ReportNo. 12606-MAU Mauritania Country EnvironmentalStrategy Paper

Public Disclosure Authorized June30, 1994

Africa Region Sahelian Departnient

Public Disclosure Authorized U Public Disclosure Authorized

Documentof the World Bank Public Disclosure Authorized

I ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AMEXTIPE Mauritanian Agency for Public Works AgenceMauritanienne d'Execution des and Employment Travauxdlnteret Publicet pour l'Emploi CESP CountryEnvironumental Strategy Paper Documentde Strategie Environnementale CNEA NationalCenter for AlternativeEnergy Cellule Nationale des Energies Alternatives DEAR Departmentof Environmentand Rural Direction de lEnvironnement et de Planning l'Am6nagementRural EC EuropeanCommunity CommunauteEuropeene GEF GlobalEnvironment Facility Fondspour l'EnvironnementMondial IUCN WorldConservation Union Union Mondialepour la Nature LPG LiquidPropane Gas MDRE Ministry of Rural Development and Minist&re du Developpement et de Envirorunent l'Environnement MHE Ministryof Water and Energy Ministere de lHydraulique et de lEnergie MS Ministryof Health Ministerede la Sante NEAP NationalEnvironmental Action Plan Plan dAction National pour l'Environnement NRM Natural ResourceManagement Gestiondes RessourcesNaturelles OMVS Organization for the Development of Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur the SenegalRiver Valley du FleuveSenegal PAs PastoralAssociations AssociationsPastorales UNCED United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development UNDP United Nations Development Programmedes Nations Unies pour la Programme Developpement UNSO UnitedNations Sudano-SahelianOffice Office Saheliandes NationsUnies

Currency Equivalents Currency Unit = Ouguiyas (UM) US$1.0 = 120.23UM (March 1994) SDR= US$1.418 System of Weights and Measures Metric System Government Fiscal Year January 1-December 31 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... i I. INTRODUCTION...... 1I II. BACKGROUND ...... 2 A. The Economic Context ...... 2 B. The Demographic Context ...... 2 C. Natural Resources ...... 3 D. Social Structure...... 7 III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ...... 8 A. Natural Resource Management Issues...... 8 Development of the Senegal River Valley ...... 8 Land degradation in the Guidimaka ...... 13 Pastoralism ...... 14 Water Overexploitation in the Oases...... 15 Sand Dune Encroachment...... 17 Forest Degradation...... 20 B. Coastal Fishing ...... 22 C. Urban Environmental Issues ...... 25 IV. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTt ...... 28 A. Policy Framework ...... 28 B. Institutional Framework...... 29 C. Environmental Assessement of Public Investment Program ...... 30 D. Information Constraints ...... 30 E. Legal Framework ...... 31 V. ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES AND STRATEGY .. 35 VI. CONCLUSION ...... 40 ANNEXES Annex 1: Rainfall Distribution by Region Annex 2: Population Distribution by Region Annex 3: Land Use in Mauritania Annex 4: Protected Areas in Mauritania Annex 5: Classified Forests Annex 6: Bibliography

MAPS Agro-ecological Zones IBRD 25383

Preface This paper is one of a series of Country Environrnental Strategy Papers prepared by World Bank staff both for internal discussion and to strengthen policy dialogue with borrower countries on environmental issues and strategy. The report was prepared by Ms. Sarah Forster from the Sahelian Department under the supervision of Ms. Katherine Marshall, Department Director and Mr. Salah Darghouth, Chief, Agriculture Division. Mr. David Steeds (Division Chief, Agriculture and Natural Resources Department) and Ms. Cynthia Cook (Environmental and Social Policy Advisor, Occidental and Central African Department) acted as informal Bank peer reviewers. The paper is based primarily on informnationcollected during a three week mission to Mauritania in July and August, 1993 and a review of relevant documentation and Bank operational experience. The mission comprised Mr. Yves Pr6vost, Consultant, Environmentally Sustainable Development Division, Africa Technical Department, Mr. Aleksander Kawalec, agronomist, FAO/CP and Ms. Sarah Forster. The author wishes to thank Messrs. Hadya Amadou Kane, Dahmoud ould Merzoug, Sall Brahim and Cheikna M'Bare of the Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environment for their participation in the mission and close collaboration, which has aided in the preparation of this document. The paper draws on the discussions during the mission with representatives from the key Government ministries as well as with the donor community, non-governmental organizations and local people. The mission spent ten days visiting the regions of Trarza, Gorgol, Assaba, Hodh el Gharbi, and the Guidimaka to discuss environmental issues at the local government and community levels in order to to gain a better understanding of local perceptions of environmental issues and to visit project sites. The report has also benefitted from the comments and suggestions of Katherine Marshall (AF5DR), Salah Darghouth, John Hall (AF5AG); Miguel Saponara (AF5CO); Ignatius Menezes (AF5IE); Claude Delapierre, Souleymane Sow (AFMAU); David Steeds (AGRNR); Cynthia Cook (AF1DR); Jan Bojo, Yves Prevost (AFTES) Hans-Werner Wabnitz (LEGAF), Jamison Suter (AF5 consultant) and Michael Horowitz (AGRNR/lnstitute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, New York). This paper reflects the Bank's preliminary findings and concerns regarding environmental issues, and is intended to provide a contribution to the Government of Mauritania's ongoing environmental policy-making process and to stimulate a broader and more intensive debate on environmental priorities and action with the Government and its donor partners. It has been widely read and reviewed within the Bank and preliminary discussions were held with the Government in March 1994. It was then presented as a background paper for the Consultative Group meeting held in Paris in April 1994 and has since been revised to incorporate the Government's comments.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION 1. A broad and strategic approach to environmental management is essential to Mauritania's development as, in virtually all sectors, the Governmentis confrontedwith issues of environmnentalsustainability. The objective of this Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) is to take stock of the Bank's understanding of these issues and situate them within the broader development context. The overarching aim is to launch a broader and more intensive policy dialogue on environmental issues with the Government and Mauritania's development partners. The paper identifies, briefly analyzes, and broadly establishes priorities among the many environmental issues facing Mauritania. Based on this analysis, it suggests a strategy as to how the Government of Mauritania and its donor partners can better integrate environmental concerns into the development effort. 2. Much analysis has been done on environmental issues for Mauritania, most notably on issues of desertification and the Senegal River Basin. Many actors are involved in assisting the Government of Mauritania address a broad agenda of environmental challenges, particularly, UNSO, UNDP, the Governments of Germany and France, and IUCN. To date, though, the Government and its partners have lacked an overall framework that clearly links environmental concerns to Mauritania's development strategy and defines environmental priorities and policy choices. This is the role that a national environmental strategy or National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) is intended to play. The Government's broad approach on environmental issues was reflected in the Policy Framework Paper 1993-1996, prepared in collaboration with the World Bank and the IMF. The aim for the national environmental strategy is to expand on these policy statements and translate them into operational and budget planning and investment priorities and decisions. It is also designed to serve as an instrument to prompt a broad public debate on environmental priorities and action measures in Mauritania. 3. This paper examines three major environmental challenges facing Mauritania, highlighting the main issues and implications of each. The first issue is how to manage natural resources in a way that is sustainable, equitable and efficient. Natural resource management issues manifest themselves somewhat differently in four important regions of Mauritania: the Senegal River Valley, the pastoral areas, the Guidimaka, and the oases. The paper also takes a closer look at sand dune encroachment, the most visible of Mauritania's land degradation problems, and deforestation. The second issue examninedis overfishing of coastal fisheries which appears to be undermining the profitability of the fishing sector. Third is the rapid emergence of serious environmental problems in the burgeoning urban areas. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (i) Natural Resource Management Development of the Senegal River Valley 4. An urgent and central challenge for Mauritania, with its partners in neighboring countries, is to manage the development of the Senegal River Valley in a manner that integrates economic, technical, ecologicaland social concerns. The river valleyis of central importanceto Mauritania'soverall development strategy, representing the area with by far the highest agricultural potential. Prospects for expanding agriculturalproduction, however, depend to a large extent on how the land and water resourcesare managed. Though the valley has been the subject of numerous discussions and studies, the environmental and social dimensionsof changein the valleyhave not alwaysbeen taken into accountin developmentplanning. 5. Over the last 20 years, the Senegal River Valley has undergonetremendous social and environmental changes,in part the result of the Manantaliand Diama dams whichhave profoundlymodified the water regime in the valley,and in part the result of the droughtsand increasinghuman and animalpopulations. Integrating environmentalconsiderations into all developmentactivities is vital to ensurethe sustainabilityof productionin the valley. The Governmentof Mauritania recognizesthis basic principle and is working with donors, ii including the Bank, to develop an integrated development plan for the valley, that focuses much less on maximizing the overall irrigated area and more on promoting diversified production (flood-recession, rainfed, livestock, fishing) while taking into account the need to protect the biodiversity of the region, particularly the wetlands and birdlife in the river delta. 6. Water management throughout the valley is the key to ensuring the sustainability of production and the ecological integrity of the river basin. Many studies suggest that adopting an explicit system to allow a reliable artificial flood from the Manantali reservoir is the most important measure to take. The flood is vital for sustaining traditional flood-dependent activities. The flood also recharges the surface aquifer, from which many villages obtain water, and it provides soil moisture required by plant species, so guarding against land degradation. Variation in the reservoir level may also destroy disease vectors, thereby acting as a tool for minimizing dam-related diseases. Lack of reliable and adequate flooding since the dam went into operation highlights the need to reconsider the dam management strategy and ensure that demands for flood-recession production are given adequate consideration when determining water requirements for different purposes. Given the direct role the flood plays in sustaining agricultural production, water supply, biodiversity conservation and disease control, it is important to promote a stronger awareness of the role of the flood, particularly among decision-makers and technical staff responsible for control of dam management.

