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P.O. Box 444 Telephone 88-166 TOWN PLANNING QUARTERLY

•Layout, Design &Production: COVER: " Editor: J. R. Dart WIND" EVENING POST. Technical Editor: M. H. Pritchard D. Vendramini Department of Town Planning. J. Graham University of .

MARCH 1974 NUMBER 25

EDITORIAL COMMUNITY PROPERTY

DEREK HALL CASEBOOK

CHRISTINE MOORE A CONTRAST IN SETTLEMENT: AUCKLAND AND WELLINGTON 1840-41

RICHARD BELLAMY 17 ABOUT WATER

T.W. FOOKES 24 OVERSPILL ALTERNATIVE FOR SOUTH AUCKLAND. (PART 2)

28 CONFERENCES

SYLVIA McCURDY 29 LETTER FROM SCOTLAND

D.H. FR EESTON 33 WIND ENVIRONMENT OF BUILDINGS

38 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS

Town Planning Quarterly is the official journal of the New Address all correspondence to the Editor: Town Planning Zealand Planning Institute Incorporated, P.O. Box 5131, Quarterly, P.O. Box 8789, Symonds Street, Auckland 1. WeUington. Telephone/Telegrams: 74-740

The Institute does not accept responsibility for statements made or opinions expressed in this Journal unless this responsibility is expressly acknowledged. Printed by Published March, June, September, December. Scott Printing Co. Ltd., Annual Subscription: $3 ( and Australia) 29-31 Rutland Street, post free, elsewhere $NZ. 4.50 Auckland 1. The Mayor of Auckland caught the headlines recently with his suggestion that a group be formed to examine the extent and nature of the metropolitan area's future growth. The idea, so far anyway, seems not to have been taken very seriously, but is is one that is worth pursuing. The Auckland Regional Authority is, of course, the body charged with the responsibility of developing regional growth strategies and it is in the process of preparing a report on possible alternative urban forms. The Mayor's remarks, however, suggest that the team that he has in mind is one that would fall outside the existing formal government structures. Its merit, no doubt, would be seen in its ability to be more free-ranging in its identification and consideration of the issues involved. It would be less conditioned in its thinking; more willing to question the conventional wisdom surrounding the subject. In so doing, it would not confine itself to physical planning con- straints, but would pursue the implications of the existing social, economic and political factors that determine and shape the physical structure. A measure of intelligence is the ability to anticipate the future and a measure of community is the strength of the collective desire to determine the future. The greater level of understanding of the forces at work and the greater the awareness of the implications of alternative courses of action, the better will be the public's participation in the decision-making process. The more con- scious and explicit the quantity and quality of Auckland's future growth, the more likely will be the community's readiness to support and enforce restric- tions upon individual freedom of action. The extreme alternatives may be seen to be the exhilaration of a community sense of purpose on the one hand and a sullen, passive resistance to all government policy on the other.

The first task that such a team would have to put its mind to would be the identification of the problems that it would have been set up to examine. Implicit in that task would be the acceptance of the fact that the present situation of the so-called free play of market forces, curbed a little by a crudely applied system of land use controls, is leading us toward a future state that we do not wish to inherit ourselves nor pass on to the next genera- tion of citizens. It would be concluded that the city, as do all of our cities, reflects the uncertainty of the values of our society and that a clarification of these is a prerequisite to improvements elsewhere. COMMUNITY PROPERTY

Central to the issue will be seen to be the nature of the ownership of rights in land. This has always proved to be the major and often insurmountable hurdle, for the price of greater restrictions upon those rights has usually been seen to be higher than the less tangible benefits of a better environment for the citizens overall. During the nineteenth century it could be held that "of the three fundamental principles that underlie government and for which government exists, the protection of life, liberty and property, the chief of these is property." It is an attitude that still runs as a strong thread through the values of our own day. Yet the more stringent controlling and directing of the nature and form of urban growth is not possible without grasping this nettle first.

In reply to the contention that, "land, like the air, rain and sun, belongs to all", it has been pointed out that land can be appropriated. It needs further to be pointed out, however, that rights in land are confirmed by the community and are effective only in so far as they are guaranteed and since there are no absolute rights, those that are conferred should always be subservient to the community's interest.

If more effective measures are to be taken concerning urban growth, then the multiplicity of land ownership on the urban fringe and the whim of individual decision-making with regard to the timing, extent and quality of its transfer from non-urban to urban uses will have to be substantially curtailed. It is merely misleading the public to speak of, for example, linear growth forms, finger plans and satellite towns, without debating once again the advantages and disadvantages of the community ownership of peripheral lands. It is a debate, the conclusions of which were anticipated in the case of the proposed new town at Rolleston near .

Certainly, public ownership of land does avoid the seeming brick wall of compensation and betterment. More important for that generation that is treading the slipperly slope of financing its first section, the one step forward and two backwards of finding the deposit during this time of rife escalation, would be sanded a little if the speculative element in vacant land transfers was removed. A more accurate assessment of the pluralistic nature of urban society will show that the right to speculatively exploit the steadily increasing demand for a fixed resource is one that can be readily dispensed with. We cannot both pursue the capitalist ethic and expect to achieve a better physical environment.• J.R. Dart. clearly beyond the power of the Council; (b) The code provision allows the City Planner to grant such dispensations whereas section 21(1A) specifies that the Council itself must @1U D E) CCI be the grantor." D.R. Hall The clause was not helped by the explanatory note stating that the dispensing power was now subject to s.21(1A)That subsection was purely an empowering Derek Hall, LLB(NZ), DipTP (Hons) one and could not qualify the Code. (Auck), (M), is a Senior Lecturer in Strict compliance with s.21 (1 A) appears to be Town Planning at the University of necessary. Auckland. Following the Court decision in Smeaton v Queenstown Borough Council (1972)4 NZTPA 410, commented on in TPQ 33 at p.6, it is also interesting Waiver and Dispensation Clauses that in this Presbyterian Church Property Trustees' Presbyterian Church Property Trustees y. Wellington case the Board would not allow less stringent City Council, Special Town and Country Planning standards for front and side yards to be included as Appeal Board, 31 August 1973, Decisions p. A315 part of a conditional use consent. The Board said (to be reported) is the first decision which comments that to do so would have negated s.21(1A) and re- significantly on a waiver and dispensation clause sulted in a dispensation being granted in a manner under s.21(1A) of the Town and Country Planning not contemplated by s.35. The rights of the adjoin- Act. ing occupier, it was said, should not be endangered Council's code included the following ordinance: by substituting a s.28C application for a s.35 applic- "Dispensing Power of the Council ation. Smeaton was, therefore, distinguished on Where, in the opinion of the Council, a full com- this point. pliance with any of the provisions of this code Two Houses or One? would needlessly and injuriously affect any person The futility of using some patently artificial device in the course of operation of the business of or be to circumvent the clear intention of a code provision attended with loss or inconvenience to any person was illustrated in the not-too-unfamiliar circumstances or persons without any corresponding gain to the of Coleman v Hamilton City Council, Supreme community, then, and in any such case or cases, Court, Hamilton, 26 November 1973, Wilson J. the Council may dispense with the observance or An ordinance in the Code stated that "not more than performance of any of the requirements of this one residential building shall be erected on any site in code, subject to the following procedure, except a residential zone." where otherwise expressly provided for in this code. On a site on which there was already an established building, it was proposed to erect a three-bedroomed (a) Where, in the opinion of the City Planner the dwelling house. The latter was to include a carport dispensation is a minor one which does not con- which was to be built near a wall of the existing flict with the spirit and intent of the code and dwelling and connected to it by bridging a gap to accordingly he recommends that dispensation make a 'walkway' which would however never have should be granted, the Council may resolve to dis- been used as such. pense with the observance or performance of the It was held that the proposed three-bedroom house requirements on this code subject to such conditions was a full-sized residence in its own right and not an as may be recommended by the City Planner: or addition to the existing building. There were clearly (b) In any other case the application for dispensa- two residences. The code was therefore infringed and tion shall be deemed to be an application for a building permit issued for the house was ordered to consent to a conditional use and the statutory be quashed. provisions prescribing the procedure for making It was also observed that the arrangement for holding such an application and the matters to which the land — common ownership and leases of each regard shall be had in determining whether consent house and its curtilages to the respective "owners" — should be granted or refused shall apply accord- was probably a subdivision under s.350(2) of the ingly." Municipal Corporations Act 1954. This was held by the Appeal Board not to comply The decision depended on the facts of the case. There ultra for two reasons: with s.21(1A) and to be vires will still be proposals which could be on either side "(a) It is couched in the widest possible terms of the borderline. But clearly artificial arrangements and enables the Council to dispense with for circumventing such a provision in a code are now the "observance of the code". This is confirmed to be "out".

6 A CONTRAST IN SETTLEMENT: AUK- LAND AND WELLINGTON 1840-41

European settlement of Wellington dates from the to be approximately equal. early months of 1840 when the first ships arrived (4) The new colony was to present a selection of carrying settlers under the English society transplanted in the South Seas — Wakefield system of colonisation. Auckland had to an "extension of the old". But master and man, wait nearly a year before the Governor and his civil (labourer and capitalist), were each to share the servants arrived from Russell to form the new capital. benefits of their hard work. Rivalry between these contrasting settlements was (5) Native reserves were to be set aside for the immediate, and tended to highlight their differences heads of the families who sold the land to the while ignoring their similar problems in founding a New Zealand Company. These reserves were to new colony. These common experiences will be be one-tenth of the total land bought. explored here in the light of the different origins of the two cities. The New Zealand Company appointed Col. as their agent — a poor choice in the eyes of Selection of Site • • • some who compared him unfavourably with his regarded the settlement brother. He was instructed to select a site in New of New Zealand as an opportunity to raise the stand- Zealand for a considerable colony, and to make pre- ards of colonisation. Learning from the mistakes made parations for the arrival and settlement of emigrants. in North America and Australia, Wakefield set down (2) Wakefield left England in 1839 accompanied by these principles of settlement, which were to be the the artist Charles Heaphy and the naturalist Dieffen- basis of the New Zealand Companies operations. (1) bach. They carried with them considerable quantities of goods for barter. (1) Sufficient price of land. Land prices should be high enough to prevent dispersed settlement The New Zealand Company wanted a site at some and scarcity of labour with all the settlers distance from existing settlements and a site at Cook becoming landowners too soon. (Later criticism Strait had already been suggested by a Maori friend on suggested that this dispersal of settlement would board the 'Tory'. The whaler Barrett, picked up in the have been better than the hurried buying of area, agreed with this choice and added that he was land without settling the natives' claims.) related to the chiefs at Port Nicholson through (2) Price on land was to include a fund for the marriage. (3) Barret mentioned the unsettled pro- emigration of labourers. These labourers would prietorship of the area, and was optimistic about be immediately employed in building, gardening Wakefield's ability to buy land from the Maoris. Te and fencing for high wages. Lord Russell, the Puni and Te Wharepouri were very eager to sell land, Colonial Secretary, made this official policy looking upon the white settlers as protectors against in January 1840. their enemies. Another chief, Te Puwhakaawe, (3) Selection of emigrants. The choice of only opposed the sale as he expected that the Maoris might young, fit people ensured a high quality of be driven off their land — as had happened to the settler. The numbers of men and women were natives at Port Jackson. Evidently a missionary had

