Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology

466 Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology Puritan intellectual influence also shaped the literature Foundations of the Enlightenment of 17th-century England. Foremost among Puritan men The theological and philosophical currents of the En- of letters in the 17th century was John Milton, whose lightenment should not be separated from the scientific Paradise Lost (1667) and Paradise Regained (1671) pre- and political advances that both supported and were sented the story of humanity’s fall and redemption in supported by developments in philosophy and theology. epic poetry. Milton also wrote Areopagacita (1644), an Thinkers like René Descartes (1596–1650) applied the ra- impassioned plea for freedom of expression in speech tionalist approach of scientific thinkers such as Nicolaus and print. The Baptist John Bunyan incorporated Puri- Copernicus (1473–1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) tan themes in his allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678). to the question of how knowledge and understanding are Bunyan’s exploration of the Christian’s journey through gained. Descartes’s writings on philosophical methodol- this life to the celestial city was teeming with Puritan ogy and epistemology helped define the mode of thinking theological concepts and metaphors. adopted by many Enlightenment rationalists. Among The North American Puritans’ commitment to educa- his noted works are Discourse on the Method (1637), in tion was evident in their creation of catechetical state- which he introduced the world to his famous dictum ments for their congregations and founding of important Cogito ergo sum. Descartes sought to establish the exis- centers for education. Puritans and their Congregation- tence of God and the immortality of the soul using only alist heirs were instrumental in the founding of Harvard evidence that could be established through reason in his University (1634–1646) and Yale University (1701) in the Meditations on First Philosophy (1641). American colonies. The Puritan influence on American Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) began to dialogue with the culture was profound and placed New England at the writings of Descartes and constructed his own philosophy, forefront of American cultural influence well into the which had a tremendous impact on the science of biblical mid-19th century. interpretation. Spinoza was of Portuguese and Jewish de- scent. He lived for all 44 of his years in the Dutch Republic. References and Resources Spinoza was expelled from his synagogue at the age of 23, Bremer, Francis J. 2009. Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction. possibly for questioning orthodox interpretations of the Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hebrew scripture. Spinoza’s most influential publication, ———. 2012. First Founders: American Puritans and Puritanism Ethics (1677), was published shortly after his death. He en- in an Atlantic World. Durham: University of New Hamp- gaged in literary dialogue with a number of philosophers, shire Press. including Descartes, in Ethics. He proposed a concept of Culpepper, Scott. 2011. Francis Johnson and the English Sepa- God in which God was closely identfied with the universe ratist Influence. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. itself, leading some readers to accuse him of Pantheism. Haller, William. 1947. The Rise of Puritanism. New York: Co- Religious views were deeply impacted by the new lumbia University Press. philosophical currents. John Locke’s views on anthropol- Lake, Peter. 2004. Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan ogy marked an important departure from the Reformed Church. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. theology of his youth. Locke argued in An Essay Concern- White, B. R. 1971. The English Separatist Tradition from the ing Human Understanding (1690) that human beings Marian Martyrs to the Pilgrim Fathers. Oxford, UK: Oxford are born as a tabula rasa or blank slate. He believed that University Press. human failings were the result of poor nurture and ex- —Scott Culpepper perience rather than an inherent sinful nature. His more optimistic appraisal of human nature tended to guide Enlightenment thought in the 18th century. Locke also Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology discussed the veracity of scripture and the miraculous in The Reasonableness of Christianity (1696). While at- The Enlightenment is generally identified as the period tempting to defend Christianity properly interpreted as an from roughly 1600 to 1800, during which major develop- eminently reasonable belief system, Locke raised serious ments in scientific, philosophical, political, and religious questions about the veracity of the supernatural aspects of culture transformed European society. The emergence of scripture. He also championed the cause of religious tol- Enlightenment thought is often connected to the rise of eration in A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). Though modernity and the general acceptance of scientific ratio- the religious settlement in England after the Glorious nalism as the primary means of understanding the world. Revolution of 1688 did not live up to Locke’s ideal, he pro- Enlightenment thinkers were often willing to discard tra- posed in his Letter the vision of a society in which people ditional beliefs and practices in light of insights gleaned were free to practice their faith without legal coercion or from the use of their rational faculties. penalty. Locke’s political views grew organically from his Copyright © 2015. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/25/2017 12:57 PM via DORDT COLLEGE AN: 991399 ; Lamport, Mark A., Kurian, George Thomas.; Encyclopedia of Christian Education Account: s4462345 Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology 467 fundamental belief that human beings were capable of If Voltaire could be considered the father of the French making sound choices, and that governments were tasked Enlightenment, Denis Diderot (1713–1784) was its most with the responsibility of protecting their goods and au- gifted promoter and chronicler. Diderot is best known tonomy. He provided classic statements of the imperative for his editorship of the Encyclopédie (1751–1772), a for governments to protect life, liberty, and property in 28-volume compendium of Enlightenment thought that Two Treatises of Government (1689). included contributions from the most influential thinkers in 18th-century Europe. Jean Le Rond d’Alembert Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment Philosophy assisted Diderot in the arduous task of compiling and and Theology editing the Encyclopédie. Diderot struggled to complete Francois Marie Arouet (1694–1778) captured the imagi- the work under threat from ecclesiastical and political nation of European thinkers and became the witty voice authorities, who saw the collection as a bastion for their of the 18th-century Enlightenment as “M. de Voltaire.” political opponents to air subversive views. Like Voltaire, Voltaire was not of noble birth, but aspired to join those Diderot was hostile to traditional religion. He originally ranks. An altercation with a nobleman resulted in his embraced Deism, but he ultimately became an atheist by being exiled to England, which inspired him to write the late 1840s. Philosophical Letters or Letters on the English Nation The Scottish scholar David Hume (1711–1776) repre- (1733–1734). Voltaire expressed his admiration for Eng- sented for many the apex of skeptical empiricism. Hume lish advances in the sciences, philosophy, politics, and explored the development of religion from ancient poly- religious toleration. He desired to see a similar situation theism to 18th-century forms of popular religion in The in his native France. Voltaire produced works of litera- Natural History of Religion (1757). His method of identi- ture in a variety of genres, including poetry, drama, his- fying natural rather than supernatural causes for religious tory, satire, literary essays, political theory, and works of developments cemented his place in the minds of many philosophy. He used the philosophical tale as one method readers as an irreligious and possibly atheistic thinker. of relaying a philosophical argument, by contextualizing Hume also contributed the comprehensive History of it in a fictional tale. Despite his achievements in such a England (1754–1761), which challenged many of the nar- wide array of literary styles, Candide (1759) or L’Optisme rowly political and partisan methods of writing history is often considered his most enduring work. This short that had dominated the scholarship of recent years. philosophical tale offered a scathing satirical critique of The work of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) focused on the philosophical optimism espoused by Gottfried Wil- critiquing the weaknesses of empiricism and rationalism helm Leibniz. Le Siècle de Louis XIV (1751) was his most by arguing that experience and emotional perception significant contribution to historical studies. Voltaire shaped reality alongside human reason. The Critique of helped to shape historiography and historical method- Pure Reason (1781) and the Critique of Practical Reason ologies through works such as “Essay on the Customs (1788) were among his classic statements of this per- and on the Spirit of the Nations” (1756), in which he spective. Kant also provided an interesting analysis of emphasized the importance of studying all aspects of a the nature of enlightenment

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