7. One of the next steps forward in adopting a more integrated approach to development of the valley will be further consultation and agreement between the OMVS member states and donors on action to ensure a reliable artificial flood taking into account local production and environmental needs as well as energy and irrigation requirements. A clearer understanding is needed of the relationship between flooding and the area of land inundated, forest regeneration and aquifer recharge. Another issue for agricultural development is opening up to annual flooding various flood plains, which have been closed by dikes and have not been used for irrigated agriculture. A more integrated approach to valley development also suggests paying more attention to increasing the productivity of local production systems: rain-fed and flood recession cropping, livestock, fishing, and vegetable gardening. Continuous monitoring and analysis of environmental changes are also essential to enable design of measures to minimize negative impacts. Natural Resource Management in the Guidimaka

8. The Guidimaka region is an area bordering the river valley which has high agricultural potential due to relatively high rainfall (350-600mm per year) and fertile soils but where, according to the Government's poverty strategy, some of the poorest of Mauritania's population live. Here, the central environmental issue is how to reverse the deterioration of land and increase sustainable agricultural production. The region has more vegetation cover than virtually any other region, however, it is under significant population pressure and is experiencing some of the most rapid land degradation in the country; an estimated one third of the land area is affected by water erosion.

9. The problems in the region are due to a number of overlapping factors. First, high rates of outmigration have led to a shortage of labor. Agricultural production has stagnated and many families rely heavily on migrant remittances. Male outmigration has shifted the responsibility for agriculture to women; however, often they do not have the rights or access to land, agricultural services and credit which would help them increase agriculture production and take measures to prevent land degradation. Second, over the last 20 years, an increasing number of camel herders and farmers have moved into the region from elsewhere in the country. Agriculture expansion into traditionally protected forested areas and concentrated browsing pressure is leading to alarming devegetation which, in turn, exacerbates soil erosion. The complexity of population movements in the region and increasing competition for land is likely to make land tenure an increasingly important issue, as people try to clarify and secure their rights to land. This highlights the need to examine the application of the 1983 Land Law reform to areas such as the Guidimaka. Third, lack of rural infrastructure iii and access to urban markets is a major factor behind the economic decline in the region. It reduces returns to agriculture which, in turn, limits the amount of revenue available to invest in soil and water management techniques.

10. Reversing the detioration of land resources in the Guidimaka and the stagnation of agricultural output will require some major shifts in Government policy and investment. To date, the region has received little attention. Agricultural production is constrained by a lack of investment in infrastructure and road access to urban markets. Priority should be given to protecting watersheds through the construction of small dams and other water management techniques. In its Poverty Strategy, the Government has targeted the Guidimaka as a region where priority should be given to land use management and agricultural production. A "gestion des terroirs" approach that aims to improve soil, water, pasture and forest management through targeting investment directly to the local level and supporting communities in efforts to reverse land degradation and clarify issues of land tenure may be the best approach to take in the region.

Pastoralism

11. A central challenge facing Mauritania is how to ensure the continued economic and environmental sustainability of the livestock sector. Pastoral production is important to Mauritania's economy (80% of agricultural GDP) and to its society . The livestock sector, however, is in a state of flux as patterns of ownership and herd management change. The droughts plus rising economic expectations have led to rapid sedenterization of the nomads. This has been followed by a trend towards agro-pastoralism. Increasing numbers of livestock are owned by urban-based absentee owners which has led to increasing competition for water and range resources between traditional and 'modem' livestock owners. Around the new pastoral settlements, particularly in the south-west and around Nouakchott, overgrazing, loss of trees and land degradation all present serious problems. In part this is linked to rainfall - rangeland production bounces back with the coming of good rains - however, sustained animal grazing pressure in concentrated areas is exarcerbating vegetation degradation.

