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The Circassians in Jordan Forced out of their homeland by the Russians in awful conditions, thousands of Caucasians immigrated to Turkey in 1864. Refugees then scattered to the four corners of the Ottoman Empire, from Turkey to the Suez Canal, from Syria to Palestine and Transjordan.

Circassians

The Circassians (English equivalent of the Turkic Cherkess) are a people of the Northwest Caucasus region.

The name Circassians has been broadly applied to all peoples of the North Caucasus, and somewhat more restrictively to all the peoples of the Northwest Caucasus (the Adyghe, the Abkhaz, and the vanished Ubykhs, to the exclusion of the eastern Chechens and the peoples of Dagestan.) Most precisely, the name refers to a group of tribes who inhabited the territory of Circassia, and who call themselves Adyghes. This last group is the subject of this article.

History

The Circassians first emerged as a coherent entity somewhere around the tenth century A.D., although references to them exist much earlier. They were never politically united, a fact which reduced their influence in the area and their ability to withstand periodic invasions from groups like the Mongols, Avars, Pechenegs, Huns, and Khazars.

This lack of unity eventually cost the Circassians their independence, as they were slowly conquered by Russia in a series of wars and campaigns in the late 18th and early to mid­19th centuries. During this period, the Circassians plight achieved a certain celebrity status in the West, but pledges of assistance were never fulfilled. After the Crimean War, Russia turned her attention to the Caucasus in earnest, starting with the peoples of Chechnya and Dagestan. In 1859, the Russians had finished defeating Imam Shamil in the eastern Caucasus, and turned their attention westward, finally subjugating the Circassians in 1864.

Like other ethnic minorities under Russian rule, the Circassians were subjected to policies of mass resettlement. Collectivization under the Communists also took its toll.

Culture

The Circassians were warlike people. Grown men were expected to carry arms, and boys trained to be warriors. Familial ties were not strongly encouraged; parents fostered their children to other adults rather than raising them themselves. The Circassian society was once matriarchal. Women fought in war alongside their husbands. Although the society is no longer matriarchal, women still give have a high place of respect and dignity.

Circassian society prior to the Russian invasion was highly stratified. While a few tribes in the mountainous regions of Circassia were fairly egalitarian, most were broken into strict castes. The highest was the caste of the "princes", followed by a caste of lesser nobility, and then commoners, serfs, and slaves. In the decades before Russian rule, two tribes overthrew their traditional rulers and set up democratic processes, but this social experiment was cut short by the end of Circassian independence.

The primary religion among modern Circassians is Sunni Islam.

The Diaspora

Circassians have lived outside the Caucasus region since the Middle Ages. They formed a tradition of joining foreign armies, including those of Persia, Rome, Byzantium, and the Golden Horde. They were particularly well represented in the Mamluks of Turkey and Egypt. In fact, the Burji dynasty which ruled Egypt from 1382 to 1517 was founded by Circassian Mamluks.

Much of Circassian culture was disrupted after their conquest by Russia in 1864. This lead to a Circassian Diaspora, mostly to various parts of the Ottoman Empire. Today, significant communities of Circassians live in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Israel, Libya, and the United States. The small community in Kosovo expatriated to Adygea in 1998.

Reference

· Amjad Jaimoukha, The Circassians: A Handbook, New York: Palgrave, 2001; London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2001. ISBN 0­312­23994­7 Circassians by John Colarusso, Myths from the Forests of Circassia

In the southwest of the Soviet Union, bordering upon Turkey and Iran, lies one of the most ethnographically complex areas in all Eurasia, the Caucasus. The Caucasus mountains, which dominate this area nearly the size of Spain, are home to a bewildering variety of ethnic groups, some of which seem to be survivors from earlier eras. These groups speak roughly fifty languages, the majority of which are unrelated to any other languages on earth, and show complex and exotic features that set them apart from the other languages of Eurasia. In this one area there are three distinct language families: the Southern or Kartvelian, the Northeastern or Daghestanian, and the Northwestern. The Northwestern languages are perhaps the most complex of any in the region and are spoken by the Abkhazians, the Abazas, the Ubykhs, the Kabardians and the Adygheans. The last two peoples are often grouped together as Circassians.

The Circassians originated in the northwestern quarter of the Caucasus, bounded on the north by the Kuban river. They practiced a mixed economy. Those in the higher vallies and montane forests practiced small scale agriculture and hunting, and often preserved old Christian or pagan customs. Those in the foothills and plains practiced horse­breeding, farming and trade, and usualy espoused Sunni Islam, though in their towns Christian and Jewish Circassians could be found. The Circassians were famed throughout the Middle East for the beauty of their women and the courage of their men. Physically most Circassians are European in appearance with perhaps a slight oriental cast to their features. Many Circassians are blond and blue­eyed, while others show a common feature of the Caucasus: very light skin coupled with black or extremely dark hair. A lithe and erect physique were favored, both for the men and the woman, and many villages even today have large numbers of healthy elderly people, many over a hundred years of age.

Their culture was and still is strongly dominated by a warrior ethic. The battle garb of the men, the Cherkesska, is a fitted caftan­like coat with cartridges sewn across the chest, a sheepskin hat and soft­ soled knee­high boots of fine leather. It has been borrowed by many neighboring peoples, most notably the slavic Cossacks, so that this costume is often thought of as being Russian. Until recently the eight tribes into which they were divided showed varying degrees of a caste system similar to that surviving in modern India. There were priest­kings, nobles who formed the warriors, freemen who carried on trade, large scale farming and manufacture, and lastly peasants, former prisoners of war who were either small farmers or who acted as retainers to the princes and nobles. In 1864, five years after their defeat at the hands of the Tsarist armies, most of the freemen and peasants emigrated and settled in the Ottoman Empire. Thus today the majority of the world's one million or so Circassians now live scattered throughout the Middle East and in cities in Europe and the U.S.A.

· John Colarusso, Prometheus among the Circassians Prince Ali of Jordan The Circassians By HRH Prince Ali Bin AL­HUSSEIN According to legend. When God was creating the Earth he carried all the mountains in a bag in order to distribute them across the land. The Devil seeing his slit a hole in the bottom of the bag and all the mountains fell in one area between the Black Sea and Caspian. So God made that land the one place in the World where the Devil would not be able to penetrate and make its people evil, since life would be hard enough for them as it is. The Caucasus is described by many visitors as Eden itself, with warm, rich lowlands followed by majestic forests and alpine pastures, abundant rivers and lakes, superimposed by eternally snow capped peaks. These are the Frosty Caucasus of which Shakespear sang, and which dwarf the Alps. Mount Elbrus, the tallest mountain in Europe, where legend has it, between its two peaks the ark rested on its way to Ararat. Kazbek, where Prometheus was chained, known in Ancient Greek legend as the land of the Golden Fleece. The land of fables and dreams from which Tolstoy, Lermontov and Pushkin drew there inspiration. It is from these mountains that the Circassians come, known in there language as the Adigas, or Noble People, famous for there beauty, symmetry of form, horsemanship, longevity and perfect manners. The Circassians are an ancient race, composed of twelve tribes, who have been dwelling in the mountains if the North Caucasus and along the Black Sea coast since time immemorial. Many would be invaders had found them a terrible foe. Roman legions, Attila, Gehgis Khan, Arabs, Tamerlane and the Persians who called the Caucasus Sedi Iskender, or the barrier of Alexander. The mighty conqueror had set out to possess the world and met his first cheek here. Having never been conquered, the Circassians have managed to preserve there ancient culture without outside influence up until the time of the Russian invasion which began in the 18th century and which flamed into a terrible war which lasted over 100 years. The Circassians, freedom loving and blood, had fought desperately and fierily, craning themselves legendary status and respect throughout Europe and the Middle East. For 100 Years they held all the might of the Tsars armies at bay preventing them from colonial explosion and the long cherished Russian dream of overland route to India. It was said that one Circassian is worth ten of anyone else, and there struggle is best described by the great Russian poet Mikhael Lermontov who wrote in the times of the Russo­Caucasian wars: “Circassian treasure rueful dreams. Circassian hearth is their supreme, but freedom, freedom for the man is more than peace and Motherland." .The war lasted until 1864 resulting in the death of over half the entire Circassian population, and the two great powers of the time Russia and Turkey collaborated to cause the forced migration of over half the entire remaining population to the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted the Circassian land for its emancipated peasants, and Turkey needed fresh blood for its armies in the Balkans. The Circassian expulsion was the largest mass exodus in modern times and another third of them perished along the way from disease and starvation. It is estimated that if not for the war Circassians today would number over 25 million or more instead of less than 5 million spread out in countries all over the world. Yet wherever the Circassians went they contributed tremendously to the countries that they now live in. They were the first people to settle in and revive modern Amman. When Prince, later King Abdullah arrived in Trans­Jordan they welcomed him and during a rebellion in the early days of the Emirate they camped around his palace to protect him and were then given the honor of being the Kings personal guard. Nowadays they can still be seen guarding the palaces and Royal Court in there fabulous and Romantic costumes. The Circassians have served in every Govt and Military office and are well known for there honesty, and loyalty. Today the 100 thousand Circassians form an iatrical part of Jordanian society and have fared much better than brethren in Turkey, Syria and the Caucasus, thanks to the cultural tolerance of the Jordanian Monarchy and people. The Circassians practiced civilized behavior at a time when Europeans were still cave dwellers. The culture is extremely rich in poetry, myth, legend, song, dance and music. The social structure is governed by the 'Adiga Khabza' or Circassian etiquette, a set of unwritten rules which emphasize perfect manners, hospitality, honesty, chivalry and respect for elders. they esteem there woman and grant them full public freedom and they never practice polygamy or marry anyone even distantly related to them as all Circassian relatives and neighbors brothers and sisters. Indeed the Circassians greatest achievement has been a perfection of there own culture. Nonetheless Circassians are finding it increasingly hard to preserve there culture, traditions and language since to advertise there plight would be considered shameful, they are facing widespread assimilation. The ancient proverb "he who loses his homeland loses all", ring hauntingly in the ears of those Circassians who struggle to maintain themselves. Many of the younger generation no longer care about there cultural heritage, considered one of the most romantic and beautiful in human history, simply because, 'he who does not know his History or language cares not about his future', The Circassian Nation is like an old man dwelling on the memories and dreams of yesterdays. Never less, with the collapse of Communism, the great advances in communication technology, and widespread recognition of Human rights. Circassians now have the chance to achieve a social and cultural rebirth, expand there links with there brethren in the Caucasus and the Diaspora, which would also benefit the courtiers in which they live and be recognized and known once again to the world for what they are, a beautiful and romantic people whose also wish is to revive and maintain their culture, speak there language and live in freedom, peace and happiness.

By HRH Prince Ali Bin Al­Hussein The Circassians in Jordan

1. Historical Background

1.1 PRE­WAR GEOGRAPHY.

The original homeland of the Circassians, or Khakuzh (the Old Country) as it is referred to by them, is Northwest Caucasia between the Black Sea to the west and the Urukh river to the east, and between the Caucasus Mountains to the south and the Kuban, Bakhsan and Terek rivers to the north (map 1). Historical Circassia, a term used to designate Circassian lands prior to commencement of the catastrophic Russian war in the Caucasus at the beginning of the 19th century, had an area of approximately 100,000 square kilometres, roughly a quarter of the size of the whole Caucasus, which made it the largest country in the region.

