A brief history of ’s urban form April 2010

A brief ’s urban form

April 2010

Introduction 3

1840 – 1859: The inaugural years 5

1860 – 1879: Land wars and development of rail lines 7

1880 – 1899: Economic expansion 9

1900 – 1929: Turning into a city 11

1930 – 1949: Emergence of provision 13

1950 – 1969: Major decisions 15

1970 – 1979: Continued outward growth 19

1980 – 1989: Intensifi cation through infi ll housing 21

1990 – 1999: Strategies for growth 22

2000 – 2009: The new millennium 25

Conclusion 26

References and further reading 27

Front cover, top image: North Shore, Auckland (circa 1860s) artist unknown, Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, gift of Marshall Seifert, 1991

This report was prepared by the Social and Economic Research and Monitoring team, Auckland Regional Council, April 2010

ISBN 978-1-877540-57-8 2 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Auckland region Built up area 2009 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 3

Introduction This report he main feature of human settlement in the has been the development This report outlines the of a substantial urban area (the largest in development of Auckland’s ) in which approximately 90% urban form, from early colonial Tof the regional population live. This metropolitan area settlement to the modern Auckland is located on and around the central isthmus and metropolis. It attempts to capture occupies around 10% of the regional land mass. Home the context and key relevant to over 1.4 million people, Auckland is a vibrant centre drivers behind the growth in for trade, commerce, culture and employment. , including infrastructure provision, State housing and in The shape and nature of Auckland’s urban form has later decades, town planning. been influenced by several dominant geographic factors: The analysis is chronological and discussion is divided into one or „ The Waitemata harbour to the east, and two decades at a time. harbour to the west, are separated by a thin isthmus no more than one kilometre across at its narrowest Each section (with the exception of point. During early European settlement, physical 1880-1899 and 1990-1999 periods) developments originated around the ports and jetties includes a map that shows growth of the harbours, giving rise to a fledging transport over time in the built-up areas, as network and urban form that has spread north, south well as the development of the and west with time. rail and motorway systems. These maps replicate, and continue, a „ The presence of a large volcanic field scattered series of maps first included in a across the isthmus – the resultant cones, lakes, 1967 article by G. T. Bloomfield on lagoons, caldera, islands and depressions have ‘The Growth of Auckland 1840- influenced the shape of urban development. 1966’.1

„ The Auckland urban area is bordered by two The maps presented in this report mountain ranges - the Waitakere Ranges to the were prepared by the Social northwest and the Ranges to the south-east. and Economic Research and These are both catchments that supply water to the Monitoring team at the Auckland region. Regional Council, using previous maps and aerial photos. These constraints have informed much of the development of Auckland’s urban form, as have central Each section also includes a and local government polices and plans, and their population figure and an estimated translation by developers and consumers. figure for the built up area (in hectares), for a given year within Historically, the development of Auckland’s urban that time period. The estimated form has been characterised by growth in suburbs, built area land measurements were sprawl and low density development, accompanied calculated by using the growth by a dependency on private motor vehicles to get maps mentioned above. around. Since the turn of the twenty first century however, there has been growth in the proportion of Research for this analysis has new housing developments that are medium density drawn on a plethora of excellent and apartments, particularly in the Central Business local histories, and a list of District, but also in fringe areas, as the urban limits are suggested reading is included in reached and the benefits of mixed-use and intensified the references section at the back development are realised by residents and developers. of this report.

1 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967). 4 History of Auckland’s Urban Form History of Auckland’s Urban Form 5

1840 – 1859: The inaugural years Population 2,895 people (1842)

Built Area 33.2 hectares (1842)

uckland was founded on the By the late 1840s, road infrastructure Density 18th of September 1840 by had been laid over most of the isthmus, 87 people per hectare the Governor of New Zealand, but elsewhere navigable waterways, . At that time assisted by the portages at Riverhead, Summary Ait was New Zealand’s capital.2 Hobson and , remained the „ Auckland founded as New chose the area and purchased 3,000 most important links between Auckland Zealand’s capital in 1840. acres (12km²) from local Mäori Tinana and its outlying settlements.5 and Rewiti Tamaki, for an assortment „ Township was located of blankets, money, trousers, tobacco, In 1841, New Zealand’s first British fort around gown pieces and hatchets. The was established on , and small settlement at boundaries set out in the original Deed of on land previously occupied by a also. Purchase (20 October 1840) included the Mäori pa (fortified place). The fort coastline from Cox’s Creek (Ponsonby) was established to control Auckland’s „ and to a point where Brighton Road (Parnell) harbour entrance and bring order to became meets the waterfront and inland to the growing settlement. In the 1860s, established over the next the summit of Mt Eden and back to during the , the decade. Cox’s Creek.3 It included Mt. Eden barracks at Fort Britomart were used to (Mangawhau), the highest volcanic cone house 10,000 troops. Point Britomart (643 feet) on the isthmus. was quarried in the 1870s and 1880s in order to produce fill for land reclamation Rapid progress was made within a around Mechanics Bay. few months of the legal foundation of the city. , the Surveyor- General, drew up a plan for the capital and the first land sales were held in Felton Mathew’s April 1841, only six months after the original plan for the first landing at Point Britomart.4 The Capital final result ended up following a more traditional grid pattern however.

Land sales started in 1841, and people began to live in and around what was then referred to as Commercial Bay (at the base of Queen Street). This area served as the prime source of livelihood, directly or indirectly, for the majority of dwellers. Commercial activities were located to the east of Queen Street along Shortland Crescent (now known as Point Britomart prior to Shortland Street) to Point Britomart, the excavation original shoreline of Commercial Bay.

Over the next two decades the areas of Freemans Bay and Mechanics Bay became established. Land reclamation began in 1859 from Shortland Street to the foot of Franklin Road in Freemans Bay.