12. Many complex issues emerge within the livestock sector, including clarifying the land tenure rights of pastoralists and improving range management and production. In 1987, the Government, with Bank support, promoted the establishment of Pastoral Associations (PAs) to provide a legal status to traditional pastoral groups and privatize certain livestock sector activities. This program has compelled a greater practical focus on pastoral institution building. It has provided PAs with an opportunity to take greater responsibility for range management and strengthen their legitimacy with respect to land and water rights. Though the strengthening of PAs has been largely successful, several significant issues remain. These include balancing the interests of traditional versus modern livestock owners, management of public wells, introducing improved rangeland management techniques and taking a more integrated approach to livestock development. The proposed Bank-financed Rainfed Natural Resource Management Project will focus on these topics. Water Overexploitation in the Oases 13. Mauritania faces serious problems of overexploitation of water in the oases. These fertile regions in the desert are a vital part of Mauritania's past and its present, both from a cultural and an economic perspective. Agricultural production in,the oases has declined over the past 20 years, largely as a result of the outmigration during the drought years of people who worked on the date plantations. As a consequence of the labor shortage, many land owners have begun to invest in motor pumps to replace the traditional hand pumps which has led to overexploitation of groundwater, particularly in the Adrar region. Lowered water tables lead to production losses due to inadequate irrigation and increased soil salinity. 14. There is a critical need to carry out groundwater evaluations to determine more accurately the magnitude and effect of the problem. Data on both groundwater and production trends are poor, and this impedes designing the action programs which are needed to arrest the decline. A further constraint to iv addresssing the problem is the lack of legislation placing limits on groundwater use. Strengthening the legal and administrative framework regulating water use in the oases deserves priority attention. Sand dune encroachment 15. Land degradation -- the most visible manifestation of which is sand dune encroachment -- is serious in localized areas of Mauritania and presents challenges for policy design and program implementation. Mauritania has had relative success with sand dune fixation projects. Experience in Mauritania has shown that the success rate of dune fixation projects dramatically increases where the local community is directly involved in project design, implementation and maintenance of the project. These efforts need to be strengthened and multiplied within an overall framework of improving natural resource management. 16. Measures to tackle sand dune mobilization in Mauritania have focussed on investment in "physical" projects, such as tree planting. These largely tackle the symptoms rather than the causes of dune mobilization. These causes are complex and entail the links between land management, demography and settlement and public policies influencing these trends. Risks of sand encroachment are inevitable when establishing towns or constructing roads in desert regions. This fact needs to be taken into account in all policy decisions and investment projects concerning spatial planning and land use. It is vital that the costs of sand dune encroachment and mitigation measures be fully integrated into project design. Environmental assessments provide a tool with which to address these concerns. Such assessments will require a better information base than currently exists and highlights the need to strengthen environmental information systems in Mauritania. 17. The magnitude of sand dune encroachment problems and the high cost of sand dune fixation projects in Mauritania raise some fundamental questions about the long-term economic and ecological viability of settlement and development in the arid zones. Careful review of Mauritania's geography and development pattern would suggest promoting increased investment in secondary towns and infrastructure in the southern, more fertile area of the country. This might reduce the population pressure in Nouakchott and stimulate more balanced growth throughout the country. Forest Degradation 18. The woodfuel crisis is assuming major proportions in Mauritania. Data on the situation is limited, though the Government estimates that total annual woodfuel consumption is over ten times higher than the sustainable rate of exploitation, which is leading to rapid deforestation, particularly in the Senegal River Valley. Urban demand for fuelwood is one of the main causes of deforestation. The Government of Mauritania has adopted a household energy strategy based on four strategic options designed to address both demand and supply side issues: (i)) accelerated inter-fuel substitution, particularly to LPG; (ii) demand management measures, such as promoting the use of improved stoves; (iii) improving biomass supply and management; (iv) introduction of economic household fuel pricing. 19. Strategic targets have been set including increasing use of LPG as the primary household fuel to 75% of households in Noukchott by 1998, compared to 27% in 1988; and, for houses which continue to use charcoal as the primary fuel source, increasing use of improved charcoal stoves from 0% in 1988 to 83% in 1998. Considerable progress has been made in reaching the targets for LPG substitution and the use of improved stoves. However, less progress has been made on the supply-side measures. Concerted efforts to strengthen implementationof both demand and supply side measures are vital if a deepening energy crisis is to be avoided. 20. Renewable energy sources -- solar, wind and biomass -- offer good potential in Mauritania where all three are present in abundance. To date, investments in renewable energy in Mauritania have been small-scale and scattered. More investigation into the economic viability of renewable energy is called for followed by more proactive development and promotion of these energy-efficient technologies. v

(ii) Coastal Fishing 21. Mauritania must address the serious risk of overfishing, which available information indicates is already undermining the sustainability of the fishing sector. Coastal fishing is a vital pillar of Mauritania's modem economy, providing one of the main sources of foreign exchange earnings. However, recent declines in fish catches have signalled the start of a worrisome decline in the sector's performance. The Total Catch- per-Unit-Effort (CUE) for the entire fleet has fallen by an estimated fourteen times over the past three decades from 1,400 kg/hour in 1964 to 100 kg/hour in 1990. 22. Overfishing reflects poor implementation of fisheries management practices. While, from a technical standpoint, surveillance is improving, in 1991, it was estimated that less than 50% of violations against Mauritanian fisheries regulations were reported. The Government in collaboration with the World Bank and the donor community has undertaken a review of the fisheries sector which generated an action plan to improve performance and prevent overfishing. The study recommends the setting-up of a Fisheries Management Regime and immediate measures to reduce the total catching power of the demersal fleet by introducing a system of fishing quotas. It is imperative that these measures are followed-up by effective action in consultation with all the actors in the fishing industry. (iii) Urban Environmental Issues: Water Supply and Sanitation 23. Lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, inadequate waste disposal, and salinization of Nouakchott's drinking water supply are becoming increasingly serious problems, as a result of Mauritania's remarkably rapid pace of urbanization. Water supply in Nouakchott is wholly inadequate and greatly at risk of deterioration. Only 18% of the urban population have access to clean piped water. Exploitation of the Trarza aquifer, Nouakchott's water source, is already causing the saltwater front to advance at a rate that could lead to permanent salinization. Only about 4% of the urban dwellers in Nouakchott are serviced by a water-borne sewage system. There is also no systematic garbage collection service in the towns. 24. Immediate priorities are to increase the percentage of the population with access to clean drinking water and to address problems of salinization. The Government has embarked on a Water Supply Project (FY92), with World Bank support, which aims to fulfill the water supply needs of the poorest section of the population at an affordable price. Objectives include monitoring salt water intrusion into the Trarza aquifer and developing a groundwater management plan for the exploitation of a new wellfield. 25. Longer term goals are to improve sanitation and Nvastecollection facilities in urban areas. Two Bank financed projects will help achieve these goals. The Construction Capacity and Employment Project (FY93) will go part way to improving public drainage systems and waste collection services, and is also financing sand dune fixation efforts. The proposed Highwav and Urban Infrastructure (FY96) will help the Municipality of Nouakchott implementan effective and comprehensive waste collection system. POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 26. The most effective vehicle for addressing environmental problems lies in the domain of public policy and institutional arrangements. Weaknesses in both contribute to problems and impede solutions and highlight the importance of a clear and explicit focus on policy instruments and institutions. An overarching policy and institutional framework that integrates environmental concerns into development planning and examines policy choices is vital. Such a framework would not only guide public investment but could also channel private sector activities, which in Mauritania offer the potential for significant economic growth, within a framework of economic incentives and legal regulations that ensure environmentallybalanced and sustainable growth. National Environmental Policy-making Process 27. Much valuable work has already been done in Mauritania towards defining an environmental policy framework, particularly on the PMLCD, in preparation for the 1992 Conference on Environment and Development and the ongoing negotiations of the Desertification Convention. These exercises represent Vi important building blocks towards developing a national environmental strategy framework. However, they have not yet achieved some important objectives defined for the NEAP process. Notably, public participation has been quite restricted and the programs appear more oriented towards preparing a list of projects for financing than on the key step of addressing policy and institutional reforms. Further, explicitly environmental work has been dominated by natural resource management and degradation issues, with inadequate focus on the "brown" issues, such as water supply and sanitation in towns and the environmental effects of mining and industry. Still lacking is an explicit and publicly articulated framework which sets environmental issues within the Government's overall development strategy. 28. As its next step in finalizing a national environmental strategy (NEAP), the Government plans to work together with its donor partners to identify missing elements in the environmental strategy so as to complete a comprehensive policy framework and action plan. In light of the vast array of environmental concerns currently confronting Mauritania, priority setting will be of decisive importance in implementing a realistic and effective program. Institutional Framework 29. Environmental concerns cut across sectors and are an integral aspect of the work of many ministries and departments. However, there is little overall coordination between these departments, and their responsibilities often overlap. What is lacking is an institutional framework which clearly defines roles and responsibilities. The restructuring and strengthening of one agency to act as a national environment agency, charged with formulating environmental policy, monitoring environmental standards, reviewing environmental assessments and coordinating environmental activities could ameliorate this situation. A strong message from the highest levels of Government that environmental concerns are to be considered integral components of planning would provide institutional impetus for such reforms. The Government could then follow-up, as part of the NEAP process, by clarifying lines of administrative responsibility. Such a restructuring may involve reassessing staffing and training requirements. Decentralization 30. In the past, measures to address environmental problems have often focused on technical interventions, for example, dune fixation projects. These interventions have often been top-down and not demand driven. TIhe issue is largely one of participation in decision-making and development planning. The Government of Mauritania is aware of the issue and through its policy of decentralization of central government functions to the regional and rural commune level, it aims to increase popular participation in development efforts. The proposed Bank-supported Rainfed Natural Resource Management Project, which will build on the work done in empowering Pastoral Associations under the Livestock II Project. could help take this decentralization one step further and provide local communities with more responsibility and rights over their natural resource base and support for the development and implementation of management strategies and measures to prevent land degradation. Environmental Assessments and Information Systems 31. Explicit consideration of the environmental impact of the public investment program is vital if environmental concerns are to be adequately addressed. EAs provide critical information about environmental impacts. They ensure environmental concerns and mitigation measures are incorporated into planning from the start. The Government needs to take the lead on requiring environmental impacts of all projects in the Public Investment Program and on ensuring measures are in place to tackle these concerns. 32. Strengthening of environmental information systems is an area in need of more systematic attention. Data with which to monitor and evaluate the conditions of the Mauritanian environment are inadequate. There has been no systematic mapping of natural resources in Mauritania. The biggest problem lies on the demand side: the institutional decision-making processes that should be using environmental information are either not VIi operative or are badly organized. The next step will be to build up an environmnentalinformation system that is clearly linked to decision-making processes. Landtenure 33. Issues on land tenure are vital to natural resource management in all countries, but nowhere more so in Mauritania where land degradation is an immediate problem. Land tenure issues have received considerable attention in Mauritania, particularly in the context of the development of irrigated agriculture in the Senegal River Valley. However, the considerable experience of land law issues gained in Mauritania and elsewhere in Africa suggests that a review of the 1983 land tenure reform (which is based on a system of individual private property rights) and its application to non-irrigated areas both inside and outside the valley would be beneficial. The complexity of traditional rights and uses suggests that further study and a better understanding of traditional tenure systems is important for both policy makers and project design. Some adaptation of the current law may be called for to take into account locally specific circumstances and local constraints, for example, in the pastoral areas and the oases. CONCLUSION 34. The issues discussed in this paper pose a daunting agenda. The plentiful questions that remain to be resolved are all the more vexing for their reciprocal and causal relationship with poverty. While this linkage may complicate the situation, it can also facilitate solutions, since it suggests that environmental concerns will be best addressed as part of an integrated overall development policy. Correspondingly, incorporating environmental measures into the Government's central development designs serves to institutionalize those concerns and ensure them a permanent place in economic planning. In light of the vast array of environmental concerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisive importance in implementing a realistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania to identify areas it considers first priorities, and, with the help of the international community, further develop the objectives and means by which it can pursue a development path that enhances the management of natural resources both through increased efficiency and improved equity. 35. Throughout this paper, recommendations are made as to how to integrate environmental concerns into development planning. These focus on the areas of policy definition and action and the need for better incorporation of environmental information into decision-making. For the Bank, they highlight the need to strengthen policy dialogue on environmental issues and specific issues to be addressed in project preparation and supervision in the lending program. The Consultative Group meeting provides a good opportunity for the Govenmmentand donors to broaden and intensify the policy dialogue on environmental issues and to decide on concrete action to be taken to finalize a national environmental strategy.

