30 3.1. Airolo-Madrano and higher grounds around Airolo and Quinto (TI) 30 3.1.1. Airolo-Madrano (sites 10–15) 32 3.1.2. Airolo-Monti and Buco di Pontino (sites 17–21) 34 3.1.3. Quinto: Lago di Tom, Alpe di Tom (sites 82–89) 40 3.1.4. Quinto: Alpe di Pinett (sites 90–95) 45 3.2. Leventina valley between Giornico and Airolo (TI) 49 3.2.1. Traffic routes 51 3.2.2. Dalpe-Vidresco (sites 29–30) 51 3.2.3. Osco: Prati della Chiesa, Mugniei, Freggio (sites 67–74) 53 3.2.4. Quinto-Deggio (sites 79–81) 53 3.3. St Gotthard Pass (TI) 53 3.3.1. Pass area (sites 22–23) 57 3.3.2. Alpe di Rodont (site 24/25) 57 3.4. St Gotthard “parco eolico” (wind park) survey in 2011 58 3.5. Area north of St Gotthard Pass and Ursern valley (UR) 58 3.5.1. Hospental-Mätteli (sites 50–52) 58 3.5.2. Hospental: castle and church hill (site 54) 59 3.5.3. Hospental: Steg, Moos, Spissen (sites 55–62) 60 3.5.4. Göschenen: Schöllenen gorge (site 49) 60 3.6. Topology of sites and interpretation 61 3.7. Radiocarbon dates and interpretation 63 3.8. Material culture, with focus on rock crystal industry

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 5 21.03.18 18:23 71 4. Excavations in Airolo-Madrano “In Grop” Philippe Della Casa, Emanuela Jochum Zimmermann, Franziska Jahn, Ursina Zweifel, Jacqueline Studer

71 4.1. Overview of investigated areas 73 4.2. Stratigraphy 77 4.3. Structural elements 85 4.4. Material finds 85 4.4.1. Pottery 105 4.4.2. Rock crystal 108 4.4.3. Stone tools 108 4.4.4. Metals 110 4.5. Bioarchaeological finds 110 4.5.1. Faunal remains 110 4.5.2. Preservation and quantification of the animal remains 112 4.5.3. Skeletal element and species identification 113 4.5.4. Age determination 113 4.5.5. An ambiguous pig bone 117 4.5.6. Discussion

121 5. Results of the 2015 UBC Rescue Excavation in Airolo-Madrano Petra Kohler

121 5.1. Topography 121 5.2. Excavation 121 5.2.1. Phase A (Bronze Age) 123 5.2.2. Phase B (Bronze Age) 126 5.2.3. Phase C (Iron Age/Roman period) 126 5.3. Finds 126 5.3.1. Pottery 129 5.3.2. Rock crystal 130 5.4. Radiocarbon dating 131 5.5. Botanical macrorests 131 5.6. Interpretation and outlook

133 6. Review of Sites in the Leventina Valley: Quinto, Osco, Dalpe Ivo Dobler, Philippe Della Casa

133 6.1. Brief history of research 133 6.2. The Iron Age graves of Dalpe 134 6.2.1. Initial situation 134 6.2.2. Topography and find context 134 6.2.3. Excavation history 136 6.2.4. Features 137 6.2.5. Form of grave and type of burial 138 6.2.6. Finds and dating 143 6.2.7. Outlook

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 6 21.03.18 18:23 159 7. Alpine Archives for Climate Reconstruction – A Comparison of Selected Holocene Proxies Urs Blumer

159 7.1. Introduction 160 7.2. Holocene climate in research 161 7.3. Important Alpine proxies 163 7.4. Comparison of results from selected studies 167 7.5. Conclusion

171 8. Airolo-Madrano “In Grop”: Archaeobotanical Analysis – Palaeoenvironment and Mountain Economies in the Bronze and Iron Ages Christiane Jacquat

171 8.1. Introduction 171 8.2. Present-day climate 174 8.3. Archaeobotanical samples 174 8.4. Analysis 174 8.4.1. Seeds 174 8.4.2. Anthracology, archaeozoology and palynology 174 8.5. Results and interpretation 175 8.6. Subsistence 175 8.6.1. Subsistence strategies 175 8.6.2. Crops 176 8.6.3. Airolo-Madrano and other “neighbouring” mountain sites from the Bronze and Iron Ages 176 8.6.4. Thoughts on cultivation 178 8.6.5. Gathering 180 8.6.6. Diet 180 8.7. Anthropogenic vegetation 180 8.7.1. Segetal and ruderal weed alliances 181 8.7.2. Grasslands 182 8.8. Forest subsistence economy 182 8.8.1. Airolo-Madrano 184 8.8.2. Slash and burn, clearing or stubble burning 184 8.9. Alpine pastures 184 8.9.1. Surface surveys 185 8.9.2. Pastoral and gathering economy 185 8.10. Conclusion – Mountain economies during the Bronze and Iron Ages

191 9. Woodland Exploitation and Management in the Montane and Subalpine Zones of the Leventina Valley in the Bronze and Iron Ages Alexa Dufraisse

191 9.1. Introduction 191 9.2. Framework of the study 191 9.2.1. Geographical and environmental context 192 9.2.2. Palaeoenvironmental data (off site) 192 9.2.3. Archaeobiological data 193 9.3. Material and method 193 9.3.1. Contribution of anthracological analysis 193 9.3.2. Sites analysed 193 9.3.3. Sampling method

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 7 21.03.18 18:23 195 9.3.4. Identification 195 9.4 Results: plant lists and proportions 195 9.4.1. Valley bottom (altitude: 1100–1200 m) 196 9.4.2. Alpine pastures (altitude: 2000–2300 m) 196 9.5. Interpretation and discussion 196 9.5.1. Woodland vegetation and comparison with pollen analyses 200 9.5.2. Vegetation levels traversed 201 9.5.3. Firewood exploitation and available woody diversity 202 9.6. Woodland management strategies in the upper Leventina valley 202 9.6.1. Valley bottom 203 9.6.2. Alpine pastures

207 10. Vegetation History of the Upper Leventina Valley from Neolithic to Roman Times, Recorded by Pollen, Spores, Plant Macrofossils, and Charcoal Elisa Vescovi, Willy Tinner, Ruth Beer, Jacqueline F. N. van Leeuwen, Ursula Steinhauser, Stephanie Ziegler, Adrian Gilli, Stefanie B. Wirth, Stephanie Samartin, Christiane Jacquat, Gabriele Carraro