The main feature of Circassia is the Caucasus Range which extends from the northwest to the southeast for almost 1,300 km (map 2). It is regarded as the boundary between Asia and Europe. The Caucasus is endowed with fertile soil and mild climate. Its natural beauty has been legendary since the time of the Ancient Greeks, and it was immortalized in the works of the Russian literary giants, like Tolstoy, Pushkin and Lermontov.

Before the War, the main economical activities were pastoral and agricultural in nature. There were some mercantile activities. The area was famous for horse breeding. A sizeable equine export trade thrived with Russia and Persia. The most renowned pedigree was the Kabarda, which is still considered the best mountain horse. It is known for its fair speed and remarkable endurance. Gold­ and silversmiths and personal arms manufacturers were held in high esteem.

1.2 NATIONAL AND TRIBAL STRUCTURE. (Please refer to maps 3 and 4 and to appendix 1 for the following discussion)

The Circassians were divided into three national groups: the Ubykh, the Apsua, or Abkhaz­Abazians, and the Adygha. Though ethnically related and closely allied, they spoke mutually unintelligible languages that belong to the North­western group of Caucasian languages, the other groups being North­eastern (Chechen, Ingush, Bats, Avar, Lezgian, Dargwa, etc.), and Kartvelian (Georgian, Mingrelian, Svan, Adjar, Laz, etc.). Some linguistic research suggests that about six thousand years ago all Northwest Caucasians spoke the same proto­Circassian language [Chirikba, A 27], much the same way as Semites conversed in proto­Semitic. However, because of geographical separation, the original language was differentiated into three distinct entities, and even these were further divided into divergent dialects.

The Ubykh used to inhabit the south mid­western portion of Circassia on the Black Sea coast. Their territory stretched between the rivers Khosta and Shakhe to the north of Abkhazia. Though relatively small in size, Ubykhia was known for the war­like character and tenacity of its people. It was principally these attributes that caused its downfall. The Ubykh as a nation have ceased to exist. Their language became absolutely extinct in the autumn of 1992, by the death of the last speaker in Turkey.

The Apsua were made up of the Abkhaz and Abaza. The former occupied the south­western part of Circassia between the Black Sea and the Caucasus Mountains from west to east, and between the Bzyp and Ingur rivers from north to south ­­ the historic Colchis of the Argonauts. The land of the Abaza lay at the foothills of the main Caucasus Range at the upper reaches of the Great and Little Zelenchuk, Kuban and Kuma rivers. Each group was divided into several tribes that spoke mutually intelligible dialects. The main Abkhaz tribes were the Bzyp, Abzhwa, Sadz and Samurzakan. The Abaza were divided into the Tapanta and Shkharawa.

The Adygha were by far the largest nation. They were made up of two groups: Eastern and Western Adygha. These were further divided into several tribes and clans.

The eastern branch was made up of two main nation tribes. The Kabardians, who occupied the strategic central region of the North Caucasus, were the most numerous and mightiest in Circassia and their land was the richest. They maintained a thriving trade with the Genoese mercantile colonies on the Black Sea coast and with Astrakhan. At its zenith Kabarda was so dominant that all powers with vested interests in the area, namely Moscovy and the Ottoman Port, sought to court and bestow honours upon its princes in order to further their interests. This culminated in the betrothal of Tsar Ivan the Terrible to the daughter of prince Temriuk, Kucheney Gwashcha, later Princess Maria, in 1561 A.D. to cement the so­called "Union" between Russia and Kabarda. However, as will be explained later, the authority of Temriuk over the other Kabardian princes was very tenuous and many of these declined to "ratify" the alliance, which was at best symbolic.

The other eastern nation tribe was the Beslanay who lived to the west of, and were closely allied to, the Kabardians. In fact, Kabardian and Beslanay are so close that it is suggested that the latter is just a divergent dialect of the former.

The western Adygha or the Kiakh were made up of many tribes: the Abzakh who lived in the middle of Circassia; the Shapsugh in the west on the Black Sea coast; the Bzhadugh in the north­west; the Natukhuaj in the extreme north­west and the Kemirgoi and Hatuquay in the north. It is worthy of note that the Plains Western Adygha were socially differentiated from the Mountain Western Adygha, mainly in Abzakhia, in that the latter had no social hierarchy, where all men were considered equal. This followed an upheaval in the 18th century in which all the princes and nobility of the mountain Kiakh were banished.

1.3 SOCIAL STRUCTURE.

The social structure of Circassian society was very complex and was based on hierarchical feudalism, except for a few egalitarian tribes. The classical Kabardian hierarchical system is shown in fig. 1, as an example. Each tribe was divided into princedoms, which were effectively independent, although there was a council of princes, which met at times of national crises. At the apex of each principality stood the prince who wielded almost absolute power over his subjects. Land and serfs were owned collectively. The clan was not divided into nuclear families and all obeyed the eldest member of the clan. Inheritance was not devolved from father to son but from brother to brother.

Next to the prince came the nobles, who were divided into the proper and lesser nobility, and the vassals who were given a free hand in their fiefdoms in return for their allegiance. A peculiar custom, the Ataliqate, whereby the children of the princes were entrusted at an early age to the vassals to be raised and trained in a military fashion, played a major role in strengthening the relationship between the prince and his nobles. Below the nobility came the freemen and free peasants, then the bond peasants and finally the slaves and villeins who performed the menial tasks and were mainly taken from war captives.

This pyramidal structure ensured the existence of many social units internally cohesive, but whose inter­cohesion was at best suspect. No one prince was ever powerful enough to subdue the others in order to establish a central authority. The case of prince Temriuk and his courting of the favour of the Russian Tsar by betrothing his daughter to him is illustrative of this point. It is safe to assume that the majority of Kabardian princes refused to accept this unholy alliance as it brought no advantage to them. It is in fact this very same structure that rendered Russian policy of co­opting the Kabardian elite so futile (Lemercier­Quelquejay, B 9). Russian policy makers had never been able to understand the nature of Kabardian society, which was diametrically different from the centralized autocratic organization of Russia. The only immediate beneficiaries were the sons and relatives of Prince Temriuk and their progeny, some of whom went into service in the imperial court and established the powerful Cherkassky princely dynasty whose descendants still survive to this day.

The behavioural and social norms were regulated by an orally transmitted codex called Adiga Khabza, or Circassian Etiquette, which was very rigid and complex and its contravention was severely punished. It had evolved to ensure that strict militaristic discipline was maintained at all times to defend the country against the many invaders who coveted Circassian lands.

Notwithstanding the feudalistic nature of Circassian society, there were strong indications that by the end of the 18th century, a major societal transformation was beginning to unfold and that a new phase of stability and prosperity was about to ensue. The rudiments of civil society were slowly but surely taking root. Through mercantile contacts with the Europeans, especially the Genoese, some Circassian intellectuals began to realize that modernity and progress were the beacons to guide society to the next stage of evolution beyond feudalism. Paul B. Henze states in his work Circassian Resistance to Russia (B 4): .

After the Georgians and the Armenians, the Circassians came closest of all the Caucasian peoples to developing the prerequisites for nationhood. They had traditions of roots extending back to the dawn of recorded history..

Circassian civilization was at its most crucial phase of development. It needed the goodwill of Fate. Moira turned her head. It is one of the harshest ironies of Circassian history that, as this realization was dawning on the Circassians, Russia launched its ruinous war that pushed the nation to the brink of extinction.

2. The Russo­Circassian War

From the middle ages up to the 17th century, Circassia remained mainly peaceful and quiet. After the demise of the Golden Horde, the Tartar Kipchak Empire founded by Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, on the banks of the Volga River, at the end of the 16th century, Russia began to push south towards the northern steppes of the Caucasus in a process of gradual encroachments. By 1700, the Cossacks were firmly established in the Stavropol Region. The Plains Circassians were gradually pushed south between 1763 and 1793. The Russians built a string of fortresses that were used as springboards for further expansion. By the end of the century most of Kabarda was under Russian control. Some Kabardians, later dubbed as Hajarat, immigrant or fugitive Circassians, who refused to accept Russian hegemony, moved west to what are now known as the Karachai­Cherkess Republic and the Adighey Republic.

During the first quarter of the 19th century, the Russians made no lasting gains in Circassia. In 1829, Turkey gave Russia a free hand in the Caucasus in the treaty of Adrianople, despite the fact that the Ottomans had no claim whatsoever over Circassia. Thereafter, Russia embarked on a vicious war of attrition, which met with fierce resistance for 35 years. The odds were heavily stacked against the Circassians, whose limited manpower and resources were no matches to the continuous stream of cannon fodder unleashed at them. One is tempted to say that the Circassians, to their mortal detriment, had never really grasped the full extent of the might and ruthlessness of the Russian war machine.

The Circassians, up until the very last moment, entertained the hope that the western powers, especially England, would intervene on their behalf and deliver them from the vicious claws of Russia. That expectation reached a crescendo after the defeat of the Russians in the Crimean War in 1857. But the allies neglected to address the Caucasian Issue, which fact engendered in the Caucasians feelings of resentment and betrayal. Thereafter, relieved of a costly and humiliating defeat, the Russians wreaked their vengeance on the hapless highlanders, whose morale was at its nadir. It was a matter of time before the inevitable would happen. The lamb was set for slaughter. After the surrender of Shamil, the legendary Daghestani war­lord of the eastern Caucasian front, and cessation of war in Chechnya in 1859, the Russian bear turned westwards to the Kiakh (Circassians), who held on for five more years, until the last battle was fought and lost in 1864.

3. The Aftermath

In this long war of attrition, the Circassians suffered heavy losses in terms of human life, as much as 800,000 dead, and their country was utterly destroyed. Many tribes were wiped out, notably the Ubykh, some Abkhazian clans, like the Sadzians, and the Abzakh who are at present represented by only two villages in the Caucasus.

After the war, the Russians expelled the majority of Circassians to the Ottoman Empire by pursuing a policy of organized and systematic terror. Whole villages were pillaged and then burnt down to the ground. Thousands of people were massacred in cold blood. Those horrific acts, together with the collusion of the Ottomans, resulted in a mass exodus that irreparably compromised the demographic balance in Circassia. It is estimated that more than a million people were forced to immigrate and only 800,000 were eventually settled in the Ottoman Empire, the difference being the victims of hunger, disease, shipping accidents and the chaotic Ottoman administrative system.

Those who remained in the Caucasus, about 150,000, were compelled to resettle in the northern plains of the Caucasus where they were easier to control. The mass expulsion of the Abzakh and Beslanays, who, as was mentioned earlier, occupied the central part of Circassia (map 3), meant that the Circassians were effectively separated into three main entities with huge geographical chasms in between: The Kabardians in the east of Circassia, the Abkhazians in the southwest, and the dessimated Kiakh in the northwest. It was a classic and evil practice of the Machiavellian maxim divide et impera (divide and rule). It is worthy of note at this stage that during Soviet rule, four Circassian entities were to be established along these self­same territorial divisions. Plus ca change plus c'est la meme chose. The north­eastern coast of the Black Sea was totally cleared of Circassian presence. The Old Country was ripe for Slavic colonization.