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I. INTRODUCTION 1. Mauritania is the most arid of the Sahelian countries and is where regional environmental problems are most starkly played out. The droughts of the 1970s and 80s had deep and long-lasting effects both on the environment and the very social and political fabric of society. Decimation of livestock herds, the plight of those threatened by famine and emergency relief activities focused attention of issues of food security and provoked an intense debate on the causes of environmental degradation. This debate persisted even after the drought years passed. Memories of the drought have marked the whole policy agenda in Mauritania, and in the Sahel as a whole, and colored the environmental debate which has revolved around the issue of "desertification". 2. In Mauritania, this phenomenon is most visibly conjured up by sand dune encroachment on which most attention and practical efforts have focused. However, environmental problems in Mauritania are far broader than this and are fundamentally linked to socio-economic development. The country faces a particularly complex set of environmental challenges revolving around the management of its fragile natural resources. Three priority challenges can be identified. The first challenge is to how to manage Mauritania's natural resources in a way that is sustainable, equitable and efficient. This issue is of most concern in the Senegal River Valley which holds great agricultural potential, yet where sustainability of development in the region will depend on integrating social and ecological concerns into development planning. Second, is to guard against overfishing, which already appears to be undernining the profitability of the fishing sector. The third challenge is to improve basic living conditions in the burgeoning urban areas where water and sanitation facilities are far from adequate 3. Much analysis has been done on environmental issues for Mauritania, most notably on issues of desertification and on the problems and development of the Senegal River Basin. Many actors are involved in assisting the Government of Mauritania address the challenges it faces. In particular, UNSO has provided constant support since the early 1980s for the development of the PMLCD, which was approved in 1991, and to specific sand dune fixation efforts. The Government of Germany is supportinga coumnunity-based natural resource management program in the east of Mauritania; the Government of France supports prograns for the integrated development of the Senegal River valley; and IUCN provides technical assistance to the Government on environmental policy-making and biodiversity conservation in the two national parks. The Bank has worked in close collaboration with the rest of the donor community in assisting the Government develop policies and goals to restore the profitability of the fishing sector and guard against over-exploitation of fish resources. 4. Work at both the policy and operational level has yet to be set within a overall framework that clearly links environmental concerns to Mauritania's development strategy and defines environmental priorities and policy choices. This is the role of the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). The Governnent outlined its broad approach on environmental issues in the Policy Framework Paper 1993-1996. The aim for the NEAP is to expand on these policy statements and translate them into operational and budget planning and investment priorities and decisions. It is also designed to serve as an instrument to prompt a broad debate on environmental priorities and action measures in Mauritania and with the donor community. 5. This paper aims to improve the Bank's understanding of environmental issues in Mauritania and situate them within the broader development context, so as to strengthen policy dialogue on environmental issues and better integrate environmental concerns into the Bank's lending prograrn. The paper (i) identifies and analyzes the environmental problems and their underlying causes; (ii) discusses the Govermnent's present strategy, policy and institutional framework for environmental management; and (iii) suggests a strategy as to how the Government of Mauritania and the Bank, working in partnership, can better integrate environmental concerns into the development effort. -2-

II. BACKGROUND

A. THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT 6. Mauritania has undergone a rapid and dramatic socio-economic transformation in the last three decades. In 1960, over 75% of the population were nomadic and the country was essentially based on a pastoral economy. During the 1970s and 80s, a combination of the droughts, increasing population pressure plus rising economic expectations led to a mass influx of nomadic herders into the urban areas. A process of rapid sedentarization took place. By the late 1980s, only an estimated 12% of the population were nomadic and 48% were living in urban areas. 7. During this same period, the Govemment invested in a series of ambitious programs aimed at 'modernizing' and transforming the economy, based largely on three sectors: mining, fisheries, and irrigated crop production in the Senegal Valley. Thus, the last three decades have taken Mauritania from a small, nomadic subsistence economy, to a more diversified economy characterized by sharp contrasts between the continuing subsistence agricultural economy, a large but precarious informal urban economy, and three "modern" sector poles that provide most exports and over 90% of foreign exchange earnings. Despite this development, the country remains heavily dependent on foreign aid (US$107 per capita aid) which finances 90% of the public investment program. 8. Economic performance over these last three decades has fluctuated widely, largely as a result of the droughts, declining international prices and weak economic management. In 1985, the Government launched a structural adjustment program aimed at restoring external viability and developing institutions and policies to lay the foundation for sustainable growth. This program has been relatively successful at restructuring the economy towards a more free market system. Price controls have been removed, import licenses and quotas abolished and this liberalization has encouraged private sector expansion. Successful policy reforms also improved management of public resources, monetary and credit policies and financial, energy, private sector and fisheries policies. However, fluctuations in economic growth demonstrate that the Mauritanian economy remains fragile and vulnerable to exogenous factors. B. THE DEMOGRAPHIC CONTEXT 9. Patterns of population growth and spatial distribution are major factors affecting environmental degradation. In 1988, the date of the last population census, the total population of Mauritania was estimated at 1,826,000. Population growth rates and densities vary dramatically from one region to another. People are concentrated in the urban areas and the south of the country, which are also the areas where population growth is highest. The overall population growth rate is an estimated 2.85% per year, implying a fivefold increase in population by the end of the next century. Urban areas are growing the fastest -- around 10% per year for Nouakchott and Noudhibou - largely due to rural-urban migration. The region of Guidimaka, in the south-east of the country, is experiencing population growth of 3.15% per year, the highest growth rate of any rural area; whilst, the population in the regions along the Senegal River valley -- Assaba, Gorgol, Brakna -- is growing at around 2% per year. Except in the mining areas, the arid north of the country is very sparsely populated with people concentrated in the oases. The northern regions of Trarza, Tagant and Inchiri are experiencing a decline in overall population, largely due to outmigration. 10. Given current trends, nearly 70% of Mauritania's population will live in urban areas by the year 2020. Already, 48% of the population (nearly I million people) live in urban area, as compared to 3% (19,500 people) in 1960.1