207 10.1. Introduction 208 10.2. Study area and study sites 210 10.3. Material and methods 210 10.3.1. Coring and radiocarbon dating 200 10.3.2 Pollen, charcoal and macrofossil analysis 212 10.4. Results and interpretation 212 10.4.1. Lithology 212 10.4.2 Pollen, spores, macrofossils and charcoal-inferred reconstructions of vegetation and fire history 221 10.5. Discussion 221 10.5.1. Neolithic human impact 222 10.5.2. Bronze Age 222 10.5.3. Iron Age and Roman period 223 10.6. Conclusions

227 11. GIS-Based Landscape Modeling Martin Sauerbier, Philippe Della Casa, Daniela Fasler

227 11.1. Source material 227 11.2. Structure of the site database 228 11.3. Computation of site catchments 228 11.4. Determining potential land use 232 11.5. Preliminary conclusions 232 11.6. Application examples: the Airolo-Madrano and Quinto catchments

239 12. Synthesis: A Diachronic Ecodynamic Scenario of Early Human Presence in the Central Alps Philippe Della Casa

247 Annexes 247 A1 Maps of zones investigated during the 2007–08 Leventina surveys 253 A2 Full documentation catalogues of the 2003–06 Airolo-Madrano excavations 262 A3 Plana and profiles of the 2003–06 Airolo-Madrano excavations 266 A4 Complementary tables to the archaeobotanical analyses from Airolo-Madrano and the Leventina survey subalpine sites

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 8 21.03.18 18:23 Part II Population Dynamics in the South Alpine Area from the End of the Bronze Age until Romanization Eva Carlevaro

273 Forward and Acknowledgements

275 1. Introduction and Methodology 275 1.1. Introduction to the methodology and the definition of the aims 276 1.1.1. GIS as a research tool 276 1.1.2. Research objectives 277 1.2. State of research 277 1.3. Chronological and geographical setting

280 2. Cartographic Sources

282 3. Critique of the Sources: Qualitative Analysis of the Data 282 3.1. Limitations and problems 282 3.1.1. The location and georeferencing of the sites 283 3.1.2. Reliability and periods of archaeological investigation 286 3.1.3. Land use and factors relating to modern urbanization 288 3.2. Conclusions

289 4. Quantitative and Functional Analysis of the Data Gathered 290 4.1. Subdivision and chronology of the sites 291 4.2. Continuity and discontinuity 292 4.2.1. Late Bronze Age (phases A–B) 294 4.2.2. Final Bronze Age (phases C–D) 295 4.2.3. Early Iron Age (phases E–H) 300 4.2.4. Late Iron Age (phases I–L) 302 4.2.5. Romanization and the Early Empire (phases M–N)

306 5. Multifactorial Analysis 306 5.1. Choice of parameters 307 5.2. Geo-environmental factors 307 5.2.1. Landscape geomorphology 309 5.2.2. Altitude 311 5.2.3. Orientation (aspect) 312 5.2.4. Slope 312 5.2.5. Distance from water sources 315 5.2.6. Weather conditions 317 5.2.7. Productive capability of the soils 319 5.2.8. Human impact on the vegetation cover 320 3.2.9. Vegetation cover 322 5.3. Settlement economy 323 5.3.1. Distance from raw materials 323 5.3.2. Path analysis – reconstruction of ancient routes 330 5.3.3. Intervisibility: to see and be seen …

336 6. The Development and Organization of the Protohistoric Settlements in Southern Switzerland and its Neighbouring Regions in Relation to the Natural Environment and Social-Economic Factors: the Results 336 6.1. The preferential choices 338 6.2. Multiple correspondence analysis: methodology 340 6.2.1. The processing of the parameters being studied

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 9 22.03.18 10:27 341 6.2.2. The results of MCA 347 6.3. The diachronic evolution of settlement in the light of the data shown from the analyses 348 6.3.1. Region 1: the area north of Lake Maggiore 352 6.3.2 Region 2: the area south of Lake Maggiore 355 6.3.3. Region 3: the plain between the stream Agogna and the river Ticino 356 6.3.4. Region 4: the area to the south of Lake Como

359 7. Conclusions and a Look at the Wider Picture

365 8. Appendices and Catalogue

366 9. Notes

369 10. Bibliography

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 10 22.03.18 10:27 Prefazione

Introdurre la pubblicazione che presenta i dati de- La ricerca sul terreno e sui materiali portata avanti dal sunti da Leventina – prähistorische Siedlungslandschaft. professor Philippe Della Casa e dall’Istituto universitario da Besiedlung, Umwelt und Wirtschaft im Alpinen Tessintal lui diretto è da anni punto di riferimento per il Cantone 1500 BCE – 15 AD, un progetto sottoposto al Fondo nazio- Ticino. Basti ricordare i tre volumi dedicati alla rivisitazione nale svizzero per la ricerca scientifica nel 2006 dal Dipar- e allo studio approfondito della Necropoli di Giubiasco, una timento d’Archeologia preistorica dell’Università di Zurigo delle più importanti riportate alla luce a partire dalla fine del in stretta collaborazione con l’Ufficio dei beni culturali del XIX secolo, volumi dati alle stampe in collaborazione con il Cantone Ticino, è per noi motivo di orgoglio. Museo nazionale svizzero di Zurigo fra 2006 e 2010; le pro- La ricerca in alta Valle Leventina, diretta dal professor spezioni eseguite per conto dell’Ufficio dei beni culturali Philippe Della Casa, si è svolta su più estati, coinvolgendo sul Passo del San Gottardo nell’area interessata dall’inse- numerosi studenti dell’ateneo zurighese e permettendo an- diamento del Parco eolico; le consulenze mirate in diverse che a giovani collaboratori dell’Ufficio dei beni culturali di indagini condotte nell’ultimo decennio dal Servizio arche- confrontarsi con nuove tecniche di indagine sul terreno e ologico cantonale: dai sondaggi sul tracciato AlpTransit agli con approcci interdisciplinari innovativi, da riferire ad ana- scavi di salvataggio che hanno permesso di riportare alla lisi ecologiche e archeobiologiche. luce, anche alle nostre latitudini, insediamenti da riferire Le campagne di scavo – mirate a fissare le tappe del alle età del Bronzo (Minusio, Gudo, Bellinzona-Carasso) e precoce popolamento della Valle Leventina – si sono perlo- del Ferro (Arbedo-Molinazzo). più concentrate ad Airolo-Madrano, Dalpe, Osco, sui Monti Un approccio transdisciplinare – quello ormai conso- di Airolo, all’Alpe Pontino, all’Alpe di Pinett e all’Alpe di Tom, lidato fra Cantone Ticino e Università di Zurigo – che ben dove gli archeologici coinvolti hanno eseguito ricerche in- si inserisce nella fitta rete di sinergie fra Archeologie can- seribili in quel filone definito di Landscape archeology e tonali, Università, Musei e Laboratori, che permetteranno di Settlement archaeology, nei quali accanto alle tecniche anche in futuro di ampliare le conoscenze sapientemente tradizionali di ricerca sul terreno vengono affiancati ap- desunte dalle analisi sul terreno. procci metodologici transdisciplinari e viene utilizzato il Questo e altri traguardi sono auspicati dall’Archeolo- Sistema informativo geografico o territoriale, meglio noto gia cantonale ticinese, che dalla metà degli Anni Novanta come GIS. del secolo scorso cerca di attivare e alimentare sinergie Più discipline a confronto per rispondere a una serie con Università, Istituti e Laboratori specializzati svizzeri ed di domande sulla storia dell’uomo e del suo insediamento esteri, nell’ottica di sopperire alla ormai cronica mancanza nell’odierna Valle Leventina dall’età del Bronzo antico alla di personale debitamente formato all’interno del proprio fine dell’età del Ferro. Lunghi secoli nei quali si è assistito ad organico. un temporaneo deterioramento climatico, a cambiamenti Dare giusta visibilità al potenziale archeologico pre- della vegetazione naturale dovuti al disboscamento e ad sente nel nostro territorio con imprese editoriali come que- altre forme di conquista del territorio, quali lo sfruttamento sta che introduciamo, permetterà forse alle future gene- dei boschi, l’introduzione della cerealicoltura e della flora razioni di creare anche in Cantone Ticino una struttura avventizia, e non da ultimo alla trasformazione degli am- moderna ed efficiente, che veda attivo personale specializ- bienti naturali nelle adiacenze dei siti d’abitato. zato – oggi costretto a cercare lavoro altrove –, in grado di I risultati di questi anni di ricerca vengono ora pre- completare la ricerca sul terreno con lo studio e la valoriz- sentati in un volume ricco di dati, approfondimenti, ipotesi zazione di un patrimonio che appartiene allo Stato, ma pur- ricostruttive e modelli digitali del terreno indagato, che per- troppo al momento rimane appannaggio di pochi addetti mettono all’uomo moderno di penetrare una realtà territo- ai lavori. rialmente a lui vicina, ma lontana per epoca e consuetudini di vita. Rossana Cardani Vergani, responsabile Servizio archeologico cantonale del Ticino

