The model farmer strategy did not prove to be ap­ propriate as a means of transmitting technical information. The at­ tention of the small farmers was attracted toward the activities of the Extension agents as manifested by greater participation of farmers in field days and direct visits to Extension centers. Since the es­ tablishment of the Project farmers' interests and awareness of de­ velopment possibilities have been created. Farmers proved to be very receptive to educational and technical assistance offered by Extension agents. They are made to have positive impressions about the kind of 257

development strategies pursued by CADU. The question has now become not whether farmers can be receptive to new ideas but whether CADU is

capable of producing innovations to meet the increasing demand of the

farmers.

In terms of adoption, the majority of the farmers have adopted

improved wheat varieties and fertilization of both wheat and barley.

They have not favored the new implements and certified seeds on rational

economic and technical grounds.

3. The findings on the relationship between diffusion of innovations and characteristics of farmers did not present clear indications to warrant specific gen­ eralization.

Six factors, namely, collective action, traditionalism, age of

farmer, age of first child, total number of female children and number of other dependents were found to be unrelated to diffusion of innova­ tions. The implication that can be drawn from this is that factors other than these must be sought to explain what facilitates or hampers the diffusion of innovations under the conditions found in Chilalo. On the other hand there was significant correlation between diffusion and these variables: (l) maximization of income (r = -0.156), (2) risk aversion (r = -0.189), (3) debt avoidance (r = -0.15), (4) number of wives (r = 0.22), (5) family size (r = 0.173) and (6) total number of male children (r = 0.134).

Two of the above relationships, namely, maximization of income and number of wives are quite unique by the standards of previous dif­ fusion studies. In the opinion of this investigator, the negative 258 correlation with maximization of income is an indication of some mea­ sure of success gained by CADU in moving the target population toward a socialist orientation. The positive correlation associated with num­ ber of wives stems from the cultural facts that women in places like

Chilalo are major participants in farm related decisions and actions and therefore should not be very surprising under conditions, observed in this study.

4. The diffusion strategy of CADU was clearly found to be associated with the adoption behavior of farmers.

The degree of association observed between diffusion and adoption can be considered as a positive reflection of CADU1s success in effect­ ing change in Chilalo. As noted on several occasions previously, the basic hypothesis underlying the entire application of the package con­ cept finds its application in the intensity of the educational exposure and the manner in which it is facilitated. CADU's performance in this respect has been remarkable by the standards experienced in the region and elsewhere in Ethiopia previously.

5. In general,characteristics of farmers were found to be unrelated with adoption of innovations.

The only characteristics that were significantly associated with the adoption of innovations were traditionalism (r = -0.221) and debt avoidance (r = -0.188). The interpretations of these correlations are straightforward well-established in the literature of the diffusion and adoption of innovations. In short it can be concluded that the rate of adoption will be higher among farmers who care less for traditional values and are willing to accept production credit. 259

6. Variance in the adoption of innovation as observed in Chilalo can be explained substantially by examining selected independent variables in a multiple regres­ sion model.

Nearly 56 percent of the variation in adoption was explained in terms of its relationship with a set of 13 independent variables as reported in Table 31. This is quite comparable to other findings re­ ported in the literature. Rucks in his study of adoption of improved agricultural practices in Uruguay reported that 65 percent of the variance in adoption was explained with a set of- five independent vari­ ables. Quoting from Rogers, Rucks also indicated that between 17 and

56 percent of the variance in adoption had been explained in previous research on diffusion of farm practices.^

In this study, the major contribution to the proportion of the explained variance was made by (l) attendance at cooperative meetings

(13 percent), (2) number of wives (9 percent), (3) locality (7 per­ cent), (4) Farmers' visits to Extension Center (7 percent), (5) ethnic background (5 percent), and (6) traditionalism (4 percent). These variables can be specifically studied as independent variables in future adoption studies to develop a better predictive model.

Recommendations

In view of what has been reported in this study, this researcher strongly recommends that the CADU operation be continued as originally

^Rucks, op. cit., pp. 209-210. 260

envisioned with appropriate modifications of policies, plans of action

and strategies. On the basis of the findings of the study and review

of other pertinent data, the following specific adjustments and/or

improvements are needed.

1. The number of agents assigned in each Extension area is not

enough. Considering the size of the target population involved in

each Extension area and the crudeness of the transportation facilities,

it is hereby recommended that the number of agents in each area must be

substantially increased. This will allow greater direct contacts and

interactions between Extension agents and the target population which

appeared to be highly favored by the small farmers over the use of the model farmer approach.

2. From the above it follows that the model farmer approach must

be seriously questioned. This researcher understands the obvious limi­

tations of resources in the project area which could still make this

strategy very attractive. In that case aggressive educational pro­

grams must be developed and carried out to upgrade the skill and com­

petence of the model farmers and thus make them more acceptable to the

regular farmers. Perhaps one factor that has been limiting the inter­

action between model farmers and regular farmers is the farmer's role

in the processing of credit applications which may tend to shadow

their educative contribution. It is therefore recommended that evalua­

tive research be made to examine the relationship between model and

regular farmers. 261

3. Poor coordination of activities especially involving Ex­ tension and Marketing Agents has been noted. The situation can be im­ proved by establishing a committee of the field workers in each Ex­ tension area under the chairmanship of the agricultural extension agent. This committee can be assigned the task of preparing opera­ tional plans periodically with arrangements for coordination of ac­ tivities within the framework of the programs and budgets at the project level.

4. Staff development and training efforts must be stepped up for all categories of professional employees. Staff attrition must be reduced through relevant incentive measures.

5. The growing sentiment of displeasure and mistrust observed among the staff members must be dispelled. The underlying problems causing such unhealthy situation must be identified and corrected in the interest of the mission of the Project. An outside consultant may be invited to study the situation and present a fair and workable recommendation.

6. The tendency of isolating CADU's operation from other re­ gional development programs must be halted. A formal working re­ lationship with all relevant parties.especially with EPID (Extension and Project Implementation Department) has to be clearly specified and carried out as EPID is the overall coordinating body of regional de­ velopment programs in the country. In this connection it should also be emphasized close collaboration is a must with the various marketing agencies to promote the stability of prices. 7. Finally in the technology of agriculture, the serious short­ comings existing in the Agricultural Engineering section deserve par­ ticular attention. Without a breakthrough in the development of ap­ propriate implements, further progress in production cannot be achieved. More resources and efforts should be allocated in this im­ portant area of scientific endeavor. APPENDIX A

INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

263 264

Interview No.______Date of Interview______Signature of Interviewer______

NOTE: The information which will be gathered in this interview schedule is absolutely confidential.

1. Development District: Ca) Assela, (b) Bekaji, (c) Dhera, (d) Asofelle

Name of the farmer ______Age ______Woreda (sub-district) ______Golmasa _ Nearest Market Place ______Nearest GADU Center ______Type of farmer: (a) Model Farmer, (b) Regular Farmer

2. Ethnic background: Arusi Galla ______Shoa Galla ______Amhara ______. Other

3. Religion: Mo s1im Christian Other

4. Marital Status: Married ______No. of wives Divorced ______Widowed ______Bachelor

5. Composition of farm family:

Relation- Ability to Last grade Helps on the farm ship to Sex read & write completed No. Name f armer M p Age Fully Partly Never Yes No in school

1. 2. 3. 4. 265

6. Do you have other relatives living? a. In this Compound ______b. In this Village but outside the Compound ___ c. In another Village ______d. In a town ______

7. Are you a member in any of the following groups? Maheber ______Ider ______Jige ______Shango ______Senbete ______Ekub ______Debbo Axion ______

8. Are you a member of any farmers' organization like cooperatives or Farmers' Association? Yes ______No______

If your answer is yes, would you tell me please the names of the organizations of which you are a member? a. c. ______b. d.

9. Did you hold leadership position like president, secretary, treasurer, Committee member, etc. in any of the organizations enumerated in your previous answer? Yes ______No______

If your answer is yes, would you tell me please which organiza­ tion and what position?

Organization Position

a. ______b. ______c. ______d.

10. During the last three years were you ever visited on your farm by anybody of the following to provide you with agricultural infor­ mation?

Number of Visits Purpose of Visits CADU______Model Farmer______Other govt, agency______(staff member) Commercial agent______Grain merchant______Relatives______None of the above 266

11. During the last three years, have you ever been in the office of any of the following to ask for agricultural information:

Number of Visits Purpose of Visit

CADU ______Model Farmer ______Other govt, agency______Commercial firm __ Farmers’ organization ______Other (please specify) ______None of the above ______

12. During the last three years did you ever attend a meeting such as demonstrations, field trips, etc. organized by any one of the following held with the purpose of providing agricultural infor­ mation?

Number of Type of Purpose Meetings Meeting

CADU Other govt, agency Commercial firm Farmers' organiza­ tion Other (please specify) None of the above

13. Do you own a radio? Yes______No

14. Do you ever listen to farm programs on the radio? Yes No

If your answer is yes, where do you listen? ______

15. The farmer is: (a) landowner, (b) tenant.

16. If landowner, ask the following questions. What is the total area of land you own? ______timad What type of tenure do you have? a. Gebar b. Simon c. Maderia d. Riste Gult e. Gibre Tel f. Mirit 267

How much land do you rent? ______timad

What is your tenancy arrangement? a. Ekul Arash b. Siso Arash c. Irbo Arash d. Contract

Do you have tenants? Yes No______

If yes, how many? ______

How much land do you let to the tenants? ______timad

Land use: a. Cropland ______timad b. Pasture land ______timad c. Wasteland ______timad

Please indicate any changes you have made during the last three years regarding: a. owned land Sold ______timad Purchased ______timad Rent out ______timad

b. Rented land ______timad.