'Includes all townsand cities with a populationof over 10,000people. -3-

The Evolution of Urbanization

6000

5000

4000

3000 Urban Popn LiTotalPopn

2000

1000

0 1960 1960 19 70 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year

C. NATURAL RESOURCES WaterResources Rainfall and Climate 11. Mauritania is a very hot and dry country, with daytime temperaturesexceeding 38 0C over six monthsof the year in most areas and rainfallaveraging from a low of 36 mmnin the coastal zoneto 650 mmn in the far south of the country. Recurrentdrought is characteristicof the climate. During this century alone the country has experiencedfour droughts -- 1913-14, 1940-42, 1968-1973 and 1983-84. The droughtsof the 70s and 80s wereparticularly devastating and led to mass rural-urbanexodus. Since 1968, the 150mm isohyet has shifted south by some 100km,a latitude well south of Nouakchott. Some climatologistsargue that the decline in rainfall experiencedthroughout the Sahel over the past 25 years is unprecedentedand representsthe start of a major climatic shift. However,there is much debate on this issue and forty or more years of obeservationmay be necessaryto determninethe real nature of the current trend. Surface Water 12. The SenegalRiver, whichserves as the border betweenSenegal and Mauritania, is the only major non-seasonalriver in Mauritania. Between August and December,the river floods the alluvial plain, supplyingwater for recessionagriculture and vegetationgrowth. However,the magnitudeof the natural flood varies greatly according to rainfall and, since the constructionof the Manantali dam in 1988, accordingto the water releasefrom the dam's reservoir. Other riversare mostlyof a temporaryor seasonal nature. These are the wadis,dried stream beds whichwhen filled with rainwaterproduce flows of often severalhundred kilometers in lengthand overflowtheir banks to providemoisture for recessionagriculture. Wadis usually convergeon depressionswhere their waters are drained which allows dense vegetationto flourish. Smallearthern dams and diguettesare often built to enhancewater collectionand prevent its loss from wadis, particularlyin the Brakna, Hodhs, Assaba and Tagant so as to providewater for animalsand for irrigation. Groundwater -4-

13. Groundwater resources of varying depth and quality are present throughout Mauritania. Among the most important groundwater resources are the aquifers of the coastal sedimentary basin, which supply the water needs of Nouakchott, Noudhibou and the mining operations in Akjoujt and Zouerate. This aquifers are threatened by salinization which has resulted from overexploitation for drinking water supply (see para....) 14. Recharging of groundwater supplies is of essential importance. In many areas, rainfall is sufficiently heavy to recharge supplies, and in the south, aquifers are recharged by drainage from the Senegal River Basin. However, in many other areas, especially in the north, where rainfall is limited and evaporation is high, recharge is often less than demand and many aquifers are likely to dry up with extensive use. Agro-ecological Zones 15. Mauritania can be divided into four agro-ecological zones: 16. The Saharan or arid zone: this area which accounts for some 60% of the total land area is essentially desert, a vast expanse of rolling sand dunes and barren, stony plains known as mreye ("mirror"). The only places suitable for pernanent settlement are the oases. Date production was an important activity in these areas but once thriving date plantations suffered badly during the droughts largely because of the rural exodus which led to a shortage of labor. 17. The Sahelian or semi-arid zone: this is the heart of the country's pastoral economy and home to an estimated 400,000 people. The area can be divided into eastern, central and western regions. The eastern zone comprises the regions of Hodh el Gharbi and Hodh ech Chargui which consists of sand dunes and wide plains of sahelian deciduous Acacia bushland and tough grasses given some topological relief by the occasional plateau. The central Sahelian zone is comprised of the regions of Tagant and Assaba. This is an area of more complex landscapes where erosion of sandstone plateau has created impressive rock formations. The third distinguishable region is the western area of the Trarza and Brakna, which is relatively flat and comprised mainly of sand dunes. 18. The Senegal River Valley: this region is the area of highest agricultural potential. The soils are rich, alluvial and clayey and well-suited to crop production. More than I million people live in the Senegal River valley on both sides of the river, with approximately 400,000 on the Mauritanian side.2 Traditional production systems relied heavily on the river's yearly flooding which provided water for flood-recession agriculture, pasture land and fishing. The river valley also provides an important stop-over for migratory birds. 19. The coastal zone is a 50km-wide band which covers 2-3% of the total land area. The area receives the lowest rainfall in the country, however, the sea mist and reservoirs of water within the dunes provide for a cooler climate and good growing conditions for vegetation. Roughly 500,000 people, the majority in the coastal cities of Nouakchott and Nouadibhou, live here making their living primarily from fishing, conmmerceand informal sector activities. Forests 20. Mauritania is predominantly a land of sparse vegetation, some desert areas being among the most barren in the world, others sustaining only occasional clumps of hardy grasses and no trees. Nevertheless, there are forested areas in the southern sections of the country, particularly in the regions of the Hodhs, Assaba and the Gorgol. The densest forests are found along the Senegal River and its tributaries and in the

2Many communitiesstraddle both sides of the river. Householdsowned farm lands on both the right and left banks, and the herders crossed the river northwards in the rainy season, seeking fresh pasturesfor their livestock, and southwardduring the dry season. -5- far south-east of the country. There exists no overall survey of forest resources in Mauritania, though it is estimated that the country has 138,000 hectares of non-classified forest and 48,000 hectares of classified forest. Much of the area classified as forest would probably not be termed "forest" elsewhere in the world, as it can refer to scattered stands of trees or even individual trees in fields. 21. Mauritania's forest resources serve several important functions: as a source of firewood, forage, construction material and gum arabic. The most prominent genus of tree is acacia, ranging in size from the relatively tall Acacia nilotica of the Senegal Valley to the often dwarfed Acacia raddiana of the dunes. Acacia senegal, found in the Sahelian zone, is of particular economic importance as a source of gum arabic, a substance used in medications, confections, and adhesives, which was one of Mauritania's main agricultural exports. In 1970, Mauritania was the second largest exporter of gum arabic in the world, with a production of 7,300 tons; in 1981 it produced only 200 tons. The decline is both a result of the drought and damage to the trees from improper bark stripping. Fish Resources 22. Mauritania has some of the richest fisheries in the world off its 525 km coastline3. The total annual catch is estimated to be 600,000 tons, including commercially valuable species, such as mackeral, sardines, tuna, lobster and shrimp. The large fish populations are sustained by the strong upwelling which occurs along the coast from September to May and brings nutrient-rich water to the surface. The movements of the upwelling front have important effects on the distribution and abundance of fish.