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 11 21.03.18 18:23 Preface

It is a source of pride for us to introduce the publication inside a world that is geographically close, but remote in which presents the results obtained from Leventina – Pre- time and way of life. historic Landscape. Settlement, Environment, and Economy For many years the research carried out both in the in the Alpine Ticino Valley 1500 B. C. – 15 A. D., a pro- field and on the material by Professor Philippe Della Casa ject carried out with support of the Swiss National Science and the university institute directed by him has been a Foundation from 2006 by the Department of Prehistoric point of reference for the Canton Ticino. Suffice to remem- Archaeology at the University of Zurich in direct collabora- ber the three volumes dedicated to the re-examination and tion with the Ufficio dei beni culturali of the Canton Ticino. in-depth study of the Cemetery of Giubiasco, one of the The research in the upper Leventina Valley, directed most important discovered since the end of the 19th cen- by Professor Philippe Della Casa, took place over several tury, published in collaboration with the Swiss National summers, involving many students from the University of Museum in Zurich between 2006 and 2010; the investiga- Zurich. It also enabled young members of staff from the tions carried out on behalf of the Ufficio dei beni culturali Ufficio dei beni culturali to tackle new investigative field at the St Gottard Pass in the area affected by the installation techniques and innovative interdisciplinary approaches, of a windfarm; the advice directed at the various investiga- with reference to environmental and archaeobiological tions conducted by the canton’s Servizio archeologico in analysis. the last decade: from the surveys along the AlpTransit line The excavation campaigns – focussed on establish- to the rescue excavations that enabled the discovery, even ing the early stages in the peopling of the Leventina Val- at our latitudes, of settlements dating to the Bronze Age ley – were largely concentrated at Airolo-Madrano, Dalpe, (Minusio, Gudo, Bellinzona-Carasso) and Iron Age (Arbedo- Osco, on the Monti di Airolo, and on the Alpe di Pontino, Molinazzo). Alpe di Pinett and Alpe di Tom, where the archaeologists A transdisciplinary approach – as has been long- involved conducted research within that branch of the established between the Canton Ticino and the University discipline defined as Landscape Archaeology and Settle- of Zurich – which is deeply embedded in the network of ment Archaeology, in which transdisciplinary methodo- synergies between cantonal archaeological services, uni- logical approaches accompany traditional methods of field versities, museums and laboratories, will continue in the research, and the Territorial or Geographic Information future to widen the knowledge obtained with great exper- System, better known as GIS, is employed. tise from the field investigations. Data from several disciplines were collated to answer a This and other objectives are hoped for by the Canton series of questions about the history of the people and their Ticino’s archaeological service, which from the middle of settlement in the present-day Leventina Valley from the the 1990s has sought to activate and foster synergies with Early Bronze Age to the end of the Iron Age. Lengthy cen- universities, institutes and specialist laboratories in Swit- turies passed which witnessed a temporary climatic deteri- zerland and abroad, in order to make up for the chronic lack oration, changes in the natural vegetation due to deforest- of adequately trained staff within its own workforce. ation and other forms of impact on the landscape, such as To give proper exposure to the archaeological poten- the exploitation of woodlands, the introduction of cereal tial present in our region with publications like the one culture and of adventitious plants, and finally the transfor- which we are introducing, will perhaps enable future gen- mation of the natural environments in the vicinity of settle erations to create in the Canton Ticino, too, a modern and ment sites. efficient structure, which sees the participation of special- The results of these years of research are now pre- ists – nowadays forced to find work elsewhere – capable of sented in a volume rich in data, detailed analyses, hypo- completing research by studying and enhancing a heritage thetical reconstructions and digital models of the land- which belongs to the State, but regrettably for the present scape under study, which permit a modern person to get remains the preserve of a few insiders.

Rossana Cardani Vergani, Director of the Servizio archeologico of the Canton Ticino

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 12 21.03.18 18:23 0 1m Fig. 3.7. Archaeological features in sondage T2 at Buco di Sondage 2 North profile Pontino. Scale 1:20 (release J. Bucher).