17. If tenant, ask the following questions.

For how many years have you been a tenant? ______

How much land do you farm now? ______timad

What is your tenancy arrangement? a. Ekul Arash b. Siso Arash c. Irbo Arash d. Contract

Are you related to the landlord? Yes ______No______

If yes, what type of relationship do you have?______

Where does he live? a. On this farm ______c. In another village______b. In this village ______d. In a town ______

What is his occupation? ______

What type of agreement do you have? Written Verbal _____ 268

Which of the following does the landlord supply? a. Seed ______Quantity______b. Draft animals Number ______c. Fertilizer ______Quantity______d. Other ______

Do you employ other tenants on the part of land you rented? Yes No

If yes, how many ______

How much land do you let to these farmers? ______timad

What is the tenancy arrangement? a. Ekul Arash ______b. Siso Arash ______c. Irbo Arash ______d. Contract

Please indicate any changes you have made on the size of land you have rented. a. I have rented . timad more than previous years. b. I have rented ______timad less than previous years. c. I have made no change.

If you have any comments to make, please state them briefly.

18. Cropping Pattern Area cultivated in timads Crops 1973 1972 1971 Wheat Barley Maize Teff Broad bean Haricot bean Flax Other 269

19. If you have grown any or both of the following crops, would you tell me please, approximate area planted with improved varieties and local varieties.

1971 1972 1973 Crop Variety Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield

Wheat Improved Local

Barley Improved Local

20. Of the categories of agricultural inputs listed below (seeds, fertilizer, improved implements) which of these did you know/ used and when?

Agricultural Year Input Known Source Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption

Kenya 1 Kentana Supremo Yaktana Romany Penj amo Salmayo Lakech Kanga Boundie Unitan Mari Atlas C. 63 Fertilizer Plough Harrow Ox-cart Seeding bag Thresher 270

What is your opinion/observation about the above inputs? Kenya 1 Kentana Supremo Yaktana Romany Penjamo Salamayo Laketch Kanga Boundie Unitan Mari Atlas C. 63 Fertilizer Plough Harrow Ox-cart Seeding bag Thresher service

21. Have you ever participated in CADU Credit Program? Yes No

If yes, how frequently? a. once a year b. once in two years c. once in three years d. other

During the last three years what inputs did you take on credit?

1971 1972 1 9 7 3 ______Quantity Price Quantity Price Quantity Price

Seed F ertilizer Implements Other

If you have not been able to get as much inputs on credit as you wished, would you tell me why? ______

22. What practices do you apply to improve the fertility of your soil? a. soil burning b. cow dung c. fertilizer d. none 271

23. If you have applied fertilizers on your crop, how did you decide how much fertilizer to apply on your crop? a. general experience b. observed previous results by computing yield responses to fertilizer c. soil test d. family or neighbor suggestion e. CADU recommendation f. Model Farmer suggestion g- other

24. From your observation and experience what is the most important effect of using fertilizer on soils, yield of crops, plant growth, pests and diseases? a. effect on soils b. effect on yield c. effect on pests d. effect on diseases

25. What problems have you experienced with the growing of wheat and barley in this area? a. wheat ______b. barley ______

26. What do you think is important to make seeds grow for sowing?

If you are using seeds from your previous crop, what measures do you take to improve the quality of the seed?

27. Besides farming, do you often work in another activity that brings you some money? Yes ______No______If yes, please indicate the type of work and approximate amount of money you get per week.

Activity Amount/week

1. 2. 3.

Would you say that you do more off-farm work during the last three years than the previous years?

more off-farm Reasons, if any? less off-farm no change 272

28. To whom do you sell your grain often? CADU ______Traders (middle men) ______Other (specify) ______

29. Generally where do you and your family go shopping most frequently to buy family needs?

______Year______Family need 1971 1972 1973

a. Food items b. Clothing c. Household items d. Drinks e. Other

30. If you have received loans from any of the following, please tell me:

Interest Year Amt. Rate Purpose Term

Credit source CADU Other govt, agency Traders Local money lenders Relatives Neighbors, other individual F armers

31. Number of animals you have?

Cows______'_____ Sheep ______Mules______Oxen______Goats ______Donkeys______Calves______Hens ______Horses ______

32. Do you ever think seriously about moving out of farming? a. often ______b. sometimes c. never ______

Why? ______

33. Do you expect this farm to be continued by your children in the future? Yes No Reasons: 273

34. Indicate the one item below which best indicates how much you feel about your accomplishment in your farming? a. I am well satisfied with my achievement. b. 1 am satisfied with my achievement. c. I am somewhat satisfied with my achievement. d. I am very much dissatisfied with my achievement.

35. Do you feel that other farmers in your community feel the same way as you do? Yes______No______I don't know______

If no, why not? ______

36. Would you please tell me the kind of advice or educational infor­ mation that model farmers give to regular fanners?

37. In your opinion, what kind of people received the most help from CADU? a. Those who sought information b. Those who use the information c. Those who wanted to get ahead d. Owner cultivators e. Tenants f . Larger farmers g- Model farmers h. Older farmers i . Younger farmers

How helpful were the programs to you personally? a. very helpful b. helpful c. somewhat helpful d. not very helpful e. not at all helpful

39. Would you please indicate the progress you have made in accomplish­ ing your farming goals during the last three years? a. Increased production b. Increased farm size c. Increased yield d. Increased income e. Reduced debt f. No progress is made. 274

40. In what ways do you feel that your ability to farm has improved during the last three years? a. I have more information to use in making decisions b. I have developed ability to gather and analyze information for making better decisions c. I have much more confidence d. My ability has not changed e. My ability has declined

41. Please indicate to me what you feel about the CADU project?

42. Finally, I would like to ask you this question. Do you think- there can be a better life than what you have now? Yes No

If yes, what things can get you a better life? 275

Item Agree Disagree

1. An individual' farmer can usually make better farm management de­ cisions than a group of farmers.

2. About the only thing that science has accomplished for the farmer is to make life more complicated.

3. Farm families would do well to wait until they have accumulated their own money rather than borrow for farm production purposes.

4. If a farmer could make more money in another occupation, he should leave farming.

5. It is better to make a small profit each year than to attempt something where there is a chance of losing.

6. The solution of the agricultural problem is going to depend on each farmer giving up a part of his independence.

7. I think traditional ways are the best ways of doing things.

8. Making money is the most important consideration in farming.

9. In farming, a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

10. In being a successful farmer it is most important to do the best you can with what you have without going into debt.

11. Farming would be extremely diffi­ cult without the advice and help of neighbors.

12. It is more important for farmers to make decisions on the basis of past experience and rules of thumb than to try to find new ways of doing things. 276

Item Agree Disagree

13. Farmers should wait until they can accumulate their own capital rather than to borrow for farm production purposes.

14. Making as much money as possible is a very important consideration.

15. A farmer should diversify his family operation to hedge against a bad year.

16. Farmers must stick together in order to get things done even if they have to give up some of their individual freedom..

17. The farmer who gets ahead fastest is the one who sticks to the old proven ways of doing things.

18. A farmer ought to save as much as possible to guard against the risks that are always present in farming.

19. Most farmers who enlarge their op­ erations by borrowing make more profit than farmers who have small operations free of debt.

20. A basic cause of the agricultural problem today is that too many farmers want to go their separate and indi­ vidual ways without regard for other farmers.

21. A farmer is better off to continue traditional farming practices since many of the new fangled ideas are not suited to his farm opera­ tion.

22. A farmer needs to remain diversi­ fied to protect himself against a bad year.

23. A farmer should never borrow money for operating capital. 277

Item Agree Disagree

24. The performance of most groups is usually above the level of that which many of the group members could ac­ complish on their own.

25. There is no reason for man to ex­ plore outer space.

26. A farmer should always have some money laid aside in case of emergency.

27. When you borrow you are really putting idle money to better use.

28. Groups usually produce good solu­ tions when confronted with a problem.

29. A farmer should try to reduce the risk or uncertainty in farming by keeping his operation diversified, even though it may mean the loss of some future income.

30. Rather than going in debt a farmer should do with what he has.

31. Farmers are too independent if they are going to solve the farm problem, they are going to have to work together.

32. You make friends with people you borrow from.

33. It will never be possible to organize enough farmers to make collective action possible.

34. The major goal young families should be to stay out of debt.

35. Unless farmers stick together the price situation in agriculture is going to get worse. 278

Item Agree Disagree

36. A farmer should strive to increase the size of his business rather than to get out of debt.

37. Farmers can work together.

1. If you worked very hard, what would others in your community think of you? a. That you are a fool because it is not worth it b. They would respect you more for it c. It would not make any difference at all d. no answer

2. If you have not acquired as much wealth as you have desired, what do you believe the causes of your failure to have been? a. Your idil (luck) ______b. Sorcerly by a neighbor or enemy ______c. Exploitation by a landlord ______d. Payment of too much tax ______e. Lack of effort ______f. I don11 know ______g. Other (specify) ______

3. If a new and useful farming technique was made known to you, would you be willing to be the first person in this village to try it? a. Yes b. No c. Willing to try, but not first d. No answer

4. There is a region where farmers plant two major crops: wheat and teff. The wheat in this region gives continuous profit; how­ ever, the profit is small. The production of teff does not always go well, but when 'it does the profit is enormous. What would you plant if you were a farmer in that region?

a. Teff b. Wheat 279 280

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u . m ? ------o. n n ------APPENDIX B

INTERVIEWER'S CODE*

*The material in this Appendix was heavily drawn from Public Expectations of University Branch for Programs and Services by Francis E. Hazard, Director, Kent State University-Tuscarawas Campus, New Philadelphia, Ohio.