2 Auckland was New Zealand’s capital until 1865 5 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 7. when this title was transferred to . 3 Bush (1971), page 22. 4 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 3. 6 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

One Tree Hill and Epsom, from , Auckland Mount Eden Road, Auckland (circa 1865) John Kinder (date unknown) John Kinder

Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, purchased 1983 Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, purchased 1983 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 7

1860 – 1879: Population 12,423 people (1864)

Land wars and development of rail lines Built Area 565 hectares (1871)

Density 22 people per hectare n the early 1860s, Mäori resentment Otahuhu, ‘forming a line from east to over land losses and Auckland’s west south of the town’.8 Summary growth led to Pakeha fears that „ Howick, Onehunga, Auckland was vulnerable to attack After a period of economic decline Otahuhu and Panmure fromI to the south. The city’s following the resolution of the Waikato established as Fencible garrison was enlarged by 12,500 British Land Wars and the loss of capital settlements. troops and military settlers. Preparations status to Wellington in 1865, Auckland’s for war began with the construction of economy boomed again from 1870. „ Railway to Onehunga and the Great South Road and a chain of This was primarily due to the discovery constructed. military redoubts through Franklin – later of gold at Thames and Waihi in the the foundation of farming communities.6 Coromandel Peninsula, but also to „ Townships and outlying a booming timber export industry settlements included Development of the southern part of flowing through the . Puhoi, Helensville, New the region continued once the hostilities Auckland’s agricultural base also Lynn, , settled in 1864. By that time the electric strengthened and the economy became and Bombay. telegraph had been introduced and based on industries such as timber regular horse bus and coach services milling, gum digging and brick-making. were operative. This facilitated growth in The city grew as a commercial centre the outlying settlements of the isthmus, and housing continued to be developed such as the townships of Pukekohe, around the city centre.9 Bombay and Tuakau. From 1870, railway links were laid to There were major flows of settlers from Onehunga, Helensville and the Waikato, the British Isles to the colony during and the first train ran in Auckland in this time, encouraged by an active 1872 on the Auckland – Mercer line. recruitment drive that included free or assisted passage. While some settled In 1869, water began being piped in the township, many set to work from the springs clearing sections and helping to establish into the town to facilitate growth, and new outlying townships and farming settlement continued south towards Mt areas. For example, the Eden, Otahuhu and Panmure. North Shore, Auckland (circa area received its name in 1866 from its 1860s) artist unknown settlement by immigrants who arrived on the ‘Bombay’ ship.

The township of Howick was established in 1874 when three companies of the Royal New Zealand Fencibles were assigned to defence posts. They were retired soldiers, mostly Irish, enlisted to serve for seven years in exchange for a cottage and an acre of land. Howick was the largest of the four Fencible settlements, with 804 people in three companies by 1884.7 Other settlements were located at Onehunga, Panmure and Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, gift of Marshall Seifert, 1991

6 Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008) http:// 8 McLachlan, G. (2008), Page 120. www.teara.govt.nz/en/auckland-region/7. 9 Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008): http:// 7 Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008) http:// www.teara.govt.nz/en/auckland-region/8. www.teara.govt.nz/en/auckland-places/15. 8 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Plan of Henderson Park (1883)

Sir Special Collections, Libraries (N.Z.) NZ Map 4497-22.

Auckland Harbour from Mt Eden (circa 1898) George Valentine

Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, The Ilene and Laurence Dakin Bequest, purchased 1999 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 9

1880 – 1899: Economic expansion Population 57,616 people (1896)

Summary rowth in the commercial The provision of a regular steam ferry „ This was a time of services sector as well as service across the Waitemata Harbour economic expansion and large-scale manufacturing by the Devonport Steam Ferry Company residential growth. broadened the region’s in 1881 encouraged suburban growth Geconomy during this period. in Devonport, , Northcote and „ Regular ferry services Residential developments formed Birkenhead, as well as the development began operating across around commercial activity and of a road north.13 The establishment of the Waitemata Harbour in available transport links. Working-class the Colonial Sugar Refining Company in 1881 encouraging growth settlements grew on the town fringes to 1884 also boosted suburban growth in in the North Shore. serve new industries, such as the railway the Birkenhead / Northcote area. workshops in Newmarket and brickworks „ Establishment of and potteries in .10 Onehunga was the largest outlying residential settlements settlement followed by Otahuhu and around manufacturing The main forms of public transport in the south and Howick to the centres such as consisted of rail, horse-drawn east. Several smaller settlements were Birkenhead and New and ferries. These transport innovations located close to the railway at Avondale, Lynn. permitted a closer integration of the Mount Albert and Panmure. Further to more outlying townships with the the south, , and „ Onehunga was the centre.11 Papakura developed along Great South largest outlying township. Road. In 1884, the first horse-drawn operated between Queen Street and Water supply continued to be sourced Ponsonby. Horse-drawn trams became a locally from private springs, until common form of public transport and an demand exceeded supply. In 1877, extensive network radiated along major began supplying water roads such as Dominion, Mt Eden and to the town while Lake Pupuke supplied Manukau Roads. Devonport and the North Shore from 1894. The rail line also fostered the growth of smaller outlying towns of Onehunga, Otahuhu and small settlements to the North Shore, Auckland (1898-98) Alfred Burton south such as Papakura and Pukekohe. To the west, rail links encouraged settlements beside the line at Henderson, New Lynn and Glen Eden.

At this time, the main built area comprised of what is now the Central Business District (CBD) and the adjacent suburbs of Karangahape, Grafton, , Newmarket, as well as parts of Ponsonby and Parnell.