7 also intervened, advising the natives at Port Nicholson noted; it was distant from the sea, the Hutt river was not to sell. The large majority of the chiefs approved, navigable only at high tide, and anchorage was however, and before a final decision was made, the exposed to strong seas in southerlies, and the shoal chiefs sent Wakefield out to look over the land. (4). surf made landing difficult. In comparison, the Thorndon site had a land- Port Nicholson's magnificient harbour was im- locked anchorage with no surf at the beach. mediately noted. A preliminary trip up the Hutt River Lambton Harbour was thought to be naturally disclosed a valley about 2 miles wide enclosed by suited for commerce. It was feared that if the wooded hills with good timber. The soil of the river Thorndon site was not picked for the town, then bank was fertile and the rugged surrounds were not the first rural land holders of the 100 acre blocks thought to be a lasting obstacle. (5) The could set up the Thorndon site as a rival to the position was regarded favourably as a harbour for intended Hutt Valley town, and that it would shipping between the Manukau and Thames, and it quickly become more popular. was thought that coastal trade must surely centre there. (6) Consequently Wakefield chose a South The final decision was postponed till the first land Western Bay, where there was secure anchorage, as owners arrived. These settlers preferred the Thorndon the site for the town. site almost unanimously so Smith left his survey of Wakefield had been instructed to treat the natives the Hutt and began to survey the Thorndon site, frankly, and using Barrett as an interpreter, he which was to be called Britannia. (11) (A slight attempted to gain the approval of the chiefs, to set earthquake occurred at about this time, but it clear boundaries, and to pay for the land with goods seemed to raise no question about their frequency that would be of use to the Maoris. However, the at Wellington and thus jeopardising the settlement). New Zealand Company did not have a clear idea of The move to Thorndon was seen as a wise choice, the complexities of Maori land tenure, and also any but the Maoris opposed the move. They denied that attempts to make the Maoris aware of the value of they had sold the land and clung to their cultivations, the land they regarded as 'wilderness' were not burial places and pas — two of which were in the successful. (7) The setting of boundaries was difficult middle of the new settlement. They didn't want to because the natives were not used to the fixed take up the reserves. However, the N.Z.Co. continued measures of European transactions. 8 These to survey the area with these grievances unsettled. difficulties were glossed over and an agreement The reasons for the settlement of Auckland reached. Wakefield's nephew Jerningham drew up the differed from those for Port Nicholson. Governor agreement, barter goods were distributed among the Hobson was commissioned to choose a site for the signing chiefs, and the people were apparently seat of government. He sent out , the satisfied with the sale. Certainly the New Zealand Surveyor-general of N.Z. to determine a site for the Company thought they had made a bona fide capital. Mathew spent two months after April 1840 transaction. The provision of native reserves, and examining the Northern coast to this end. The the increased value of these once the settlement was Waitemata Harbour was chosen for several reasons. established, was regarded as the real payment for the (12) Gov. Hobson realised the importance of land. (9) establishing an influence over the Maori tribes so he (A) chose a central position between the strongest On 30th September, 1839 the New Zealand Com- tribes — Northland, , Thames and Bay of pany took formal possession of the harbour and Plenty. This emphasis on proximity to Maori groups district. The New Zealand flag was hoisted to a 21-gun contrasts with the ideas of the Wakefield settlement. salute. Wakefield set natives from each village to clear As most of the travel round the island was done by land and cut timber for the new town. He carried out water, he selected a site (B) with facility of internal a quick survey of the harbour and bays, naming water communication. (C) The Waitemata Harbour features after people involved in the New Zealand was a safe port with easy access, and (D) was Company settlement. He then left the area temporarily. sufficiently near to other ports with timber — Waiheke, Manukau and Thames. Also to the soil in The survey ship 'Cuba' arrived on January 4th the area was fertile. 1840 bringing the surveyor-general of the New Zealand Company Captain William Mein-Smith. Smith preferred Hobson's choice was not unanimously supported, the Lower Hutt valley to the Thorndon site chosen by however. The Nga Puhi chiefs complained that trade Wakefield, expecting an easy task on the 1100 acres of with the Northland tribes would diminish when the level ground, and visualising ample reserves and large capital moved from Russell. Also, with customs promenades (10). Thorndon, by comparison, was only duties and shipping dues imposed on the new capital, partly level, and half the town would have to be built whalers sought new shores. on the slopes. Thus he began to survey the Hutt As at Port Nicholson, alternative sites were Valley, quickly discovering its swampy nature and the available within the area. The first choices of site need for drainage. (The first settlers there found of both Hobson and Mathew were rejected. Hobson's flooding a problem.) Other objections to this site were first choice of site, to the north of the isthmus proper

8 Auckland — Views. Looking south east from Smales Point showing and Shortland Street. (From illustration in "Early " by R. A. Sherrin and J. H. Wallace. 18901 Reproduced by kind permission of the Auckland Public library. at the innermost extent of the harbour (Hobson- having an inviting appearance and deep water access. ville), was rejected by Mathew as having no wood, The new town was to be called Auckland after the or water, insufficient drainage, difficult communi- Governor-General of India — a friend of Hobson's. cation with the interior, difficult access by boat (15) Land was duly ceded from the Maoris and across shoals. Indeed, its only advantage seems to boundaries were decided on. (16) No mention is have been that it was level for building. 03) made of any difficulties similar to those experienced Mathew put forward a good case for his choice at Port Nicholson. No compensation was paid to the at Panmure on the Tamaki estuary. 04) He regarded Manukau and Waitemata Co. for their claims to the the isthmus location as destined to be the connecting land on the isthmus, but their settlers were allowed link between the north and south portions of the to squat there for two years after which their titles North Island, and linking also the East and West were granted. coasts. He felt the isthmus was particularly suited for Mathew did not wait for Hobson's arrival and took a town. It had the advantages Hobson's first choice formal possession of the area on the 18th September lacked: good drainage, abundant water, good portage 1840. (17) The display following was similar to that along the banks, as well as having level land for the at Port Nicholson with a salute being fired and the town and roads. He saw Waiheke as a suitable source Union Jack hoisted. Boat races were held but there of timber, and thought the sand bar a minor handicap were fewer witnesses and Maori participators than at to access by sea. However, when Hobson came to Port Nicholson. look at the site, he quickly rejected it when he found the sea access to be difficult. Access by sea was of primary importance, then, at both Port Surveying. Nicholson and Auckland — not surprisingly as this The surveyors of the Wellington and Auckland was the only way of approach for new settlers. settlements encountered similar difficulties. Captain The Ponsonby shore was selected finally, as Smith had to work under several handicaps. He spoke of these in a letter to England, complaining that he width opening to 1/2 mile at the mouth. had to work more speedily than he thought prudent. (2) He favoured a gridiron plan within a 2m x 11/2m (18) First of all there was the delay caused by the rectangle. The wooden paved streets were to changeover in sites, which meant that valuable time be 45' wide, and to enclose blocks of 8 acres. was lost. The settlers had arrived before there was (3) The total area was to be 1361 acres, of which any land laid out for them. Six months was to elapse 1100 acres was for the colonist's houses and before the settlers' arrival and the first delivery of the rest for government buildings, docks and lands. Smith had to do the major work himself with open spaces. just three assistants. They encountered physical (4) Amenities were to be the same as London's. obstacles in the hills and dense wood, so that cutting (5) He envisaged a broad terrace 200' wide running lines was difficult. (19) Indeed, Wilson criticised at right angles to the river bank and leading Smith for surveying land where it was easily found, to a fort 34 mile away. There was to be a fort without regard to its quality, proximity to the town, in each corner of the town and the terrace and the feelings of the natives. (20) The cramped was to surround the city. nature of the Thorndon site meant that 1 acre lots (6) He drew in an 8 acre cemetery behind each advertised in London, intended to allow plenty of fort, presumably for the casualties of war. scope for future subdivisions, were inconveniently (7) The gas works was placed outside the city large for the surveyor on the spot. (21) Further, it proper. was winter, and Smith had to work by candle light (8) Guns were to be situated on the left bank, in order to complete his plan so that the increasingly the tower on the right. importunate settlers could be satisfied. A mistake in (9) There were to be two dock areas. Each the map held up the selection of properties and it residential quarter would have its own baths wasn't until August 14th that this was completed. and school. There was to be a fishmarket and (22) abattoir at suitable sites. A president's Palace Perhaps learning from the Port Nicholson was to be provided — perhaps Cobham saw situation, Mathew noted the necessity for surveying N.Z. as a republic. before the immigrants arrive so that they can immedi- (10) Squares were to be named after N.Z.Co. ately go to work and need not be turned away by directors. lack of land surveyed. (23) Mathew wrote for assistants, but received none, and like Smith, was Given this unrealistic plan for the colony perhaps left to do the work himself. He was also handicapped it is just as well that Wellington was actually built by the impassable country, and shortage of labour to on the sea shore, on steep hills. clear the land. Deficiency of equipment and lack of Smith's plan included a total area of 1100 acres instruments also provided a handicap. However, of which 110 acres were for the Maoris.. (26) These before he was recalled Mathew had carried out a reserve lands were to be as 1 acre sections scattered general survey and drawn up an accurate outline of throughout the city, intermixed among the settlers. suburban and cultivation lots (3.5 acres each), and Included in the native reserves was the choice hotel surveyed 3855 acres for 37 farms. He would have site and 2 acres of harbour frontage. The N.Z.Co. preferred to have surveyed the town lands simultan- kept only 1 acre for its immigration building. There eously with an assistant doing the country lands, but were to be ample public reserves. Smith had been was hampered by having to do it himself. (24) In instructed to set aside land for a market place, both cases Smith and Mathew were able to carry out cemetery, wharfage, some public buildings, a botan- a surprising amount of work under pressure of the ical garden and park, and extensive boulevards. (27) new settler's demands. Smith laid out the Mt. Cook reserve and the Basin Reserve — which was formerly to be a dock yard, connected to the harbour by a canal. Alongside this Site Plans. .. canal was to run Cambridge and Kent Terraces. It is interesting to note the influence of the Altogether 150 acres of streets were set out. planner's background in the formation of their plans for the new settlements. The most striking influence A wide town belt ran from Oriental Bay to of the home city is to be found in the 1840 plan for Tinakore Road, separating the town and country a dream city that Samuel Cobham drew for the sections. Smith was to provide for the future rather proposed town at the Hutt. (25) Cobham had been than the present; public convenience and urban given the information that the site was flat, near a beauty were to take precedence over the immediate river mouth at the end of a broad valley. He was profit of the company. The form of the town was told that enemies might approach across the sur- left to Smith's own judgement and taste, and for rounding land. Cobham compared this site with Wellington it was the lie of the land and water that London and proceeded to adapt the plan slightly to determined the trend of the buildings and the fit the colonial conditions. disposition of interests. Felton Mathew completed his plan for Auckland (1) He thought that the Hutt would be navigable 3 months after the selection of land from Smith's and likened it to the Thames, with a 1/4 mile

10 Wellington plan was finished. It was submitted for Dr. Martin also ridiculed Mathew's intentions of approval on November 14th 1840 and duly com- reclaiming mudflats, insisting that Mathew had not mended by Governor Hobson. (28) paid enough attention to the lay of the land. Mathew defended himself by pointing out that his streets did Criticism in early 1841 by Dr. S. Martin con- note the lay of the land, but that he also had the demned its concentricity or 'eccentricity', and noted convenience of the early inhabitants in mind, and that no square houses were allowed for (29) Martin that he had tried to avoid the excess expense that assumed that Mathew had taken Bath as his model. would be required if the land was infilled to allow a (30) He suggested that Mathew had set a pole in the rectangular grid pattern. He defended his reclamation centre of high ground and proceeded to describe project, which would involve the infilling of the circles around it, which he called quadrants, crescents harbour between and Point Stanley, and circuses and named after friends and favourites. saying that it was valuable land. The sale of the land (His giant Trafalgar Circus encompassed the present in the future would balance the expense of the Albert Park and the University.) The Herald editorial reclamation, and also of the construction of a long Dec. 29th 1841 reported these circles as 'gingerbread pier that would allow boats to dock alongside. roundabouts'. However, the present shape of Auck- land owes more to Mathew's planning than to any Nowhere did Mathew provide for the natives in other individual. his plan. In this respect the Gov. colony did less to

THE ORIGINAL PLAN OF AUCKLAND From a photocopy of plan redrawn from that of Felton Mathew

This copy of Felton Mathew's original plan is the one used in Sherrin and Wallace's 'Early History of New Zealand', published in 1890; it is reproduced here in pre- ference to the original for the sake of clarity.