1.50

0 1 0.00 0.00 01

02 06 ETH – 36945 07 - 0.50 - 0.50 05

0 04 1 08 1.50

Planum 2 0 1

-0.30 03

-0.06 1 -0.25 1 -0.32

-0.32 02 04 -0.15 -0.32

N ETH – 36946

-0.39 -0.47 -0.02

-0.10 -0.20 -0.00

-0.08

05 -0.25 0 0 04 03 05 0 1

01_ recent humus 06_ thin layer of charcoal

02_ grey to brown sandy lens, with charcoal 07_ light grey sand

03_ medium brown layer with charcoal 08_ rock / stone 04_ fireplace, charcoal ceramics 05_ reddish brown layer charcoal

3.1.3. Quinto: Lago di Tom, Alpe di Tom (sites 82–89) It was the chance discovery of a rock crystal scraper close A sondage opened on the spot of discovery of the to Lago di Tom during an extensive survey in 2007 that scraper (cf. infra Fig. 3.52: 39), on the southwestern shore of first drew our attention to this archaeologically rich area. the lake, did not produce any anthropogenic features, only The high density of subalpine sites subsequently registered a few additional rock crystal surface finds. both to the North (Alpe di Tom) and South (Alpe di Pinett) of artificial Lago Ritóm is well evidenced on the survey map Lago di Tom II (Fig. 3.2). Further planimetric details on the investigated This (undated) site consists of a charcoal layer close to the zones are given in Annex 1.3. lateral (western) inflow to the lake. An anthropogenic origin cannot be ruled out (no site entry in database). Lago di Tom I Lago di Tom (2020 masl) with its characteristic white dolo- Lago di Tom III mite beach (“Zuckerdolomit” – “sugar-like dolomite”) is a A small hillock at the upper (northern) end of the lake car- small natural lake of 0.13 sq km in surface area. It is embed- ries the altitude indication “2066” (masl). The position is ded in a densely structured landscape of small troughs, val- exposed and has all-round visibility (Fig. 3.8). A trowel test leys and terraces. The outflow is underground and emerges revealed a fireplace immediately beneath the alpine lawn, beneath a small cave about 150 m west of the lower end containing charcoal radiocarbon dated to the mid-2nd mill. of the lake. The area was used for Alpine economy until BCE. A rock crystal bladelet is associated with this find recently at Alpe di Tom. (Fig. 3.47: 3).

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 34 21.03.18 18:23 Fig. 3.8. Investigating point “2066” (masl) above Lago di Tom (photo Ph. Della Casa).

Fig. 3.9. Quinto-Alpe di Tom I, terrace overlooking access valley to the Lago di Tom area (photo Ph. Della Casa).

Alpe di Tom I microcore, preparation tools used as scrapers, microlithic Access to Lago and Alpe di Tom from the south is through a tools and fragments of bladelet working (Fig. 3.49; Fig. 3.47: narrow and rather steep valley with rocky ledges to the right 5-11). Except for quartz and crystal debris, no further finds and left. We decided to test an exposed flat terrace domi- appeared in the archaeological layers. nating the access path (Fig. 3.9). The results were roughly the same in all three test trenches (1–2 sq m): overlapping Alpe di Tom II fireplaces consisting of ash and charcoal occurred in the The small cave above the outflow of Lago di Tom was con- reddish alpine soil beneath the lawn, at depths between 15 sidered to be an interesting location for further archaeolog- and 40 cm, sometimes set with small stones (Fig. 3.10). ical investigation (Fig. 3.11). The cave is 1.5–2 m high and Three 14C samples out of various fireplaces date to the only a few meters deep, but offers an even internal surface EBA and MBA. There is a well documented rock crystal area of approx. 5 x 4 m for dwelling (Fig. 3.12). In this area we production sequence, mostly from F1/2008, with a prism, a opened a sondage of 1 x 1m to clarify the intermittent strat-

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 35 21.03.18 18:23 0 1m South profile

2 1 0

04 05 06 08 01/101_ humus

02/102_ reddish soil with charcoal 0 1 2 04_ grey to black, sandy soil

06_ charcoal, sandy

Planum (north and south trenches, 2007–08) 05/08/109_ grey, sandy

0 1 2 09_ reddish, sandy -0.37 -0.45 2 -0.36 2 13/113/114/115/120_ black, -0.33 -0.44 -0.55 -0.45 charcoal, sandy

115 -0.32 bedrock / stone 113 charcoal -0.42

-0.45

-0.35 -0.40 109

109 114

-0.40 -0.38

-0.30 -0.35 -0.42 -0.45 1 1 -0.32 -0.29 -0.35 08 08

09 -0.32

-0.29 09 -0.33

-0.27

05 -0.26 -0.30 06

-0.32 -0.31 -0.25 0 0 04 0 1 2

Fig. 3.10. Alpe di Tom I, Bronze Age fireplaces in test trench F1: profile and stratum 2007–08 (Scale 1:20), situation photo in 2007 (release J. Bucher; photo E. Jochum Zimmermann).

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 36 21.03.18 18:23 Fig. 3.11. Cave and underground outflow of lake at Alpe di Tom II (photo Ph. Della Casa).

ification of dolomitic and humic layers obtained through cores (Fig. 3.13) We noted debris of rock crystal working throughout the stratigraphy, as well as lots of charcoal. The upper cultural layers also contained fragments of subrecent glass, wood, iron nails, bones of small ruminants and birds (some calcinated) and a small flint flake. Only the lowest level (Pos. 08: –90 cm) was dated by radiocarbon (7th–10th cent. AD/Early Medieval period) and a soil probe was taken for archaeobiological analysis (cf. Chap. 8.9).

Alpe di Tom III Immediately to the south-west of the Alpe di Tom cave lies a gentle little valley sprinkled with archaeological features belonging to an abandoned Alpine summer dairy farm (Fig. 3.14). Most of the structures are densely overgrown. However, we observed and recorded a series of small plots (possibly cheese cellars) to the left and right of a small creek (structures A–N), several hut layouts (structures M, O, P), and a two-piece stable pen (structure Q), as shown on Figure 3.15. Fig. 3.12. Quinto-Alpe di Tom II, ground area of cave and sondage 1 (release J. Bucher). A test trench of 2 x 4 m was set on the dividing dry stone wall of the structure Q (Fig. 3.16). The occupation level is not clearly marked, only charcoal and a few rock crystal fragments were noted; carbon-14 dating attests to a late Medieval use of the stable pen. A second trench was opened in structure O (Fig. 3.17). The peripheral stones belong to a roundish hut of c. 3 m diameter, with a slab paving, a possible entrance to the Northeast, and filled with collapsed stones. Charcoal from the interior space gives a subrecent date for the use of this building. Digging under the paved floor, we discovered the remains of a stone built hearth at approx. –30 cm (Fig. 3.18) with EIA related radiocarbon dating. Rock crystal was pres-

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 37 21.03.18 18:23 Phase H – Humus