301 302

You must be:

1. Completely honest in your work 2. Reliable and conscientious 3. Utterly objective in your manner of asking questions 4. Faithful and neutral in recording answers 5. Willing to write answers fully and legibly 6. Interested in people: understanding 7. Able to inspire people's confidence and put them at ease 8. Inconspicuously, but neatly dressed.

Be sure to: 1. Study all questions until you know what they mean and are familiar enough with them so you can really ask the ques­ tions instead of blindly reading them. 2. Plan to interview a minimum of two people a day.

Your attitude should be: 1. Neutral As an interviewer, you merely soak up information like a sponge without giving any of it back. Your job is to record that information, regardless whether you think it is good, bad, indifferent, boring or exciting. Don't— by word, action, or gesture— indicate surprise, pleasure, or disapproval at any answer. Even a slight grimace or gasp will cue a respondent that you have re­ acted to his answer.

Don't attempt to influence responses in any way. The truth is all that really counts— what the person really thinks or feels about the subject.

Thus: a. Never suggest an answer. And don't give your own opinions. This is a survey of respondents' feelings, not yours.

b. For the same reason— so the response will not be influenced in any way— you must ask the questions exactly as they are worded and in the same order every time. Each interview must be done the same way, to assume uniform and reliable results.

c. If the respondent doesn't understand a question, repeat it exactly as written rather than explain it. Otherwise you are sure to give away yourself or the answer you may be expecting. Repeat the question only twice, then go on if the person still does not understand it. 303

2. Impartial Whatever you may think of an individual or his opinion, keep it to yourself. Each interview you are asked to get, and therefore each person you speak to is equally important.

You should be adaptable to anyone and gracious to all. Each person you approach poses different problems requiring dif­ ferent techniques. The important thing is to inspire the confidence of every respondent regardless of sex, age, residence, income political affiliation or whatever.

3. Casual You are not a spy out on a secret mission. This is not in any sense a quiz or intelligence test. He will tell nothing if he thinks you are watching for errors or conducting an examination. Don't make him think it is a matter of life and death. Take it easy. Approach the interview pleasurably and let the respondent enjoy it, too. Assume that he wants to express his opinion and wants to be interviewed. You merely are giving him the chance to express himself on matters that may be important to him.

4. Conversational Use an informal manner of speaking, natural to you, and aimed at putting the individual at ease. Know the questions so well that you never sound as though you are reading them formally.

Although you are conversational, never lose control of the interview. From the moment the correct respondent meets you, talk him through the introduction and right into the body of the questionnaire before he reacts negatively.

5. Friendly A major objective is to put the respondent at ease. If he is not relaxed, you can't make him talk. The burden of ignorance has to be lifted from the respondent's shoulders-- that is, he must not be made to feel ashamed of his lack of information. Your attitude, therefore, must be sympathetic and understanding. Emphasize that there are no correct answers. Rather, he must be made to realize that what he thinks really is what counts.

Remember: The object of the survey is to get the honest, uninfluenced opinion, knowledge, etc. of each individual interviewed. You are merely the medium through which the issue or opinion is conveyed. Nothing of you should be in the interview results. 304

Interviewing Tactics

1. Usually the first meaningful reaction to a question is the impor­ tant or true one. Don't record any changes in an answer to a past question if you already have gone on to other items. Note at the point he wishes to go back that the respondent now indicates he would say something else.

2. But don't record a don't know answer too quickly. People say, "I don't know” when stalling for him to arrange their thoughts. The phase merely may be an introduction to a meaningful comment, so give the respondent a little time to think.

3. When straight "yes" and "no" answers are accompanied by qualifica­ tions such as "yes, if... or yes, but not...," record the com­ ments, regardless of whether space has been provided for them. Later they may reveal something important about the question which was not anticipated.

4. For any open ended questions, record comments or remarks just as they are given. The exact words people use to describe their feel­ ings are important. Include the flavor of language used, rather than summarize the comments in your own words--of course, if the comment is lengthy and you cannot write down every word, make notes that give the sense and the style of the comment. Use abbreviations that are understandable, so in checking over the interview you can fill in the content of the answer.

5. Where required, get specific comments, not vague, meaningless gen­ eralities like, "I like it because it is good" or because it is interesting or "it is Okay," ask why? In such cases.

6. Keeping talking as you write. Ask the second question as you record the response to the first. Start the respondent thinking about a question. If you let a silence grow, he has more opportunities to become distracted, bored, resentful, or may even change his mind. Keep contact with the respondent, and do the writing unobtrusively. This is one key to the informal atmosphere essential to successful interviews.

7. Focus the respondent's attention on the questions. If he wants to talk about something else, politely but firmly steer him back to the questions. Smile and say, "That is interesting...now what would you say about this question?

8. Record all the answers yourself. Hold his attention to one ques­ tion at a time for if he knows what is coming he is already con­ tinuing an answer or not concentrating on your topic. 305

9. Get all the information you are asked to get. That means, ask every question and record every answer— in the correct place. A questionnaire with serious omissions or errors may have to be dis­ carded. Therefore, check over the questionnaire at the end of each interview before you leave the respondent's presence. Say, "Now let us see if we have got everything," to allow you to look over each question to see that it is answered and the answer recorded correctly.

You are already aware and committed to the significance of this study. Remember that in serving as an interviewer, you represent not only yourself but also all other people interested in the development of rural Ethiopia. Hopefully your experience will be one that is enjoy­ able and profitable to you.

Some Interviewing Instructions

Following are some instructions which may help you do the inter­ views which you have been asked to do. Please not that the inter­ views will have been contacted at an earlier time. First introduce yourself.

"Hello, I am ______. We contacted you earlier about the survey I am conducting in conjunction with the agricultural situa­ tion in your community. You have been selected at random, and your opinions on the questions I would like to ask you are very important, to us. I can assure you that your answers will be kept strictly con­ fidential. There are no right or wrong answers to these questions, but it is important that I get a frank indication of your opinions. As we go through the list of questions, I will record your answers."

After introducing yourself you may wish to become involved in small talk, providing it does not go on for any extended length of time. Your whole purpose at this point is to create an atmosphere that will allow you to move on into the interview schedule.

Your Job

You have the job of doing the field work for this study in Chilalo. The validity and reliability of the survey data will depend greatly on the degree of accuracy of the data you gather from the field. The sur­ vey is being conducted to obtain facts about rural development which is very important in Ethiopia.

Question No. 5 asks about the composition of the farm family. You need to be somehow specific here. The information needed is not about the extended family but members of the primary family living in the 306 same house and supported by the farmer being interviewed. This will include wife, children, brother, sister, uncle, grandfather, grand­ mother, etc. Our specific concern is that we find out how many people are supported by the farm in question.

Household

A household is defined as a group of people related or unrelated, who live together, or share in common the household food and share the life for reason of work or because of other connections. This in­ cludes all members of the holder's household who temporarily stay away from home on business or vacation and children at school in other places provided their usual place of residence is the household. School children will be considered residents of their parent's house­ hold even though they reside in some other place a large proportion of the year. The following persons, however, will not be considered part of the household. a. Married sons and daughters who constitute households of their own. b. Lodgers who prepare their own meals and live by themselves. c. All day visitors. (A day visitor is a person who calls on another person and leaves the same day.) d. Guests who stay for less than a month. A guest is a person who comes to stay temporarily with members of a household who provide his boarding and lodging you have to list all guests who stay for a month or over.

Age

Ask - How old are you? If the respondent gives an exact age enter it. If a person does not know his age, ask if he knew how old he was at the time of some historical event which occurred in the country, his district or village met as: 1. Italian occupation of Ethiopia 2. 3. 4.

You can also refer to .the death of some well known chief in the area, etc. If he can tell you when he was born in relation to some historical event you can figure out how old he or she is now. If you cannot determine enter the age he tells you and the historical event. 307

Sex

You will generally be able to determine the sex of a person from the name or relationship to the farmer. If you cannot tell from the name or relationship of each individual, ask the person's sex and enter "m" for male and "F" for female.

Relationship

Enter the correct relationship of each individual to the farmer. For example, first wife, son, mother, etc. Do not write son when you mean grandson. Other examples are shown below to assist you in de­ fining the meaning of "relationship."

Grandson _ children of a son or daughter of the farmer. Grand-daughter

Brother _ Persons with the same parents as the farmer. Sister r

Half-brother Persons having one common parent (father or mother) Half-sister with the farmer.

Grandfather _ p arent of father or mother of the farmer. Grandmother

Uncle - Brother of father or mother of the farmer.

Aunt - Sister of father or mother of the father.

Son-in-law - Husband of daughter of the farmer.

Daughter-in-law - Wife of the son of the farmer.

Cousin (male) - Son of uncle or aunt of the farmer.