By 1890, new residential areas of Surrey Hills, , Mt Albert, Mt Eden and had been subdivided; however, many of the vacant sections were not built on until the early 1920s.12

Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, The Ilene and Laurence Dakin Bequest, purchased 1999

10 Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008): http:// 13 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), ibid. www.teara.govt.nz/Places/Auckland/Auckland/5/en 11 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 10. 12 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), ibid. 10 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Remuera (1904) Henry Winkelmann Looking south from One Tree Hill (1926) Henry Winkelmann

Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland City Libraries (N.Z.) 1-W1140 Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland City Libraries (N.Z.) 1-W763 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 11

1900 – 1929: Turning into a city Population 133,712 people (1916)

Built Area 5039 hectares (1915)

he Auckland urban form changed supplies until the growth of demand Density dramatically in the first two exceeded supplies or when pollution 27 people per hectare decades of the 20th century. from nearby settlement (as in Newton Gully) rendered the water unsafe. The Summary TBy the turn of the century, dairy Waitakeres were first developed as a „ Development of suburbs farming had become the new source of catchment area in 1902, and gradually continued right across wealth in New Zealand, and Auckland replaced all the nearer sources.14 the isthmus, encouraged thrived as dairying expanded throughout in large part by the the periphery. Meat and dairy produce During this time, middle-class families provision of electric was processed in factories at Penrose left the run-down and crowded inner- tramways. and Otahuhu, and then exported from city districts for new, more spacious the ports of Onehunga and Commercial neighbourhoods on the edge of town. „ Establishment of Bay. The more affluent headed for the residential settlements inner eastern suburbs of Epsom and around manufacturing Auckland became New Zealand’s largest Remuera, and the North Shore; middle- centres such as industrial centre by the end of the first class earners built new suburbs to the Birkenhead and Grey decade. Brick and tile manufacturing south and west, such as Mt Albert. The Lynn. was clustered around New Lynn, and poor remained in the central city. 15, 16 the areas around Henderson, and „ Onehunga was the Glen Eden were orchards. During this Subdivided land within the isthmus largest outlying township. period of economic growth, the Railways became very popular. For example, the Department issued ‘workmen’s tickets’ of Mount Albert grew from a at low rates to stimulate settlements in population of 2,085 in 1901 to 17,516 the outer suburbs served by the railway people by 1926, and Remuera grew north, west and south of the town from 2,186 people to 10,433 people centre. during the same period. Other areas that developed during this period Construction of an electric tramway include and Westmere. system began in 1901 which became the main instrument for Auckland’s Housing was predominantly stand- metropolitan expansion into the early alone homes, situated on varying sized 1920s. Electric tramways serviced major lots depending on Kingsland (1924) James Richardson routes such as New North, Dominion, individual affluence Mt Eden and Manukau Roads, and lead or the style of to significant growth in those suburbs home. Villas were serviced by the tramlines. Motorcars and a common aspect buses also started to emerge in the first of this period, decade of the 20th century, but were not although Californian as popular as rail, tram and ferry links, style bungalows due to cost and availability. and Spanish mission style Water supply was a localised service housing became with the supply areas being close to popular during the the demand. Western Springs provided 1920s. water for the city from 1877 to 1906; Lake Pupuke provided Devonport and Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland City Libraries (N.Z.) 4-4476 the North Shore from 1894 to 1941, and springs elsewhere provided local 14 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 12. This was the start of state housing 15 Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008) http:// developments. It was another two www.teara.govt.nz/en/auckland-places/10. decades before the programme really 16 In 1905, alarmed by mounting reports of took off however, with the election extortionate rents and squalid living conditions of the Labour government in 1935. in New Zealand’s inner cities, the Liberal Retrieved 20 January 2010 from AGM Government passed the Worker’s Dwelling Act. online http://www.agm.co.nz/index. Its purpose was to provide working class families html?category=33&id=157 with affordable suburban state housing. 12 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Looking east from One Tree Hill (circa 1930s) Bruce Gamble Four new houses (1940) Clifton Firth

Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland City Libraries (N.Z.) 34-BON-1 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 13

1930 – 1949: Emergence of State housing provision Population 251,667 people (1945)

Built Area 13,642 hectares (1945)

his period includes the national Holiday settlements also began popping Density and international watershed up in the Waitakere Ranges, along the 18 people per hectare events of the economic shores of the , and depression of the 1930s around the . Orewa and Summary T(following the boom of the 1920s), the were also „ State provision of subsequent renewal and growth, as developed as tourist centres during this housing with new well as World War Two (1939 to 1945). period. developments first at Auckland population growth slowed , later including during the ‘Great Depression’ as large A new type of suburban growth, which Meadowbank, Waterview scale urban - rural drift took place but began in the mid 1930s, was the and Mt Roskill. the growth rate sharply increased again development of the state housing areas. as the direct effects of the economic The reduction in new house building „ The completion of depression started to wear off. after 1929, due to lack of loan finances opened during the Great Depression, together up suburban expansion Suburbanisation became more with the deteriorating condition of in eastern suburbs, for established during the 1930s right many inner- city properties, especially in example , across the Auckland area, as a result of Freemans Bay, meant that active steps and St. Heliers. new roads, tramlines and infrastructure, by the government were required to and increased state intervention in the improve living conditions. State houses „ By the late 1940s, provision of housing. were first established at a model electricity was supplied estate in Orakei (1937) and continued throughout the main Suburban development continued across to be built in an increasing scale in Auckland area. a ‘wide arc’ along the isthmus from Point Meadowbank (1939), Waterview (1944- Chevalier and Westmere in the west to 7) and Mt. Roskill (1945).18 Inner-city Meadowbank in the east, as well as in apartment blocks were developed in Kohimarama and St Heliers to the east the 1940s, including flats on Symonds following the opening of Tamaki Drive in Street and Greys Avenue. However 1932 and in Papatoetoe, Henderson and the main focus of the first Labour Takapuna.17 These new suburbs were Government’s state housing programme accessible by car and electric tram and was directed towards the construction as they grew, so did the establishment of single-unit suburban homes, which of new suburban shopping centres along were considered more suitable for the main roads. families.