23. The Senegal River is also a plentiful source of fish, among which Tilapaia nilotica and Citharinus citarus are the most valued for food. Prior to the droughts, the Senegal River produced some 30,000 tons of fish a year which provided employment for some 10,000 people. Flooding is critical to the reproduction of fish in the middle Senegal valley. During the flood, nutrients on the floodplain surface dissolve in the water and provide nourishment for freshly hatched fry. If the flooding is stopped or limited, the number of fish downstream declines. Seawater fish also breed in the Senegal River delta, brought in by the yearly intrusion of sea water, although the construction of Diama may have upset this breeding pattern. Mineral Resources 24. Mauritania's mineral wealth consists of iron ore deposits at Zouerate, copper deposits at Akjoujt, and gypsum deposits to the north of Nouakchott. Iron mines opened in 1963 in the far north, and today represent a large, high-tech enclave geared entirely to exports. Mineral exports provide one of Mauritania's main sources of foreign exchange earnings. Important salt deposits are found in the Saharan zonc not far from Zouerate; these have been exploited for centuries and transported by camel to other parts of the country. Faced with the foreseeable exhaustion of some of the known reserves, the search is continuing for further deposits of copper and iron ore and other minerals, as well as for petroleum. Biodiversity 25. Mauritania has a unique array of natural treasures. Perhaps, the most spectacular and significant in terms of biodiversity is the Banc d'Arguin. This region on the northern coast is the largest intertidal wetland in Africa and supports an exceptional wealth of bird life, fish and marine habitats. Lying betweeni the two headlands of Cap Blanc to the north and Cap Timiris to the south, the Banc d'Arguin is a vast expanse of mud flats and creeks, where beds of eel grass (Zostera sp.) and other habitats provide important breeding and nursery areas for fish and crustaceans.

3The coastal waters fall in the Eastern Central Atlantic which, according to the Food and Agricultural Organization(FAO) is one of the world's mostproductive fishing regions. -6-

26. The Banc d'Arguin provides food and shelter for about 4 million birds every year, most notably the world's largest concentration of overwintering migrant waders. During the European winter, the tidal flats provide a rich feeding ground for more than 2.3 million shorebirds.4 The area also supports large breeding colonies of 15 species of waterbird. Found among the 25,00-40,000 pairs, there are great white pelicans (Pelicanus onocrotalus), greater flamingoes, European spoonbills (Platalea leucorodia), and several species of heron, egret and tern, including two endemic sub-species.5 27. In addition to this rich birdlife, the combined influence of the cold Canaries current from the north and the warm Guinean current from the south make the Banc d'Arguin a frontier zone. Here, many plant and animal species from northern Europe and Asia at the southem limit of their range mninglewith Afrotropical species at their northern limit. For example, the area includes the most northerly mangroves found on the west African coast. The Baie du Levrier, an adjoining bay and national reserve, contains the largest known colony of monk seals (150), 25% of the world's population, and is a nesting site for four threatened species of marine turtle. Also of great biological significance are the benthic ecosystems, in particular seagrass and macroalgae. These are 'critical marine habitats' (like mangroves and coral reefs) that function as coastal food factories which help support the remarkably high concentrations of birds and fish.6 28. The local inhabitants of the Banc d'Arguin region are the Imraguen people. Every November to January, the Imraguen fish for migrating mullet in the shallow waters of the Banc d'Arguin. Using long poles to beat on the water, they attract dolphin, which drive the mullet inshore and into their nets. 29. The rich fauna and flora diversity of the region prompted the establishment of the Banc d'Arguin National Park in 1976, and its subsequent inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance and listing as a World Heritage Site. Senegal River Delta 30. The Senegal River Basin comprises several of the Sahelian region's most important wetlands, including the Senegal River delta, the lac d'Aleg, lac de Mal and lac R'kiz with a high biodiversity value. The wetlands are internationally recognized as a vital stopover for millions of migratory birds. The delta also supports colonies of several species of bird, including pelicans, flamingoes, egrets and ibises. In 1991, 15,600 ha of land in the delta region were designated a national park, known as the the Diawling National Park.

Wildlife 31. In the northern Saharan zone of Mauritania, wildlife is limited chiefly to insects, reptiles (especially vipers) and the occasional antelope. Habitat loss and uncontrolled hunting have wiped out most of the country's large wild animals. The oryx, elephant, Dama gazelle and the giraffe have disappeared and the addax, roan antelope, bushbuck, buffon cob, reedbuck, lion, leopard, cheetah and ostrich are on the verge of extinction. The only species which are relatively abundant are the dorcas and red-fronted gazelle,

4Including bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), dunlin (Calidris alpina) and both ringed and grey plovers (Charadrius hiaticula and Pluvialis squatarola). 5Dugan,Patrick ed., 1993. Wetlandsin Danger,Newv York: Oxford,pp. 136-137. 61UCN, 1992. Coastal Assessment of Parc National du Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania. -7- warthog, baboon, patas monkey, jackal, desert fox and wild cat7. Bush meat (tishtar) has traditionally played an important role in local diets and economies.

D. SOCIAL STRUCTURE 32. Mauritania represents the dividing line between the northern Arab Magreb region and subsaharan black Africa. The creation of the country has brought together several different ethnic groups whose social structures are undergoing change in this period of transition from a nomadic to a more sedenterized society. The most important ethnic split is between Moor and negro-African. 33. The Moors are split between the beydan (Arab-Berber "white" Moors) and the haratin (former slaves of black African descent). The white Moors are traditionally pastoralists and, in contrast to most other African countries, it is this society that has the most political and economic power. Moors are politically and socially organized into tribes (qabila) consisting of people said to be patrilineally descended from a common ancestor. More important than the tribe for many issues are smaller sub-groups known as figh (sing.) orfakhad (pi.). The French administrative term for figh was fraction. Fakhad often function as organized interest groups with most decisions being made at this level. Each figh consists of extended patrilineal families (aiaO, which are the basic organizational units of Moor society. Within the aial, the smallest unit of organization is the tent (haima), comprising the nuclear family of the owner, as well as servants. 34. Traditionally, tribes were defined according to their occupation and a caste system existed. Though today these castes are losing their importance in termnsof determing one's economic and social status, Moors sense of social identity is still very strongly based on their tribe. At the top of the system were the noble tribes which were either warrior (hassan) or maraboutic (zwaya). These were followed by the znagas, who are livestock specialists (mainly camel herders), artisans and griots. Tribes also included people who did not share descent from the tribal founder, but are "accessory" to it. At the bottom of the hierachy of those attached to tribes were the haratin. Though slavery was officially abolished in 1980, many haratin still remain economically bound to their white Moor masters and live as an integral part of beydan encampments. Others have their own encampments and work as herders or are settled in agricultural communities. A large number have migrated to urban areas or to the south in search of new job opportunities. 35. The black African groups are the Haalpulaaren (comprising Toucouleur cultivators and FulBe pastoralists), Soninke (cultivators) and Wolof (mainly fishermen). These groups have social structures based on a caste system that distinguishes three basic groups: nobles and warriors, fishermen and artisans, and the descendants of slaves. Wolof society is the least stratified with much movement between castes. Black African society is organized along extended family lines. The individual household is part of a village compound headed by a senior male, who represents local interests in larger-scale clan discussions. 36. The majority of the Haalpulaaren live on both sides of the Senegal River valley. Control over flood lands along the Senegal River essentially determined the distribution of wealth arnong this society. The Wolof are a minority in Mauritania, numbering only a few thousand concentrated around Rosso, though they are the largest ethnic group in neighboring Senegal. The Soninke are the predominant ethnic group in the Guidimaka region bordering eastern Senegal and Mali.