1 2

Phase C

3 4

8 9

5 6 7

Phase B

10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18

Phase A

19 20

1 Bowl; brown glaze, fine temper. 2 Cattle shoe; iron. 3 Bowl with outturned rim; fine temper, xidisingo atmosphere, light mica slip. 4 Plate (or bowl) with inverted and slightly thickened rim; fine temper, oxidising atmosphere, light mica slip. 5 Belt buckle; iron. 6 Bracket; iron. 7 Bowl with thickened rim; fine temper, oxidising atmosphere. 8 Cup; semi-fine temper, educingr atmosphere. 9 Biconical pot; coarse temper with copious mica, reducing atmosphere. 10 Pot; coarsely tempered, reducing atmosphere, traces of soot. 11 Pot; coarsely tempered, reducing atmosphere. 12 Small pot; fine temper with crushed stone, reducing tmosphere.a 13 Small pot; fine temper, xidisingo atmosphere, three-dimensional decor. 14 Beaker or small pot; coarse temper with crushed stone, oxidising atmosphere, traces of soot. 15 Pot; semi-coarsely tempered, oxidising atmosphere. 16 Small pot with thin, outturned rim; fine temper, xidisingo atmosphere, burnished. 17 Small pot with thin, outturned rim; fine temper, educingr atmosphere. 18 Small pot with thin, outturned rim and notched lip; fine temper, educingr atmosphere. 19 Pot; semi-coarsely tempered, reducing atmosphere. 20 Pot; coarsely tempered, oxidising atmosphere, three-dimensional decor, maybe remnants of a handle.

Fig. 5.5. Airolo-Madrano 2015, pottery and small finds. Scale 1 : 3 (P. Kohler)

128

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 128 21.03.18 18:24 Fig 5.6. Airolo-Madrano 2015, rock crystal industry. Scale 2 : 3. (Photos P. Kohler).

1 core (US 3) 2–3 crested flakes (US 15) 4 crested blade with traces of use (US 15) 5–6 artefacts from the production process (US 3, 15) 7–13 tool-like flakes with traces of use (US 3, 2, 15, 11, 2, 26, 3) 14–15 fragments of fractured/truncated blades (US 15)

2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14, 15 Phase A, Bronze Age 1, 5, 7, 10, 13 Phase B, Bronze Age 8, 11 Phase C, Iron Age/Roman period

The Iron Age pottery continued in the southeast Only one, slightly larger artefact was found inside a pit (no. Alpine tradition, and so we may assume that most of the no. 10). Splinters appeared in all sieved pit contents. pottery was produced locally. The only Iron Age rim frag- Apart from two flakes which probably exhibited traces ment came from a bowl with a thickened rim (Fig. 5.5: 7). of use, only chips and splinters were found from phase C Similar pieces were found in the LTB1/B2 layers of the set- onwards. tlement of Cama-Gesa GR (Nagy 2012, 282–288) and in the In contrast to the material found on the hill, which had graves at Giubiasco TI (Tori et al. 2010, 205–206), which included many, largely unworked rock crystals, there was dated from LTB1 to LTC1. no unworked raw material present here. Another remark- The Roman presence manifested itself, amongst other able observation was that the settlement had yielded few things, in a small, otherwise undetermined fragment of artefacts that may have been used as tools (Chap. 4.4.2), in Samian ware and a few sherds of regional provenance, stark contrast to the area recently excavated. which had parallels in the assemblages from the adjacent The rock crystals from the recently excavated area cemetery (Butti Ronchetti 2000). They included a plate were rarely found together with their surrounding rock (Fig. 5.5: 4) with an inverted and slightly thickened rim and and no lumps of host rock were discovered, which would a light mica slip. The form was among the key shapes in the have attested to an initial rough working on site, as was assemblage recovered at Alpnach OW (Primas, Della Casa & observed e. g. in front of the Rossplattenfelsen at Hospental Schmid-Sikimić 1992, 59) and was a long-lived type. A bowl UR (Primas, Della Casa & Schmid-Sikimić 1992, 315). with outturned rim and a light mica slip could also be dated Some of the crystals still exhibited their natural sur- to the 1st–3rd centuries AD (Fig. 5.5: 3). face, which suggests that this was not considered a hin- drance when using them as tools. The same retention of the 5.3.2. Rock crystal original crystal surfaces was also seen e. g. on the artefacts A total of 41 rock crystal artefacts were recovered from the from the Bronze Age strata of the Alpe di Rodont rock shel- excavated area. The new objects from Airolo-Madrano ter (Hess et al. 2010, 189; cf. Chap. 3.8) on the St Gotthard allowed us to partially reconstruct the chaîne opératoire, pass. thus completing our picture of the economic organisation The raw material, in this case colourless and highly of the southern Alpine village. transparent rock crystal, which was mined at higher ele- In the Bronze Age phases, the artefacts were scattered vations, had probably already been roughly prepared by the across the entire excavated area, with a loose concentra- time it reached the settlement, where it was further worked tion of finds around hearth no. 12 and south of pit no. 9. and turned into flakes or blades.

129

1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 129 21.03.18 18:24 1343_Leventina_Teil 1 Druck.indd 270 21.03.18 18:27 Population Dynamics in the South Alpine Area from the End of the Bronze Age until Romanization

Eva Carlevaro

At the foot of this chain [the Alps], which we should regard as the base of the triangle, on its southern side, lies the last plain of all Italy to the north. It is with this that we are now concerned, a plain surpassing in fertility any other in Europe with which we are acquainted.

Polybius Histories II, 14 to Rafael and Philipp Forward and acknowledgements The PhD thesis presented here was part of the multidisci plinary research project Leventina – Prähistorische Sied lungslandschaft. Besiedlung, Umwelt und Wirtschaft im alpinen Tessintal 1500 B. C.–15 A. D. (project no. 100012- 111987/1), Leventina Project. Many people have contributed to the success of my doctoral thesis. First of all, my thanks go to Prof. Dr Philippe Della Casa, the leader of the project, who, other than supporting and supervising the research, gave me the opportunity to undertake this study and to learn a new research tool, GIS. Secondly, I would like to thank Heidi Amrein and my colleagues in the Swiss National Museum for their support and for putting up with me. Amongst the colleagues who have shown interest in my research and provided much help, I would like to thank: Rossana Cardani Vergani, Luisa Mosetti, Moira Morinini Pè (Ufficio dei Beni Culturali di Bellinzona), Laura Simone Zopfi and Rosanina Invernizzi (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Lombardia) and Giuseppina Spagnolo Garzoli (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici del Pie monte and the Museo Antichità Egizie). To the following, in strict alphabetical order, my heart felt thanks for all they did to contribute to this work and bring it to a successful conclusion: Simonetta Biaggio Si mona, Giancarlo Bullo, Maria Grazia Canepa Pucci, Anna, Silvia, Teresita and Tazio Carlevaro, Antonietta Colubriale, Luigi Corfù, Philippe Curdy, Eileen Eckmeier, Matteo Fer rari, Sergio Gallo, Filippo Maria Gambari, Pamela Green wood, Anne Kapeller, Patrick Nagy, Manuela Palamini, Mauro Piazzi, Ueli Raz, Martin Sauerbier, Ronald Schmidt, Emiliano Soldini, Trudi and Geri Stalder, Philipp Stalder, Jenny Studer, Willy Tinner, Luca Tori, Samuel van Willigen and Elisa Vescovi, not forgetting Prof. Dr Robert Weibel for having agreed to be the joint supervisor of my thesis. The study was financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The book was published with a financial con tribution from the Associazione Archeologica Ticinese.