Car ownership and the construction of Restrictions on imports encouraged electricity had been limited all-weather bitumen highways became local manufacturing and new industries to the thermal stations at a significant factor of the suburban were being developed (for example Kings Wharf and a small plant expansion during 1930s. Most of the tyre manufacturing). Manufacturing in Devonport, with supply main highways had been surfaced by the industries relocated outwards into constrained to commercial 1930s, making road access in and out of suburban locations in the 1930s, use and tramways. By the Auckland much easier. particularly around Penrose, Otahuhu late 1940s, electricity was and Mt Wellington, which quickly being generated mostly at During the Great Depression, relief transformed into an industrial area due hydroelectric stations situated workers (state workers on a small wage) to its proximity to rail and main roads. along the helped to build Auckland’s infrastructure and was being consumed including Scenic Drive in the Waitakere Electricity generation was a significant throughout the Auckland Ranges. development for this period. Previously, area.19

17 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 14. 18 Bloomfield, G.T. (1967), page 16. 19 Bloomfield, G.T., ibid 14 History of Auckland’s Urban Form History of Auckland’s Urban Form 15

1950 – 1969: Major decisions Population 535,167 people (1966)

he 1950s were a period of ‘major Construction began on the Auckland Built Area decision-making’, when Auckland motorway network in the early 1950s 26,793 hectares (1964) committed itself to being a large and was extended after 1955 as Density city and ‘the balance between increased funding became available 20 people per hectare Tpublic and private transport was tipped through the National Roads Board. The in favour of the car’.20 This decision to first section to be completed was the Summary base Auckland’s transport system on 2.25 mile stretch between Ellerslie and „ Regional planning started motorways (rather than the development Mount Wellington in July 1953. At the to develop, and the of a comprehensive public transport same time, work was underway on a strategy of setting urban system) had a fundamental influence on five mile section of the north-western limits first appeared in the shape and the nature of the urban motorway between Point Chevalier and 1951. area. The increasing reliance on personal Lincoln Bridge (Henderson). By 1955, vehicles, along with lenient Government the five-mile section of the north- „ Development of the lending policies, allowed people to fulfil western motorway and a further six motorway system their desire of detached houses on large miles of the southern motorway from encouraged suburban lots leading to rapid suburban expansion Mount Wellington to were also growth, as well as a and a dispersed urban form. opened.21 reliance on private motor vehicle. A regional planning decision of immense Such connectedness meant that all significance was the favouring of the sectors of the urban area experienced „ development of a motorway system. significant suburban development opened in 1959 creating The ‘Master Transportation Plan’ for including Te Atatu, Otara and high growth in the North Metropolitan Auckland, prepared by the Manurewa. The rapid expansion of Shore. Auckland Regional Planning Authority the motorway network, combined in 1955, proposed developing a radial with a lack of emphasis placed on „ Howick / area motorway system (largely based on public transport, was the beginning also experienced high American models) because of the of a soon-to-be-dispersed urban area. growth. already dispersed nature of activities Furthermore, patterns of development in the region and information that it changed from rectangular street would provide greater benefits than the networks and linear shopping centres alternatives. The technical advisory board with a pedestrian focus to crescents asserted: and cul-de-sacs, orientated towards the private motor vehicle. “The form and structure of Construction of the Auckland metropolitan Auckland through the Harbour Bridge (October 1958) years has been largely determined by developments in urban areas and suburban transportation. During the last 25 years, the overall effects of motor transportation has so radically changed the pattern that Auckland is one of the most dispersed cities in the world. The individual has been freed from absolute dependence on tramways and railways with their fixed inflexible routes. Local transport of goods has become fast, cheap, and flexible. A common motor transportation system has integrated outer areas and extended the radius of influence of Auckland.” N0116017. Photographer P.H.G. LaVie. Copyright Elizabeth Lancaster. North Shore Libraries Photograph Archive

20 Regional Growth Forum (1997). 21 National Roads Board (1973) Auckland Motorways information leaflet. Retrieved from http://www.petroltax.org.nz/PDF/ AucklandMotorways.PDF 16 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Flats and Couple, Panmure, Auckland (1969) John Fields Fanshawe Street and Northcote Road, and the four lane harbour bridge soon became inadequate to support the traffic flow. Four new lanes were added in 1969.22

In addition to transport decisions, the government continued to build settlements (eg at Tamaki) and offered loans which encouraged further development in the outer suburbs. Another State initiative was the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, purchased with assistance from the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Group Building Scheme whereby the Zealand, 1976 government guaranteed to buy houses not sold by private builders. This initiative gave rise to a number of housing firms in the 1960s and encouraged further urban development. For example, Fletcher Glenfi eld (1963) Martyn Uren Trust helped construct the new suburb of Pakuranga where 1,000 residential sections were developed in 1964.23

The Pakuranga–Howick area experienced high growth in the 1950s and 1960s. Between 1950 and 1955, Panmure transformed from a small village with three or four shops and a hotel into a busy suburban shopping centre as the West Tamaki housing estate was developed. Glen Innes (1959/60), New Lynn (1963), and Pakuranga (1965) were examples of new regional shopping centres at the time.