It is markworthy that before the onset of Russian aggression, the Circassian Nation used to be the largest in the whole of the Caucasus. Using retro­projection, it is possible to calculate the number of Circassians that would have been living in the Caucasus today, had the Russians not embarked on their devastating war. This comes up to 10 million, using the most conservative estimates. If this number is compared to that of Northwest Caucasians actually living in the Caucasus at present, which is about a million, then one can begin to appreciate the full extent of the disaster that befell them.

4. Settlement in Jordan

The first wave of Circassian immigrants, who were mainly of Shapsugh extraction, arrived in Jordan in 1878 and took refuge in the old ruins of Amman. These were followed by the Kabardians who settled in Amman, Jerash (1885), Sweileh (1905), and Russeifa (1909) and the Abzakh and Bzhadugh who established settlements in Wadi­Sseer (1880), and Na'ur (1900) [Peake, B 1]. All in all, about 3,500 people found a new homeland in the area.

The motive behind the Turkish move to settle the Circassians in Jordan is still a subject of speculation. G. H. Weightman [D 18], believes that this was done for strategic reasons and out of religious piety and charity. This view is also shared by Raphael Patai [A 23], who is also of the opinion that the Sultan placed them in this area as a buffer against Bedouin attacks. Satanay Shami and Karpat [B 42], maintain that they were mobilized mainly for agricultural reasons after the loss of the Balkans, the breadbasket of the Ottoman Empire. The deployment of loyal subjects to turbulent regions of the Empire seems to be a convincing motive for the connivance of the Ottomans with the Russian expulsion of the Circassians and their resettlement.

The early settlers were presented with tremendous challenges and difficulties by the new and alien environment. A substantial number succumbed to the many diseases to which they had never been exposed before. Also, the fact that they inhabited the best areas of the region (some say the worst) put them at loggerheads with the native population, especially the Bedouins, who considered these lands as the traditional grazing ground for their cattle. Many skirmishes were fought out, but eventually reason prevailed and many alliances and treaties of friendship were struck up between them definitely helped by the mutual respect with which they held each other and the common characteristics that they shared, notably chivalry, hospitality and courage.

In this respect, it is worthwhile to mention that the local people realized that the Circassians came not as colonists but rather as co­religionists who escaped the hell of Russian persecution.

The Ottoman Authorities distributed arable government land among the immigrants who were mainly of peasant stock. Lands designated as Ard Al­Sawafi, which were the personal property of the Sultan and thus were not liable for taxation, were also allotted on the basis that it was his duty to bestow money or lands on the needy.

5. The Early Years

Life in Amman and its neighbouring villages was simple and slow­paced. The Circassians introduced settled agriculture into an area previously used for pasture. They applied their imported know­how to establish large and well kept farms. They used large­wheeled carts, another novel introduction, for transport and commerce. Mary C. Wilson [B 26] writes:

Granted land and tax concessions by the sultan to facilitate their settlement, these hardy and self­ sufficient peasants held their own against the beduin and even introduced large­wheeled carts and a system of dirt roads into the area..

Though mainly farmers, there were many artisans among them, like carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, silversmiths, saddle makers, leather tanners, dagger and sword craftsmen and carriage makers. A high level of co­operation existed among them and a good standard of living was achieved. In the guest houses (Hesch’esch) of neighbourhood leaders (Themade), community affairs were managed, defence plans were devised and folk tales ('ueri'uatexe, Psisexe) were recounted. Circassian was the principal language of communication and exogamous marriages were rare.

Because of the Circassians' deeply entrenched traditions and the good neighbourly relations they maintained with other people, their society was very stable and their villages were relatively secure, despite the threat of raids posed by some bedouin tribes not in alliance with them. In fact they succeeded in establishing a rudimentary administrative system and a gendarmerie. Weightman states that “For almost twenty years their tribal organization constituted the only political and police institutional agencies in Jordan.” (The Circassians in Jordan). All these factors made their settlements quite attractive for other people who started to flock to them in large numbers. Soon these became substantial social and commercial centres.

6. Winds of Change

In the early years of the twentieth century work on the extension of the Hijaz Railway, which was planned to pass through Amman, started. This had a significant effect on the Circassian community. Many of its members were hired to work in the various projects and to protect it from Bedouin attacks. Mary C. Wilson [B 26] writes:

The [Hijaz] railway brought increased employment, trade and security, along with greater contact with the central [Ottoman] government. Circassians at Amman were employed as laborers on the line and in positions of lower management. Goods bought in Damascus for resale in Transjordan were sent south by train and transported in Circassiancarts from the station to their point of sale.

The Railway drew Circassians from other countries, especially Syria, to work in the building process.

A new class of regular wage earners emerged, some of who bought more land to augment their wealth. Many of those ‘nouveau riches’ were able to send their offspring to Damascene and Cairene schools for the best education money could buy. Those were some of the roots of disparity and social differentiation in the Circassian community.

At this point, it may be useful to mention that very few of the Circassian upper castes ended up as immigrants in Jordan. Most of those found the cosmopolitan scenes of the larger Ottoman cities more alluring. Many of them were catapulted to high positions in the Sublime Porte. Therefore, at least initially, Circassian society in Jordan was largely egalitarian. Of course, one could always find the odd family that traces its roots to some princely patronym. But, to strike a note of societal levelling, no person of sublime status would have chosen to be transported to the back of beyond, as this part of the world was considered at the time, to find a new life. Hopefully, this would be a sobering thought to any person entertaining unjustified and, definitely, unhealthful, claim to exalted lineage.

6.1 WASFI PASHA MIRZA. Mirza Pasha was a brigadier in the Ottoman army. Heading the Voluntary Circassian Cavalry, which he founded in 1905, he started on a mission to maintain stability and peace among the various peoples in Jordan, to draft his people into the army and protect the farmers and their lands.

During the First World War, Mirza Pasha and his demi­legion of 1200 soldiers were commissioned to protect the strategic Hijaz Railway that connected the Centre of the Empire to its sources of vital supplies as well as with the German headquarters in Aleppo. They fought on the side of the Ottomans in the Suez War in 1918 and in Gaza against the British troops.

After Al­Salt battle with the British in 1918, the British commander warned the Circassian leaders against attacking the British forces while they were withdrawing. The Circassians paid no heed and eight of them fell in battle. Six months later, the British attacked again and the Turkish troops pulled out of Jordan in 1919.

When the Turks left Jordan, the Circassians made a collective decision to stay in Jordan. They saw in the future Emir a true and noble leader. They were among the first Jordanians to receive the Founder and pledge their allegiance to him. Salibi [B 73] offers the following factor as playing some role in augmenting the Circassians' enthusiasm in welcoming the Emir:

The Circassian farmers of Amman and its vicinity, for example, had long been weary of living, year after year, under the threat of bedouin raids.

The prospect of a strong government curbing unchecked lawlessness had been a powerful motivating force for some sedentary segments of Transjordanian society to back the Shereefian progeny.

6.2 EMIR ABDULLAH (THE FOUNDER).

In 1915, The British contacted Shereef Hussain of Mecca promising him recognition of Arab independence in return for his support against the Turks. After the First World War, the allies broke their promise and Syria was occupied by the French and Palestine by the British. Transjordan was put under British Mandate. The Arabs retaliated by proclaiming Faisal King of Syria and Jordan. The Jordanian tribes, together with the Circassians, who were headed by Mirza Pasha and Sa’id Pasha Al­ Mufti, joined the Arab revolt and sent a force to aid King Faisal in Damascus. On its way, it was learned that the Battle of Maysaloon between the Arabs and the French had ended in favour of the French. The force turned back.

The British army did not occupy Jordan. Under the supervision of the British, local governments were formed. The Salt government, which included Amman, was formed with two Circassian members in it. However, the situation in Syria remained volatile. The people of Horan, a province in Syria, sent a cable to Shereef Hussain imploring him to send one of his sons to become their leader. The Shereef responded by sending Emir Abdulla, who arrived in Ma’an. The tribal leaders and notables, including the Circassian representative Sa’id Pasha, went to Ma’an to receive the Prince and to swear allegiance to him. Despite British threats, the Nationalists met in Amman and decided to call on the Emir to proceed there. After meeting with Winston Churchill in Jordan, an agreement was reached in March 1921 in which the Emirate of Transjordan was declared with its capital Amman.

9. Circassians Today

The Circassian community in Jordan has been undergoing tremendous changes in the past one hundred years. It has transformed from a compact, mainly agrarian society into a fully integrated modern one.

At the establishment of Modern Jordan in 1921, Amman was mainly a Circassian town with Circassian still heard in the streets. However, there followed a huge influx of people into it after its designation as the Capital of the new Emirate. Mary C. Wilson [B 26] states:

Circassians lived in exclusively Circassian settlements, except for Amman which had begun to attract a more diverse population.

As the years went by, the relative number of Circassians gradually decreased and at present they constitute 5% of the population of Greater Amman at best.

The rapid modernization of young Circassians and their participation in the socio­economic development in Jordan has led to rapid assimilation. The spread of higher education shifted the emphasis from stereotypical careers as landlords, army officers and government employees to new fields such as engineering, medicine, private enterprise and industry. A new dynamic and highly motivated generation has overtaken the old traditional elite. It is quite significant that none of the recent parliamentary deputies or ministers belong to the elite whose hold on political and economical inter­communal affairs is presently non­existent. The important landlords are to be found outside Old Amman in the western and southern approaches of the Capital. The astronomical rise in land prices has resulted in the emergence of a new breed of millionaires who seem to have more business sense and investment acumen than their predecessors.

The Circassians and Chechens are reserved a quota of three deputies in the Lower House of Parliament and two senators in the Upper House. Traditionally a minister is chosen from them. This undoubtedly reflects the positive role that they have been playing in recent Jordanian history.

Over the years, the Circassians dispersed to various locations in the expanding city of Amman. At present, there are no compact Circassian communities, although they mainly reside in the 3 rd and 5 th electoral districts of Greater Amman, in each of which they are represented by one parliamentary deputy. As a result of such dispersion, Circassian has ceased to be the principal language of communication among the Circassians. Only a small percentage of parents choose to teach their children the language. In many cases the option is not even there, as when one or both parents are not familiar with the language. It is estimated that only 17% of Circassian youth are familiar with their mother tongue. What is true of language is also true of other aspects of culture, such as traditions, which have been eroded to such an extent that what remains merely serve symbolic functions. Although it could be claimed that the Circassian community in Jordan forms an ethnic minority from theoretical and practical viewpoints, the Jordanian Constitution considers them as full citizens with equal rights and duties and guarantees them freedom of cultural expression. It is quite paradoxical that, despite these privileges and their considerable wealth, the Circassians failed to preserve their language and culture. It is perhaps this liberality that precipitated acculturation, in the absence of strong cultural institutions that could preserve Circassian heritage. It would seem that the Circassians lack the collective will and vision to effect a cultural revival, not to mention the technical know­how. It is wholly to the detriment of the present and future generations that they have been divorced from their mother culture. History will point her accusing finger at the Circassians who are flippantly and wilfully abandoning their heritage.