Note to the reader This English version is a translation of the text and material from a doctoral thesis by the author at the University of Zurich. The thesis was approved in the autumn term 2012 by Dr Philippe Della Casa and Prof. Dr Robert Weibel. The Appendices and Finds Catalogue are published with the Italian language version available at: http://opac.nebis.ch/ediss/20131827.pdf.

273

1. Introduction and Methodology Ancient settlement activity is not only identifiable The aim of this work is the study of the population dy from the traces left by dwellings. The analysis of population namics in the protohistoric period in southern Switzerland dynamics must also include all those finds that gravitate and its neighbouring regions with regard to the natural around settlements (cemeteries, cult sites, hoards and iso surroundings and socio-economic factors, from the Final lated burials) and which have left their traces on the ancient Bronze Age to the period of Romanization (Fig. 1.1). The cultural landscape (Pankau 2007, 1–2). The aim of this study research is based on the processing of a databank of in was to understand whether the distribution of these finds formation in which the features relating to the presence of in the landscape followed a precise scheme and whether ancient settlements were systematically catalogued. Data their distribution allowed both the recognition and the gathered in this way could be related to environmental and identification of the function of the various types of site. socio-economic parameters by means of a Geographic In Recording separate categories of archaeological finds in the formation System (GIS). Through the use of GIS we tried to database allowed attention to be drawn to the traits which identify diachronic settlement models. On the one hand, characterize the complex nature of the human landscape. this strategy provided evidence of the influence of the en On the one hand, it is well to bear in mind how the natural vironmental parameters and the economic and social fac environment had influenced the choice of human settle tors on the ancient populations, and, on the other, it in ment, but, on the other, how at times human action would dicated the settlement preferences that characterized the have modified the original character of the landscape. various types of site. In order to carry out spatial analysis and so relate the archaeological finds and the environmental parameters, 1.1. Introduction to the methodology and the definition and to reconstruct some of the socio-economic factors, for of the aims example the communication routes and the intervisibility The study falls within the broad category of Landscape Ar of sites, GIS2 technology supported by statistical analysis chaeology, more precisely in that branch of archaeology was used in this piece of research. These methods allowed termed ‘Settlement Archaeology’, that is, in that category of us to determine whether the models identified were due to studies that considers the interaction of man with the en intentional choices or could be ascribed to chance. vironment in which he lives. The methodological premise that forms the basis of the work is the hypothesis that the ancient natural environment would have influenced the choice of human settlement and that these models showing preferences are identifiable with the aid of spatial analysis carried out, in this specific case, by using GIS technology (Posluschny 2006, 120). Bronze and Iron Age societies must # have mainly based themselves on a system of agro-pastoral Zurich subsistence (Della Casa 2002, 81; Posluschny 2006, 12). In an essentially agricultural society, therefore, the geo-envi # ronmental conditions favourable to stockbreeding and the Berne Switzerland setting up of farming must have played a fundamental role in the choice of a settlement site. Nevertheless, it would be simplistic and incorrect to describe the ancient pop ulation dynamics as solely constrained by environmental factors; of fundamental importance must have been the so cio -economic factors which are much harder to quantify.1 The investigation of socio-economic factors is therefore important for avoiding the interpretation of the settlement dynamics from a purely ‘eco-deterministic’ perspective, which only takes account of the variables dependent on the Italy natural environment (Posluschny 2006, 120). For this rea son the results from the close analysis of those sites that do not follow the typical choices for ‘farming’ are interesting. Their atypical situation could then have originated from #Turin factors that are not only economic (near a major communi cation route), but also socio-cultural (beliefs, sacred places, and sites visible over a vast area) (Posluschny 2006, 120). Fig. 1.1. The study area.

275 1.1.1. GIS as a research tool 1.1.2. Research objectives GIS consists of a set of software designed to acquire, man This study addresses the examination of the population age, analyse and reproduce georeferenced data.3 GIS allows dynamics in the area under consideration in the period the examination, interrogation, understanding and visu between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of alization of data available for highlighting relationships, the Roman period. The work is chiefly based on the gath patterns and trends that exist between each other in the ering of published archaeological data and on the selection form of geographical maps, charts and tables. It allows the of environmental and socio-economic factors which can management of large quantities of different data and their have influenced settlement choices. The information of ar combinations to obtain new information that is useful for chaeological origin recorded in the databank consists of analysing and understanding their interrelationships (Bur the sites of settlements, cemeteries, isolated burials, hoards, rough 1986, 6–7). and, where well-documented, stray finds. Finally, the im GIS is a tool that came into use from the end of the plementation of GIS allows us to relate the influence of the 1960s in Canada and the United States and was originally selected parameters with the position of archaeological used to manage geographical information such as the plan sites (Fig. 1.2). ning and management of forests or urban development in 1. There are three main objectives for the analysis: cities (Wheatley & Gillings 2002, 15–16). Thanks to its po The first objective was to obtain the most complete tential the use of GIS soon spread and expanded outside the archaeological documentation possible, starting with pub realm of spatial planning. Today there are numerous areas lished data. Data so recorded form a solid platform on which where it is applicable and GIS supports a whole range of ac to begin the processing of population models. tivities, such as commerce (market research, publicity, etc.), 2. In a second stage a selection was made of environmen public administration (development of public and private tal and socio-economic parameters that could have influenced transport, management of environmental resources, civil the settlement choices. In this context priority was given to protection and heritage), and scientific research (simulation factors that were stable over time and that had not undergone of natural phenomena or the study of wild habitats). substantial changes, or which can be reconstructed using GIS Developed in the English-speaking world during the (for example, altitude, exposure, orientation, proximity to raw 1970s, the use of GIS in archaeological research spread materials or communication routes, intervisibility, etc.). within a few decades throughout Europe due to commer cialization making the software ever more accessible (Wheatley & Gillings 2002, 19–20). It has many applications in archaeology: for cataloguing cultural and archaeological heritage, allowing not only the mapping of sites but also the Gathering of the acquisition of information relating to the cultural asset in published data question, such as its state of preservation, typology, etc.; in archaeological excavations, or during surveys, or even in cartographic archaeology to create maps of archaeological sites. GIS is often used for investigations relating to land Selection of scape archaeology due to its feature for spatial analysis4 parameters (Lock 2000; Forte 2002, 95–118; Wheatley & Gillings 2002, Influence of GIS Technology Influence of the 16–18; Conolly & Lake 2006, 33–50). This latter use has seen human activity parameters on a noticeable increase in the last few years for archaeolog on the settlement ical projects aimed at reconstructing ancient populations parameters choices (Posluschny 2002; ibid. 2006; Pankau 2007; Pecere 2006; Multi-factorial Cattani 2008; ibid. 2011; Sauerbier & Fasler & Della Casa analysis 2009; Part I, Chap. 11), in part associated with the crea tion of predictive models (van Leusen & Kamermans 2005; MCA Mehrer & Wescott 2006; Mischka 2007; Boos & Hornung & Müller 2010; Casarotto & De Guio & Ferrarese et al. 2011). Lastly, the management of data through GIS allows the pro duction of three-dimensional reconstructions and thus Diachronic makes graphic visualization of the archaeological evidence settlement models and surrounding landscape easier (Gaffney & Thom son & Fitch 2007; Sauerbier 2009). Fig. 1.2. Research framework.