Although there was population gain T6297. Photographer Martyn Uren. Copyright Barfoot and Thompson. North Shore Libraries Photograph Archive in the outer parts of the urban area between the mid 1950s and early 1960s, the central city area suffered considerable decline. Dilapidated Another significant event during this conditions found in the inner city, the time was the opening of the Harbour outward movement of businesses Bridge in 1959 (built entirely for motor and industries, and the emergence of vehicular travel, and with no provision the motorway network facilitated this for pedestrians, cyclists or trains). New movement. Factories moved from the suburbs emerged on the North Shore inner city to cheaper land in west and through the 1960s such as Birkdale, , and suburban shopping Beachhaven and Glenfield. This high malls brought the closure of downtown growth of the North Shore caused department stores.24 traffic chaos and congestion on the small section of the motorway between

22 Retrieved from Auckland Motorways website: http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz/northern/ ahc.html 23 McKinnon, M. et.al. (1997). Plate 75 24 Ministry of Culture and Heritage (2008) http:// www.teara.govt.nz/en/auckland-places/10 History of Auckland’s Urban Form 17

Typical state house of the 1950s. Typical ‘sausage fl at’ design of the 1960s

Auckland Regional Council Auckland Regional Council

Growth of infrastructure was necessary coherent, decentralised metropolitan in order to service the needs of a region comprising a main or parent area growing population. Two dams in the surrounded by a cluster of communities. Hunua Ranges (Cossey’s Creek Dam Each of these parent units and cluster 1955, Mangatawhiri Dam 1965) were communities would have, to varying commissioned in order to support the degrees, its own decentralised Waitakere Ranges catchment, and functions and would rely on the sewage treatment plants at one metropolitan core for the true (1960), and at Albany (1962) were metropolitan functions and services’. 25 constructed in order to meet demand. Key points of this ‘cluster’ urban form Electricity generation was improved to were: meet the increasing demands of the city, which were only being met partially by „ Controlling growth on the urban hydroelectric dams along the Waikato fringe within a determined long-term River. Expansion included a coal fired boundary, station at Meremere. „ Providing for further growth in urban Plans to consolidate urban growth units physically and permanently emerged at this time. The concept of separated from the main city centre. an ‘urban fence’ was introduced in 1951 through the ‘Outline Development Plan’ In 1967, as a part of the Regional Master for Auckland, prepared by the Auckland Plan Preliminary Report series prepared Metropolitan Planning Organisation. The by the Auckland Regional Authority, two plan also proposed a green belt of five plans were prepared for the purpose mile depth from the boundary of the of looking at the future direction, main urban area, consisting of Okura, scale and form of the urban area to Albany, Greenhithe to the north and accommodate the projected population Pakuranga, Wiri and to the increases in the next 20-30 years.26 The south. Regional Master Plan which followed the preliminary report envisaged the The 1961 ‘Regional Development Plan: development of Orewa, Okura, Long Regional Growth’ prepared by the Bay, , Kumeu, Whitford Auckland Regional Planning Authority and Beachlands within a 20 to 30 year envisaged the creation of an ‘orderly, timeframe.

25 Regional Growth Forum (1997), page 26 26 Auckland Regional Master Plan: Preliminary Report Series (1967) Appendix A. 18 History of Auckland’s Urban Form History of Auckland’s Urban Form 19

1970 – 1979: Continued outward growth Population 707,607 people (1976)

Built Area uckland now had an extensive The next year, in 1975, the Auckland 37,000 hectares (1975) motorway network which Regional Authority conducted a study Density facilitated growth to the titled ‘Alternatives for Future Regional 19 people per hectare west, north and south. Work Growth’. This was a progress report on Abegan on the Central Junction (known the nature and direction of future urban Summary colloquially as ‘Spaghetti Junction’) in the growth within the Auckland region. This „ Further expansion at East 1970s and construction continued on the report concluded that: Tamaki, Massey East, motorway system which, combined with Torbay, Glenfield and Te continued state housing development „ Further urban development was Atatu. fostered the development of new tightly constrained in the south-west suburbs and industrial areas. and south, „ Motorway system continued to develop New housing developments appeared „ Land to the east of south Auckland, -work began on the in East Tamaki, Massey East, Te Atatu, the north, and the west was the least Central Junction. Torbay and Glenfield, a direct result constrained, of the recently completed motorway „ Growing awareness network. Orewa and Whangaparaoa „ On the grounds of physical among planners of the Peninsula also experienced considerable constraints, a redirection of Auckland’s problems of urban sprawl. growth during this period. growth away from the south and to the north and west was necessary, State housing had a strong influence on more efficiently had been growth of the urban form, especially in „ Even with the best intentions of an objective of regional south Auckland. By the early 1970s, the concentrating growth more in consolidation strategies since proportion of state houses in Otara was the future there would have to be the 1950s. However, there was over 40%, and almost all the houses in ‘major compromises’. Continuing high opposition to this resulting Otara were built within 12 years from development of Auckland must not from the 1960s experience of 1971 with 5,000 dwellings on 1,200 cause further loss of land that is infill, including poorly designed acres. Other state housing developments valued highly for at least one purpose ‘sausage flats’ (single storey were located at and other than urban development. 27 flats situated on cross-leased Papatoetoe. sections with common A number of future developments were driveways) and houses By the early 1970s, there was a growing identified within the proposed urban on cross-leased sections. awareness among town planners of limit, including Hibiscus , Okura/ Concerns around monotony, the problems of ‘urban sprawl’, and Long Bay, Albany, Massey, , lack of privacy, parking, noise, regional planning focused on developing Birdwood, Swanson, Weymouth, the loss of trees and urban a compact urban form. The first Regional , East Tamaki, Flat amenity led to the continued Planning Scheme for Auckland became Bush, Greenhithe, Henderson, and desire by many residents to operative in 1974. This provided a south . These areas, along live in peripheral areas.28 broad-scale vision of the distribution of with the existing different activities throughout the region, urban development, New subdivision (circa 1970s) while detailed planning was left to local were estimated to councils. The main proposal of the accommodate a scheme was that: projected population in excess of 1.1 million by “The direction of urban growth is to the mid-1990s. be guided in such a way that an urban form following a ‘multi-linear’ pattern Intensifying urban evolves – that is growth will be related development in order to the main transportation corridors to make transport and and coastlines”. infrastructure operate Auckland Regional Council

27 Auckland Regional Authority (1974). 28 Grant, J. (1989), page 7. 20 History of Auckland’s Urban Form History of Auckland’s Urban Form 21

1980 – 1989: Intensifi cation through infi ll housing Population 754,845 people (1986)