10. Circassian Institutions

10.1 THE CIRCASSIAN CHARITY ASSOCIATION

The Circassian Charity Association was established in 1932, which makes it the second oldest charity organization in Jordan. It is mainly concerned with the welfare of indigent Circassians. However, Its role extends far beyond distribution of alms, for it purports to organize the affairs of Circassians in some social and cultural spheres. It also maintains contacts with other Circassian communities, especially in the Caucasus. There are about 15 scholarships offered every year to the progeny of its members in the Circassian universities and colleges in Kabardino­Balkaria and the Adyghey Republic in the Caucasus. It issues a magazine (Nart ­­ the singular generic designation of the heroes of the Circassian Nart Sagas), and a periodical leaflet (Family Matters), both of which deal with Circassian matters. Recently, an Internet site was created to disseminate information and as a point of contact. The Association is a member of the International Circassian Organization (Duney­pso Adige Xase).

The Association is made up of the Centre, 6 branches in towns and cities of considerable Circassian concentrations ­­ Zarqa, Jerash, Wadi­Sseer, Na'ur, Sweileh and Russeifa ­­ and the Ladies' Branch.

The Ladies' Branch runs a school (Emir Hamza) which aims is to preserve Circassian language and culture. The Circassian language teachers are native speakers who hail from the Caucasus. However, Circassian is not a compulsory subject and many of the students choose not to put too much effort into learning it because its scope of use is very limited. Many projects are currently under way to improve the standards of the school. The Friends of the Emir Hamza Schools Club, whose members are mainly graduates of the school, supports fund­raising activities and functions.

The Wadi­Sseer Branch has recently inaugurated Prince Ali Ibn Al­Hussein Kindergarten within its premises to teach the young their mother tongue and inculcate Circassian culture upon them.

10.2 AL­AHLI CLUB. Al­Ahli Club, which is one of the oldest Clubs in Jordan, was established in 1944 with the aim of furthering the needs, ambitions and aspirations of its members and to participate fully in the social, cultural, sporting and artistic scenes in Jordan and abroad. It has become a household name, intimately associated with sporting success and achievement. It excels in basketball, handball, swimming and the martial arts. Its records in these games are very impressive. The respective teams take part in national championships and in regional and Asian tournaments. Many members of the national squads are regularly chosen from them.

The Folklore Committee was set up in 1993 by a group of dedicated people whose vision was to preserve and develop Circassian culture. It runs a Dance and Song Troupe that is considered to be one of the best outside the Caucasus. Besides its celebrated Annual Festival and participation in local celebrations, to which it is invited regularly, the Ensemble staged its spectacular show The Kingdom of Peace which tells the story of how the Circassians found refuge in Jordan after they were subjected to brutal Russian persecution and expulsion, in the United States and Bahrain. It has become one of the major attractions in the annual Jerash Festival of Culture and Arts.

10.3 OTHER INSTITUTIONS.

Al­Jeel Al­Jadeed Club was established in 1950 as a backlash against cultural assimilation. Its cultural activities were at their peak in the late fifties and the sixties. Many productions of Circassian plays were staged during that period, initially under the guiding hand of Csaban Kube, the renowned émigré scholar who penned many books and plays and who devised and disseminated a Circassian alphabet based on Roman characters. However, after Kube and his disciples left the scene, there followed a long period of cultural stagnation, which lasted until the early eighties.

In 1982, a new interest in culture, mainly dance, was evidenced. Nevertheless, Al­Jeel is at present mainly known for its Annual Summer Dance Festival. Its basketball team was promoted to the premier division in 1997.

The Tribal Council was set up to manage tribal affairs and resolve disputes that might disrupt harmony with other sections of society. Its work is invaluable in maintaining social stability. It is composed of Circassian notables with substantial experience and knowledge in tribal issues.

The Friends of the Circassians in the Caucasus is a new organization whose principal aim is to maintain and strengthen relationships with the fatherland. Its charter allows it to deal in political matters. It is supposed to complement the work of the Association, which is barred from delving into politics.

Conclusion

The Circassians have fared really well in their new homeland. Although cognizant of their ethnic and cultural identities, the Circassians look upon themselves as full members of society and they actually engage in all walks of life. The Circassians played a major and positive role in recent Jordanian history. Prior to the establishment of the Emirate, they managed to set up stable and secure centres that attracted many people. The rudiments of civil society were slowly taking root. When Amman was chosen as the capital of Jordan, it was transformed from a small town into a sprawling metropolis. The Circassians benefited greatly as they were the major landlords. Many of them became very rich.

However, there was a steep price to pay. Circassian language and culture have suffered immensely. The language is irrevocably lost and traditions have been largely discarded. The new generation must be given an identity that is in harmony with the past and in line with the present. The task is immense.

Amjad JAIMOUKHA, the Folklore Committee, Al­Ahli Club, Amman ­ JORDAN

Peoples of the Caucasus

John Colarusso

(1997) in Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life.

Pepper Pike, Ohio: Eastword Publications.

1. Introduction

Between the Back and Caspian Seas rise the Caucasus Mountains. These stretch in a line 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) long from the northeast corner of the Black Sea, near the Sea of Azov, southeastwards down to Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, near northwestern Iran. This region has traditionally been considered to be the southeast corner of Europe. As such, it has the highest mountains in that continent: Mount Elbruz, whose twin peaks rise to heights of 18,441 feet/5,621 meters and 18,510 feet/5,642 meters, and Mount Kazbek at 16,512 feet/5,047 meters, all being higher than Mount Blanc in the Alps (15,781 feet/4,810 meters). In the north the region grades over into the plains of southern Russia and is bordered by the Kuban and Terek rivers. In the south it runs into the highlands of eastern Turkey and northern Iran where it may be thought of as ending at the borders of these two nations, which largely follow the Aras River. The region is a meeting place for European, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern civilizations, and shows a mixture of features from these cultures as well as many that are strictly its own.

There are fifty languages indigenous to this region. The ethnic complexity of the Caucasus is unequalled in Eurasia, with nearly sixty distinct peoples, including Russians and Ukrainians. While there are a two regions (Papua­New Guinea and the Horn of Africa) which exceed the Caucasus in the absolute diversity of their ethnic makeup, their cultural levels are neolithic. Only in the Caucasus is such diversity coupled to a cultural level typical of European peasants. The Trans or South Caucasus is home to three new nations which formed at the break up of the Soviet Union: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The first has an ancient history dating back to the second century AD. It was annexed by Russia in 1801. The second is the sole surviving fragment of the Armenian nation, which at one time occupied most of eastern Anatolia (Turkey). It was annexed to Russia in 1828. The third was once the part of Iran called ‘Aran’. It has arisen as a mixture of Turkic peoples who have mixed with and assimilated the earlier Caucasian Albanians or Alwanians, and was annexed to Russia also in 1828. The Cis or North Caucasus has seven republics, all part of the Soviet legacy. From west to east they are: Adygheya, Karachay ­ Cherkessia, Kabardino ­ Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnia (Ichkeria), and Daghestan. In addition, the southern portion of Krasnodar kray (district), extends south of the Kuban. The central region of the North Caucasus traditionally looked to Moscow for protection against raids from the Krim Khans (Crimean Tatars) and formed political links early, in the case of Ossetia in 1796. The Northwest region traditionally turned to the Ottoman Empire for trade and hence saw Russia as an enemy. It was only annexed in 1864 after prolonged and bitter war. The Northeastern region traditionally turned south to the Middle East and hence also saw Russia as an enemy. It was annexed in 1859 after prolonged resistance led by the famed Imam Shamyl. To some extent this threefold west to east division crosses over into the south as well and in many ways rivals the customary north ­ south division in its social and political importance.

The region is potentially wealthy. Gold, iron, zinc, molybdenum, copper, lead, aluminum, chromium, tungsten, and coal deposits exist. Diamonds, semi­precious stones, fine mineral springs, hot baths, and skiing resorts also can be found. Agriculture is well developed with tea, tobacco, cotton, corn, wheat, walnuts, melons, apples, peaches, pears, pomegranates, and citrus fruit being grown, along with fowl, cattle, oxen, sheep, and fine horses. Most important, however, are vast reserves of oil and natural gas, particularly in Azerbaijan and Chechnia. The crude oil from the latter is the finest known, emerging from the earth nearly clear.

Political stability could bring prosperity, but the Caucasus is the most unstable region of the former Soviet Union. Since 1989 the region has witnessed five wars: Nagorno­Karabagh (Armenia ­ Azerbaijan) (1989­1995), South Ossetian ­ Georgian (1991­1992); Abkhazian ­ Georgian (1992­1993); North Ossetian ­ Ingush (1992); Chechen ­ Russian (1994 ­ 1996). Not only have these wars been ruinous in the loss of lives and property, but they have befallen a region whose economic collapse was also precipitous. Furthermore, nearly every area has some serious dispute between peoples over borders or land rights that arise from Communist patterns of abuse and manipulation. Many of these go back to Stalin’s wholesale deportations of the Karachays, Balkars, Noghays, Ingush and Chechens from the North Caucasus during 1943­44 and their repatriation under Khrushchev in 1957. Land claims and losses from these tragic episodes have never been settled. Further turmoil can be expected in what the West has only just begun to realize is a geopolitically crucial region. 2. Location and homeland

The Caucasus region is roughly the size of Spain (approximately 150,000 square miles/388,498 square kilometers). The South Caucasus is arid in the portions which constitute the eastern extremity of the Anatolian highlands, primarily Armenia. Azerbaijan is arid toward its Iranian border, but becomes more lush as it rises into the foothills of the Caucasus. Georgia, by contrast with these two, is lush and well watered. Even in its highlands it enjoys substantial rainfall from the winds off the Black Sea. This verdant landscape becomes semi­tropical along the Abkhazian coast of the Black Sea, and becomes colder but still verdant across the mountains in the north. Only in the east, in Daghestan, does this pattern alter and the land become dry, all the moisture having been taken by the western side of the summits. There the lowlands along the Caspian Sea coast are arable, but the Daghestani highlands can vary from alpine pastures to alpine deserts.

The ethnic makeup of two of the three southern states is relatively simple. Armenia and Nagorno­ Karabagh are almost wholly Armenian, with a few enclaves of Kurds (pop. 3.6 million). Azerbaijan (pop. 7.4 million) consists almost wholly of Azeri Turks, close kin of the Turks of Turkey and of the Turkomans of Central Asia. A few Daghestani peoples spill over into it, but these will be treated with the North Caucasians. At the extreme eastern end of the mountain chain (the Apsheron peninsula) are the Iranian speaking Tats (pop. 10,000). Adjoining Iran at the extreme southeast is an Iranian speaking people called the Talysh (pop. 22,000), most of whom (100,000) live across the border.