Cousin (female) - Daughter of uncle or aunt of the farmer.

For questions, 10, 11, 12, 14 make sure to differentiate between CADU and other government agencies. When we say other government agencies we mean organizations like community development. Other branches of the Ministry of Agriculture, etc. Please make this very clear to the farmers. For commercial firm, if the farmers indicate traders, merchants', etc., record the answer. For question 15 do the following: a. What type of tenure do you have? The answer should be of the following: gebar, simon, riste gult, maderia. 308

b. How much land do you personally farm? Our specific concern is getting the specific size of land cultivated by the farmer* Sometimes it happens that the farmer cultivates a holding share by other families who are members of the same household (ex­ tended family). In such cases, ask both the size of the farm and also the number of families working on it.

Question 18 is very important. Read each item one by one and record the information in the appropriate column. For instance ask if the farmer knows Kenya. If the farmer does not know Kenya (1) put an x under year known. If he says he knows it ask him the year he heard about it and record the year under year known. Then ask him how he got the information, in other words, who told him about it. After record" ing this information asking whether he got interested in it and whether he tried to assess or evaluate its value or importance to his cropping pattern. Did he try it on his farm in small scale? Did he adopt it? If so, for how long and the result-record this under remark.

For questions 21, 22, 34, 35, 37 check all that apply. There could be more than one response which is very appropriate.

For the second part of the survey, read the following statement or direction to the farmer.

Directions - some statements concerning farmers are made below. We are interested in your judgement in terms of how well it reflects your personal opinion or feelings. Please indicate how each of the state­ ments describes your feeling by checking, agree or disagree or un­ certain in the space provided after each statement. Of course you will do the checking. APPENDIX C

INTERINARY OF INTERVIEWERS

309 No. Date F rom To Remarks

1 31-7-74 Asella Gonde Back to Asella 2 1-8-74 Asella Bilalo Back to Asella 3 5-8-74 Asella Etaya Back to Asella 4 6-8-74 Asella Huruta Back to Asella 5 7-8-74 Asella Egu Back to Asella 6 8-8-74 Asella Munesa Back to Asella 7 9-8-74 Asella Golja Back to Asella 8 12-8-74 Asella Tijo Stay overnight in Bekoj i 9 13-8-74 Bekoj i Lemu Stay overnight in Bekoj i 10 14-8-74 Bekoj i Bekoji Center Stay overnight in Bekoji 11 15-8-74. Bekoj i Asassa Stay overnight in Asassa 12 16-8-74 Asassa Kofele Stay overnight in Kofele 13 17-8-74 Kofele Kofele Center Stay overnight in Nazareth 14 18-8-74 Nazareth Asella APPENDIX D

RAINFALL AND OTHER RELATED DATA RECORDED IN SELECTED AREAS OF CHILALO

311 \

Average Monthly Rainfall for Asella During 1935-40, 1966, 1970-72

Month 1935-1950 1966 1970 1971 1972 mm

January 23.4 28.5 112 11.5 23.0

F ebruary 68.6 191.5 35.0 0.6 43.0

March 94.8 82.0 272.0 82.6 88.5

April 40.6 185.5 . 66.0 79.9 256.0

May 58.6 27.5 71.0 186.0 75.5

June 106.9 146.5 92.0' 287.9 134.0

July 214.7 231.5 285.0 259.9 155.5

August 184.7 221.5 225.5 103.2 341.0

September 195.4 139.0 187.0 189.8 117.0

October 66. 2 82.5 65.0 40.5 2.0

November 19.5 1.5 0.0 7.0 6.5

December 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0

TOTAL 1,073.4 1,337.5 Average Monthly Temperature for Asella, 1966 and 1972

______1966______1972______Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

J anuary 22.1 5.0 20.7 4.8

February 20.8 8.7 19.7 5.1

March 21.7 7.8 21.9 7.6

April 21.2 10.1 20.5 10.3

May 23.5 9.7 22.0 10.3

June 20.4 9.1 20.5 10.2

July 19.1 10.4 18.1 10.6

August 18.9 10.2 18.6 10.3

September 18.9 10.0 19.0 9.3

October 20.6 8.0 21.9 7.0

November 20.9 5.5 22.0 5.0

December 21.4 4.0 22.7 3.6 314

1971 and 1972 Rainfall Distribution by Observation Station

1971 1972 July- Number of July- Number of Total October Rainy Days Total October Rainy Days

£5=53 £5=86 Kulumsa 791.7 358 124 820.2 412.8 130 £5=45 £5=123 Bekoj i 675.9 474.7 145 939.1 401 177

£5=47 Asassa 832.1 506.4 449.8 281.7 97 £5=37 £5=87 Ethaya 521.4 476.1 65 771.6 420 111 £5=44 Dodota 705.2 403.8 85 £5=41 £5=86 Huruta 678.5 386.0 68 639.8 ' 387.3 100 £5=45 Dugda 575.4 333.7 80 £5=90 £5=153 Asella 1284.0 653.0 180 1242.0 615.0 161 £5=71 £5=75 Deghellu 1253 604.5 126 670.3a 280a 88a £5=48 £5=98 Degaga 825.8 349.3 127 900.7b 628.0 121 £5=62 Egu _ 201.7 750.3 188.6 141 £5=100 £5=145 Gobe 1327 712.6 166 1329 588.3 157 £5=79 Arata — — — 706.9 386.2 92

Sire ——-- 341.9C 376.9 £5=11 Golja _ __ 324 d 133.5 75 £5=64 Ogolcho — — — 840.1 358.4 83 ci b June-July records missing. June, Nov., Dec. records missing. Q May-June records missing. Average Total Rainfall for Selected Areas During the Period Shown Adjacent to Each Area

Area Rainfall Altitude mm m

Asella 1,370 (1966-1973) 2350

Kulumsa 834 (1967-1973) 2200

Ethaya 788 (July 1971-73) 2200

Gobe 1,286 (1971-73) 2700

Bekoj i 933 (July 1970-73) 2600

Dighelu 1,063 (July 1967-73) 2600 316

TiEHpcefiToew p(^C C | PUTATl o*^ (.rv'

300

-25®

-z°°

-»s°

-too \

5 0

Assela-1966-1973

Mean monthly precipitation

Maximum montly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temp. Mean monthly minimum temp. 317

Tenpgc^Toee: 0 ^ >

Kulumsa-1967-1973 (Alt. 2200m)

Mean monthly precipitation

Maximum monthly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temperature y- Mean monthly minimum temperature o- 318

9(2eC.\PlTfVTit:/0

2,5 -j t Z S O

-•<2 .0 < 2 P'

\5 - -\S O

\a - -

5 - - 5 0 z

Etheya-July 1971-1973

Mean monthly precipitation

Maximum monthly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temperature Mean monthly minimum temperature O- 319

TfHPt'RATo«t PRtd \P tTic'T

2.5 a so

2 0 f T 2 o o

(5 f- 2 ? ISO

to IOO Y,

5 f SO

J 1A W IT J PS o n ] E>

Beko j i-"June 1970-19.73 (Alt. 2600m) Kean Annual Precipitation 933mm

Mean monthly precipitation

Maximum monthly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temperature -X Mean monthly minimum temperature — 0 320

-TiMpfreFsTafcG C00 Pe^enPuTAT*0 Cr*>0O 3 0 0 2 °

25- -2.5 0

•2,0 - - Z ° °

\S- -\50

lo- \00

5 - ■So

Dighelu-July 1967-1973 (Alt. 2600m)

Mean monthly precipitation m Maximum monthly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temperature X - X Mean monthly minimum temperature Q.— 0 321

PgeOIP (TOT/O'0 Girvnft) iC o

7 s

Gobi-1971-1973 (Alt. 2700m)

Mean monthly precipitation

Maximum monthly precipitation

Minimum monthly precipitation

Mean monthly maximum temperature -----* Mean monthly minimum temperature 0----- £> APPENDIX E~

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES WHICH ARE BEING ESTABLISHED IN CHILALO AWRAJA

322 323

Objectives: The objectives of the committee is to form an institu­ tionalized form of communication between the project, the local ad­ ministration and the target population. The establishment and func­ tioning of these committees would mean participation in development activities by the parties concerned.

Organization: These development committees will be organized on four different layers. The establishment of a lower layer partly deter­ mines the establishment of committees at the surrounding layers. If one starts from the lower

Model F armers Area Development Committee

Extension Area Development Committee

District Development Committee

Awraja Development Committee

A. Model Farmers Area Development Committee

The number of members is six. They are:

1. Model Farmer Chairman

2. Golmasa of the area Member

3. Extension Agent for the area Secretary

4. Three elected farmers Members

Duties and Responsibilities:

1. To promote development ideas and coordinate development

activities throughout the Model Farmer's area.

2. To spread CADU ideas about development in general and better

agricultural practices in particular in the area. 324

3. To find ways and-means of improving CADU's assistance and to

present suggestion useful for the development of the area.

4. To screen credit application.

5. To enhance co-ordination and implementation of self-help pro­

grams.

6. Generally, to represent the farmers' views residing in the area

with regard to development efforts.

B. Extension Area Development Committee

The number of members is ten.