Built Area 40,022 hectares (1987)

Density uring this decade New Zealand household composition played a role in 19 people per hectare experienced broad economic the demand for inner city apartments deregulation, significant but the economy and employment Summary changes to the welfare factors were also influential. The „ Substantial infill Dsystem, local government reform, a economic reforms of the 1980s marked development in some recession following the international the start of a period of growth for established areas. share market crash of 1987, as well as industries that are commonly located ongoing population growth - all of which in the CBD.29 In Auckland, growth in the „ New suburbs continue to affected the shape of urban development finance and insurance, and property and develop on greenfields eg in the Auckland region. businesses service industries increased Chatswood and Highbury after the economic reforms, and created on the North Shore, Wiri to The trend of growth outside central a number of employment opportunities the south, Westgate to the Auckland continued into the 1980s as the in the central city. In line with this, the west, Meadowbank and outer areas grew, enabled by the reliance demand for inner city housing grew. In St. Johns on the isthmus. on private transport and the motorway addition, the 1987 stock market crash system. had left many inner city office buildings „ Early development of the underutilised which forced developers Albany site. Growth in housing emerged from to look for alternative uses for their infill as well as the development of properties. Many converted their office available land. There was substantial blocks into apartments, and empty lots infill in the eastern suburbs of Remuera, where office buildings were planned Kohimarama, Mission Bay and St Heliers became open-air car parks. with a dominance of units/flats. Direct state intervention in the housing This trend was not the case elsewhere, market diminished in the 1980s and and major new subdivisions were began to take shape as welfare policy. developed in Chatswood, Highbury, This created a shift away from housing Meadowbank, St Johns and Rosebank allocation policy based on the two- with a dominance of houses instead parent working family to a policy of of flats/units. High growth was also providing for those with the greatest experienced in the Wiri area in the south need. (refer to growth map 1987). It had been recognised by planners in The development of the Otara area the 1970s that continued expansion was continued through the 1980s and 1990s likely to lead to increasing inefficiencies with the construction of medium and and continuing damage to Auckland’s high cost housing at Redoubt North. natural resource base, and that a more coordinated response was necessary. By the mid 1980s, Auckland was already In response to these considerations, facing a traffic dilemma, particularly on the Auckland Regional Planning Scheme the main routes in and out of the CBD. (approved in 1988) brought into effect limits to contain the expansion of Towards the end of the decade, the CBD urban Auckland, and requirements for began to show signs of revitalisation. sequencing and structure planning of Changing lifestyle patterns and future urban expansion areas.30

29 (2005), page 4. 30 Auckland Regional Council (1999) Appendix A, Page 1. 22 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Population 1990 – 1999: Strategies for growth 997,940 people (1996)

Summary „ Continuation of uckland experienced power, gas and telecommunication expansion around urban considerable population networks) was already reaching design edge particularly in south increase during the 1990s, capacity and needed upgrading to meet east at Dannemora, driven in large part by a higher environmental standards as well and East Achange in national immigration policy as increasing demand. In 1995 and 1998, Tamaki. that allowed new migrants to enter New Auckland experienced water and power Zealand based on skills. Three quarters supply crises. „ Revitalisation of the (76%) of the nation’s growth between Central Business District. 1991 and 2001 occurred in the Auckland During the 1990s, the highest population region, which had reached the one growth was observed in „ Regional Growth Forum million mark by the 1996 census. followed by and Franklin created, development district indicating a continued trend of of the Regional Growth As the region’s population and economy peripheral growth. Some of this increase Strategy and delineation continued to increase, pressures in residential development was enabled of Metropolitan Urban intensified on transport, housing and through rezoning of land around the city Limit. infrastructure. The removal of tariffs on outskirts – e.g. Long Bay, Hobsonville, imported vehicles in the early 1990s , and . resulted in a flood of cheap imported cars on the market, which were eagerly Between 1991 and 2001, significant consumed, and contributed further to business building consents were issued the traffic dilemma. Public transport along the southern corridor in Manukau, patronage was decreasing and traffic Takanini, Papakura, East Tamaki, as well congestion was increasing. Much of the as the CBD, Otahuhu, Onehunga, New region’s infrastructure (water supply, Lynn, and Rosebank area along with wastewater treatment, stormwater clusters around Albany on the North systems, refuse disposal, transport, Shore.

Medium rise apartments in Auckland’s Housing mix in Grey Lynn (1990s)

Auckland Regional Council Auckland Regional Council History of Auckland’s Urban Form 23

Westgate (circa 2003) At the same time, clusters of residential building consents were issued around Hobsonville, Henderson, Albany, East Tamaki, Flat Bush and Manurewa. A significant number of new residential building consents were also issued throughout the region’s developed areas, suggesting continued infill.

While the outer suburbs absorbed a large proportion of growth in the 1990s, the inner areas and the CBD also accommodated a growing number of new residential developments towards the end of the decade. During the period 1991 and 2001, between 52% and 62% of annual metropolitan residential growth Auckland Regional Council took place in existing urbanised areas (middle/inner/CBD) as opposed to 38% to 48% traditional greenfields fringe development in the outer zones.31 region. Later in 1999, endorsed by the Regional Growth Forum, the Regional Some consolidation started to occur Growth Strategy was released. It throughout the urban area during the provided a vision for what Auckland 1990s with high density mixed-use in the could be like in 50 years with a CBD and medium density terrace and population of two million. The purpose apartment developments being built in of the Regional Growth Strategy was to diverse areas such as Ellerslie, One Tree ensure growth is accommodated in a Hill, New Lynn, Waterview, Papatoetoe, way that meets the best interests of the Albany, as well as Takapuna, Parnell and inhabitants of the Auckland region. Key Newmarket. principles of the strategy included:

Despite rapid population growth, „ A compact urban form, with most metropolitan urban limits had moved growth within existing metropolitan little since the 1950s. The region had area focused around town centres absorbed over 300,000 more people and major transport routes to create since the late 1970s without significantly higher density communities; extending the urban limits.32 Most of the areas that experienced growth had been „ Focus on a variety of housing and identified as future growth areas by the mixed use activities to provide for regional planning documents of the time. employment, services and recreation;

As a result of significant and ongoing „ Limited managed expansion into population growth, concern about greenfield areas outside of current capacity constraints with existing Metropolitan Urban Limits (MUL) infrastructure including land availability, where environmental quality, and a number of significant Environment accessibility and infrastructure Court cases between councils, the development criteria can be met; Auckland Regional Growth Forum was established in 1998 with the objective of „ Protection of the coast and a joint regional growth strategy for the surrounding natural environment.