7PrevostYves, 1986. Etudes sur la Faune Mauritanie: Bilan et Recommendations,Programme de Cooperation FAO/Gouvemementde la RepubliqueIslamique de Mauritanie. -8-

III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 37. The environmental situation of any country evolves in a complex web of interrelated causes and effects which link demographic growvth,economic growth, political development and exogenous change. This paper examines three major environmental issues facing Mauritania in the context of these broad development factors. The first issue is how to manage natural resources in a way that is sustainable, equitable and efficient. Natural resource management issues manifest themselves differently in four important regions of Mauritania: the Senegal River Valley, the pastoral areas, the Guidimaka, and the oases. The paper also takes a closer look at sand dune encroachment, the most visible of Mauritania's land degradation problems, and deforestation. The second issue examined is overfishing of coastal fisheries which appears to be undermining the profitability of the fishing sector. Third is the rapid emergence of serious environmental problems in the burgeoning urban areas. A. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ISSUES Development of the Senegal River Valley 38. The Senegal River Valley is a region of central importance to Mauritania's overall development strategy, representing the area with by far the highest agricultural potential. Prospects for expanding agricultural production in the river valley, a long-standing policy objective, depend to a large extent on how the land and water resources are managed. Such management poses the Government of Mauritania with a challenge of particularly complex dimensions. First, is the international dimension. The valley is part of an international river basin which comprises an area of some 289,000 km2 that falls within Mali, Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea. Management of the area's resources requires a high degree of international cooperation and planning at a river basin level. Second, is the environmental dimension. The river basin is an ecosystem in Traditional Land Use in the Senegal River Valley which water is the most ecologically and Populationsin the valley have adapted agricultural production economically valuable component. Development systems to the yearly floods. The Haalpulaaren,in particular, in the valley needs to be undertaken with a have developed a complex land tenure and natural resource holistic approach that gives due weight to management system, known as the leydi. This system was the interitoftheco-ystm based around the use of the same land area by three groups - protectg herders, cultivators and fresh water fishermen. Each group uses Third, is the social dimension. The river valley the same piece of land in succession. During the flood period, is the home to a number of different ethnic the fishermen fished from the flooded watercourses. Then groups. Today the region is in a state of flux, when the flood receded, the farmers used the same floodplain changing from a time when sedentary farming area to plant their crops. Once harvested,during the dry season, populations reliant on flood-recession activities the herders moved into the area with their animals. When the were the main inhabitants of the valley, with rains returned, they moved back north, and the cycle started herders and their animals making annual visits again. The systemwas overseenby the "chef du terroir" (djom during the dry season, to a time of mass leydi) who decidedthe calendar of activitiesand also organized inmmigration,in which the valley has come to the exchangeof products (sorghum,fish, milk) among the three both an investment groups. The system resultedin an extremelyefficient use of the represent both an attractive investment.. C rern aresources which was both environmentally sustainable and opportunity for pnrvate entrepreneurs from minimizedconflicts over land. outside the region and one of the only areas of guaranteed grazing for herders, with many now staying in the valley year-round. The result is an increasing mix of ethnic groups all competing for the same resources which has led to increasing tension between ethnic groups in some areas. In such a situation land tenure, which provides the legal framework -9- governing access and control of resources, has become a vital issue which requires careful monitoring and review.8 39. Development of the valley region has been a long-standing aspiration of both the Governments of Mauritania and Senegal and has given rise to numerous discussions, studies and projects. As a result, the Senegal River Valley is a much studied area, however, the dimensions mentioned above have not always been taken fully into account in the development planning process. 40. Traditionally, the economy of the area was based upon a range of production activities: rainfed cropping and animal husbandry in the upper valley; flood-recession cropping, rainfed crops, animal husbandry and fishing in the middle valley; and livestock and fishing in the lower valley and delta. Life along the river was often hard. The majority of activities depended upon the yearly floods which were unpredictable, due to fluctuations in rainfall. There have been years when the Senegal River only produced a quarter of the previous year. These huge annual fluctuations in water volume were often the cause of lost harvests and repeated food shortages, and many people regularly had to find work outside the valley to survive. The traditional production systems were well adapted to the natural environment, however, and from an environmental perspective, flood-recession activities were very sustainable. The floodplain fields that have not experienced irrigation showvno loss of soil fertility whatsoever, despite continuous cultivation for a millenium.9 The Development Vision 41. The vision of a bold agricultural development scheme in the valley was a particularly powerful one at the time of the droughts when per capita food production in the communities bordering the Senegal Valley was in serious decline. One of the central development objectives was to regulate the river's flow so as to make large-scale irrigated agriculture possible, which is seen as vital for ensuring continued agricultural growth and food security in the context of the Sahelian climate. In 1972, the Governments of Mauritania, Mali and Senegal aimed to realize this vision by forming an inter-governmental organization, the OMVS (Organisation de la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal) to develop and coordinate a regional development plan for the river valley. The three main objectives of the plan were to develop 375,000 ha of land for irrigated agriculture on both sides of the river, to generate up to 800 Gwh of hydroelectric power and to establish river navigation from the Atlantic Ocean to Kayes in land-locked in Mali. 42. To this end, two dams were built during the 1980s - the Diama and the Manantali - with donor financing of about US$500 million. The Diama darn, completed in 1986, was constructed 26 kms from the mouth of the river to block the upstream intrusion of salt water during the dry season and raise water levels so as to allow irrigation in the delta. The Manantali, completed in 1988, is situated on the Bafing tributary in Mali some 1,000 kms upstream, created a large reservoir to enable power generation and regulation of the river's water regime for irrigation. Manantali was designed to allow controlled flooding to mimic the natural flooding. It was planned to release wvaterto create an "artificial flood" for a period of 10 years during which time people were expected to change to irrigated farming. The basic assumption, therefore, was that eventually traditional flood recession activities would be replaced by irrigation. 43. The building of the dams has had both positive and negative impacts. On the one hand, irrigated agricultural production has increased quite dramatically (though it is still far from the levels initially planned). Crop output growth in Mauritania was an estimated 20% a year during the 1980s and 90s, in large part due to irrigation development in the valley. Rice production in 1992-93 reached 24,600 tons

8See sectionon land tenure. 9King, Jack, 1990. Agropedology of the AMiddleSenegal Valley, SenegalRiver Basin MonitoringActivity Report, Binghamton,NY, Institutefor DevelopmentAnthropology. -10- with the Government predicting a record harvest of 58,000 tons for 1993/94.10 On the other hand, the Senegal River Valley has undergone tremendous social and environmental changes over the past 20 years, which are in part a result of the construction of the dams which profoundly modified the water regime in the valley, but also a result of the droughts and increasing human and animal populations in the valley. Many environmental studies have been done on these changes under the auspices of OMVS and donor- funded programs.' l These studies all underscore that it is vital to integrate environmental considerations into all development activities to ensure the sustainability of production in the valley. Continuous monitoring and analysis of environmental changes are also essential to improve our understanding of the issues and to design measures to minimize negative changes. The remainder of this section briefly analyzes the main environmental issues in the valley and highlights the areas for concern and action. What are the main environmental concerns? 44. One of the main environmental concerns is rapid deforestation. It is estimated that the region loses 6% of its forest cover every year.'2 The Senegal River Valley contains some of the densest forested areas in Mauritania, consisting primarily of Acacia nilotica, which is heavily dependent on high soil humidity for its growth and regeneration. Over the last 20 years, droughts and the reduced floods have led to the death of large stands of acacia. The situation is exacerbated by the exploitation of the trees for charcoal production - the wood resources in the river valley are a major source of fuelwood to the urban areas. Though 22,000 ha of forest have the status of classified forests in which utilization is restricted to grazing and controlled cutting, there are many violations of the restrictions. Charcoal production has proved difficult to control as local officials are often involved in it and issue illegal cutting pennits. 45. A further cause of the deforestation is the increased number of livestock, particularlycamels, in the valley. According to government estimates, the numbers of camels have risen (nationwide) from around 700,000 in 1970 to over I million in 1992, though this trends masks the massive losses suffered during the droughts. Numbers of cattle, on the other hand, have declined from an estimated 2 million in 1970 to 1.2 rmillionin 1992.13 A large proportion of these animals are concentrated in the river valley, whose flood plains are a traditional dry season grazing area. Unable to find enough forage further north, pastoralists are staying in these dry season pastures year round, when previously they used to stay for only four months of the year. Camels cope relatively well under drought conditions, which partially explains their rise in number; however, they browze on shrubs and trees and so, in concentrated numbers, have a particularly destructive impact on vegetation.