Georgia is by far the most complex (pop. 5.5 million) of the southern states. Recently eighteen ethnic groups could be found there, but three have either been driven out or emigrated. In the southwest there are Ajars, Mingrelians, and Laz, the last extending well across northern Turkey to the city of Trabzond. The Ajars are Muslim and constitute the eastern tip of a large Georgian­speaking region in eastern Turkey. These Muslim Georgians and the Ajars form a cultural continuum, but the Laz and Mingrelians stand apart from the rest of Georgia both in language and customs. In this southwestern region dwelt a Turkish speaking group called Meskhetians, who were deported to Central Asia in 1944. In 1989, following riots against them in Uzbekistan, most of them relocated to Azerbaijan. In addition there are in the south large groups of Armenians, Greeks, and Azeris. In the center of Georgia are the Georgians proper,(formed from four earlier groups: the Gurians, Imeretians, Kartlians, and Kakhetians). In the highlands are found Georgian­speaking peoples so distinctive as to form separate ethnic groups. These are the Khevsurs, who wore chain mail and fought with broad swords and bucklers until World War I, the Pshavs, and the Tushetis. A Georgian speaking Shi’ite Muslim people, the Ingiloi, who wear Maltese crosses on their clothing, reside across the border in western Azerbaijan. Also located in the Georgian highlands is one village of people who speak a language related to Chechen and Ingush, the Batsby or Kists. A few Daghestanis (Avars) were driven from their highland villages in 1991. By contrast only recently the Udis have found refuge from religious turmoil in Azerbaijan among their kin in the village of Oktomberi in eastern Georgia. The Udis, a Daghestani people, were the central ethnic group around which the old Christian kingdom of the Caucasian Albanians or Alwanians was formed. The central highlands are home to the South Ossetians (pop. 125,000 ?), who have fought a war of secession in an effort to unite with their kin in North Ossetia. Further to their west live the Svans, a people only distantly related to the Georgians but who are nevertheless content to be part of this nation. Along the northwest coast, however, live the Abkhaz (pop. 150,000), who fought a war to establish their own state. Unique to Abkhazia was a small community of two or three villages of African ancestry, who were completely assimilated in culture and language to the Abkhaz. Finally, Georgia was home to a distinctive community of Jews. These now dwell in Israel.

The North Caucasus is home to some 4.7 million people, and is divided into three zones: Northwest, Central, and Northeast. The Northwest Caucasus was home to five ethnic groups, the first three of which are related: Circassians, Abazas (northern Abkhaz), Ubykhs, Mountain Turks, and the distinctive, Caucasianized Kuban Cossacks. In 1864, after nearly fifty years of warfare, the Russians, aided by the Cossacks, expelled nearly all of these people into the Ottoman Empire. Only 20% remained behind, with the exception of the Ubykhs, who were all expelled. Today the remaining Circassians are scattered in and around three republics: Adygheya (pop. 109,000), Karachai­Cherkessia (pop. 46,000), and Kabardino­Balkaria (pop. 322,000). The 58,000 Abazas are located in Karachai­Cherkessia. Population figures are suspect, but a total of 658,000 is possible if the numerous Circassian villages to the west of Adygheya are counted. This should be contrasted with roughly 4 million Circassians, 0.5 million Abazas, and 50,000 Ubykhs in Turkey. The tendency to distinguish three ethnic groups: Adyghey, Cherkess, and Kabardian, has some basis in dialect diversity and some political motivation (the Kabardians, being in the center of the North Caucasus tended to have good relations with Moscow). Nevertheless, they themselves do not recognize these divisions, referring to themselves simply as ‘Adyghey’. A small population of Circassian speaking Jews is also considered to be Adyghey. Similarly the Mountain Turks are now called Karachay (pop. 276,000)and Balkar or Malkar (pop. 71,000), but here too the latter are distinctive merely in their proclivity to see in Moscow an ally because they fall in the center of the North Caucasus, as opposed to the Karachay who dwell int the western highlands.

While one can speak of the Kabardian Circassians and the Balkar Mountain Turks as being Central North Caucasians, the North Ossetians (pop. 0.5 million) are the only people largely treated as such by the Russians. There is a distinctive western group, the Digoron, and an eastern, the Iron. The southern Ossetians are called tuallaeg, which simply means mountain men. They are the descendants of the ancient Alans, Sarmatians, and Scythians of the Central Asian steppes.

To their east are the Ingush (pop. 197,000) in Ingushetia, but this too is another case of political proclivities splitting an ethnic group in two. Together with the Chechens (pop. 792,000) further east, they form the Vai Nakh peoples (which include the Kists or Batsby (pop. 3,000) of Georgia), and are relatives of the Daghestanis of the Northeast Caucasus. Prior to the Chechen ­ Russian War there was a small population of Chechen speaking Jews, but these have fled to Israel. The northern reaches of Chechnia are also home to the distinctive Terek Cossacks, old Russian speaking settlers who have adopted many local ways. The Merkhi of southern Chechnia, while Chechen­speaking, are considered by the Chechens to be a remnant of a non­Vai Nakh people of unknown origin.

Daghestan is unquestionably the most complex of the Caucasian republics (pop. 1.8 million), with thirty­two indigenous ethnic groups. In the lowlands can be found Turkic nomads: Kumyks (pop. 251,000), Noghays (pop. 77,000), and a few displaced Turkomans (18,000). In the northern highlands are the Avars (pop. 501,000), and higher still are the Andis (9,000), Karatas (5,000), Chamalals (4,000), Bagwalals (4,000), Akhwakhs (5,000), Botlikhs (3,000), Godoberis (2,500), and Tindis (5,000). Still in the high valleys but going south toward the Georgian border are the Tsez (Dido) (7,000), Ginukhs (200), Hunzibs (400), Khwarshis (1,000), and Bezhitas (Kapuchis) (3,000). South of the Avar are the Laks (92,000), Dargwas (282,000), Kubachis (3,000), and Khaidaqs (28,000), all forming a related group of peoples. In one high village, standing apart from them, are the Archis (1,000), whose links lie further south with the so­called Lezgian peoples: the Aghuls (14,000), Tabasarans (78,000), and Rutuls (15,000). A few of the Lezgis (367,000) and most of the Tsakhurs (19,000) spill over into Azerbaijan in the south. Other Daghestanis who are restricted to northern Azerbaijan are the Kryz (6,000) in one mountain village and three coastal ones, Budukhs (1,000) (one mountain village), Udis (formerly 6,000) (two mountain villages), and Khinalugs (2,000)(one mountain village). There is a group called “Mountain Jews” (Givrij or Dagchifut) (13,000) who speak an Iranian language in Daghestan. They are sometimes called “Tats,” but are not to be confused with the Muslim Tats further south on the Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan. In addition there are a few Daghestani Cossacks who are strongly assimilated to indigenous patterns.

It must be emphasized that all of the above are distinct peoples, however small they may be, with their own languages, customs, costumes, arts, and architectures. Many are further subdivided by tribes, clans, and blood lines. Conversely, most will traditionally form larger units for self­defense when threatened. This is particularly true of the smaller peoples of Daghestan. In ethnographic, social, and political terms the Caucasus is like a miniature continent.

In physical appearance the people in the South Caucasus tend to be “Mediterranean,” with dark hair and olive complexions. The Daghestanis often have olive complexions that are suffused with a ruddy undertone, an adaptation to cold mountain air in the form of enhanced blood flow to the skin. The Armenians tend to have marked aquiline features, while the Azeris have the more regular features typical of Persians. The Georgians show the regular features also seen among the North Caucasians. Georgians and North Caucasians often have dark hair with light skin, though individuals who are almost brown can be seen. Aquiline profiles are also common. The Ingush are the tallest people in the Caucasus, while their kin, the Chechens, are among the shortest. The Circassians and Karachay­ Balkars are famous for their beauty, with many individuals showing fine regular features, tall stature, and graceful movement. Among the Ubykhs and Circassians are many individuals with blond or red hair and pink complexions. The variety of its people reflects the region’s complex history.

3. Language

Known as the Mountain of Tongues, the Caucasus is home to five language families, three of which are indigenous. In the north, four languages are spoken which belong to the Altaic family (which includes languages spoken across Central Asia and southern Siberia): Karachay, Balkar, Noghay, and Kumyk. These belong to the Kipchak Turkic branch. In the south two Turkic languages, Meskhetian and Azeri, are found, both belonging to the Ghuzz branch, to which Turkish and Turkoman belong. These Altaic languages show rich verbal inflection (person, tense, mood), and elaborate case systems (alternation of the nouns to reflect their roles in a sentence), but are very regular and transparent in their formation. They have a pleasant, mellifluous sound. Only Azeri is a written language, and now uses a Latin based script.

Of the Indo­European family (which includes languages spoken from Ireland to India), the Slavic branch is represented by Russian and Ukrainian. The Kuban and Terek Cossacks speak Russian. These complex languages have large case systems that extend both to their nouns and adjectives, with many irregularities. Further, nouns come in three categories, called genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The Slavic verb is highly sensitive to “aspect,” the degree of completion of an action. There are more than a dozen verbs of motion that reflect subtle differences in movement. The languages are mellifluous, having unusual sustained intonation patterns that give them a song­like quality. One of their hallmarks is palatalization, raising of the tongue to produce a y­sound along with the main consonant. The Iranian branch is represented by Tat, Talysh, and Kurdish in the South, and by Ossetian in the North. This last is the sole surviving form of the language of the ancient Alans, Sarmatians, and Scythians, nomadic horsemen of Classical Antiquity. While retaining verbal aspect, much as does Slavic, the grammars of these languages have lost most of their case systems and have levelled out most irregularity. Only Ossetian has kept an elaborate case system due to neighboring Ingush and Chechen influence. Iranian languages make abundant use of fricatives (s­ sh­ and kh­like sounds). Armenian forms a distinctive branch of Indo­European in the south. In grammatical complexity it stands mid way between Iranian and Slavic. It is remarkable for its elaborate consonant clusters. Russian, Ukrainian, Ossetian, and Armenian are written languages. The first three use a Cyrillic based script, while Armenian has its own, distinctive national writing.

The Southern Caucasian or Kartvelian language family consists of Georgian, Mingrelian and Laz (collectively called Zan or Chan), and distantly related Svan. Only Georgian is written, using its own national alphabet. These languages have complex sentence formation (syntax), with Georgian and Svan being “ergative.” Ergative languages mark the person (or thing) undergoing an action by the absolutive case), whether it is done by the person alone (intransitive) or brought upon it by another (transitive). The person or thing that brings the action upon another is marked by a special case, the ergative. For example,(using English), a Georgian would say “the boy­absolutive sleeps,” but “the teacher­ergative bores the boy­absolutive.” If the action is incomplete, then the case marking switches with the subject in the absolutive and the object in a sort of geometric role (“dative” case), “the teacher­absolutive is boring at the boy­dative.” Word formation is highly irregular and highly unusual in that grammatical material is stuck both on the front and end of a root (circumfixation). The noun exhibits a large number of cases, while the verb inflects not only for person, but also for intentions, distinguishing between accidental, purposive, direct, and self­serving actions. The sound systems show difficult consonant clusters, as in mtskheta a place name, Tbilisi name of the capital (meaning ‘of the warm spring’), tqbili ‘sweet’, or prtkhili ‘careful.’ Long strings of vowels are also possible. A contrast between regular and back k­sounds occurs (transcribed as “k” versus “q”) . Glottal ejectives, characteristic of the Caucasus, also occur. These are consonants made with a slight popping sound by shutting the vocal cords and causing a momentary smothering sensation.