31 Auckland Regional Council (2002). 32 Auckland Regional Council (1997). 24 History of Auckland’s Urban Form History of Auckland’s Urban Form 25

2000 – 2009: The new millennium Population 1,160,100 people (2006)

Built Area y 2001, Auckland’s regional International Airport) and Albany 49,520 hectares (2008) population reached had 1.2 (Greenhithe, Albany). There has also Density million people, with the majority been strong growth in Donegal Park, 23 people per hectare of the population living within Newmarket and Sturges North due to Bthe urban area (90%). The urban form for infill and redevelopment. Summary the most part consisted of low-density „ Significant growth around housing (in 2006, 75% of occupied private The CBD has continued to be revitalised, , Mangere, dwellings were detached houses and the with a boom in apartment building Albany and Waitakere. remaining 25% was made up of flats and development. The inner city resident apartments), but there has been a gradual population increased 500% between „ Increase in popularity increase in compact living options. 1991 and 2006 to over 17,000 residents. of “lifestyle blocks” in Pukekohe, Kumeu and Development in the first decade of the Considerable investment in infrastructure . 21st century has moved from being has been carried out during this decade. primarily peripheral to intensification The Britomart Transport Centre was „ Significant investment through infill, redevelopment and the officially opened in 2005, bringing rail in public transport development of remaining vacant lots back into the CBD and during 2007 the infrastructure. (within the MUL). Peripheral development Central Motorway Junction and Grafton has continued but by way of Structure Gully were completed. In 2009 the „ New suburbs still being Planned areas such as Hobsonville and Northern Busway was opened. This developed such as Flat Flat Bush. These developments are immediately increased public transport Bush, but increasing generally still low density. patronage between the North Shore and growth through CBD. Heavy investment in the Auckland intensification. There has also been growth in residential rail network lead to the redevelopment of levels just outside of the urban limits the Newmarket and New Lynn stations with the increase in countryside living or and rail patronage continues to increase. ‘lifestyle blocks’ e.g. around Pukekohe, Kumeu and Whenuapai, and along the In the second half of 2009, a tender coastal areas of Whangaparaoa Peninsula was let to a consortium to begin work and further north. on a tunnel under Victoria Park to ease the bottleneck through the Victoria Park Analysis of building consent data flyover and planning was underway shows that the two largest greenfield for a second harbour crossing over the growth areas in this decade have been Waitemata. Mangere South (adjacent to the Auckland

Redevelopment in Newmarket (2009) The Auckland CBD (2009)

Auckland Regional Council Auckland Regional Council 26 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

Looking ahead

ver the last 170 years, centres such as Newmarket, Takapuna Auckland has expanded and Henderson. from a modest cluster of residences and businesses During the latter half of the 20th century, Oaround the sheltered bays and trading problems associated with sprawl were ports of the Waitemata Harbour into recognised by residents and planners a thriving and diverse metropolis that alike, as Auckland continued to expand is one of the largest (and most rapidly outwards. In response, urban planning growing) urban areas in Australasia. policies of containment and urban The city continues to be a vital centre consolidation were developed throughout of commerce and trade and acts as a the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, link and gateway for overseas trade and and were consolidated in the Regional tourism across the rest of New Zealand. Growth Strategy and the associated People flow into Auckland from other Growth Concept, agreed to by all parts of the country as well as from councils in 1999. The strategy’s central overseas, keen to participate in the vision is to ensure that Auckland retains employment, education, cultural and a high quality living environment by lifestyle opportunities that a city this size promoting compact urban environments can offer, boosting the population year that have high amenity and are well after year. integrated with the transport system. The restructure of local government in As we move into the second decade the Auckland region into one unitary of the 21st century, Auckland’s authority (as of November 2010) may momentum shows no signs of slowing. help to drive this vision forward. All projections indicate continued population growth and on-going demand Auckland’s future urban form will for housing solutions. In the short to continue to be shaped by land availability, medium term, response to that demand planning mechanisms, transport links will continue to include expansion as and infrastructure provision. As we well as intensification. The remaining move forward into the new century, greenfields will be developed, for other, newer, challenges of sustainable example Flat Bush and Long Bay, energy use and development, the effects while benefits of compact living will be of climate change and protecting the realised through ongoing development region’s natural and cultural heritage will of medium to high density apartments become increasingly important. in the central business district and other History of Auckland’s Urban Form 27 28 History of Auckland’s Urban Form