1. Extension Supervisor for the area Chairman

2. Extension Agent for the area Secretary

3. Representative of all Model Farmers Member in the Extension Area

4. Representative of all Golmasas in Member the Extension Area

5. Five elected farmers (two landowners Members and three tenants)

6. Marketing Agent for the area/ Member co-operative worker

7. Other members - from government in­ stitutions, private agencies or in­ dividuals co-opted

(N.B. In both A & B above the farmers who are to be elected as members

must be farmers by profession and be residents in their respective

areas for one or two years.)

Duties and Responsibilities:

Same as the duties of Model Farmers Area Development Committee,

but the activities cover an Extension Area. 325

C. District Development Committee Composition

1. One representative from all Extension Area Development

Committees established within the Development District.

2. All Woreda Governors in the Development District.

3. Extension Supervisor in the Development District.

4. Marketing Supervisor in the Development District.

5. Head of Information & Public Relations Section.

6. Other members - from Government institution, private agency

or individual co-opted by CADU.

N.B. 1. The Chairman shall be elected from among the Woreda Governors

during the first meeting.

2. The Extension Supervisor for the Development District shall

be the Vice Chairman.

3. The Head of Information & Public Relations Section shall be

the Secretary.

Duties and Responsibilities:

1. To strengthen relation and promote co-operation and better

understanding between CADU and the target population. The

Committee shall serve as a standing and useful channel of

communication.

2. To seek ways and means of promoting the acceptibility of

CADU’s objectives and plans among the target population in

the Development District. 326

3. To give the necessary support for the extension of CADU's

assistance and activities as provided in the plan of op­

eration.

4. To give the necessary support and assistance for the

promotion of social development in the Development District

as per CADU's work program and policy.

5. To find ways and means of promoting the establishment of co­

operative societies, particularly the co-ordination of

preparatory works for their foundation, in lines with the

provision in the agreement of the governments regarding the

need to enable the target population to assume the responsi­

bilities of the project.

6. To promote stronger communication, support and co-operation

between the Project and all governmental bodies within the

areas CADU is exercising its activities.

7. To assess the attitude of the target population towards the

Project's policy and activities and to present constructive

suggestion which could facilitate development.

8. To co-ordinate CADU's activities with the other activities

of the existing governmental bodies which are to be estab­

lished.

9. To extend the idea of self-help promotion particularly for

educational and water development and to encourage the co­

operation of the target population for the same purpose,

10. To facilitate credit repayment by giving all the necessary

assistance and support. 327

N.B. The Chairman, Vice Chairman, the Secretary and two elected

members shall form the executive body.

D. Awraja Development Committee

Composition:

1. Chilalo Awraja Governor Chairman

2. CADU Executive Director V. Chairman

Representative of Arussi Provincial Member Office

Head of CADU's Information & Public Secretary Relations Section

The Provincial Treasurer Member

The Provincial Head of Agr. Dev. Member

7. The Provincial Education Officer Member

8. The Provincial Head of Health Member

9. The Provincial Head of the Department Member of Land Reform & Adm.

10. Chairman of the four District Dev. Member Committee

11. One Farmer's representative from each Member Dev. District

12. Other members - from government insti­ Member tution private agencies and individuals co-opted by CADU

N.B. The Chairman, the Vice Chairman, the Secretary plus two elected

members shall form the executive body.

Duties and Responsibilities:

Same as for District Development Committee. 328

III. Some Other Relevant Provisions:

A. CADU is -the only body to interpret the content of the guide­

line for the development committee.

B. In cases where the interpretations of words and guideline

turn out to be controversial it is CADU that has a deciding

right.

C. The development committees have no right to interfere in the

internal affairs of CADU.

D. All stationeries and expenses necessary for the running of

the development committees shall be borne by CADU. APPENDIX F

OBJECTIVES OF CADU DEPARTMENTS/DIVISIONS/SECTIONS

329 330

Department Obj ectives

Project Direction

Planning and Evaluation Efficiency and effectiveness con­ trol of CADU's activities* Recommendation for improved goal attainment. Identification and conduct of feasibility studies and implemen­ tation of industrial ventures thereof. Collection of base-line data on the project area. Assisting and advising on the design and implementation of economic and social surveys.

Munesa Operation Unit Management of the state owned Munessa Forest.

Legal Draft, revise and check contracts. Take necessary legal measures to re­ cover project funds and property and to enforce contractual obli­ gations. Representing the project in court. Render legal advice to sections, departments, divisions.

Experimentation * Crop and Pasture Meteorological, crop, weed and pest surveys in order to gain knowledge and increase production in Chilalo Awraja. Testing and screening of adaptable varieties and experimenting suit­ able cultural practices for dif­ ferent kinds of crops. Find ways to combat diseases, in­ sects, and weeds. Study ways for increased utilization of fertilizers and finding solu­ tions for drainage problems of water-logged soils. Department Objectives

Experimentation (continued) Demonstrating soil erosion control using various alternative methods to establish importance of soil drainage and compare different methods. Certifying all crops meant for seed regarding varietal trueness, purity, germination, etc. Making chemical analysis on new varieties of agronomic as well as forage crops.

Agricultural Engineering Development of tools for soil preparation and crops. Production of tested implements and tools for distribution to farmers. Train extension staff in the use of new implements. Train local artisans in the pro­ duction and maintenance of new implements.

Animal Husbandry and Establishment of optimal breeding, Breeding feeding and management methods for dairy cattle, sheep and poultry.

Forestry Establishment of nursery techniques and methods of planting and management of plantations. Introduction of suitable tree species for various ecological zones. Increased planting of trees par­ ticularly for fuel and construc­ tion purposes and as a measure to prevent soil erosion. Production of seedlings. 332

Department Objectives

Veterinary Increased knowledge of prevailing livestock diseases, Supression of livestock diseases through preventive services. Increased number of cross-bred cattle through AI. Production of semen from cross-bred bulls. Creation of a cadre of inseminators and vaccinators and of extension staff trained in veterinary aspects e Control of milk hygiene.

Extension and Training

Agricultural Extension Adoption by farmers of new products, methods and inputs for agricultural development through demonstrations and advice and assisting farmers in filling credit applications. The demonstration efforts shall be promoted through training of elected model farmers, women and youth groups. Improved knowledge of agricultural conditions through an annual anal­ ysis of the demonstration results.

Home Economics (Unit) Increase of knowledge about the gen­ eral concept of development among women in the project area and thereby raise the standard of living. Train women in home economics and literacy. Establish women's group in project area.

Training Training of extension agents. Training of marketing foremen and cooperative agents. Providing short training, refresher courses and seminars for staff. 333

Department Objectives

Extension and Training (continued)

Information and Public Increasing the knowledge of the Relations target population and project employees in CADU objectives, philosophy, activities and achievements. Creating awareness of development problems. Conducting special campaigns to promote various project activities. Producing educational and informa­ tion materials. Guidance of visitors.

Infrastructure

Road Construction of approximately 40 kms. of new roads. Maintenance of approximately 180 kms. of roads and 6 small river crossings.

Water Development Increased knowledge of hydrological conditions. Construction of water supply facilities. Organization of self-help schemes for community water supplies.

Survey Road survey of about 100 kms. of road stretch. Survey of all unutilized government land in Chilalo Awraja available for resettlement of tenants. Securing and mapping Kulumsa farm boundaries. Survey activities for other sections as requested. 334

Department Objectives

Infrastructure (continued)

Building Construction of grain and fertilizer stores. Construction of offices and resi­ dential buildings at Development District Centers. Maintenance of all project buildings and facilities. Operation and maintenance of project center, Kulumsa and Asella Water Works. Operation and maintenance of Kulumsa power plant.

Common Services

Accounts Receipt and disbursement of funds and keeping'of proper financial records.

Administration Provision of financial, secretarial, communication and custodial services. Safeguarding archives, documents, and other project property and its premises. Running the stationery store.

Personnel Recruitment of qualified personnel for all organizational units.

Purchase and Stores Provision of goods and services to all organizational units of the proj ect. Establishment and maintenance of a minimum stock level of all stock items.

Transport and Garage Operation of the carpool and pro­ vision of transport facilities. Operation and maintenance of the central garage at the project center and seed division workshop at Kulumsa. 335

Department Objectives

Common Services (continued)

Staff Clinic Providing preventive and curative medical care to project employees and their dependents. Undertake pre-employment physical check-up of all entrants to as­ certain their fitness.

Catering Provision of food and accommodation for CADU staff members, students and invited guests. Provision of laundry services. Operation of a staff store.

Division Marketing

Marketing Establishment of economic incen­ tives by insuring market outlets and fair prices, including premium for improved quality. Provision of inputs recommended by the Extension Service. Assistance in the acquisition of such inputs through the provision of credit. Promotion of capital accumulation for development through saving schemes. Assistance in the creation and management of cooperative societies.

Cooperative Dissemination of cooperative education. Establishment of farmers' coopera­ tives through the conversion of marketing trade centers into pre­ cooperative societies. Provision of assistance in the man­ agement of cooperative societies. 336

Department Objectives .