11 be 'kind to the natives' — the order of Governor 7 Government Officers, Mrs. Mathew, 32 mechanics, Hobson, than did the N.Z.Co. which did not have 15 wives and 28 children 135) Other settlers were a the sanction of the British Government. Neither was miscellaneous collection including settlers who had Auckland provided with the large green belt for the served their term, and American whalers from Russell. recreation and visual amenity of the future towns- 1361 There was not the control over the quality of people. Mathew's plan was cons;derably modified and settler that was one of the principles of Wakefield the present street patterns in the area bear little settlement. resemblance to the great crescents he proposed. Even at the end of 1841 there were glaring differences in In 1840 the 'Chelydra', an immigrant ship from Sydney carrying settlers for the Waitemata and the town in the plan and the town as actually Manukau Co. arrived to find that they had no land. emerging. (31) Many sections were marked out on They were granted permission to squat there by the land' then under water. Many streets were too new government. The first organised immigration narrow, and the excessive size of town allotments ships arrived from Britain on Oct. 9th 1842— the and the requirements of commerce demanded extra 'Duchess of Argyle' and the 'Jane Gifford' — lanes. For his failure to provide an adequate street bringing 560 immigrants. But this method of system and appropriately sized allotments, Mathew immigration was not regarded as a success, and has rightly been accused of negligence. Auckland's Auckland was destined to attract a variety of settlers C.B.D. has suffered from his being primarily lacking the common aims of the Wakefield settlement interested in speculation. in Wellington.

The First Settlers • • • Land Sales. • • When the N.Z.Co. advertised land in N.Z. for sale, Under the Wakefield system people in England they offered no guarantee of title, neither did they paid land purchase money in full, in exchange for require that the buyers emigrate (321 While this orders entitling selection of land (37) Of the money latter stipulation allowed speculation, and the former paid, 60% was to pay for passage, and 15% was to provided no security, the first ship of colonists was pay for the surveying and construction of roads. ready to leave England at the same time as Wakefield Labourers were given assistance or a free passage was being sent out to buy the land. It was arranged provided they would work for wages immediately that the 'Aurora' would leave before hearing whether on arriving, rather than become landowners. Land Wakefield had been successful, and the two ships was priced at £1 per acre, and buyers were offered were to rendezvous in Cook Strait on Jan. 10th, 1 acre in town and 100 acres of farm land in each lot. 1840. In Wellington, land selection was held up by the The 'Aurora' actually arrived in Wellington on factors previously mentioned. Town lots were selected Jan. 22nd, and was quickly followed by the second by August 1840 and the first selection of country emigrant ship the 'Oriental'. The 'Bengal Merchant' land was made on October 5th when 30 sections followed a month later bringing Scottish migrants were offere (39) ) The first settlers arrived sixteen from Clyde, and by March 7th the 'Tory', the days before the . The Treaty 'Adelaide' and the 'Glenbervie' had arrived. Land prohibited the sale of Maori land except to the sales were being disputed, and the land was not Crown. The difficulty with the vast N.Z.Co. claims surveyed. (33) (20m acres) was that their purchases couldn't be The Maoris were surprised at the number of disallowed without ruining the settlers and wrecking settlers that arrived (341 It wasn't that the N.Z.Co. the N.Z.Co. plan. Later in 1840 Lord Russell, the had lied to them, but rather that the chiefs thought Secretary of State for the colonies, granted a Royal they had exaggerated. The natives had no idea of Charter to the N.Z.Co., and gave them a Crown numbers above 1000, and even 1000 was an Grant of 4 acres in N.Z. for every £1 spent on indefinite amount to them. Te Wharepouri had colonising. This was calculated to be about £250,000 visualised one settler per pa — and this misunder- or 1 million acres. standing increased the ill feeling over the sale. In August 1840 Gipps, the Governor of N.S.W. Mathew criticised the situation pointing out the put through the N.Z. Land Bill which made all titles "gross injustice of endeavouring to force these natives not derived from the Crown null and void.(40) All to sell their land merely because the N.Z.Co. had claims were to be sent before a commissioner who committed its usual blunder of sending settlers to had instructions on the type of site he was to dis- occupy land which it had not bought". He added allow. Port Nicholson was included in this category. that the Maoris had the same rights as Europeans Panic resulted among the settlers and they sent a o speculate, and supported their efforts to hold their deputation to Sydney about the validity of their land in anticipation of higher prices. titles. Gipps allowed the settlers 110,000 acres in In contrast, Auckland had no immigration of a one continuous block and approved the 1/10 set distinctive character as did the N.Z.Co. The first aside for reserves (41) A 20 acre block with 200 ship to arrive bringing gov. staff from Russell carried

12 yards fronting the harbour was to be reserved for However, the Wellington founders were not always public buildings. By September the settlers were completely idealistic, but also rather anxious satisfied that their claims had been recognised. speculators. A minor disagreement with the missionary Williams was cleared up when Williams presented The Early Towns.. • 60 acres of land he had bought off the natives, to The Wakefield settlement adopted the new name the N.Z.Co (42) He had bought it intending the land of Wellington in recognition of the support of that for the natives, but on learning of the N.Z.Co. Duke (49) Of the 1,700 people in Wellington at the provision for native reserves realised that this was end of the first year, 2/3 had been brought out by unnecessary. Squatters also presented a problem in the N.Z.Co. and 1/3 were escapees or time-expired that they were numerous on public land. They were convicts from Australia. The first settlers had been destroying ornamental timber, but were not ejected housed in wooden buildings provided by the company because there was not the land surveyed for them. (women and children and invalids), tents and raupo Law enforcement was difficult with only one officer huts, but by April 1841 60-100 families were settled. even though Hobson had declared squatting on By October 600 of the 2,500 settlers were on the reserves to be illegal. land. The population increased steadily so that at The N.Z.Co. found immigration to be a poor the end of 1841 there were 3000 settlers in business proposition, with immediate demands on Wellington. company cash with land having only a prospective Wellington in 1841 consisted of two knots of value. In Auckland, however, Hobson was encour- settlement: (1) Official and commercial (with the aged by the revenue from the first land sales, number of shops increasing) and (2) Business. A expecting equally high returns in the future (est. road on the west side of the harbour had been £50,000) that would pay for the colony's needs. completed and work continued on the bridge road Although Mathew realised that speculation materially to Porirua and a road to Karori. Villages at Aglionby retards the improvement of an infant colony, he and Richmond sprang up where landowners had appears to have encouraged it (43) Although 3000 subdivided their 100 acre lots into 1-2 acre sections acres were reputedly finalised by October 20th, only for sale to labourers for £20 an acre. These were 116 lots were put forward for sale. Mathew had not the speculative prices of Auckland, but showed already selected his 3 lots and paid £582 for them. (44) a good profit to the landowners. The Auckland auction had been advertised in N.S.W. for 4 months. Traders and speculators were attracted and bought much of the land available, reselling it the next day in smaller lots and for profits of 2-300%. There were an estimated 8-900 applicants or the 116 lots (45) and the 44 acres sold for approximately £550 an acre. £24,475 was gained from mostly 1/4 acre sections.(46) These prices were quite ridiculous being higher than prices in London at the same time (47) Hobson had neglected Lord Russell's order to sell land at a fixed price. Hobson didn't expect much help from the Government of Great Britain, so he wanted to raise as much money as possible from the land sales. Government Officials were allowed ex officio prior and chose exclusive sections. They picked out valuable lots yet purchased the land at the average Looking south-west from the water, showing price for the town. This meant that they paid (left), Official Bay (left of centre), nothing until half the land was sold and an average Point Britomart (right of centre), Commercial Bay price ascertained.(48) This privilege, or self-interest, (right) and tents of first settlers. Date: 1840. contrasts markedly with the N.Z.Co.'s policies in Reproduced by kind permission of the Auckland Public library. Wellington. The second sale, of suburban lots, did not go so Early Auckland was contained within a small well. There was not the interest in farming in Auck- area — with 11/2 miles harbour frontage and extending land as there was among the Wakefield settlers — 1 mile inland. The primary streets were Princes St., and indeed the site was not chosen for its farming Shortland Crescent, Queen and Wakefield Streets capabilities. 600 acres were sold for £4,500. Com- (strange name in view of Mathew's criticism of the pare this with the £1 per acre paid for land under Wakefield settlement). The suburbs were limited. the Wakefield scheme. Speculation was especially Parnell was the residence of the official class and bad in Auckland and all prices were artificially high. missionaries, while Ponsonby was preferred by

13 Fbertt

Commercial' Az OA/ iq •

g CON Vp a ctor z .r.eree•t- 714.• A

CV>

A Military Barracks E Government House I Church M Sir ' Hotel B Surveyor General's office F Royal Hotel J Exchange Hotel N Blue Bell Inn C Colonial Secretary's office G Post Office K Governor Hobson's Hotel 0 Gaol D Colonial Treasury H Bank L Victoria Hotel P Court House PLAN OF AUCKLAND AS IT STOOD IN JANUARY, 1842 From a photocopy of a redrawn plan, origin unknown

would become the .(50) They businessmen. Travel was on foot or by horseback. reasoned that Wellington, with a relatively substantial Apart from the creek running down Queen Street population, was a more logical choice than the being enclosed as a drain, there was little other 'artificial settlement' of Auckland, where, at the public work. The main pubs (for whalers etc.) were time, there was no European population. They felt, a feature of the settlement contrasting with the perhaps illogically when one considers their 'lawless' control of grog shops in Wellington by the family- beginning, that it was the Government's duty to minded settlers. Government House and the military protect Wellington's interest by situating the capital barracks gave evidence of the capital status of the there. Yet, if Wellington had been chosen, the North- town. ern settlers would have been justified in claiming that their legitimate interests had been overlooked. Wellington vs Auckland. 0 0, Governor Hobson was early suspicious of the Animosity and rivalry between these two settle- N.Z.Co.'s activities. In view of the distance between ments was promoted by Hobson's choice of Auckland the two settlements and the difficulties caused by as his capital. Although Wellington was first settled long travel and communication time, it is not without the British Government's approval, the surprising that Hobson believed the report of a N.Z.Co. settlers always had the wish that their town Captain Pearson on the activities in Wellington.