References and further reading

Auckland City Council, (1984). Infi ll Housing in Dravitzki V. and Lester T., (2005). Economics Regional Growth Forum, (2007). Growing Auckland City: Study Report. drove our fi rst sustainable urban transport Smarter: The Auckland Region in the 21st Auckland Metropolitan Planning Organisation, system and the unsustainable one that Century. (An evaluation of the Auckland (1951). Outline Development Plan for followed. Conference paper submitted to Regional Growth Strategy 1999). Auckland, Auckland. the second international conference on New Zealand. Auckland Motorways (2009). Auckland Harbour Sustainability, Engineering and Science. Regional Growth Forum, (1997). A Place Bridge Crossing. Retrieved from http://www. Auckland. Retrieved from http://www. Sought by Many: a brief history of regional aucklandmotorways.co.nz/northern/ahc.html nzsses.auckland.ac.nz/conference/2007/ planning for Auckland’s growth. Auckland, Auckland Regional Authority, (1967). Regional papers/DRAVITZKIEconomicsDrivesUs.pdf New Zealand. Master Plan Preliminary Report Series. DTZ New Zealand, (2004). Changes in the Schrader, B., (2005) We Call it Home - A History Auckland Regional Authority, (1975). Structure of the New Zealand Housing of State Housing in New Zealand. Raupo Alternatives for Future Regional Growth. Market. Prepared for the Centre for Housing Publishing, Auckland. Auckland Regional Council, (1991). Regional Research, Aotearoa New Zealand (CHRANZ). Statistics New Zealand. (1996). A Regional Development Monitor. Wellington. Profi le: Auckland. Available online www. Auckland Regional Council, (1999). Auckland Fraser, R. and Linge, G., (1966). Atlas of New stats.govt.nz. Regional Policy Statement. Auckland Zealand Geography. A.H. & A.W. Reed, Statistics New Zealand, (2005). Downtown Regional Council, Auckland. Wellington. Dwellers 2005: New Zealand’s CBD Auckland Regional Council, (2002). Auckland’s Grant, J., (1989). Residential Consolidation: residents. Wellington, New Zealand. Urban Development 1991-2001: Regional Up- Policy implications for the Auckland region. Stewart, G. (2002). Auckland before the date on the Locational Analysis of Residential Report prepared for the Auckland Regional Harbour Bridge. Bookprint International, and Non-Residential Building Consents. Authority. Auckland. Hong Kong. Auckland Regional Council, Auckland. Haarhoff, E., (2003). Guide to the Architecture Stone, R., (2001). From Tamaki-makau-rau Auckland Regional Planning Authority, (1955). of Central Auckland. Balasoglou Books, New to Auckland, Auckland University Press, Master Transportation Plan for Metropolitan Zealand. Auckland. Auckland: Report and Survey Johnson, D., (1991). Auckland City Life- A Syme, C. (2001). The Auckland Region’s Auckland Regional Planning Authority, (1988). celebration of yesteryear. David Bateman, Economy: A Stock-take Report Prepared Auckland Regional Planning Scheme. New Zealand. for the Auckland Regional Economic Bloomfi eld, G.T., (1967) ‘The Growth of Jones, F.W.O., (1949). Urban Development- Development Group. Synchro Consulting. Auckland 1840-1966’, in J.S. Whitelaw A condensed reprint of a paper read to Retrieved from http://www.arts.auckland. (editor) Auckland in Ferment. New Zealand the New Zealand Branch, Town Planning ac.nz/lpg/Doc/stock_info.pdf Geographical Society. Wellington, New Institute, 4th May, 1949. New Zealand Taylor, M., Putterill, M., Dart, J. et.al., (1980). Zealand. Electronic Text Centre. Retrieved from Population Patterns: Auckland at the 1976 Bloomfi eld, G.T., (1973). The Evolution of Local http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei- census. Auckland University Press. Government Areas in Metropolitan Auckland Arc02_04DesR-t1-body-d4.html The Commission of Inquiry into Housing. 1840-1970, Auckland. . McAlpine, G., (1985). Auckland’s Transportation (1971). Housing in New Zealand: Report of Bush, G. W. A., (1971). Decently and in Order: Dilemma. Auckland Regional Authority the commission of inquiry. Wellington. the government of the city of Auckland 1840- McKinnon, M., (editor), (1997). Bateman New Van Raat, A.C., (2007). State housing at Orakei 1971: the centennial history of the Auckland Zealand Historical Atlas: Visualizing New and the model suburb experiment in New City Council. Collins: Auckland. Zealand. David Bateman Ltd, Auckland. Zealand 1900-1940. Unpublished Masters Bush, G.W.A. and Scott C., (eds) (1977). McLauchlan, G., (2008). The Life and Times Thesis submitted to University of New South Auckland at full stretch: issues of the of Auckland: the colourful story of a city. Wales. Retrieved from http://unsworks. seventies. and the Penguin Books. Auckland, New Zealand. unsw.edu.au/vital/access/manager/ University of Auckland Board of Urban Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008). Te Repository/unsworks:1642 Studies. Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Wall, D., (2003). Above Auckland. Auckland. Bush, G.W.A., (1991). Advance in Order: the www.teara.govt.nz. An online resource New Holland Publishers (NZ) Ltd. Auckland City Council from centenary to prepared by Ministry for Culture and Whitelaw, J. S. (editor), (1967). Auckland in reorganisation 1971 to 1989. Auckland City Heritage, Wellington, New Zealand ferment. New Zealand Geographical Society. Council. Motu Economic and Public Policy Research, Auckland. Bush, G.W.A., (1998). History of Auckland City. (2007). Housing Supply in the Auckland Wolfe, R., (2002). Auckland: A pictorial history. Prepared for Auckland City Council. Retrieved Region 2000-2005. Prepared for the Centre Random House. from http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/ for Housing Research, Aotearoa New A number of other resources are available at auckland/introduction/bush/chap4.asp. Zealand (CHRANZ), Department of Building the following places: Cartwright, R.D., (1972). Auckland in 1900: and Housing, and Housing New Zealand Auckland City Archives people in a changing world. Hicks Smith, Corporation. Wellington. Auckland Central Library Wellington. Rowe, J. (ed), (2005). Economic Development University of Auckland Library, General and Dahms, F., (1973). Workplace-Residence in New Zealand. Ashgate Publishing Ltd., architecture Linkages in Auckland 1963. in R.J. Johnston New Zealand. Museum of Transport and Technology (ed.). Urbanisation in New Zealand: New Zealand Film Archive: Auckland Branch Geographical Essays. Reed, Wellington.