Division Marketing (continued)

Seed Production of cleaned seed of im­ proved varieties. Production of other grains for crop rotational purposes. Efficient operation of the farm at Kulumsa and Asassa to enable the Division to cover its costs and make a 107. profit on the capital after depreciation and interest®

Cattle Production and sale of grade cattle to improve the quality of cattle in the project area and thereby increase the production of milk® APPENDIX G

CURRICULUM FOR THE ASSISTANT AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS» SIX MONTHS THEORETICAL TRAINING

337 Lecture Number of Course Title Hours Practical Training Afternoons

PLANT HUSBANDRY 160

1. Botany 35 Laboratory 2 2. Soil 50 Soil profiles, types & drainage. 5 3. Plant protection 35 Identifications of common weed, 5 insect and' disease spray techniques. 4. Crop, seed and vegetable 40 Cultural practice (soil prepara­ 21 production tion, harvest)

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 160 35

1. Classification 10 Demonstration at livestock. 3 2. Feeds and Feeding 20 Feed preparation and feeding 5 at Dem. F. 3. Breeding 30 Selection and breeding 5 demonstration. 4. Livestock management 35 Notching, recording, etc. 2 5. Animal products and by­ 15 Hide drying, milking and M. 8 products grading, conv. M. to butter. 6. Poultry 15 Running a Poultry Farm. 5 7. ANIMAL HEALTH & HYGIENE 35 Lab., demonstration A.I., 8 castration, etc. 338 Lecture Number of Course Title Hours Practical Training Afternoons

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS 80 I

1. Basic principles of economics 20 2. Farm management 40 Homework to be done on weekends planning, budgeting and record keeping. 3. Marketing 10 Price survey for grain. 4. Principles of cooperatives 10 Study tour to a registered coop 1 and pre-coop.

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 60 19

1. History of Extension 5 _ _ 2. Principles of Extension 10 -- 3. Method of demonstration 12 Trip to Extension area, demonstra­ 3 tion Farm. MF 4. Extension approach (Adult 12 Trip to Ext. functional literacy 1 education) class. 5. Model farmer selection and 8 Attending meeting for selecting MF. 6 follow-up 6. Farm visits 8 Demonstration at Training C. Farm. 1 7. Youth extension 5 Youth organization trial at 4 Mission School 8. Home economics 5 339 Lecture Number of Course Title Hours Practical Training Afternoons

RURAL SOCIOLOGY 60 12

1. Introduction to sociology 10 Practicing 2. Human relations (approach) 20 Public speaking 3. Community organization 10 Organizing and conducting 4. Leadership 5 Meetings, report and 5. Nature of social change 15 minute writing, etc.

APPLIED ENGLISH 60

1. Verbal communications 20 Discussions, debatings 2. Report writing 25 and diary writing 3. Vocabulary 15 (practical hours for course No. E 1-5 will serve for this subject too).

FARM MECHANICS 30 2

1. Seed bed preparation 5 2. Crop handling 7 Demonstration on Threshing machine to 7 be stressed 3. Farmstead stracture and 8 Construction and Utilization storage of farm implements 340 Lecture Number of Course Title Hours Practical Training Afternoons

AGRICULTURAL ARITHMETIC 30 _5

1. Decimals, percentage and 5 Field demonstrations fraction on measurements and home 2. Measurements 8 works. 3. Rate, ratio & proportion 5 4. Interest 5 5. Pictural representation 7 of figures

HEALTH AND HYGIENE 15 5

1. Personal hygiene 5 Constracting urinals and 5 2. Home sanitation 5 latrines demonstrating 3. First aid 5 first aid techniques and checking dorm and personal hygiene.

Total Lecture Hours 665 Total Afternoons (330 hours) 132

N.B. One lecture hour is 45 mts. One practical afternoon is 3 hours. Nine hours are allocated for registration and general orientation. APPENDIX H

CORRESPONDENCE WITH SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS

342 343

A-cn ■ AM I ADDIS ABABA A-tr-fr* t ETHIOPIA

Jt •* flAti :i u»»i» PHONE'} t l T I l t

CABIB-MERMIRO | 200)

IMPERIAL ETHIOPIAN GOVERNMENT INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

■t^'TC : August 13:, 1974 Ref. No. [ t C & y h

Ato Aregay Waktola H.S.I.U Addis Ababa

Dear Ato Aregay,

I am happy to inform you that, based on the reconmandation of an IAR Conrittee-, you have been granted $1500.- to finance your research "on assessment of Behavioral Developments Induced by Package Prograimes of Agricultural Technologies in Rural Ethiopia." The committee has suggested that one of the four selected areas cf your research should include Lemu district where IAR is conducting farm management studies.

By the copy of this letter, the IAR Accounting Section is instructed to pay Ato Aregay Kaktola the $1500.- in three installments of $500.- each. The first $500.- should be advanced, after wiiich each successive installment should be paid after the previous payment receipts are received.

* . rr.rc •

Airicullur A

Dr. Amare Getahun, Dean Alenvaya Accounts Section I.A.R., Addis Ababa

Internal Auditor I.A.R., Addis Ababa 344

n a °7. >. ft -t c MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE f n - u * NC5f A «? -I- S’: c ft * CHILALO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT

CAD'I Henock/ra 4.7.74

Ato Aregay Waktola Asella

Dear Ato Aregay 8

With reference to your letter of June 28, 1974/ concerning your proposed research into behavioral changes in the farming population of Chilalo induced by CADU, I am pleased to inform you that wo vri.ll be able to assist you in this undertaking through the provision of transportation, secretorial services and lodging as well as a grant cf vltOOO:- to supplement interviewers’ salaries and related expenses.

Kr. J. O I g s o k , tho Head of our Planning and Evaluation Section^ will be your ' contact man'1 in CAHJ and please contact him in matters related to the above.

I hope the above assistance vri.ll enable you to cuccessfuly complete your re soarch work in Chilalo. :

oc. Dr. Akalou w/kichael Acting Academic Vico President Haile GolasBio I University Audio Ababa

Planning & Evaluation Section Common Services Dopt.

* /w r. in ♦^TC T tla p h o a d P. O. B O X hA A Ann A4.ft Ann \ A Jili* Ababa } 443-117 AdJu Abibt } | 3376 AM } 91-94 >* A u rlla BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

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Bandura, Albert. Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

Bequele, Assefa and Chole, Eshetu. A Profile of the Ethiopian Economy. Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Brown, Lester. Seeds of Change: The Green Revolution and Development in the 1970's. New York: Praeger, 1970.

Brown, Murray. On the Theory and Measurement of Technical Change. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1966.

Campbell, Donald T. and Stanley, Julian C, Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1972.

Caro, Francis G. Readings on Evaluative Research. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1971.

Clapham, Christopher. Haile Selassies' Government. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1969.

Deutsch, Karl W. "Development Change" in Behavioral Changes in Agri­ culture , J. Paul Leagans and Charles P . Loomis (eds. ) . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971.

Esman, Milton J. and Blaise, Hans C. Institution-Building Research: The Guiding Concepts. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, 1966.

Ezekel, Mordecai and Fox, Karl A. Methods of Correlation and Regres­ sion Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963.

Falcon, Walter P. and Gotsch, Carl H. "Lessons in Agricultural De­ velopment in Pakistan" in Development Policy...Theory and Practice. Edited by Gustav F. Papanek, Cambridge, Mass., 1968.

345 346

Fischer, Ernst, ed. The Essential Marx. New York: Herder and Herder, 1970.

Frankel, Francine R. India's Green Revolution: Economic Gains and Political Costs. Princeton: Van Nostrand Co., 1971.

French, Wendell and Cecil, Bell Jr. Organization Development: Be­ havioral Science Interventions for Organizational Improvement. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

Galkward, V. R. "Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Innovations" in K. N. Singh, C.S.S. Rao and B„ N. Sahay (eds.) Research in Extension Education. New Delhi: Czxton Press Pvt. Ltd., 1970.

Gardner, Bruce. "Distribution of Gains and Losses from Economic Growth" in Benefits and Burdens of Rural Development. Center for Agriculture and Economic Development. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1970.

Geiger, H. Kent. "Social Development: Notes on the Vestments of a Concept" in Sociological Perspective of Domestic Development," p. 50. George M. Beal, Ronald C. Powers and E. Walter Conard Jr. (eds.). Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1971.

Gittinger, Price J. Analysis of Agricultural Projects. The Economic Development Institute International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972.

Guba, Egon G. "Development, Diffusion and Evaluation" in Knowledge, Production and Utilization in Educational Administration, pp. 37-63. Edited by L. Eidell and Joanne M. Kitchel. Eugene: Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration: University of Oregon, 1968.

Hagen, Everett E. The Economics of Development. Homewood: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968.

Havelock, Ronald G. Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969.

Havens, A. Eugene. "Quest for Societal Development" in Sociological Perspective of Domestic Development, p. 75. George M. Beal, Ronald C. Powers and E. Walter Conard (eds.). Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 1971.

Homans, G. C. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich, 1961. 347

Hornstein, Harvey, Bunker, Barbara, Burke, Warner, Gindes, Marion, and Lowicki, Ray (eds.). Social Intervention: A Behavioral Science Approach. New York: The Free Press, 1971.

Huffnagel, H. P. Agriculture in Ethiopia. Food and Agriculture, Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1961.

Hunter, Guy. Modernizing Peasant Societies: A Comprehensive Study in Asia and Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Jacobs, N. Modernization Without Development. New York: Praeger, 1971.

Jesma, C. The Ethiopia Paradox. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Kahl, Joseph A. The Measurement of Modernism: A Study of Values in Brazil and Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968.

King, John A. Economic Development Projects and Their Appraisal. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967.

Leagans, P. and Loomis, Charles P. Behavioral Change in Agriculture: Concepts and Strategies. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971.

Lionberger, H. F. Adoption of New Ideas and Practices. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1960.