14 Pearson, who had escaped from custody in Welling- Auckland from where the Governor sent a letter ton, had described the settlers as 'a turbulent set of acknowledging the Wellington settler's loyalty, but rebels' and said that they had 'founded a republic'. rejecting their town as his capital. (51)Hobson consequently sent Shortland, the police The bitterness and animosity felt by the Wellington magistrate, and thirty soldiers to Wellington to settlers towards Auckland, which they regarded as a quell the rebellion. He arrived on June 2nd 1840 wilderness, grew stronger. The N.Z. Co. was especially to find that it had all been a ludicrous mistake. angry that Hobson had not even paid a visit to What had actually happened was the prominent Wellington before making his decision.(52),Wakefield Wellington settlers had formed a local council, personally detested Hobson and both Wellington and appointing a magistrate to carry out judicial Auckland were later to petition for his recall. Hobson functions. Measures were carried out in readiness for further incensed the Wellington settlers when he public works, the appointment of officers, the attracted their carpenters and craftsmen to Auckland regulation of finances, selection of sites for a with the promise of good wages. (53) Whether this powder magazine, an infirmary and other public caused hardship to the Wellingtonians who were institutions. Once Shortland was assured of the waiting for land titles to be verified, is questionable, group's loyalty to the British Government, he read but Hobson's action was naturally very unpopular a proclamation of sovereignty and hoisted the Union, there. Jack in the place of the N.Z. flag. He returned to

Reproduced by kind permission of the Alexander Turnbull Library. Part of Lambton Harbour, in Port Nicholson, New Zealand: comprehending about one third of the water frontage of the town of Wellington. April 1841. A hand coloured lithograph by Thomas Allom, after an original watercolour by Charles Heaphy, V.C. (1820-1881). Published in London for the New Zealand Company by Smith, Elder & Co. 1842

15 Hobson at last visited Wellington in August 1841, Conclusions... in order to investigate Maori land claims. He spent The settlement of Auckland and of Wellington 27 days there and experienced considerable change during 1839-41, although carried out quite differently of heart about his neglect of Wellington. He recog- - the one an organised settlement guided by a com- nised the superiority of Wellington's harbour and pany with experimental ideals of immigration, the port, yet failed to appoint a harbour master. He other artificially nominated as capital and attracting realised that in rank, population and wealth, Well- itsfirst settlers by its government function and its ington was the most important town in the colony. inherent physical qualities - do have some features He no longer regarded the as unfit to in common. The choice of harbour site, hold ups in be settled, and looked on Cook Strait as a more surveying, 'unrealistic' site plans, and land speculation, advantageous site for a capital. He expressed regret were common to both. Isolated from one another and at having listened to hearsay evidence of others, and connected by poor communications, they tended to it became apparent that Hobson had misrepresented emphasise their conflicts so that the personal dislikes matters in defence of his 'senseless choice' of capital. of their leaders were reflected in animosity between Wellington could not be satisfied till it became the the settlements. The situation was not resolved by capital nearly 25 years later. Parochial interests still the end of 1841. stir the old rivalry between Auckland and Wellington. Christine Moore

Notes: 1 Condliffe, J. B. & Airey, W.T.G. (1960) 26 Ward. p.56 "A Short History of N.Z." p.46-9. 27 Ward, John. (1841) "Information Relative 2 Wakefield, E. J. (1845) "Adventure in New to N.Z." Zealand" Vol. 1 - an account of the settlement 28 Mathew. p.196 (Rutherford) of Port Nicholson. 29 Ibid. p.196-9 3 Ibid. p.36 30 Platts. p.28 4 Ibid. p.73 31 Meiklejohn, G. M. (1953) "Early conflicts of 5 Ibid. p.77 Press and Government" p.41-60 6 Petre, Hon. H. W. (1842) "An Account of the Settlements of the N.Z.Co." p.52-3 32 Turnbull. p.9 7 Mulgan, Alan (1939). "The City of the Strait: 33 Ward p.23-38 Wellington and its Province" 34 Petre. p.16 8 Wakefield p.85 35 Mathew. p.184 (Rutherford) 9 Ibid. p.39 36 Morton, J. B. (1925) "Recollections of Early 10 Ward, L. E. (1928) "Early Wellington". p.39 N.Z." p.29 11 Petre. p.12 37 Turnbull. p.9 12 Plans, Una (1971) "The Lively Capital: 38 Ibid. Auckland 1840-1865" p.11 13 Mathew, Felton (1840-1) "The Diary of Felton 39 Wakefield. p.395 Mathew" p.162 (Rutherford) ao Ibid. p.350 14 Ibid. p.164-171 in Rutherford, J edit. "The 41 Ibid. p.415 Founding of N.Z." (Rutherford) Journals of 42 Manson. p.125 Felton Mathew and wife 1840-47. 43 Mathew. p.39 15 Mathew. p.29 44 Ibid. p.198 16 Ibid. p.191 (Rutherford) 45 Grainger, John (1953) "The Auckland Story" 17 Wakefield. p.411 p.19 18 Ward. p.57 46 Horsman, John (1971) "The Coming of the 19 Wakefield. p.307 Pakeha" p.53 20 Wilson, E. Wilson (1933) "Land Problems of 47 Meiklejohn. p.45 the '40's" p.15-50 21 Turnbull, Michael (1959) "The N.Z. Bubble: 48 Wakefield. p.439 The Wakefield Theory in Practice" p.18 49 Ward. p.71 22 Ward. p.56 50 Petre. p.34 23 Mathew. p.180 (Rutherford) 24 Mathew. p.181-2 (Rutherford) 51 Wakefield. p.298 25 Manson, Cecil and Cilia (1962) "Curtain 52 Petre. p.88 Raiser to a Colony" p.100-103 53 Wakefield. p.409 0

16 ABOUT WATER

Richard Bellamy

This is the first of a series of articles on the subject of the protection and conservation of water quality by A.R. Bellamy, MSc. (Auckland), PhD (Auckland), Virologist. Dr Bellamy is a Senior Research Fellow with the Department of Cell Biology at the and a Director of the Environmental Defence Society.

Recently, in an unguarded moment, a lawyer friend admitted to me that it was not until he had graduated from Law School that he learnt of the existence of the Town and Country Planning Act (1953) and the Water and Soil Conservation Act (1967). It is disturbing to discover such indifference in our Law Schools to the nation's two major environmental statutes. It comes as no great surprise therefore, to discover that today few lawyers can be found who fully comprehend the intentions of the Town and Country Planning Act; and a mere handful can be located who are knowledgeable in matters of soil and water conservation legislation. Planners, like lawyers, have traditionally left matters of water management to others: water being a substance able to be passed through pipes has become, like roads, the exclusive province of the engineer. But water has many uses of interest to the planner other than supplying the needs of domestic consumers: water has major recreational uses; its proximity governs the siting of major manufacturing industries, thermal power stations and other growth- generating land uses of concern to the planner. A bay or a river contaminated by sewage effluent no longer constitutes a valuable recreational resource; an aquifer contaminated by seepage from a refuse tip can not become a future source of potable water. Water, is not just something engineers put through culverts and pipes; it is a very important natural resource. The protection and conservation of water quality should therefore be a basic requirement of good planning practice.

17 In the beginning Who built the pyramid? Public interest and concern in the management The elaborate pyramid-like structure of the bodies of water resources is a relatively recent phenomenon controlling (Figure 1) has in New Zealand: it dates from the events that occurred grown under the influence of conflicting political in the East Cape region in 1938. During February and pressures and not under any particular administrative April of that year torrential rains and disastrous structure. The deficiencies of the system have been flooding occurred in Poverty Bay and Hawkes Bay. commented on by Powles (3) and if the dedicated The devastation of the landscape and loss of property investigator possesses the necessary enthusiasm caused by this natural disaster was of major propor- coupled with patience and a great deal of time, the tions. Within three years, after much debate and nature of the Water and Soil Conservation Organisa- argument, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control tion gradually becomes apparent. Some representatives Act (1941) was passed. The Act recognised erosion on the National Authority, although appointed to and flooding as a major problem in New Zealand represent the public, are far removed from the and was the first statute passed by Parliament democratic progress. At the Physical Environment which linked the problems of flooding and soil Conference 1970, Sir Guy Powles commented on the erosion. manner in which representatives of the Municipal The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act Association are selected for the National Water and represented an important advance in that it provided Soil Conservation Authority (3). the administrative machinery to control flooding and "Stage 1. The electors elect their municipal council. soil erosion. Nevertheless, the Bill was opposed by Stage 2. The municipal council appoints its many local bodies, some sections of the public, and representatives to the Municipal Association. by the Department of Agriculture. The Department Stage 3. The Municipal Association elects its executive. claimed that "in general in New Zealand, erosion Stage 4. The executive nominates a panel of three per se is not a basic problem calling directly for to the Minister. action", and subsequently bitterly attacked L.W. Stage 5. The Minister appoints one of these three. McCaskill, a leading proponent of the Bill, for Thus, those two persons who are supposed to "misleading Parliament" (1). represent the citizen on the National Water and Soil As problems attending such natural disasters as the Conservation Authority are four stages removed from election by democratic process". East Coast floods receded, concern at the effect of industrial and other development on the quality of I am of the opinion that there is a clear need for the nation's waters increased; but internal dissensions consolidation of the statutes controlling water and between the many government departments, such as soil resources and for the simplification of the Works, Forestry, Lands and Survey and Agriculture, administrative structure. The present pyramid-like which had responsibilities in the field prevented the structure is unwieldy and undemocratic; there should development of a comprehensive policy for the be much greater public representation; those appointed control of our water resources. to represent the public should not be shielded unduly from the electoral process. A possible example of One result of growing concern at the deteriorating how such a consolidated authority might be con- situation was that the government in 1964 was stituted is provided by the Clean Air Council (4). persuaded to invite the distinguished director of the Soil Conservation Service of the United States' The Statute Department of Agriculture, Dr Donald A. Williams, to advise on ways of solving the existing chaotic In a lengthy preamble to the Water and Soil Conservation Act the intention of the statute is situation. In his report (2) Dr Williams pointed out that "... it is none too soon for aggressive action stated to be: "An Act to promote a national policy to be taken to consider and plan for the long term in respect of natural water, and to make better water requirements of the country ... The develop- provision for the conservation, allocation, use and ment management and use of water for beneficial quality of natural water, and for promoting soil purposes cannot be dissociated from the management conservation and preventing damage by flood and of the lands in the catchment areas and the control erosion and for promoting and controlling multiple of rivers to prevent damage". uses of natural water and the drainage of land, and for ensuring that adequate account is taken of the Many of the recommendations of the Williams needs of primary and secondary industry, water report were too far reaching or radical to be acceptable supplies of local authorities, fisheries, wildlife to the government. Unfortunately, aggressive action habitats, and all recreational uses of natural water". has never been a notable response of officialdom in The Act has been much amended (1968, 1971, the area of water resource management. The govern- 1972, 1973) and there are many examples of vague ment proceeded to establish a pyramid of boards, language and poor drafting to be found within the councils and authorities which could not have been statute. Nevertheless, extensive powers are conferred better devised to dissociate the management of land on the Water and Soil Conservation Authority, the from the management of water resources.

18 Fig. 1. The administrative structure of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority. (From publication WASCO 15, Ministry of Works, Wellington, New Zealand, September Figure 1. 1972).