The Northeast Caucasian languages are also ergative. Most word modification is by means of attaching grammatical material to the end of a root (suffixation). The verb is relatively simple, in most cases not even inflecting for person, though some, as in Archi or Chechen, can be elaborate. Most complexity resides in the noun system, where large numbers of cases are used to denote almost every conceivable grammatical role or spatial relationship. Cases even have cases and can express, for example not only whether something crosses something else (the “translative”), but whether the crossing took place horizontally, or from above to below, or from below to above. Some languages, such as Lak and Tabasaran have nearly fifty cases, the largest such systems known anywhere. These systems are suited for the geometric complexity of their mountainous environment. The nouns further belong to class systems. These are gender systems like that found in Slavic, but with as many as nine categories: male, female, neuter, animal, plurals, mass objects (sand, water, etc.), long objects, edible objects, etc. The sound systems have a profusion of fricatives (s­, sh­, or kh­like sounds), many of them gutturals (made in the back of the mouth or in the throat). One form of Aghul makes such sounds in more places than any other known language: at the soft palate (velars), at the back of the mouth (uvulars), at the back of the mouth with the throat contracted (pharyngealized uvulars), in the upper throat (pharyngeals), in the lower throat (epiglottals or adytals), and in the voice box (laryngeals). Prolonged consonants also occur, as do glottal ejectives, and rounded consonants (simultaneous kw, klw, or tw, for example). Many languages show a profusion of l­like sounds,(Archi has eleven), some of which are made in the back of the mouth. Consonant clusters are few. Elaborate vowel systems occur, with ordinary vowels (oral), vowels made with the nose open (nasalized), with the throat constricted (pharyngealized), or with the epiglottis lowered (adytalized). The languages of the Andi group (Andi, Botlikh, Godoberi, Chamalal, Bagwalal, Karata, Akhwakh , and Tindi), have tone (like Chinese), as well as breathy voiced vowels, and “stiff” vowels. Chechen and Ingush are written languages, as are Avar, Lak, Dargwa, Tabasaran, and Lezgi. Most recently Aghul, Rutul and Tsakhur have been raised to literary status. All languages use a modified Cyrillic script.

As complex as the South and Northeast languages are, the Northwest ones are more complex still, approaching what may be some sort of maximum. The family consists of Circassian, Abkhaz, Abaza, and Ubykh. Their syntax is ergative, but shows a wide range of alternative patterns depending upon the exact relationship of actor and object. The verb inflects for every noun in the sentence, as well as expressing a plethora of geometric information, by the unusual means of attaching a string of grammatical material to the front of the root (prefixation). Some sentences have two objects (di­ transitives), while others have two subjects (causatives). In fact the verb is so expressive that conversations in these languages often turn into a series of verbs once the speakers know the nouns they are talking about. The case system on the noun is simple (Circassian, Ubykh) or absent (Abkhaz and Abaza). The vast majority of nouns, however, are made up of simpler terms. For example, in Circassian na­pa eye­nose means ‘face’; sh'ha­pq head­bone means ‘skull’; while wuna­pq house­bone is ‘frame of a house’ and woradi­pq song­bone is ‘melody’. The sound systems, however, are the most unusual feature of the family. All the languages have enormous consonantal systems, with rounded, labialized (simultaneous p­ , b­, f­, v­ or w­ made with the sound), palatalized (raised tongue), and pharyngealized (squeezed throat) consonants made at almost every possible point in the mouth and throat. Kabardian is the minimum with 48 consonants, while Ubykh is the maximum with 81,(for example, Ubykh has 14 guttural, kh­ or h­like, sounds and 27 sibilants, s­, ts­, sh­, ch­like sounds). These sounds also occur in elaborate clusters, especially in Abkhaz and Abaza. As hard as the consonants are, the vowels are harder still. This family is known for its “vertical vowel system,” in which vowels contrast only in degree of openness. By some analyses these languages have four, three, or only two vowels. Some linguists have even argued that the vowels of Kabardian are all predictable and therefore not really part of its sound system (phoneme inventory). Two dialects of Circassian serve as written languages, Chemgwi (West Circassian), and Kabardian (East Circassian). Both Abkhaz and the closely related Abaza are literary languages, while Ubykh, still spoken by a handful of people in Turkey, has been extensively documented by linguists and folklorists. The literary languages use highly modified Cyrillic scripts, while Ubykh has been recorded in an elaborated Latin one. Scholars have tried to find links between various Caucasian languages and some of the languages of the Ancient Middle East and Anatolia, such as Hattic (with Northwest Caucasian), Sumerian (with Georgian or Daghestani), Urartean and Hurrian (with Daghestani). One such proposal that has attracted much interest and some support is that linking the Indo­European family with the Northwest Caucasian one.

Multilingualism is virtually universal among Caucasians. Nearly everyone speaks Russian in addition to their own language, and many have some command of several neighboring languages. The only people to be predominantly monolingual are the Russians, who tend to dominate in urban centers. The villages and countryside remain bastions of the native languages.

In the North as opposed to the South Caucasus the family name comes first and then the given names. In Russian practice this is reversed, but the original order is retained in the social practices of the individual peoples. The Circassians and their kin also have secret names known only to their family and intimate friends.

4. Folklore

The Caucasus is rich in folklore. In the southern highlands tales of a mountain sorceress, Dal, are widespread. She is beautiful and glowing, and is a protectress of the alpine wildlife, but she can also lure hunters to their doom. Other tales show strong Zoroastrian influences from Ancient Iran. In the North there are tales that recount battles with the ancient Goths, Huns, and Khazars, the last a Turkic people who ruled the Caucasus and adopted Judaism wholesale. One of the most noteworthy traditions is that of the Nart sagas, dramatic tales of a race of ancient heroes in which the figure of the all wise and all fertile Lady Satanaya is pivotal. She is mother to all the heroes and in many ways resembles the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite. Other figures include a shape changer and trickster, Sosruquo. He is magically conceived by Satanaya when a shepherd lusts after her and is born aflame from a rock. The god of the forge, Tlepsh, seizes him with tongs and quenches him in a vat of water, thus hardening him and making him invulnerable everywhere but at his knees (much like the Greek hero Achilles), where the tongs held him. The mightiest and purest hero is Pataraz or Batradz, in some ways resembling Sir Lancelot of the Arthurian Romance. His father, Khimish, is murdered by the Narts for marrying a water sprite without their approval. They commit this murder in front of Khimish’s mother, the worst possible atrocity in Caucasian eyes. Pataraz, still in his mother’s womb, swears vengeance for his father’s blood. When he is born the Narts abduct him and throw him into a torrent. He is washed away, found by a little old man and woman, and is raised in a burial mound. He quickly grows to maturity underground, and is in effect resurrected from the dead. He returns and first encounters a Nart ruler, Pshimaruquo, whose name means “Prince of Death.” He triumphs over him and goes on to annihilate his enemies. There is also a giant or hero, Nasran, who, like the Greek Prometheus, is chained to a mountain top as a punishment for trying to return fire to humankind. There is a cyclopean giant, Yinizh, who traps some men in a cave just as the Greek cyclops Polyphemus did. He is blinded by the trickster Sosruquo, who thrusts a stake into the giant’s one eye and escapes along with his men. These numerous links to the myths of Ancient Greece are matched by many to Ancient India and to Norse Scandinavia as well. There is even a sort of Christmas tree figure, Lady Tree, and a warrior ‘Forest­Mother’, Amaz­an, from which the Greeks took the figure of their women warriors, the Amazons. There is also a wide spread belief in the western Caucasus in a wild man of the high mountain forests, especially among people who dwell in the upper villages. These hairy sub­humans are reputed to be about five feet tall and to travel in small family groups. Occasionally they are said to come into the lowland fields at harvest time and feed on the ripening ears of corn. Men are said to be very brave if they can go into the high forests and trade with these wild men, because after having met with one or two of them in a clearing to offer trinkets they run the risk of being ambushed by the whole band as they return through the high, dense rhododendron forests.

5. Religion

The nation states of Georgia (Georgian Orthodox Christian) , Armenia (Armenian Orthodox Christian), and Azerbaijan use religion as central components in their identity. The first two claim to be the oldest Christian nations and have nationalist churches. Azerbaijan is Shi’ite Muslim (Azeri Turks and Georgian speaking Ingiloi), Sunni Muslim (southern Lezgi Daghestani peoples), and Alwanian Christian Orthodox Christian, now a branch of the Georgian patriarchate, (the small Udi community). These nation states feel a sense of privilege in comparison with the smaller peoples of the Caucasus and have used their religion as a part of their pride. The Nagorno­Karabagh war, 1989­1995, was triggered by and accompanied by serious ethnic clashes between Azeris and Armenians that resonated with religious and ethnic hatred.

By contrast religious tolerance is one of the strongest features of the North Caucasus, and so Christians (Orthodox), Muslims (Sunni), Jews, and pagans can be found living side by side. Even during the recent wars in the North, religious hatred never emerged as a motive. The highlands also had mystical traditions of meditation and martial arts which in the east have become Sufi practices. In Daghestan holy men often have shrines, usually placed at the highest point of the village. Pagan elements persist throughout the Caucasus and many Abkhaz are avowedly pagan. Religion is always socially and conceptually subordinated to ethnic identity throughout the Caucasus.

There are enigmatic relics of older beliefs. For example, Ossetia preserves “beehive” mortuaries made of flat stones, that must reflect an older, local religion of unknown character. Most skulls from these mortuaries show deformation due to head binding practices. Daghestan shows many old beliefs surrounding animals, such as snakes, horses, and especially the bear. This last totemistic animal is associated with sacred rocks and even a half­bear half­man creature. Sacred rocks of “heaven” are also mentioned in some of the Nart sagas of the Northwest Caucasian Abazas. These are considered the heaviest stones and might even have been nickle­iron meteorites.

6. Rites of passage

Apart from Muslim and Orthodox Christian rites of circumcision and christening, there are no rites of passage into adulthood. Both boys and girls were considered mature at the age of sixteen. Marriage is the chief change in life for both men and women. As a sign of maturity young men are allowed to grow moustaches. Old men sometimes grow beards as a sign of their stature as elders.

In the Northwest special membership in hunting bands carried with it knowledge of a special language for its male members. In old Circassian this was she­ko­bza hunt­er­language. In Abkhazia a woodsman language is still used. There are spotty reports of a woman’s language that seems to have been spoken until recently across the entire North Caucasus. One old Ossetian related how his mother and sister would speak in a monosyllabic language with tone (like Sumerian of Ancient Mesopotamia)!

7. Major holidays

These are those of the Orthodox Christian and Sunni, Moslem faiths. The Northwest Caucasians (Circassians, Ubykhs, Abazas, and Abkhaz) in the diaspora mark deportation day (28 May 1864), the anniversary of their expulsion from the Caucasus. In Daghestan the “first ploughing” at “New Year’s” in the spring is widely celebrated with a ritual ploughing of a furrow by a bull and with festivities, races, and tests of strength.