Lin, Nan and Zaltman, Gerald. ''Dimensions of Innovations1' in Processes and Phenomena of Social Change. Edited by Gerald Zaltman. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1973.

Millikan, Max F. and Hapgood, Daniel. No Easy Harvest: The Dilemma of Agriculture in Underdeveloped Countries. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967.

Mosher, A. T. "Agricultural Development" in Behavioral Change in Agriculture. J. Paul Leagans and Charles P. Loomis (eds.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971.

Myint, H. Economic Theory, and the Underdeveloped Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Nekby, Benkt. CADU: An Ethiopian Experiment in Developing Peasant Farming. Stockholm: Prisma Publishers, 1971.

Raper, Arthur F. Rural Development in Action: The Comprehensive Experiment at Comilla, East Pakistan. New York: Cornell University Press, 1970. 348

Robertson, Thomas. Innovative Behavior and Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971.

Rokeach, Milton. Beliefs, Attitudes and Values. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1968.

Rogers, E. M. with Shoemaker, F. Floyd. Communication of Innovations: A Cross Cultural Approach. London: The Free Press, Collier Mac­ millan Publishers, 1971.

Shantz, H. L. and Marbut, C. F. The Vegetation and Soils of Africa. New York: American Geographical Society, 1923.

Sheldon, Eleanor Bernet and Moore, Wilbert E. Indicators of Social Change: Concepts and Measurements. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1968.

Singh, K. N., RaO, C.S.S., and Sahay, B.N. (eds.). Research in Exten­ sion Education for Accelerating Development Process. New Delhi: Czxton Press Pvt. Ltd., 1970.

Singh, T. Planning the Rural Sector in Developing the Third World: the Experience of the Nineteenth-Sixties. London: Cambridge University Press, 1971.

Smock, David R. and Smock, Audrey C. Cultural and Political Aspects of Rural Transformation: A Case Study of Eastern Nigeria. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972.

Tilton, John E. International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semi Conductors. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1971.

Van Dalen, Deobold B. Understanding Educational Research. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966.

Warwick, Donald P. and Kelman, Herbert C. "Ethical Issues in Social Intervention" in Processes and Phenomena of Social Change. Edited by Gerald Zaltman. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1973.

Weiss, Carol H. (ed.). Evaluating Social Action Programs: Readings in Social Action and. Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972.

Weitz, Rannan. From Peasant to Farmer: A Revolutionary Strategy for Development. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.

______(ed.). Rural Development in a Changing World. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1971. 349

Zaltman, Gerald and Stiff, Ronald. "Theories of Diffusion" in Theoretical Perspectives in Consumer Behavior. S. Ward and T. Robertson (eds.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973.

Periodicals

Darsan, Gurcharn S. and Capener, Harold R. "Factors Related to the A c ­ ceptance of New Ideas and Techniques in Farming," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. IV, Nos. 1 & 2 (1968).

Bateman, Worth. "Assessing Program Effectiveness: A Rating System for Identifying Relative Program Success," Welfare in Review, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1968).

Bennet, C. "Diffusion Within Dynamic Populations," Human Organizations, Vol. 28 (Fall, 1969).

Brandner, L. and Keal, B. "Evaluation for Congruence as a Factor in the Adoption Rate of Innovations," Rural Sociology, Vol. 29 (1964).

Brereton, Philip R. "New Model for Effecting Change," Journal of Ex­ tension (Spring, 1972).

Bruce, John W. "Ethiopia: Nationalization of Rural Lands Procla­ mation," Land Tenure Center Newsletter, No. 47 (January-March, 1975).

Bertrand, Alvin L. "Definitions and Strategies of Rural Development: A Search for Coherence and Congruity," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, No. 3/4 (1972).

Cadwallader, Mervyn. "The Cybennetic Analysis of Change in Complex Organizations," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 65 (1959).

Campbell, Donald T. "Considering the Case Against Experimental Evalua­ tions of Social Innovations," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 1 (1970).

Campbell, Rex R. "A Suggested Paradigm of the Individual Adoption Process," Rural Sociology, Vol. 31 (December, 1966).

Cancian, Frank. "Stratification and Risk-taking--A Theory Tested on Agricultural Innovation," The American Sociological Review, Vol. 32, No. 6 (December, 1967).

Caro, Francis G. "Approaches to Evaluative Research: A Review," Human Organization, Vol. 28, No. 2 (1969).

Cleaver, Harry M. "The Contradictions of the Green Revolution," The American Economic Review, Vol. 62, No. 2 (May, 1972). 350

Coe, Rodney M. and Barnhill, Elizabeth A. "Social Dimensions of Failure in Innovation," Human Organization, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Fall, 1967).

Cohen, John M. "Rural Change in Ethiopia: The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit," Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 22 (July, 1974).

"Effects of Green Revolution Strategies on Tenants and Small-Scale Landowners in the Chilalo Region of Ethiopia," The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 9 (April, 1975).

Copp, J. H., Sill, M. L., and Brown, E. J. "The Function of Infor­ mation Sources in Farming Practices Adoption Process," Rural Sociology, Vol. 24 (1958).

Coughenour, C. Milton. "The Functioning of Farmers1 Characteristics in Relation to Contact with Media and Practice Adoption," Journal of Rural Sociology, Vol. 25, No. 3 (1960).

______. "The Rate of Technological Diffusion Among Locality Groups," The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 69, No. 4 (January, 1964).

Coward, E. W. and Schutjer, W. A. "The Green Revolution: Initiating and Sustaining Change," Civilizations, Vol. 20, No. 4.

Crouch, Bruce R. "Innovation and Farm Development: A Multi-Dimensional Model," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, Nos. 3/4 (1972).

Das, K. K. and Sarkar, D. R. "Economic Motivation and Adoption of Farming Practices," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 & 2 (19 70).

Deniston, 0. L., Rosenstock, I. M. and Getting, V. A. "Evaluation of Program Effectiveness," Public Health Report, Vol. 83, No. 4 (1968).

Dunning, Harrison C. "Land Reform in Ethiopia: A Case Study in Non- Development," UGLA Law Review, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1970).

Eberts, P. R. "Rural Sociologists Response to Extension: Suggestions for Action-Oriented Theory," Rural Sociology, Vol. 34 (June, 1969).

Ellman, A. 0. "The Introduction of Agricultural Innovations Through Cooperative Farming: A Brief Outline of Tanzania’s Policies," East African Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1970).

Evans, John W. "Evaluating Social Action Programs," Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 3 (1969). 351

Falcon, Walter P. "The Green Revolution: Generations of Problems," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52 (December, 19 7 0).

Felstehausen, H. "Economic Knowledge, Participation and Farmer Deci­ sion Making in Developed and an Undeveloped Country," Inter­ national Journal of Agricultural Affairs, Vol. 5 (July, 1968).

Fliegel, Frederick and Kivlin, Joseph. "Differential Perception of Innovations and Rate of Adoption," Rural Sociology, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March, 1967).

Fowen, Wyn. "Implications of the Green Revolution for Economic Growth," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 5 (December, 1970).

Freeman, Howard E. and Sherwood, Clarence C. "Research in Large Scale Intervention Programs," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1965).

Galesky, Boguslaw. "Conflict and Change as an Aspect of Development," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, Mo. 3/4 (1972).

Griessman, B. Eugene. "An Approach to Evaluating Comprehensive Social Project," Educational Technology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1969).

Gross, Neal C„ and Taves, Marvin. "Characteristics Associated with Ac­ ceptance of Recommended Farm Practices," Rural Sociology, Vol. 17 (September, 1952).

Havens, A. E. "Methodological Issues in the Study of Development," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. XII, No. 3/4 (1972).

Jacoby, Jacob. "Personality and Innovation Proneness," Journal of Mar­ keting Research, Vol. 8 (May, 1971).

Jha, P. N. and Shaktawat, G. S. "Adoption Behavior of Farmers Toward Hybrid Bayra Cultivation," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VIII, Nos. 1 & 2 (March-June, 1972).

Jones, E. W. "Human Resources Development and Rural Poverty," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 50 (December, 1968).

Levine, Abraham S. "Evaluating Program Effectiveness and Efficiency: Rationale and Description of Research in Progress," Welfare in Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1967).

Lewin, Kurt. "Frontier in Group Dynamics," Human Relations, Vol. 1 (1947). 352

Long, Millard F. "Why Peasant Farmers Borrow,11 American Journal of Agricultural Economics (November, 1968).

Malone, C. G. “Some Responses of Rice Farmers to the Package Program in Tanjore District India," Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 47 (May, 1965).

Malone, Carl C. and Johnson, E. Sherma. "The Intensive Agricultural Development Program in India," Agricultural Economic Research, Vol. 23, No. 2 (April, 1971).

Marshal, P. S. "Opportunities in Pakistan," World Crops, Vol. 22 (January, 1970).

Misra, L., Kar, L. N . , and Sahoo, S. "Efficiency of Lay Leaders in Influencing Farmers for Adoption of New Farm Practices," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 & 2 (1970).

Rajaguru, G. S. and Satapathy, C. "Effectiveness of Sources of Infor­ mation in the Adoption Process of High Yielding Varieties by the Farmers of Puri District in Orissa," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VII, Nos. 1 & 2 (1971).

Ramsey, C. E., Poison, R. A., and Spencer, G. "Values and the Adoption of Practices," Rural Sociology, Vol. 24 (1958).