NATIONAL Minister of Works WATER AND Governor-General's Appointee SOIL Soil Conservation and Rivers Control CONSERVATION Council (Chairman) AUTHORITY Water Resources Council (Chairman) Municipal Association Counties Association Catchment Authorities Association

SOIL WATER CONSERVATION RESOURCES AND RIVERS COUNCIL (11 members) (14 members) Governor-General's Appointee Governor-General's Appointee Municipal Assn. Municipal Assn. Counties Assn. Counties Assn. Catchment Authorities Assn. (2) Catchment Authorities Assn. Land Drainage & River Boards Assn. Federated Farmers Federated Farmers Manufacturers Federation Ministry of Works Dairy Board Dept. of Lands and Survey Meat Industry Res. Inst. Dept. of Agriculture Rep, of recreational interests N.Z. Forest Service Ministry of Works DSI R Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries Dept. of Health Ministry of Transport

REGIONAL WATER BOARDS (Catchment Authorities) 1 ii CATCHMENT BOARDS Usually 10 locally-elected members. 5-6 appointed members, mainly experienced officers of Govt. agencies CATCHMENT COMMISSIONS Representatives of territorial local authorities Appointed members WAIKATO VALLEY AUTHORITY Usually 13 members comprising 11 elected representatives of local authorities 2 appointed members

Water Resources Council and regional water boards review and it is to be hoped that some liberalisation to regulate the use of natural water in much the same of the requirements for standing will be forthcoming. manner as the Town and Country Planning Act Under the Act, regional water boards are charged (1953) confers powers on local authorities to regulate with the responsibility of making provision for the the use of land. conservation and best use of natural waters in their In contrast to town planning legislation, the areas. In theory, a water board attempts to achieve Crown is bound under the Water and Soil Conservation this aim through a system whereby every discharge Act, but restrictive clauses concerning locus standi, entering natural waters must be authorised by a limit the rights of public interest groups and permit (water right). In practice, this aim is not individuals to object to particular proposals for the currently being achieved, either because the boards use of natural water. The Act is currently under have not set adequate standards for the effluent, or 19 NZ Catchment Authorities and Regional Water Boards as at 1.12.73

All catchment authorities (a total of All regions having a catchment auth- authority control. Such acceptance is not 20) are also regional water boards. ority at the time the 1967 Act came into mandatory. Catchment authorities are constituted force automatically came under the con- At present there are several cases in under the 1941 Soil Conservation and trol of a regional water board, namely, which the area of catchment authority Rivers Control Act and are responsible the catchment authority with its powers control differs from that of regional water for controlling and/or preventing soil extended. board control. Take Northland for in- erosion and river-flooding in their respec- By 1973, all of New Zealand had come stance. In its operations under the 1941 tive regions. under the jurisdiction of a regional water Act, the Northland Catchment Commis- Regional water boards are constituted board. This Was a mandatory require- sion has jurisdiction over the unhatched by the 1967 Water and Soil Conservation ment of the 1967 Act. However, at the area only. However, as regional water Act and are responsible for controlling time a region acquired regional water board, it has jurisdiction over both the and developing the natural water board control, it could also have decided hatched and unhatched areas. resources in their respective regions. on whether or not to accept catchment

Hauraki Catchment Board Northland PO.Box7 Te Aroha Catchment Commission Phone 505 PO. Box 886 Whangarei Phone 84639 Bay of Plenty Catchment Commission PO.Box 364 Whakatane Phone 7289 Auckland Regional Authority Poverty Bay Private Bag Auckland I Catchment Board Phone 364420 PO.Box 338 Gisborne Phone 88033 Valley Authority P.O. Box 4010 Hamilton East 6 Phone 67184

Taranaki Catchment Commission 8 P.O.Box 98 Stratford 9 Phone 7167 Hawkes Bay Catchment Board Rangitikei —Wanganui P0. Box 233 Napier Catchment Board Phone 82100 10 P.O.Box 92 Marton Phone 7189 Manawatu Catchment Board Nelson PO. Box 422 2 Catchment Board Phone 79009 PO.Box 41 Nelson Phone 4856 Wellington Wairarapa Regional Water Board Catchment Board PO.Box 30002 Lower Hutt P.O. Box 41 Masterton Westland Phone 63633 Phone 3079 Catchment Board RO.Box 66 Greymouth 4 Phone - 4095 North Canterbury Marlborough Catchment Board Catchment Board 5 P 0.Box 788 Christchurch PO.Box 204 Blenheim Phone 60653 Phone 89099

6 South Canterbury Catchment Board PO.Box 160 Timaru Phone 89069 7

Waitaki Catchment Commission PO.Box 110 Kurow Phone 65 Otago Southland Catchment Board Catchment Board PO.Box 858 Dunedin PO.Box 408 Invercargill Phone 76852 Phone 89129 because many discharges are unauthorised. that the establishment of regional water boards has not led to a state of total, rather than mild, chaos in The granting of water rights may be the subject the administration of the Act. In some cases, a few of objection to the water board and the water dedicated individuals do their best: in many cases board's decision may be appealed to the Town and problems are solved merely by the expedient device Country Planning Appeal Board. If the provisions of of issuing water rights to all those groups currently the Act with regard to the granting of water engaged in the unauthorised discharge of wastes into rights were to be vigorously implemented and our coastal and inland waters. appropriate standards placed on every permit, a It is notable that the Waikato Valley Authority, profound effect would be exercised on the mainten- one of the most important water boards in the North ance of the quality of the nation's inland and coastal Island, until recently, lacked the services of a trained waters. Unfortunately, there is reason to doubt that biologist: since the WVA has responsibility for an the political will exists at any level of the Water and area of approximately 5,200 square kilometres it is Soil Conservation Organisation to adopt such a not surprising that the quality of water in the catch- course of action. Thus, if deficiencies exist in the ment of the Waikato River has deteriorated in recent current practices of water management, they have years. more to do with political and financial considerations than with the absence of the necessary powers for Who Pays? water boards to enforce the statute. The reprehensible state of the finances of water boards results from a policy of benign neglect firmly Regional Water Boards adhered to by successive governments. It is therefore There are twenty regional boards areas that cover surprising that more detailed consideration has not the total area of the North and South Islands (Figure been given to the provision of the necessary statutory 1). What might otherwise have been an administrative powers for regional water boards to levy sufficient nightmare has been avoided by ensuring that all funds to provide for their proper research and existing catchment authorities constituted under the administrative needs. A precedent exists for providing Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act (1941) such power in that catchment boards have for are also the water boards. In some cases the area some time been empowered to levy for flood and controlled by a catchment authority differs from the erosion control work. A levy system would also area it controls as a water board. Although these have the advantage that some real financial incentives differences are minor and historical in origin, they would be provided for water conservation (reduced serve to further confuse the uninitiated observer. abstraction), a particularly important aspect of water management in some areas such as the Here- In the Auckland region the Auckland Regional Water and Catchment Board is the Auckland Regional taunga Plains near Hastings. Authority but it is claimed that the Board has been constituted in such a manner that it acts independently Town and Country Planning The manner in which the Town and Country Act of other Divisions of the Authority. The prospect of the Authority, itself a major user and discharger, also (1953) and the Water and Soil Conservation Act (1967) overlap is best illustrated by a hypothetical acting as the controlling and enforcing agency, example of that well-known nightmare of all council somewhat surprisingly, did not perturb the Local planning committees, the selection of a site for the Government Commission (5). The Commission rested its judgment in part on the hope expressed by the municipal rubbish dump. former general manager of the ARA — that the Act 1: The Council's engineer selects a site. The Authority would be "like Caesar's wife — above suspicion". Only events will demonstrate whether Works Committee accept his advice and instructions the Commission's trust was well placed. are issued to the planning officer to prepare the necessary change to the district scheme under the The delegation of power to regional water Town and Country Planning Act. boards by the Water Resources Council has not Act 2: The planning officer, upon receiving his been accompanied by the provision of funds or instructions, is annoyed but not surprised that he resources to enable local boards to carry out adequately has not been consulted. He carries out his instruct- the task of managing the water resources of their areas. Furthermore, although many catchment boards ions, meanwhile, privately expressing his dismay. have developed considerable expertise and experience Act 3: The citizens object to the proposal and an in matters of flood and erosion control, almost none intense war of press-releases is waged. A hearing is have the resources or skills to monitor or protect held, objections are disallowed and appeals are water quality. It is a situation that will be familiar lodged with the Town and Country Planning Appeal to many professional planners: many water boards Board. manage water with approximately the same proficiency Act 4: The citizens, by now having become familiar as building inspectors compile and administer district with the New Zealand Statutes, point out that any planning schemes. In such a situation it is surprising discharge of leachate from the tip into the

22 sensitive freshwater catchment must be the subject of a water right application under the Water and Soil Conservation Act (1967). The Council, after taking legal advice, admits this to be true and lodges the necessary water right application with the local water board. Act 5: The citizens object to the application. A hearing takes place before the Water Board: much the same evidence is presented as at the town planning hearing; objections are disallowed; an appeal is lodged with the Town and Country Plann- ing Appeal Board. Act 6: The Appeal Board decides upon the merits of the two appeals.

Thus, perhaps four hearings and eighteen months later, a decision is reached. The details of such cases may vary but the issues remain the same. How much more simple would the case have been had consultations taken place between the council and the water board when it was known a site was required. How much more sensible would the arguments have been had the potential difficulties in the control of leachate been recognised at the outset.

I am of the opinion that such disputes as that outlined above, which have recourse to two separate environmental statutes, are likely to become increasingly common as citizens and public interest groups become more skilled in their use of the law. Professional planners would be well advised to take note of the impact of water legislation on many of their planning activities.

The importance of water resource management in References relation to regional planning and development has (1) McCaskill, L.W. (1973). Hold this Land: been recognised, if somewhat belatedly, by the A history of Soil Conservation in New Zealand. National Water and Soil Conservation Authority. A.H. and A.W. Reed, Wellington, Sydney, London The Authority requested the Director of Water and Soil Conservation to prepare a guideline on the (2) Williams, D.A. (1964). Report on Soil Conserva- subject and specifically requested study of the tion and Rivers Control Organization and Adminis- integration of water management and soil conservation tration in New Zealand. activities with the requirements of the Town and Government Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. Country Planning Act. The report (6), apart from (3) Powles, G. (1970). Environmental Control: The calling for more planning consultation and discussion, rights of the individual citizen. specifically recommends that catchment authorites N.Z. Law Journal 469 Pages 468-471. should take the opportunity provided by the review of district schemes to ensure that matters of concern (4) The Clean Air Act (1972). Third Schedule. in the management of water and soil resources within New Zealand Statutes. their region are incorporated in the aims and policies of the relevant council. "At all stages catchment (5) Local Government Commission: Water Regions authorities must attempt to promote desirable under Water and Soil Conservation Act (1967). development and control adverse development" (6). Decisions of the Commission on objections to The phrase has a familiar ring about it: perhaps the three provisional schemes. inhabitants of the various floors of Vogel House, the Head office of the Ministry of Works and Development, (6) Commentary published by the Water and Soil are now in communication. Proper management of Conservation Authority (1973). Regional Planning the nation's water resources will benefit from this Guidelines for Catchment Authorities and cross-fertilisation: it is to be hoped that more of it Regional Water Boards. occurs at the local level. Soil and Water 10, 5-7.0 23 Overspill Alternative Jor South Auckland