276 3. Finally analysis was carried out of the interactions new perspectives in archaeological research (Della Casa that occur between the environmental and socio-eco 1999, ibid. 2000, Schmid Sikimić 2002). nomic parameters and the choice of settlement site. Ini A stimulus for choice of this subject matter was also tially, through the use of the GIS technology, by examining the fact that the study of protohistoric settlement has now every parameter individually (multifactorial analysis), and become a field of archaeological research carried out at a then by seeking to pinpoint them by multiple correspond European level. In fact, there are important research pro ence analysis (MCA), we sought to establish whether it is jects aiming to of analyse the population dynamics of Early possible to identify the combination of parameters involv Iron Age settlements (for example, the project led by the ing preferences that have influenced the choice of a settle Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Frühe Zentralisie ment site, that is, whether there existed particular settle rungs- und Urbanisierungsprozess – Zur Genese und Ent ment patterns through time. wicklung frühkeltischer Fürstensitze und ihres territoria The proposed population models seek to determine, len Umlandes [SPP 1171],5 especially the part directed by therefore, what the environmental, economic, social and Prof. Dr Krausse, Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Württemberg, cultural criteria are that form the basis of a settlement and Siedlungshierarchie und kulturelle Räume, or the French what relationships exist between them. By a close exami project led by Bruno Chaume, Fonction, hiérarchie et terri nation of the assembled data we sought to scrutinize and toires des sites d’habitats hallstattiens de France orientale). visualize the changes that had occurred to the landscape In the last few years, really due to the spread of GIS between the various periods, and in the organization of as a working tool, a large number of projects in Web GIS the territory. Of great importance were the subsequent have become accessible and can be consulted online. In study of those sites that did not fit into the proposed mod this respect, mention must be made of the multidiscipli els and the understanding of the factors that caused this nary research project PO-BASyN6 launched by the Univer mismatch. sity of Milan, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, and The identification of the parameters that influence the University of Bologna, Dipartimento di Archeologia, in territorial organization and the examination of the inter collaboration with other bodies. The PO-BASyN project was actions that existed between the different types of archae developed to study the ‘developmental dynamics of ancient ological site can be useful for identifying areas that were societies in regional terms’ and also to provide a ‘tool suita preferred for settlement. It is also an effective method for ble for sharing, enhancing and using information relating the recognition of archaeological areas at risk and is par to the cultural heritage’. The analysis of the Bronze Age ticularly suitable for the analysis of areas rich in cemeteries, population of the Po Plain was chosen as a suitable initial but poor in settlements, for example Canton Ticino. project to test this operating system. Among the other Web GIS systems involved in the study of the population of Northern Italy, the APSAT- 1.2. State of Research ALPINET project also ought to be mentioned.7 This project, During the last twenty years numerous archaeological in launched by the University of Trento and the Museum of vestigations have led to a better understanding of the Fi Sciences, Trento, in collaboration with other bodies, both nal Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the subalpine region. in Italy and abroad, has as its aims the promotion and en Thanks to a systematic inspection of the landscape, a series hancement of the archaeological heritage in the Alps. One of planned excavations and new research projects to revisit of the outstanding merits of this research is the means by and assess old excavations, studies of the protohistory of the which the archaeological heritage is conveyed, promoted subalpine region have made notable progress. The findings and made accessible to a vast audience of specialists and of the scientific research have involved settlement sites, interested people, the internet. cemeteries and hoards and have produced important re gional syntheses (De Marinis 1981; ibid. 1992; De Marinis & 1.3. Chronological and geographical setting Biaggio Simona 2000; De Marinis 2001; Gambari 1998; ibid. The area under examination lies between the Alpine wa 1998a; ibid. 1998b; ibid. 1998c; ibid. 1998d; Gianadda 2000; tershed and the river Po, taking in the region between the Mangani & Minarini 2000; Nagy 2012; Panero 2003; Per rivers Sesia, to the west, and the Serio, to the east. The net & Carlevaro & Tori et al. 2006; Schindler & De Marinis chronological span chosen covers the Late Bronze Age to 2000; Tori & Carlevaro & Della Casa et al. 2004; Tori & Carle the Augustan period. Today this area includes southern varo & Della Casa et al. 2010; Venturino Gambari 2006). Switzerland (Canton Ticino, south-west Graubünden and In recent years in particular, research has been pub the Upper Valais) and Northern Italy (western Piedmont lished on the central Alpine area. These studies have been and eastern Lombardy) (Fig. 1.3). The choice of this region specifically engaged in the examination of the interaction was determined by the fact that this area is especially dis between humans and the natural environment leading to tinctive for its cultural continuity, which begins at the end

277 Fig. 1.3. The area today with modern borders.

Graubünden Graubünden Ticino Valais Sondrio

Verbania

Como Varese Lecco

Vercelli Bergamo

Novara Milan

Cremona

Alessandria Lodi Pavia #Turin

Phase codes used in the Period Regional Chronology Century Absolute Dating study A. Late Bronze Age 1 LBA LBA Canegrate 13th 1300–1200 B. Late Bronze Age–Final LBA Bronze Age C. Final Bronze Age 1 FBA PG I–II 12–11th 1200–1000 D. Final Bronze Age 2 FBA PG III 10th 1000–900 E. Early Iron Age EIA 1 G IA1 9th 900–825/800 F. Early Iron Age 1 EIA 1 G IA2–G IC 8–7th 825/800–625 G. Early Iron Age 2 EIA 2 G IIA/B/TI A 7–6th 625–550 H Early Iron Age 3 EIA 2 G IIB–G IIIA1/TI B/C 6–5th 550–450

I. Early Iron Age–Late Iron LIA 1 G IIIA2/A3/TI D–LT B 5th–3rd 450–280/250 Age 1 L. Late Iron Age 2 LIA 2 LT C–LT D1 3rd–1st Alps: 280/250–70/80 Plain and Pre–Alps: 280/250–89 BC M. Romanizing period R LT D2–Augustan period Beginning 1st Alps: 70/80–15 BC Plain and Pre–Alps: century BC–end 89–15 BC 1st century AD N. Roman Empire RE Augusto–Tiberian period Beginning 1st 15 BC–AD 37 century AD O. Not precisely datable ND

Fig. 1.4. The phases used in the study in relation to other chronologies.