8. Interpersonal relations

In all Caucasian societies siblings were supposed to be married in the order from oldest down to youngest. In all cases the bride went to live in the extended family of her husband (patrilocal marriage). Whether arranged or through love, marriage was viewed as the linking of two families. Accordingly, matters of social rank between them were frequently of concern.

Marriage was by abduction among the Northwest Caucasians. These were often prearranged by the couple in love. Mock abductions are still performed. A leather corset with many knots was worn by the bride for those prearranged abductions. After the first night the man had to present this corset with its thongs intact to both families as a sign of his courtesy to his new wife and of his restraint. Marriages often took place when the couple was in their thirties, which is extraordinarily late. Premarital life was filled with decorous and discrete romance. Young girls had a room in their family homes in which they were free to entertain their suitors. Trysts were arranged for an amorous young couple by the youth’s maternal uncle, while a young woman’s well being was the responsibility of her brothers. In Ossetia, marriage was generally for love, the couple marrying in their twenties, but family rank was still an important factor. In the Northeast Caucasus marriages were usually arranged, with young people marrying in their teens. Brides were subservient to their in­laws. In the South Caucasus, a similar pattern was followed in Armenia, where family negotiations and an “engagement” of their teenage children were begun as early as two years before a marriage. Brides were subservient to their mothers­ in­law and had to observe a ritual silence in their new families, often for years. In public their faces were veiled or even tightly wrapped in silk until they had a child. Among the Georgians, young people marry by mutual consent in their twenties, with civic and church ceremonies. The bride is supposed to have an agreeable, but respectful relationship with her in­laws. Among the Azeris, couples marry in their twenties. Rural marriages are usually arranged, but even those urban marriages that are motivated by love are expected to take place between families that are well known to one another or are even related to one another. The latter case is unique in the Caucasus, where strict exogamy (marriage outside a clan or lineage) is otherwise the rule.

Throughout the Caucasus hospitality to strangers is one of the foremost social imperatives. Lavish feasts are given for guests, with strangers or distant kin being the first greeted and closer kin second. In theory the host would even give his life to defend a guest. In return, the guest is expected to act discretely and respectfully to his host and so bring honour to the host’s family. Even a prisoner of war or an enemy could be treated hospitably if he had shown great valour. In the midst of a duel, it was possible for one adversary to seek a suspension of hostilities for a period of time as long as several days. The combatants would then resume their struggle at an agreed upon time and place. This chivalric code has been eroded by modern warfare.

Two other marked features are found throughout the Caucasus. First, elders are revered. The old are expected to have full and passionate lives. A woman, however, is cautioned that “a man past 100 is no longer much of a man.” The elderly also have economic roles in the community, sorting fruit or tending to gardening, which permit them to contribute without taxing their powers. Young people are greatly honored to wait upon or care for an elderly member of their clan or their community. Many peoples have a chorus or dance troupe in which all the members are one hundred or more years old. They have special dances and distinctive songs.

Second, women enjoy high social prestige and sexual freedom. They are seen as the sources of fertility, social grace, and even intellectual knowledge. Until recently a woman could halt the most vicious fight simply by tossing her scarf between the two men. People who are attracted to one another or who admire one another can declare themselves to be “milk” brothers or sisters. Such a bond can cross gender lines. An older man can declare a woman to be his younger sister. He then assumes serious responsibility for her welfare. What is unusual in the Caucasus is that women have the right to initiate such altruistic friendships with men or even embark upon sexual ones if they do so discretely. Such overtures are difficult for the man to reject, because then he would be rejecting her whole family, so women accordingly do not make overtures lightly. One opener is for the woman to ask to borrow a pen or other small item even when it is obviously not needed. To comply is to show interest. To be chosen as a “milk” sibling is one of the greatest honours that can be bestowed upon some one by a Caucasian. Such bonds last for life and have all the force of true kinship. Often a man and a woman who cannot marry for some reason will instead form a life long bond in this way.

In Daghestan a woman can still have such milk brothers , but her sexual prerogatives are more circumscribed with the prowess of the menfolk being more important. This can be shown when the men set water buckets out on their porches in the evening for nocturnal ablutions after sexual intercourse: the bigger the bucket, the greater his presumed sexual prowess. Some men even set out two. The somewhat lower rank of the women in Daghestan correlates with a greater economic burden of toil on their part.

9. Living conditions

These are relatively good in the South and Northwest where the land is verdant, but are difficult in the Northeast where mountain deserts dominate. Life in the high reaches of Daghestan is especially harsh due to the prolonged winters and barren land. Men go on long outings to earn money in the lowlands, while the women remain behind to maintain the households through strenuous work. One advantage to living in the highlands is that every step is either up or down and the resulting exercise contributes to many people being long lived, with ages well over 100 frequently being claimed. Whatever their age people are often extremely strong and youthful looking. The Northwest Caucasian house is long with one floor, much like a ranch style home. It was made of wattle covered in clay daub. Villages were formed of compounds containing a main house and several out buildings, including guest housing, that originally were strung out like necklaces along river banks. Tower fort homes were common in the highlands of Svan territory (Svanetia), of Ossetia, and in the Circassian and Abkhazian highlands. These striking buildings, sitting within a walled yard, were made of stone with a first floor for livestock, a second floor for humans, and a high tower in which all could take refuge when under siege from a blood feud. In Ossetia, Ingushetia and Chechnia villages are composed of clusters of houses, some quite large, that accommodate three or four generations of a family. The Northeast Caucasian stone houses run on top of one another, the roof of the lower serving as the porch of the upper, as they cling to hill sides to form compact villages called auls. The Andi aul of Muni is so compact that it forms one giant building with enclosed streets. Houses in such auls usually were made of local stone and had two floors: the first for livestock, the second for people (also to be above the snows). Villages in the south have a more open pattern, with extended families occupying one or two story houses.

The cities, many of which were founded as Cossack forts, have a blend of older nineteenth century housing and modern Soviet high rise apartments. Most of these cities are attractive, with large parks and tree lined boulevards.

10. Family life

Extended, patrilocal families were the norm across the Caucasus. In the highlands people often live to be very old, so that great grandparents or even great great grandparents are part of the family. Children must respect elders and older siblings. Brothers have very close, protective relationships with their sisters. Boys have very close ties with their maternal uncles, while they have relatively formal relationships with their fathers. This is part of the Cherkess kinship system, where the husband’s relationship to his wife is formal, the wife’s bond to her brother is spontaneous and deep. The eldest man is master of the extended family unit in so far as he rules over disputes or regulates social relationships with the outside world. Within the confines of the home, however, the eldest woman is supreme and runs the details of the household. Often she works hard to organize feasts, supervising her daughters­in­law or even poor female relations who may come to help, but she can be rewarded after the dinner by having her family and guests gather outside the kitchen to applaud her while she takes a bow.

Family life is further integrated into the community by tight networks of clans and blood lines. These are centered around villages in Daghestan, where such clans will have their own tea houses in which their members gather. Clan houses are merely meeting houses among the Chechens and Ingush. With the Ossetians, Northwest Caucasians, Mountain Turks, and Armenians, clans are vital to social organization and have local “seats”, but clan houses do not exist. In Georgia a loose network of noble families serves a similar function, with clans being absent. In Azerbaijan, clans and wider social structures are lacking. Even here, however, extended families have a social reality and structure such arrangements as marriages.

The clans were also the base for the blood feud or vendetta. Customary law, called adat, stipulated that if a member of one clan killed or even accidentally brought about the death of a member from another, then every man in the offended clan had the obligation to restore “the balance of life” by killing the man responsible, or if that was too difficult, another male from the killer’s clan. This obligation passed down the male line for seven generations. There were only fours ways to stop the bloodshed. First, one clan eventually killed all the males of the other, a tragedy which sometimes happened. Second, a blood price was stipulated, usually in livestock, and the offending clan was able to meet this demand. Third, an exalted social figure, an elder or an Imam (Muslim cleric), forced the offended clan to renounce their obligation or risk taking the blame for humiliating him in turn. Sometimes this peace maker would have to threaten suicide to force such a renunciation. Fourth, the killer could sneak up on a woman from the victim’s clan, seize her, tear open her blouse, and place his lips to her breast. Such an act, however fleeting, would suffice to create a kinship bond between the two clans which precluded further bloodshed. This was not an easy feat, because many Caucasian women will fight and sometimes are armed with small daggers. During war, vendetta was suspended so that men could form an army and fight beside their blood enemies. In recent decades Soviet courts had begun to assume the roles of arbiters of justice in such cases, but with the collapse of Soviet authority vendetta is reemerging.

In the Northwest Caucasus princely and noble families practiced fosterage: they would give their sons to trusted retainers to be reared. This was nearly the highest honour which a retainer could know, because it linked his family to that of the nobility by fictive kinship bonds. The highest honour was when the foster child refused to return to his natural family at sixteen years of age, but chose instead to remain in the household of his foster parents.

11. Clothing

Distinctive to the Caucasus and borrowed by the Cossacks is a man’s garment called the “cherkesska.” This is a robe like suit, tightly fitting on the upper torso, and flaring out from the waist, with long flaring sleeves. On either side of the chest were sewn on cylindrical pockets arrayed in a row for cartridges or to hold small cases of gun powder for a musket. A long sleeved, high collared satin shirt is worn under it, together with fitted trousers. In the Cossack variant the trousers are baggy. As the name suggests, this dashing outfit originated among the Circassians (“Cherkess” in Russian). Over it can be worn a heavy, rectangular sheepskin cape, the burka, which can even serve as a makeshift tent. In Daghestan sheep's wool leather coats with long sleeves dangling below the hands were common as well. Lambs wool hats are worn, some high and cylindrical, others shorter and flaring, some shaggy and spherical, depending upon the region. Footwear, for riding, consists of soleless boots that resemble a leather knee sock. No man was considered dressed without a long dagger, the kinjal, hanging from a narrow leather belt.

The traditional woman’s garment is a long, flowing gown, with pendant sleeves, and either a high, crown­like hat, or a low boxy hat with a trailing scarf attached to it. Shoes are pump­like slippers without backs, but in older times noble women wore platform shoes. Northeast Caucasians had woollen sweater like tunics and heavy socks and mittens to ward off the winter cold. Daghestani women often wore baggy trousers and tunics. Daghestani, Chechen and Ingush women often wear head scarves, sometimes hanging far down their backs, but they do not wear veils. Women often wear pendant earrings, necklaces, and bracelets. Some Daghestani women wear large broach­like pieces of silver on their foreheads attached to their head scarves. Outside Daghestan modern dress is now the rule except for parties or festivals when formal attire is worn. This formal attire is the traditional costumes of either sex.