T. W. FOOKES o

24 T. W. Fookes, MA(Hons)(Cant), DipTP(Auck), CertEkistics(ACE, Greece), is a lecturer in Geography at the University of Waikato.

the implication of this study, at the national level, The purpose of the preceding article (TP034) was to focus attention on future urban expansion is that it is not sufficient to restrict the view of regional development to a policy of decentralisation. between Auckland and Hamilton, and to demonstrate Existing urban settlements have developed a momen- the necessity for a planning policy to guide and tum of their own, whether through natural population control this urban development. Population capacities increase, industrial employment opportunities, or have been found to fall within the range one million locational advantages for firms. As the Physical to 300,000, depending on the constraint. The con- Environment Conference advised, diversion of straints examined were not seen to be exhaustive, industrial and population expansion away from and others including some of a more subjective main centres will only marginally affect their rate nature, could be added to a further examination of of growth. Consequently, the need is for statutorily urban expansion. It is argued, however, that even established regional development and planning with only four constraints, a case has been made for authorities. These could have the power to control a regional planning authority which would shape the the location of new urban development within a future urban pattern between Auckland and Hamilton. clear set of urban expansion policies and strategies. But this is only one planning implication out of several which have emerged. With this in mind, it is interesting to read of the action, by the recently elected Labour Government The planning implications are summarised under in Australia, of setting up a department of Urban three headings, which stand for the three levels of and Regional Development to function at the Federal planning: National, Regional, and Local. level. This new department will be the research and policy initiating source in Australia, covering the field suggested above for New Zealand (2). This The National Level country would benefit from the establishment of a The subject of decentralisation has been hotly similar department, perhaps an expanded Town and debated, and much researched (1). Political parties Country Planning Division (MOW.). Additional to have differing points of view on the matter. The this would be regional authorities which could adopt Labour Party contested the 1972 elections with a as their guidelines, the recommendations of the regional development plank which included incen- National Development Council (1972, 53) (1). The tives for decentralisation. The existence of a Labour sub-committee on regional development gave four Government for the period 1973-76 means imple- recommendations which could be the basis for a set mentation of their policy. This is significant because of criteria for a regional development policy, as 25 follows: The Regional level "(a) the existence of untapped but economically exploitable natural resources in a region As inferred by the previous reference to the N.D.C. experiencing slow growth; sub-committee report, the major implications of the (b) the existence of trends which indicate that study relate to the regional level. However, initiating less than sufficient resources and services are action may have to come from the national level. being maintained in rural areas or smaller At the regional level the urban expansion pressures centres for the efficient operation of outlined are real, as is the inter-city motorway and industries in the primary sector, particu- its likely impact on urban growth processes. larly those with good export prospects; Therefore, there is a need for: (c) the under-utilisation in an urban centre or region of infra-structure that could be (a) a regional urban development policy and a employed economically; and growth strategy, which would take cognis- (d) the existence of detrimental social effects ance of the motorway and the existing of excessive concentration and growth in settlement pattern; some large urban centres, or of decline in (b) a regional planning authority, which would rural areas and smaller centres." be responsible for the whole South Auck- land Region, including Metropolitan All of these considerations are relevant within Auckland. Within this broadly defined the context of the larger South Auckland Region. authority there could be established sub- At a sub-regional level, in particular a sub-region regional levels, covering, for instance, the containing the South Auckland and Hamilton Urban development zone as defined in this study, Areas, points (c) and (d) are highly relevant. For and the existing Auckland Regional Auth- instance, with an overspill policy, a more economical ority; use could be made of the proposed motorway. New (c) the design of the motorway to be undertaken development located adjacent to it would increase with an understanding that the route could its use, giving a greater utilisation of the facility, be handling both inter- and intra-city traffic. and could be a more satisfactory solution overall This dual function will place greater within the Auckland than intensifying the network demands on the size and location (spacing) Metropolitan Area. Similarly, expansion of Te Kau- of interchanges, one design factor whata would be consistent with the objectives of emphasising the need to view the motorway (d) above, and at the same time, meeting the criterion in its broader context. of a motorway location.

26 The Local level strategy which builds on the principles of linear The main implication at the Local level which planning will provide opportunities for a linkage of arises from the study, relates to district scheme development and transportation on the one hand, preparation and content, and Works programming. and development and environment on the other. For example, there is a need for the Waikato and The strategy proposed deviates from the early Raglan Counties, and Huntly Borough, to consider linear planning theories which advocate continuous the impact of any increased urban development, development. But it is consistent with the school-of- resulting from pressures within the two main urban thought which advocates beaded development along areas and the motorway, on their planning and high-speed ground transport systems. Furthermore, programming. For example, new sewerage schemes the necessity to break up large urban areas into may appear in a different light if increased popu- identifiable units, particularly using natural features lations are envisaged. Or, lakeshores should'be or landscape elements, has always been an aspect considered carefully, and the desirability of antici- of linear planning. In this respect the proposed pating subdivision pressures around lakes assessed; strategy is a good example. a lakeshore reserve scheme similar to the one Finally, this study has shown the considerable developed for Lake Taupo may be appropriate. In development pressures facing the Southern Auckland the case of the counties and boroughs which are and Hamilton Urban Areas. The inevitability that surrounded by first-class cropping land, there is a a corridor will occur may be debated, but what is need for further studies on the cropping land beyond issue, is the need to co-ordinate the future constraint. If this is still viewed as a limitation expansion of these two centres. on expansion, then the appropriate changes must be made to their district schemes. A further possibility is for local authorities to control areas where pressure to develop is likely to occur; for instance, the Waikato County could well consider the possibility of initiating a 'new town' development, by expanding the village of Te Kauwhata, with associated land control and design initiative.

Conclusion The urban form suggested in the previous article demonstrates the feasibility of accommodating half a million people within a corridor between two expand- ing urban centres. Implementation of the strategy remains a question, but if the principles of corridor development hold, then pressure for development will occur. (3) It is the transportation advantages accruing to a 'corridor-resident' which will determine the feasibility of the strategy. If it can be demon- strated that fast communication between home and work is possible, whatever the mode, then the NOTES: disadvantages of distance will become of little consequence. 1. The Manpower Planning Unit, Dept. of Labour, It is also argued that have never and the Town and Country Planning Branch, really aspired to being fully 'urban'; they have always M.O.W., Industry in New Zealand: Distribution been disenchanted with the apparent advantages of and Potential (Govt. Printer, Wgtn — 1970) 'big-city life'. The 'outdoorsman' attitude of New T. K. McDonald, Regional Development in Zealanders means that there is a desire for 'small- New Zealand (Whitcombe and Tombs Ltd, 1970) town' environments, with associated physical National Development Council, Regional Devel- environment advantages. The acceptance of a opment in New Zealand; report of the Sub- development strategy which will enable a con- committee on regional development. Dec. 1971 tinuation of existing urban life-styles in urban units (Govt. Printer, Wgtn. 1972) of an understandable scale, is seen as a suitable T. K. McDonald, Regional Development Rejoined. concluding argument for planned development in Discussion Paper 15, N.Z. Institute of Economic what may be termed the Auckland-Hamilton Research (Inc.) 1972. Corridor. Rejection of the cropping land constraint, 2. Peter Samuel, "Upgrading the city fringes", will remove a limitation on the continued agglomera- The Bulletin Jan. 27, 1973,10-11 (Sydney). tion of Auckland, provide the opportunity for 3. See T. W. Fookes, The Auckland-Hamilton unlimited urban growth and the Cumberland proposal Development Corridor ( unpublished Dip TP (footnote) could eventuate. However, adoption of a dissertation, University of Auckland, 1973).0 27 CONFERENCES

NEW ZEALAND ENERGY Constraints on the Energy CONFERENCE 1974 Supply. University of Auckland I. J. Baumgart, Commissioner Centre for Continuing Education for the Environment 23-25 May, at Auckland Nuclear Fission — Limits set by Contamination and Waste Disposal 23 May Dr H. W. Kendall, Professor of Opening Address, the Prime Nuclear Physics, Massachussetts Minister, the Rt Hon N. E. Kirk Institute of Technology, Boston, Non-renewable Energy Resources U.S.A. — Global and New Zealand Prospects. 25 May Dr A. C. Kibblewhite, Professor Electrical Energy Demand and New Zealand Planning Institute of Geophysics, University of Development — Plans for the 1974 Annual Conference. Auckland Future Napier, 6-8 May. Solar and Other Energy Resources C. E. Nixon, Chief Engineer —Global and New Zealand (Development), New Zealand Programme Prospects Electricity Department Monday, 6 May Dr G. T. Ward, Professor of Energy in Industry Institute Annual General Agricultural Engineering, Lincoln V. Jowsey, Chief Design Meeting College Engineer, Tasman Pulp & Paper Tuesday, 7 May Thermodynamics of Energy Company Ltd The Region in Planning Conversion and Utilisation. Technical and Economic Wednesday, 8 May J. Stephenson, Senior Lecturer Implications of Energy Use Private Enterprise v. Public in Mechanical Engineering, Patterns in New Zealand. Interest. University of Auckland Speaker not yet announced The Tuesday and Wednesday Regional Land Use, Transport 24 May sessions will be open to the and Energy in the Auckland Patterns of Use of Electrical public. Region. . M. M. B. Latham, Director of P. W. Blakeley, General Manager, Speakers: Planning, Auckland Regional New Zealand Electricity The Minister of Works and Authority Department Development, Hon. H. J. Watt; Social Origins and Economic the Mayor of Napier, Mr P. Tait; Uses of Petroleum and Coal in Basis of Energy Demand. the Director of Urban and New Zealand. Dr E. R. Habicht, Director, Regional Development of J. Hogg, Commissioner of Environmental Defense Fund, Australia, Mr R. B. Lansdown; Energy Resources New York, U.S.A. the Director of Foodtown, Mr The Impact of Natural Gas on Methods of Regulating Demand B. Picot; the Design Engineer of the New Zealand Scene. Hon. W. W. Freer, Minister of Robbins Holdings Ltd, Mr A. J. R. M. O'Callahan, General Energy Resources Watt; and the President of the Manager, Natural Gas Corporation Institute, Mr K. Dobbie. For further information and Thermal Pollution registration, write to: For further information and Dr J. R. Clark, Conservation Mr G. G. Clark, Centre for registrations write to: Foundation, Washington D.C., Continuing Education, University The Secretary, U.S.A. of Auckland, Private Bag, P.O. Box 167, NAPIER • Impact of Environmental Auckland. •

28 SC.

For the last 8 months I have been employed as a planning assistant with Fife County in Scotland. I came to Fife hoping for new and varied experience kri M44vLj in country planning, as a contrast to my previous experience which consisted of three years in the central area planning team at the Council and a brief sojourn in the population studies section at the Greater London Council. I found the melee in planning departments in England and Wales, which accompanied local government re- organisation, extremely confusing, and came to Scotland for a little more sanity.