278 of the Bronze Age and continues, in some areas, after the Celtic invasions (De Marinis 1981a; Schindler & De Marinis 2000; Gambari 1998; ibid. 1998a; Janke 1994). Despite this cultural unity, chronological mismatches exist within the study area, above all those concerning transitional periods, such as the end of the Iron Age and the beginning of the Roman period. For this reason, it was decided to produce a table based on the many published chronological studies (Fig. 1.4) to summarize and reconcile the different chronologies so allowing comparisons in the dating of the finds (Müller & Kaenel 1999, 21; de Marinis & Gambari 2005, 210; Schmid-Sikimić 2002, 290; Grassi 1995, 93). Although the scheme given here is a simplification of the complex chronology of the area being investigated, it is a valid tool to enable comparative analysis of the various types of sites in the different regions involved in the study. During the Early Iron Age, owing to its strategic posi tion, the area became an important means of communi cation between the transalpine and Mediterranean worlds (Della Casa 2004; Gambari 2001; ibid. 2004). Thus within the area there is a wide typological range in settlements that have economic potential and a diverse socio-economic or ganization, ranging from agro-pastoral centres to commer cial hubs and points controlling traffic across the Alps (Della Casa 2000; ibid. 2002; Nagy 2012; Pernet & Carlevaro & Tori et al. 2006; Schmidt-Sikimić 2002; Spagnolo Garzoli 1999; Venturino Gambari 2006; Tori & Carlevaro & Della Casa et al. 2004). Moreover, the region under examination is interesting because it includes areas that are morpho logically different: the Alps (Fig. 1.5), the Pre-Alpine zone (Fig. 1.6) and the Po Plain (Fig. 1.7). The high altitudes have created notable variations in biogeography which must have had a decisive influence on the life of ancient human communities.

Fig. 1.5. The Leventina Valley seen from the road leading to the St Gottard Pass (photo D. Stuppan).

Fig. 1.6. Lake Maggiore and the Piedmontese Pre-Alps (photo D. Stuppan).

Fig. 1.7. Lakes Varese and Comabbio against the backdrop of the Po Plain seen from Campo dei Fiori near Varese (photo M. Ferrari).

279 2. Cartographic sources As was explained in the introduction, the study of settle ment choice to the south of the Alps is based on the selec tion of a series of parameters that could have influenced it. The choice of factors that could be used in the research, however, is influenced, and in part limited, by the types of maps available.8 Consequently, it is necessary at this point to explain briefly what sort of data can be used for this study, as well as which factors can be reconstructed using GIS technology (Fig. 2.1). The majority of the digital maps used in the analysis of the distribution of the sites on Italian soil have been down loaded from the Geoportale della Lombardia9 and from the map collection for the Piedmont Region.10 These two offer a wide choice of maps and thematic maps that can be con sulted, mostly without charge to the user. For Switzerland there are considerably fewer base maps in digital vector for mat available without charge. In order to remedy this gap, material and data published in the Atlas of Switzerland 2 were used. The situation for thematic maps was slightly better: the Federal Statistical Office and that for the En vironment have published online derivative maps in vec tor format relating to agricultural activity (maps of suita bility for agriculture and of agricultural zones) as well as soil use maps (CORINE Land Cover).11 The Swiss national cartographic portal also possesses a vast collection of dig ital maps, but the high cost of the digital vector data limits accessibility.12 Many of the maps used show the landscape as it is today and not how it must have been in the past.13 It is necessary, therefore, to remember that some analyses are based on a relative comparison between the different parameters and so represent trends and not absolute values. To solve these problems in this study we sought to select parameters that were constant through time, ones that could be simulated or reconstructed through the use of GIS or even to prioritize the use of historic maps, where they exist.

280 Switzerland Lombardy Piedmont Analysis Geology maps Geomorphology map. Geology map of Italy Geology map of Italy Distribution of sites

Atlas of Switzerland 2 (paper; 1 : 100 000) (paper; 1 : 100 000) according to the

(tif; 1 : 250 000) geomorphology of the area and mineral deposits Geomorphology map of Map of the agricultural the lowlands and forested

(vector; 1 : 25 000) landscape

(vector; 1 : 100 000) Map of the fluvial fans Map of the fluvial fans

(vector; 1 : 10 000) (vector; 1 : 100 000) Soil maps, Swiss soil map. BEK Land use capability map Land use capability Distribution of sites base and derived 200 (vector; lowlands; map according to land

(vector; 1 : 200 000) 1 : 25 000; montane zone; (vector; 1 : 100 000) use capability

1 : 10 000) Map of land capability (vector, montane regions;

1 : 10 000) CORINE Land Cover CORINE Land Cover CORINE Land Cover Influence of modern

(vector; 1 : 100 000) (vector; 1 : 100 000) (vector; 1 : 100 000) land use on the current archaeological picture Hydrographic Dufour map Dufour map Dufour map Proximity of sites to

maps (digital; 1 : 100 000) (digital; 1 : 100 000) (digital; 1 : 100 000) water sources Map of the major bodies Water sources map Hydrographic map

of water (vector (vector; 1 : 10 000) (vector; 1 : 100 000)

1 : 200 000) Map of springs Hydrographic map of the Hydrographic map of

(jpg; 1 : 200 000) Kingdom of Italy the Kingdom of Italy

(paper; 1 : 100 000) (paper; 1 : 100 000) Map of springs (vector;

1 : 10 000) Map of bodies of water 1880

(vector; 1 : 10 000) Digital Elevation SRTM 90; Digital Height SRTM 90; Digital Terrain SRTM 90; DEM 50 Distribution of sites Model (DEM) Model DHM25 Model DTM20 according to altitude, slope, orientation, exposure to the sun; lines of communication; intervisibility; density of finds

Fig. 2.1. The map coverage.

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