Ryan, Bryce and Gross, Neal C. "The Diffusion of Hybrid Seed Corn in Two Iowa Communities," Rural Sociology, Vol. C (March, 1943).

Scott, Lauren. "The End of Agrarianism Fission of the Political Economy of Agriculture," American Journal of Agricultural Econo­ mics , Vol. 52, No. 5 (December, 1970).

Sherwood, Clarence C. "Issues in Measuring Results of Action Programs," Welfare in Review, Vol. 5, No. 7 (1967).

Singh, I. B. and Sahay, B. N. "Communication Behavior of Kosi Farmers in Relation to High Yielding Varieties Programme," Indian Journal of Extension Education, Vol. VI, Nos. 3 & 4 (1970).

Singh, I. J. "The Transformation of Traditional Agriculture: A Case Study of Punjab, India," American Journal of Agricultural E Economics, Vol. 53, No. 2 (1971).

Stein, Herman D., Hougham, George M . , and Zalba, Serapio R. "Assessing Social Agency Effectiveness: A Goal Model," Welfare in Review, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1968). 353

Supe, S. V. "Farmers' Information Source Credibility and Its Relation to Their Rational and Adoption Behavior," Indian Journal of Ex­ tension Education, Vol. VII, Nos. 1 & 2 (1971). I1 Taylor, J. "Introducing Social Innovation," Journal of Applied Be­ havioral Science, Vol. 6 (1970).

Thio, A. 0. " A Reconsideration of the Concept of Adopter Innovation Compatibility in Diffusion Research," The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 12 (Winter, 1971).

Valkonen, Tapani, "On the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations," Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. X, No. 2 (1970).

Weintraub, Dov. "Development Change— Toward a Generalized Conception of Its Basic Dimensions and of the Relations Among Them," Development and Change, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1971-72).

Wharton, G. R., Jr. "The Green Revolution: Cornucopia or Pandora's Box," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 3 (April, 1969).

Wilkening, Eugene A. "A Socio-Psychological Approach to the Study of the Acceptance of Innovations in Farming," Rural Sociology, Vol. 15 (1952).

Bulletins and Reports

Achilladelis, B., Jervis, P. and Robertson, A. A Study of Success and Failure in Innovation. Report on Project SAPPHO to the Science Research Council, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, Sussex, England, 1971.

Barraclough, Solon. FAO/SIDA Sympossium on Agricultural Institutions for Integrated Rural Development. FAO, Rome, June, 1971.

Beal, George M . , Bohlen, Joe M . , and Warland, Rex H. Rural Value Orientations and Farm-Policy and Actions. Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Iowa State University of Science and Technology Research Bulletin 561, May, 1968.

Bengtsson, Bo. Cultivation Practices and the Weed, Pest and Disease Situation in Some Parts of the Chilalo Awraja. CADU Publications No. 10, March, 1968.

Beyene, Michael. An Analysis of CADU Credit Programme 1971/72-1972/73. CADU Publication No. 92. Asella, January, 1973.

. On Evaluation of Innovation Dissemination Strategy and Process in CADU Project Area. Assela: CADU Planning and Evaluation Section, December, 1973. 354

Borlaug, Norman E. "Wheat Breeding and Its Impact on World Food Sup- ply," Proceedings, Third International Wheat Genetics Symposium, Canberra 5-9 August, 1968.

______. The Green Revolution, Peace and Humanity. Lecture on the Occasion of the Award of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1970, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1970. CIMMYT Reprint and Translation Series No. 3, January, 1972.

______. "The World Food Problem--Present and Future" in Shaping the Future. A Discussion at the 1971 Nobel Conference. John D. Roslansky (ed.). Netherlands: North Holland Publishing Co., 1972.

CADU. Tentative CADU Programme 1970-1975. Publication No. 26, Addis Ababa, March, 1969.

______. Annual Report 1969-70. CADU Publication No. 51.

. Annual Report 1970-71. CADU Publication No. 65.

______. Annual Reports 1971-72 and 1972-73. CADU Publication No. 77, Vols. I and II.

______. "An Appraisal of CADU1s Experience in Cooperative Pro­ motion," J u n e , 1972. (Mimeographed.)

______. Preliminary Final Report for the Period 1967-70. CADU Pub­ lication No. 43, 1970.

______. Project Description. CADU Publication No. 62, April, 1971.

Central Statistical Office (CSO), Statistical Abstract 1970. Addis Ababa, 1970.

Cohen, John M. The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit as a Program Intermediary for Foreign Assistance in Ethiopia. A.I.D. Spring Review, Vol. VIII, February,1973.

Crop and Pasture Section. Report on Surveys and Experiments Carried Out in 1971. CADU Publication No. 80.

______. Reports on Surveys and Experiments Carried Out in 1972. CADU Publication No. 87, July, 1973.

Draft Policy of the Imperial Ethiopian Government of Agricultural Land TenureI Addis Ababa, August,1972. (Mimeographed.)

Faidley, Levern and Esmay, Merle. Introduction and Use of Improved Rice Varieties: Who Benefits? Michigan State University, East Lansing, November, 1970. (Mimeographed.) 355

Gadsby, Dwight M. Current Procedures Used in Evaluating Resources Con­ servation and Development Projects. USDA Misc. Pub. No. 1177, August, 1970, pp. 44-49.

Gotsch, Carl H. Notes on the Current Status and Future Development of West Pakistan Agriculture. Economic Development Report No. 218, May, 1972. Development Research Group, Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Greene, Brook A. Rate of Adoption of New Farm Practice in the Central Plains, Thailand. Occasional Paper No. 41, Department of Ag­ ricultural Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1970.

Guba, Egon G. and Horvat, John. Evaluation During Development. Bul­ letin of the School of Education, Indiana University, Vol. 46, No. 2, 1970.

Hakanson, Sigurd. Introductory Agro-Botanical Investigations in Grazed Areas in the Chilalo Awra/ja, Ethiopia. CADU Publication No. 11, March, 1968.

Hapgood, David (ed.). Policies for Promoting Agricultural Development. Report of a Conference on Productivity and Innovation in Agricul­ ture in the Underdeveloped Countries. Center for International Studies, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.

Holmberg, Johan. The Credit Programme of the Chilalo Agricultural De­ velopment Unit (CADU) in Ethiopia. A.I.D. Spring Review of Small Farmer Credit, Vol. VIII, February, 1973.

Imperial Ethiopian Government. 3rd Five Year Development Plan 1968-73. Berhanena Selam H.S.I. Printing Press, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1968.

Implement Research Section. Progress Reports. CADU Publication Nos. 32, 52 and 79.

Jannermann, G. The Close Links of Interaction Between Centralized State Planning and Management of the Integrated Processes of Society and Independent Responsibility of the Cooperative Farmers for the De­ velopment of Agricultural Production and Social Life on the Countryside. XIV International Conference of Agricultural Eco­ nomics. Institute of Agricultural Economics, Neetzon. 19 70. Kifle, Henock. Analysis of the CADU Credit Programme 1968/69- 1969/71. CADU Publication No. 66, p. 42. Kline, C. K . , Green, D.A.G., Donahue, R. L. and Stout, B.A. Agricul­ tural Mechanization in Equatorial Africa. Institute of Inter­ national Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Natural Re­ sources Research Report No. 6, Michigan State University, December 31, 1969. 356

Lexander, Arne. Land Ownership, Tenancy and Social Organization in the Waji Area. CADU Publication No. 50, March, 19 70.

Ministry of Land Reform and Administration, Report on Land Tenure Survey of Sidamo Province. Addis Ababa, September, 1969.

Murphy, H. F. A Report on the Fertility Status and Other Data of Some Soils of Ethiopia. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 44, College of Agriculture, Haile Sellassie I University, 1968.

Neilson, James. The Change Agent and the Process of Change. Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 17, East Lansing, Michigan, 1967.

Planning and Evaluation Section. General Agricultural Survey, 1972. CADU Publication No. 82, February, 19 73.

Provisional Military Administrative Council of Ethiopia. "A Procla­ mation to Provide for the Nationalization of Rural Land, 1967 E.C.," Ethiopian Herald, March 4, 1974.

SIDA Project Preparation Team. Report No. II on the Establishment of .a Regional Project in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, May, 1967.

Steele, Sara. Six Dimensions of Program Effectiveness. Madison: Division of Program and Staff Development, University of Wis­ consin, October, 1972.

Tendler, Judit. "The Objectives of Small Farmer Credit Programs" in A.I.D. Spring Review of Small Farmer Credit, February, 1973.

Wenner, C. G. Reconnoitering Survey of the Water Resources in the Chilalo Awraja, Ethiopia, November 1966-February 196 7. Stockholm: Stenciled report to SIDA.

Unpublished Material

Finn, Michael G. "Supervised Agricultural Credit in Peru: Technique Adoption, Productivity, and Loan Delinquency in Plan Costa." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972.

Green, D.A.G. "Agricultural Mechanization: An Economic Analysis of Four Case Studies." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971.

Gutierrez, Jaime. "Organizational and Attitudinal Study of Agricul­ tural Extension in Columbia, South America." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1971. 357

Makonnen, Telahun. "Interregional Competition in Ethiopian Agricul­ ture." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Alberta, 1970.

Rucks, Carlos. "Adoption of Improved Agricultural Practices in Uruguay." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wis­ consin, 1969.