Despite the weather, the diminishing Pound, and Mr Heath's amazing ways of dealing with a run-down economy (which plunges this office into darkness and frostiness every Thursday and Friday), Fife County Planning Department is quite an exhilarating place in which to be working. The Ancient Kingdom of Fife — that "beggar's mantle fringed with gold" — is a county of some 330,000, spreading eastwards from a border with Kinross and Perthshire some 40 miles between the firths of the Firth and the Tay. Although its size and its beaches may be reminiscent of Auckland Region, there the similarity stops. Instead of the suburban sprawl which dominates Auckland, we have a rich agricultural peninsula with dispersed service towns Sylvia McCurdy, B.Sc (Cant), Dip.TP (Auck), and villages, and ancient mining, fishing and ship- recently moved to Fife County as a planning building settlements. Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy assistant from a similar position with (50,000 people each) are the main towns, with Auckland City. Glenrothes New Town (30,000), after a bad start, growing as fast as resources can be found to build it. A planning job in a county of such variety provides a range of experience which one might not get in a New Zealand county. Learning the ropes of legisla- tion, techniques and procedures which often differ markedly from New Zealand is also fascinating. For the cynic, there is further fascination in unravelling the complexity of the roles of, and the relationships between, county and government departments, government department and government department, commissions, boards, and advisory groups in the planning process. Paradoxically, planning here seems to be more flexible and more open to innovation than in New Zealand, and yet at the same time it is far more incarcerated in slow and archaic procedures and more prone to political whim and professional fashion.

Until very recently, Fife was splendidly isolated, relying on the railway for almost all movement of goods and people in and out of its area. The com- pletion of the Forth and Tay Bridges in 1964 and 1966 and the reduction of the rail network by alenost two-thirds since, have opened up the county, radically changed its transport patterns, and brought a mixed bag of pressures, problems and benefits.

29 Ceres — Bow Butts, part of conservation area and Fife Folle Museum.

The Crossgate —Conservation area in Cuper

Regional boundary changes Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline. The present number of staff from all the The effect of this opening-up was displayed in the authorities will probably be enough to staff the plan for regional reorganisation, in which Fife was to regional office, but the district offices will require be severed and shared between the regions of Forth- at least two qualified planners each and supporting side and Tayside: a more logical but less locally staff. Unlike the English and Welsh regions, which acceptable proposal than the present (and final) one. are having great problems in recruiting staff at the As a result of political and parochial pressure there "Section Head" level, Fife is likely to run into is now to be a Fife region — the area of Fife County problems at a lower level. The present planning — but with reorganised districts. Scotland has proved departments in the region add up to a remarkably difficult to regionalise, and the division of the Central top-heavy structure, with considerably more senior and Western Industrial belt is still being haggled over. than junior planners. The senior members of staff The end result is sure to be a political compromise are all well-settled in Fife, and are almost certain to with little reference to the original intention of all be happily absorbed into the region, but because regionalism. Fife seems likely to be one of the areas of the small population and low rating base of the most satisfied with local government reorganisation region the salaries able to be offered to the still- in the whole of Scotland, but experience across the floating population of planning assistants will border leads everyone to view May, which sees the probably be inadequate. The actual work to be start of a year of parallel organisation, with scepticism carried out on a regional basis will require some and even dismay. skills which are at present spread very thinly in this In Fife, reorganisation will see the demise of some department — in particular, economic, statistical 25 ancient and ingrained Royal Burghs — each with and computer skills; and there will, in theory at its own administration and labour dealing at present least, be no place for a good many of the specialist with local housing, drainage, sewage, parks, road skills which have been fostered in the particular maintenance, and the like. In the planning field, the organisation of the county planning department. five planning authorities — Fife County, Dunfermline Kirkcaldy and St Andrews Burghs, and Glenrones Development Corporation — will become two: Fife County organisation structure Glenrones Development Corporation for Glenrones, Fife County is regarded as one of the most and Fife Regional Planning Authority with head effective planning bodies in Scotland. Despite a offices in Glenrones and district offices in Cupar, development plan which is twenty years old, the

30 The Crossgate — Conservation area in Cursor and CBD.

Caravan storage disfigures part of Duva Den — an area of great landscape value.

weekend hordes from Edinburgh, Glasgow, Stirling Department seems to achieve a great deal — a good and Dundee, and summer hordes from the south. advertisement for planning by intuition and per- Regarded as a mixed blessing, tourists have over- sonality: many of the techniques are strictly flowed the existing supply of country cottages, and delphic. As well as the normal roles of development the county planning office is beseiged by caravan control, forward planning (in head rather than on park entrepreneurs, builders of 'spec' second home paper) and close liaison with the schools, housing and engineering departments of the County, the estates (as ugly as anything that New Zealand ever planning department deals with a number of aspects produced), and amusement park and bingo-hall of landuse, economic development and amenity men. Existing facilities just cannot cope with the which would seem strange in a New Zealand planning demands, and the county, while providing amenities for day-trippers, are reluctant to allow many more department. caravan-parks and the like which detract already The planning department is divided into five from some areas of great landscape value. sections: a development control section, a develop- Conservation area designation and the listing ment plan section, an environmental section, an of historic buildings is much more acceptable in this industrial promotion section, and a land reclamation part of the world than in New Zealand. Fife, because section. The roles of the first two sections are of its former isolation, has a wealth of places worth parallelled in New Zealand planning departments preserving and conserving, including the national but the latter three are generally not, and are a showpieces of Culross, Falkland, Crail and St. fascinating demonstration of the central and co- Andrews. There is a local proliferation of small ordinating role that planning departments in Great preservation societies and trusts, whose intentions Britain have. are impeccable but whose members are generally aristocratic and often ignorant, and who are regarded The environmental section deals with a multitude with faint antagonism by local planners. Despite of things. The tourism plan, caravan sites, county this, they do have an important part in the process parks, historic places, conservation areas, rights of towards preservation of worthy buildings. Buildings way, areas of landscape value, tree preservation, the are listed by a special committee under the Secretary 'plant-a-tree-in-'73' campaign, European Architectural of State for Scotland on recommendation from such Heritage Year, and the spending of various monies bodies as well as from the counter, and are increas- levied for "environmental improvements". ingly regarded as inviolate. A fine of £5,000 which One of the benefits, or problems, that the opening was recently imposed on a man who demolished a of the Tay and Forth Bridges has bought is tourists: listed building in the south of England is greeted 31 happily as evidence of this attitude. Councils them- Structure plan progress selves are less frequent vandals of listed buildings than they were in the past. Conservation areas are On the wider scene, there is considerable specu- subject to very stringent planning controls, which lation here over the future structure of planning, few seem to resent. before it has really started. The public enquiry for the first structure plan is underway and seems to be The industrial promotion section was set up to going according to the prescription prepared by the attract industry to Fife in the mid-50's when Scotland Department of the Environment. There has been was experiencing industrial contraction, considerable much criticism in the planning world of the style unemployment and decreasing population. The and content of these first structure plans, and doubt intention of the scheme was to minimise the social if even an informal public inquiry into the general and economic effects to Fife by drawing new matters which form the context of structure plans industries to the area to replace old ones which had can ever be fruitful. There is increasing revulsion closed down, and to use the labour force and the from public participation in the widest sense: the industrial infrastructure which already existed. The 'general public' being increasingly regarded as not county played an important role in reviving industry really interested and/or basically perverse rather in Fife through promotion, and the development and than helpful in the planning process. This may be administration of the large industrial estate of Hill- simply because planners are going about things in end. The planning department's role is now largely the wrong way, but what started as an enthusiastic one of administrating the council's industrial areas, voluntary extra step in the planning process has providing an information service for existing indus- now become an annoying, time-consuming and tries, potential immigrants and immigrant industries generally frustrating procedural requirement which, to the region, and continuing to promote "Fife for many planners feel, yields little of value. Many and compete for a share of the oil-based Industry" would rather wait for the public to perceive a industries in the great North Sea oil boom. problem and approach the planners with it, rather The land reclamation section is largely concerned than spend valuable time putting up alternatives and with restoring derelict industrial and mining land to publicising potential problems to a public which has safety and use. There is a considerable area of this formerly been unaware of them. sort of land in the South and West of Fife, and the Of interest in New Zealand may be the Drumbuie county has the power to purchase it compulsorily Inquiry, proceeding in the North West of Scotland at and amalgamate titles in order to plan and carry out the moment. A construction firm wishes to establish comprehensive schemes. It becomes a matter of an industrial complex to fabricate oil rig platforms on delving out ownerships (very difficult in Scotland), a piece of western coastline which provides the acquiring derelict land, piecing together information requisite shelter and deep water, but which is also on the stability of old mine shafts, slag heaps and of outstanding natural beauty and close to some diggings, organising actual physical reclamation, and favoured tourist areas. Furthermore, the land is finding a suitable use for the land once reclaimed. owned by the Scottish National Trust "for the Lochore Meadows County Park, which incorporates Nation." The inquiry, which will probably prove to golf courses, archery ranges, yachting lakes, walks, be one of the decade's most significant, brings into nature trials and a mining museum, is an example the limelight questions of priorities in the national which is now underway. interest, the owners' rights in the use of the land, the credibility of the National Trust as a safe repository for land which owners wish to have preserved in perpetuity in an 'undeveloped' state, and the rights of the county (as elected representa- tives and local residents groups over the developer (and, in the background, the Government). The latter three groups — the National Trust, the county and local residents are all opposing the application. It is hard to tell at this stage what decision is likely to be reached: the enquiry is well into its second month and is expected to last at least until next May. As one still engaged in observing the system it is difficult to make any sweeping generalisations about the effectiveness or otherwise of British Planning, though through my New Zealand eyes I can see a great many frustrations. In theory, much will change with regionalisation, structure planning and the findings of the current inquiry into development Preston Lodge Cuper 17thC town house. control procedures. I look forward to seeing what A class historic piece. practical differences these bring out.•

32 Experimental Techniques by D. H. Freeston

ENVIRONMENT OF BUILDINGS

33 Introduction Velocity in free stream Examples in , both technical and local, a together with local 'lore' well illustrate the effects V = Velocity of A (around building) A of wind on pedestrian movement and comfort around our cities. An 80 year old woman in Gosport died as the result of a fall caused by wind, the wrists of a young girl were broken as the result of swing doors being blown closed in Melbourne; water pools outside the Prudential Centre in Boston have to be covered with nets to prevent people being blown into them; ropes have to be stretched across the streets in Wellington to prevent pedestrians being blown onto the road. These are some examples of an undesirable (R• wind environment caused by the presence of buildings. _ VA If situations like these are to be prevented the wind Wtsc CES environment has to be considered at the design stage of any new tall building project or development. It is encouraging that both in the new New Zealand = 12,r+ Model Building Bylaws and some of our city ordin- walk W = ances consideration is given to the effect of wind on environment. In an earlier article (2) I discussed some of the relevant factors to be cbnsidered in controlling the Mse. wind environment. This article discusses some of the techniques currently in use at Auckland University

School of Engineering for model studies of building m14.1>t complexes. Gm {to—

?—. Idealised Model Studies Vi Generalised data on the local wind environment Simulation of Experiment by Wise Ref 2 Fig. 1 produced by a group of buildings is not possible; local topography, building shape, orientation of streets, cladding on the face of the buildings and many other factors all affect the resulting local wind speed and direction. However, it is possible to draw some general conclusions from idealised models of Model tests on a tower-like building in which H/W individual buildings. Such tests as those done by = 3.8 produced the maximum velocity at the windward Wise (1) are helpful in understanding the flow. corners instead of at the foot of the windward face. Recently we used this technique for extending the This peak velocity is caused by the air from the high work of Wise at a model scale of 1:400 and although pressure (windward) region feeding into the low the study is not complete the preliminary results are pressure (wake) region. Fig. 2 shows a set of results of interest. The tests were carried out in an Open Jet in which the height of the tower was varied keeping Wind Tunnel in which a typical city type profile both the upstream building and width constant. It was generated using the block technique described is noted that the peak of these curves moves in the previous article (2). All velocity measurements towards the lower values of L/H as H increases. This were taken with a hot wire anemometer of small peak is occurring at a constant L of about 24m proportions located at a scale height of three metres implying that the maximum corner velocity occurs from the ground. Simulation of the experiments when the upstream vortex is tuned. Fig. 2 also conducted by Wise gave results as shown in Fig. 1 shows that for the 80 m tower the corner velocity and established the reliability of our test technique. is about 1.4 times that at the mid-point. It should be noted that the maximum velocity does not occur at the mid-point between the buildings Fig. 3 shows some further results to demonstrate and that close to the tall building (6 m) there is no the effect of variation in the height of the upwind obvious influence of L/H on the local velocity. For facade (h) with a constant road width (L). It is this series of tests the building modelled had a height evident that as the height of the tower is increased to width ratio (H/W) of 0.73 producing a slab type the protection offered by the upstream building is windward face with a strong standing vortex. reduced.