12. Food

Outside Daghestan food is relatively plentiful and varied in the Caucasus: Chicken, mutton, cornmeal and millet mush with lumps of meat or cheese, all seasoned with garlic or in the South with hot spices, as well as yogurt, a walnut paste, fruits, water melons, wine , cognac, and millet beer. One popular dish that has spread beyond the Caucasus is “chicken Circassian,” which consists of a cornbread covered with ground chicken mixed with onions and walnuts, and topped with a cream garlic sauce. Pre­Soviet diets were low in fat and people were slender. Now, the diet is high in fat and starch, and people thicken with age. This is considered a regrettable development. One item that reflects such changes in diet is ground liver spread in a layer and then topped with a layer of lard. The whole is rolled up and then sliced and served like a jelly role. Though feasting could last for days and drinking was heavy, over eating or drunkenness were considered disgraceful lapses in etiquette. The clan or community feast was an important affair, and was run by the tamada (a Circassian word that has spread across the Caucasus, up into Russia and down into Iran). Invariably a man was elected. He determined seating, and set the tempo for courses and drinks. People are judged by the eloquence and moral force of their toasts, women also being permitted to offer them. Only the Aghuls of Daghestan stand apart in that no toasting is done at their feasts. Daghestanis are noted for grinding their grains after they have begun to sprout. This practice enhances the vitamin content of the flour.

13. Education

All children are reared from an early age to observe formal etiquette, to honour elders, and to dance. In the highlands, training in hunting and stalking was important. Lower down, training in the details of horse breeding was often vital. Formal education is in the larger native languages up to high school, but then is usually in Russian. Up until the Russian conquest the religious universities (Medrassas) of Daghestan were renowned throughout the Muslim world. While the Russians discouraged such institutions, they did introduce wide spread literacy in both Russian and in many of the native languages. The Russians also opened up the Caucasus to modern urban culture and science. The Caucasus can boast a high percentage of scientists, intellectuals, and artists.

14. Cultural heritage

The Caucasus has been a refuge for many peoples who were driven out of the steppes of Eurasia. It has preserved many values and customs that seem ancient. With the Russian conquest and with the advent of modernity, Caucasians face many challenges to their heritage and sense of identity. One dominant theme emerges from the array of local concerns. All Caucasians wish to be a part of modern culture in some sense, even those who are otherwise staunchly Muslim. Theirs is a desire to enter upon the stage of world culture as a respected and distinct form of civilization. They feel, rightly so, that they have much to offer. They have trouble, however, in sorting out the details and of finding new roles for old values. An ongoing debate centers upon how to reconcile the imperatives of the old customs, such as vendetta and hospitality, with the modern need for flexibility and compassion. They have a range of difficulties in constructing a modern identity from their warrior heritage. They are still outstanding fighters, but urban culture offers them roles and goals that are new. Furthermore, the diaspora and the home populations have differing needs. The former seek to retain or revive aspects of identity in their new homelands, chiefly Turkey, while the latter try to find viable roles for older customs in the new urban centers established by the Russians. This problem is especially acute in the North. Despite these challenges, however, certain core traits still form part of the heritage of most Caucasians: a fierce love of freedom, the honouring of elders, keeping of one’s word, showing hospitality, showing restraint, feeling the imperatives of vendetta and vengeance if not often acting upon them, forming fictive kinship bonds (milk siblings), avoiding a mercenary attitude toward money, adhering to old home territory if in the Caucasus, observing proper conduct and etiquette, and cultivating good humour and a sharp wit.

Other aspects of Caucasian heritage are the dance. Music at one time was played on violins and oboe­ like instruments, but now clarinets and accordions are preferred. Drums, gourd rattles, and wooden clackers form the rhythm section. Long horns (like the Swiss alp horns) were used in Ossetia to communicate between valleys. Poetry recitals are another important aspect. Women as well as men can be bards in the Northwest. In times past in Daghestan, bards (only males) would hold contests in eloquence, with the loser reputedly loosing his head, literally.

Another vital heritage that has been carried down to modern times is an elaborate tradition of herbal medicine. This is especially active in Daghestan among the men, and in the Northwest highlands among the women. It has spread into Russia and Turkey along with Caucasian immigrants and is a highly valued service among the population at large. Its practice is open only to the initiated, so that scholars or doctors have yet to study these remedies and techniques.

15. Work

This is specialized by gender across the Caucasus. Men work with livestock and in the open fields, whereas women tend gardens, thresh grain, do household chores, and tend to sewing. Men will do metal working and leather tooling. In Daghestan women, young and old, can often be seen carrying enormous loads of hay or kindling on their backs, or large jugs of water on their heads. Children and the elderly are given tasks suitable to their abilities that contribute to the prosperity of the village. Despite the gender based specialization, both sexes accord mutual respect to their roles.

Some groups show trends toward careers that carry on older cultural specialties. Many diaspora Caucasians have become military leaders in Russia, Turkey, and the Middle East, following the earlier example of the Circassian Mamelukes (non­Muslim warriors hired by Muslim rulers) who ruled Egypt in the 13th to 15th centuries. The Circassian Sultan Kutuz of Egypt was the first to defeat the Monghols during their onslaught in the early 14th century. The same family name was born by General Kutuzov of the Tsarist army who defeated Napoleon five hundred years later. ‘Kutuz(ov)’ is till a common name among the Chechens. One odd effect of this warrior heritage is that you cannot offer to help a Caucasian man without offending him, since such an offer implies that you see him as unequal to his task. He must ask you for help. Another effect is the heavy emphasis throughout the Caucasus on etiquette and proper conduct in order to curb the excesses of the warrior code in normal social life. Other diaspora Caucasians have become skilled machinists, pharmacists or physicians. In Turkey the Ubykhs, for example, who were known for their healing skills back in the Caucasus, are frequently doctors in Turkey. Others raise horses, while others are merchants.

16. Sports

A popular reworking of the old warrior ethic appears to be soccer, the most popular sport in the Caucasus. A close second is wrestling, which combines a kick­boxing like manner of fighting, perhaps descended from the older mystical martial tradition of hand to hand combat. Caucasian dance has the quality of a sport, demanding enormous strength in jumps and leaps, and attended by a pervasive grace. The men twirl, strut, and leap with a proud bearing, while the women glide and swirl in a demure manner. Arm motions are an important part of the dance, with one straightened arm held upward and the other downward with the hands flexed at the wrists. Chechen dance adds to these features one that exemplifies the Caucasian virtue of self control. While the woman glides about, the man whirls around her, moving in and out. At unexpected moments he will shout abruptly and powerfully into her face or ear, and if she is a skilled dancer, she will neither flinch nor even bat an eye. Even the very young and the very old have their own dances, and so can participate in this activity. Skill at horseback riding and horse racing are popular. Skill with knives and sabres is seen as a great achievement. One of the most spectacular feats is to cut through 21 oranges (the product of two magical numbers, 3 and 7) with a sabre without moving even one of them. It is achieved by slowly pulling the razor­sharp sabre toward you while you sweep it through the lined up oranges. The nobles of the Circassians, Ubykhs, and Abkhaz still practice a martial art form. From the age of twelve they toughen their hands by thrusting them into huge bags of clay. In olden days they were said to have been able to thrust their hands into an enemy’s body and rip out his heart. The rule was “in a fight don’t get close to a noble.”

17. Entertainment and recreation

Many of the cities have national museums, theatres, and dance troupes based upon local ethnic customs. These are well attended. Music, dance, and bardic recitation are still popular forms of entertainment. The arrival of a guest is an opportunity for such entertaining, as well as for feasting with a tamada. In the highlands hunting boars and badgers, stags and bears, is a popular pastime.

18. Folk art, crafts, and hobbies

The peoples of Daghestan are famous for their woven rugs, tapestries, and textiles, with each ethnic group having its own distinctive patterns. The peoples from the Northwest Caucasus make felt rugs and folk costumes. as well as leather goods, including saddles. Their favoured decoration is a pleasing open exfoliate pattern (resembling leaves and vines). Poetry is an active folk art, with some groups, such as the Abaza, producing volumes of popular poetry by hundreds of amateurs. Some groups, such as the Kubachis of Daghestan, are famed for their metal working. Kubachi metal goods, including swords and daggers, are considered among the best examples of Islamic metal working in the world. Many Daghestani peoples supplement their meagre economies with home knitting (socks, mittens, sweaters). These are often done by hand in a matter of hours or days by the women, and they are then sold in Georgia or in Russia by the men. 19. Social problems

The problems faced by Caucasians, both in the Caucasus and among the diaspora, are numerous and acute. In the Caucasus endemic violence, dislocations in social structure, new and seemingly arbitrary borders, sharp ethnic rivalries, the recovery of lost practices and identities, and a coming to terms with the Communist legacy are all problems that must in some sense be solved. In the damaged hierarchical Northwest Caucasian societies, where there were princes, nobles, freemen, and slaves, there is chronic struggle for prestige and rank, since former princes and nobles no longer command deference from former freemen or slaves. In North Ossetia problems center around ethnic identity and union with the South Ossetians. North Ossetians are highly Russified, but have been brought up short in this evolution by the influx of roughly thirty­five thousand conservative South Ossetian refugees. Northeast Caucasian societies are also hierarchical except for the Chechen, Ingush, and Lezgi. In this region the major problem is balancing the competing claims of the numerous ethnic groups. The Chechens face the acute problem of rebuilding after the disastrous war with Russia and of normalizing their relations with the vastly more numerous former imperial masters whom they have nevertheless driven out. These tasks are made harder by the horizontal organization of Chechen society into clans. Chechens are not accustomed to following a hierarchical authority, even when it is their own. Georgian society has endured an acute economic collapse, with South Ossetia and Abkhazia only loosely part of the new nation after having fought wars of secession. The role of the old Georgian noble families is being revived and reappraised in an effort to enhance social cohesion. Armenia and Azerbaijan are locked in a stalemate over Nagorno­Karabagh, with Armenian forces holding more than a fifth of what was Azerbaijani territory. Azerbaijan has embarked upon a strategy of an ethnically and religiously homogeneous social identity which seems ill suited to accommodate the Lezgi, Tsakhur, Kryz, Budukh, Khinalug, Ingiloi, or Udi peoples who live within its borders, not to mention the Armenians of Nagorno­ Karabagh.

Wars have adversely affected Georgia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Nagorno­Karabagh. Preventing renewed or future hostilities and rebuilding in the aftermath of those that have already happened will be a major challenge for the future of the region.

These same wars have reawakened ethnic identity among the diaspora Caucasians in a vivid and abrupt way. These people face their own array of social problems. First, is finding an accommodation for their newly revived identities within their host countries, not to mention finding tangible forms for these identities after six generations spent in exile. Second is native literacy among the diaspora. There is a renewed desire to publish in the languages of their heritage, as well as to learn and to preserve them. The last few Ubykh speakers in Turkey, for example, are the center of an effort to revive this small people. Turkey has shown political tolerance and innovation by permitting its large Caucasian minority to establish a North Caucasus Studies Center, and to record these languages. A limited amount of publishing in the Caucasian languages is also allowed. Jordan and Israel have long allowed their Caucasians language rights. The diaspora offers the promise of assisting the other Caucasians through trade and investment. If patience and wisdom prevail, the old tragedy of the ethnic cleansing of the Caucasus may yet prove to be the foundation for the salvation of the mountain peoples. 20. Bibliography

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