34 Studies of building complexes In the investigations of city centres and building h . 13m D = 31m complexes two techniques are generally used. W = 21m H> Quantitative measurements such as those described above, usually follow after qualitative assessment of the wind patterns. In the Engineering School tunnel the technique is to sprinkle uniformly small poly- styrene granules over the model and observe their movement as the wind tunnel speed is increased, mapping the extent of the cleared areas at selected tunnel velocities. Presentation of such data is illustrated in Fig. 4 where the areas cleared as the wind speed is increased are plotted as contours. The 40, lower the wind speed (fan r.p.m.) at which clear- ance occurs the more draughty the area would be in practice. The clearance of granules from a given area is affected by a combination of mean wind speed and turbulence, a high turbulence level causes clearance at low wind speed, and a high wind speed and low turbulence gives the same effect. With reference to the pedestrian, it is probably the former which is the most dangerous and uncomfortable i4r2o, because generally speaking the human frame can react to a steady load more easily than to a gust- type situation. In order to quantify this type of data it is necessary to have a calibration of grain Probe positioned at windward corner. movement. Probe measurements using the hot wire technique assist in the interpretation of these — Probe at mid point between diagrams. facade and tower Fig. 5 shows a 40 ft. to the inch model (loaned from the Auckland City Council) of central Auckland mounted in the large wind tunnel at Auckland Fig.2 Varying Street width (L) for a range of building heights (H) University School of Engineering. The set up is for the prevailing wind and both techniques described above were used in the investigation. The grain pictures illustrated a number of likely draughty areas particularly around the "downtown" complex. Probe measurements for this type of study are A limited amount of testing has been conducte0 on the effects produced at ground level by mounting the tower centrally on a podium. The windward L = 27 m corner velocities at the same point as for the tower D = 31 m alone, were reduced typically from a velocity ratio W = 21 m (VA/Va) of 1.4 to 0.7 (L/H = 0.3). A further re- duction to VA/Va - 0.6 is obtained by moving the I•0 tower to the back of the podium. The peak velocity at a position in front of the windward face is also 0.8

reduced by the presence of the podium. However, o•G it is possible that the probe positions selected are no longer the positions of maximum velocity. A recent 0.4 study of a particular building complex in Wellington showed a worsening of street conditions in a high 0-2 wind due to the siting of the tower block on a podium! It is not sufficient therefore to expect that 2 14, S 4- mounting a tower on a podium relieves the architect of the need to consider the wind environ- ment at street level, as is sometimes the case. Similar remarks can be made in discussing verandahs. Close to the building the verandah can provide protection Fig.3 Varying facade height (h) for a constant L and but the danger may have been transferred to another range of building heights (H). areas. 35 Key

230 260 300 fill . 360

480 >480 FIG. 4 Velocity contours, using polystyrene gra!ns, Auckland City. Note the high velocity/high turbu:ence region on the windward Face of tall building C.

Fig. 5. Auckland City Council model installed in Wind Tunnel for environment tests in a wind from the S.W.

referenced to a fixed height at a position over the To use these velocity measurements to assess city. In this case 100 m over the Victoria Street/ whether a particular location is acceptable or not, Queen Street intersection was chosen and all ground rQliable meterological data has to be used, preferably level velocities are expressed as a ratio to the velocity for the point at which the reference velocity is at this height. A detailed test programme would measured. For Auckland City, the meterological require the model to be tested for a range of wind anemometer station on the Post Office tower gives directions and with velocity measurements taken at the conditions at the reference point selected. A the local trouble spots. Full-scale wind speeds of probability of hourly mean winds exceeding a given about 10 m/s and over are relevant and for Auckland value can be tabulated and from the test velocity City this gives an arc of about 30 to 40 degrees ratios it is possible to compute the total number of around NE and SW required to be tested. With this hours per year a given wind speed is exceeded for particular model it was not possible to complete the one location at ground level. A comparison with a full range of tests, but sufficient testing was done to criterion such as that suggested in Ref. 3 enables indicate the areas requiring further study. a judgment to be made as to its acceptability.

36 As an example of this technique a study of a Experience in testing known trouble spots, such known trouble spot in Wellington was undertaken, as the Taranaki/Manners Street intersection referred namely, the Taranaki Street, Manners Street inter- to earlier together with some limited full scale data section. The effects of wind on pedestrians at this obtained around Auckland City has given the author corner are reflected in the cover and other photo- confidence in the model techniques employed. graphs. It is an area which, in a strong wind, requires However it is realised that more full scale quantitative the Council to provide safety ropes to prevent people information is required in order to demonstrate being blown into the road. fully the capabilities and limitations of the Wind Tunnel. A grain study on a 40 ft. to the inch model showed Conclusions that the North, North-West and Southerly winds High wind speeds at ground level caused by tall produced grain clearance at selected areas for low buildings have to be alleviated or controlled if tunnel speeds. Further probe investigations located pedestrian areas are to be safe and comfortable. the trouble spot as being on the West side of Taranaki The wind tunnel model is a useful tool for predicting Street at the junction with Dixon Street. High velocity and rectifying troubled areas. However the technique ratios, (reference velocity 100 metres over City) is still in its infancy, and more full-scale data are were measured which when combined gave a total needed to demonstrate its limitations. Additional probability that for 10 hours per year a gust speed work is also required to establish comfort criteria for of 23 m/s i.e. the danger limit as suggested by the effects of wind on the pedestrian. In these studies Melbourne and Joubert (Ref. 3) would be exceeded it will be necessary to consider both the thermal and within the hour. Unfortunately, it has not been turbulence effects on people. Considerations of possible to confirm the accuracy of this prediction, thermal comfort show how high wind speeds and which is very dependent upon the accuracy of the shade produced by tall buildings can combine to wind data. However the tests did locate quite produce excessive cooling. independently the trouble spot and the wind directions creating the situation. It is difficult to explain why this particular area has such high induced wind speeds. The largest building is a ten-storey block, Fig. 5. However the surrounding hills around Wellington create a distrubed wind flow over the city which when modified by the local tall buildings produce a very complex wind flow field at ground level. In order to learn more about the winds above the city, two projects are currently being undertaken. The Ministry of Works has instrumented a 65 m tower on the Government centre site to measure actual wind profiles and turbulence characteristics in a city type environment. At Auckland University a topographical model of the Wellington area is under construction for wind tunnel studies related to the wind flow over the city, where it is intended to compare and relate model data with the existing Fig. 6. 40ft to 1in. Wind Tunnel model of the Taranaki/ meterological office and Ministry of Works' tower Manners Street Intersection. Trouble spot indicated by arrow. information. References Reliability of Model Studies 1.Wise, A. F. Very few completed experiments have been reported Wind Effects on Groups of Buildings, in which the correlation between model test results B.R.S. report CP23/70, July 1970. and the wind pattern around full scale structures is examined. This type of experiment is of necessity 2. Freeston, D. H. of long duration and a number of such tests are due Wind Environment of Buildings; for completion in the near future. Ref. 4 gives Town Planning Quarterly No. 31, March 1973 details of a field experiment undertaken in the City of Liverpool in which twelve anemometers mounted 3. Melbourne, W. H. and Joubert, P. N. on lamp posts, in a relatively open area, were Problems of Wind at the Base of Buildings; monitored over a period of about one year. The Proc. Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures same area was modelled to a scale of 1:500 and the Tokyo, 1971. full scale wind flows predicted to an accuracy of ±-20 percent. This was considered by the authors to 4. Jones, P. M. and Wilson, C. B. have demonstrated the adequacy of the model Wind Flow in an Urban Area; A comparison of technique, when the limitations of both full scale and full scale and model flows; Building Science, model instrumentation were taken into consideration. Vol. 3, pp. 31-40, 1968. 0

37

EMINT

New student Members: Recent Movements: W. D. Burton, BA(Hons)(VUW) R. J. P. Davies, Dip Arch, DipTP T. W. De Roles, BA(Massey) (Auck), ANZIA, ARIBA,(M), J. Edmonds, Dip Land Surv, has been awarded the 1974 MNZIS Town and Country Planning N. W. F. Leong, BA(VUW) Research Fellowship. J. W. Montgomerie, MNZIS, K. P. East, Dip TP(Auck), MIS(Aust) MNZIS, (S), from Planning H. C. Norwood, BA(Hons) Officer, Taupo County to The following were recently (Bristol), Dip Soc Admin Manukau City. elected to membership: (Manc), MRTPI D. D. Millar, Dip TP(Auck), J. B. Childs, BA(Hons)(Auck). R. J. Sowman MNZIS, (M), from Housing R. S. Gee, Dip Urb Val, Dip TP A. L. B. Thompson, BA(Hons) Division to Assistant Chief (Auck) (VUW) Surveyor (Planning), Lands N. G. J. Wharton, BA(VUW) and Survey Department, Auckland.• NEW ZEALAND PLANNING IN,)TIT JTE Profess:3na1 Cards These notices are inserted for the general information and guidance of the public. The consultant firms listed have one or more Members of the New Zealand Planning Institute amongst their partners.

James Beard & Co., Davie, Lovell-Smith & Partners, Kingston Reynolds, Thom & Allardice, P.O. Box 5050, P.O. Box 679, 44 Wakefield Street, Wellington. Christchurch. Auckland 1. Murray-North Partners, Alex Bowman, Russell Dickson, Mueray-North House, 320 Trafalgar Square, 17 Peter Terrace, Nelson. Auckland 9. 9 Gore Street, Auckland 1, P.O. Box 9041, Hamilton, John Watson Cox, David Dodds/Associates, P.O. Box 553, Rotorua. 41 Ngaio Road, P.O. Box 37-223, Kelburn, Ernest New & Associates, Auckland 1. Wellington. 55-59 Gala St, Invercargill and Barry J. Curtis, Fraser, Thomas, Gunman, Morven House, Frankton Rd, 10 Takutai Avenue, Shaw & Partners, Queenstown. Bucklands Beach, 152 Kolmar Road, Auckland, and P.O. Box 17, Kaikohe. Auckland. Maurice B. Patience, P.O. Box 3548, Gabites, Alington, & Edmondson, Wellington. Jelicich, Austin, Smith, P.O. Box 5136, Mercep & Davies, Wellington. Porter & Martin, P.O. Box 6648, P.O. Box 5029, Auckland 1. Wellington.

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