46. River Fisheries: Prior to the droughts and the decline in flooding, the Senegal River produced about 30,000 tons of fish a year which provided employment for some 10,000 people. During the flood, nutrients on the floodplain surface dissolve in the water and provide nourishment for the fry. Today fish production has practically disappeared due to the decline in flooding.'4 This decline may be largely offset in terms of fish tonnage by increased fish production in the Manantali reservoir in Mali; however, fishing in this area is not yet fully developed and in any case vill not compensate for the losses experienced by the fisherpeople in Mauritania.

I0MDRE 1994. Governmentestimates. I 'For example,Ganett Flemming, Cordryand CarpenterIUSAID,1980. Evaluationdes effets sur l'environnement d'amemanagementsprevus dans le bassin dufleuve Senegal;Euroconsult/RIN, 1990. Profil de l'environnementde la Valleeedufleuve Senegal. 12MDRE, 1991. MultisectoralProgram to CombatDesertification (PMELCD). 3 1 MMDREfigures from PMLCDand May 1993 workshopon developmentof the SenegalRiver Valley. 14EuroconsultlRIN,1990. Profit de 1tenvironnementde la Valleee dufleuve Senegal. 47. Large populations of saltwater fish also used to breed in the river delta brought in by the yearly intrusion of the sea. With the construction of Diama and the dykes, these fish can no longer get upstream to reproduce. This is likely to have a negative impact on the coastal fish resources, although this linkage has not been adequately studies. 48. Two new environmental risks presented by the dams and introduction of irrigated agriculture are salinization and the contamination of water supplies by pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Salinization is alreading posing problems in the delta region and lower valley where due to past tidal inundations of salt water the soil is very saline.' 5 In the past, these areas were drained by the fresh water floods of the river, but with the closing of Diama much of the land has an increased ground water table which brings the salinity level nearer to the surface and increases the chance of it percolating to the surface, where the water evaporates leaving a salt crust which makes the soil useless for agriculture. The development of irrigated rice production has also involved limited use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Run-off of the residues of these chemicals could contaminate the river and ground water harming fish populations and drinking water supplies. To date, this not appear to be a significant problem; however, monitoring the situation and taking measures to prevent chemical pollution are required to guard against future contamination. 49. Both these problems are recognized and OMVS has undertaken several studies to identify their extent. OMVS is setting up a system to monitor groundwater exploitation and salinity'6 The problem of salinization is essentially one of drainage and suggests a need to take immediate action to ensure all irrigation schemes incorporate adequate drainage facilities. 50. Since the Manantali dam was completed, several important health impacts have also been observed. The stable level of the lake behind Manantali and the standing water in flooded rice fields provide an ideal breeding ground for the breeding of bilharzia snail hosts and malaria mosquitos. Epidemics of Rift Valley Fever broke out during the rainy season of 1987 centered around Rosso and Kaedi and there has been a severe outbreak of bilharzia on the Senegalese side at Richard Toll; prevalence of the disease increased from an estimated 2% in 1988 to 72% in 1990.'7 These health effects and measures to mitigate them are under review as part of the environmental assessment of the proposed Manantali Energy Project. Suggested measures to minimize the spread of disease revolve around varying the reservoir level which can destroy disease vectors. Integration of Environmental Concerns into Development Planning 51. There are trade-offs between different water uses. These trade-offs need to be made as explicit as possible when making decisions as to how to allocate water in river basins. To ensure that development is sustainable, an integrated approach to river basin development that balances land and water uses in a manner that takes into account socio-economic and ecological interests needs to be developed. Decisions regarding land and water used are often based on simple economic cost-benefit analyses. Taking a more integrated approch will require modifying the way in which cost-benefit analyses are done. Traditional cost-benefit analyses tend to focus on measures that are easily quantified and often do not take into account indirect and longer term social and environmental impacts, such as the consequences of lack of flooding, salinization etc.. In the agricultural sector, for example, production regimes are often compared on the basis of crop yields per hectare. Irrigated agriculture clearly has higher returns to land than rainfed or recession agriculture from this perspective, however, despite its higher land productivity, small fhrmers generally find that returns per unit capital and labor are lower. Recession agriculture provides a much

15Euroconsult/RIN,1990. Profil de l'Environnementde la Valleedu Fleuve Sen,gal. 160MVS,1992. Documentdu Projet:Assistance a l'OMVSpour la gestion et le suivi de l1environnementet du developpementpar l'utilisationde la teledectiondans le bassin dufleuve. 17BlueNile Associates, 1993. Rapid HealthAssessment Manantali Energy Project. -12- higher return to labor than does irrigation, and thereby contributes to household food stocks while freeing labor to engage in non-farm activities that are more renumerative.'8 52. During the 1990s, the Governments of Mauritania and Senegal have begun to develop a more integrated approach to the development of the valley, one that focuses not so much on maximising the overall irrigated area but aims to promote diversified production throughout the valley while taking into account the need to balance economic, social, and ecological concerns. Such an approach was advocated by the Government of Senegal in the 1991 "Master Plan for the Integrated Development of the Left Bank of the Senegal River Valley" developed in collaboration with the World Bank, UNDP and other donor partners. The Government of Mauritania espoused a similar approach in a May 1993 donor workshop on the development of the valley. This workshop aimed to establish a consensus between the government ministries and donors on the basic principles for development of the valley which is now being translated into an action plan. The key principles of the development strategy are to promote diversified production, including irrigated agriculture, flood-recession agriculture, rainfed agriculture, livestock and fishing; to monitor, improve and extend current reforms underway to encourage private investment and the role of private actors in the agriculture sector; and to ensure that all development occurs within a long-term strategic framework to protect and improve the environment.19 53. Water management throughout the valley is key to the ensuring sustainability of production and the ecological integrity of the river basin. The main tools for water management in the valley are the Diama and Manantali dams. The "Commission permanente des Eaux" coordinates overall water management in the valley. In this commission, established in 1978, representatives of the OMVS member states and the High Commission of OMVS coordinate the requirements for water management as to water demand for different purposes and water availability. This commission is a key instrument for planning at a river basin level. 54. Designing and operating an explicit dam management plan to ensure a reliable artificial flood is arguably the most important water management measure to institutionalize. Many studies, including the Government of Senegal's Left Bank Master Plan, suggest that uncertainties concerning the maintenance of mninimalartificial flooding are jeopardizing the region's ecological balance. Though waters have been released since the completion of the dam in 1988, this release has not been managed in such a way as to ensure a reliable yearly artificial flood. Since the completion of the dam, only in one year, 1988, was the dam managed to provide a flood that was well-timed and of sufficient duration to allow good harvests on flood-recession land. In other years, either water was not released or it was released at the wrong times, washing away farmers' crops.20 The reasons for this lack of flooding are linked to the extremely low inflows into the Manantali reservoir. Since the dam came into operation in 1988, inflows into the reservoir have been around 50% of average inflows over the period 1954-76, which were used as the initial base figures for flood release computation.21 Sudden releases were also made for urgent repairs. Lack of reliable and adequate flooding since the dam went into operation highlights the need to reconsider the dam management strategy and ensure that demands for flood-recession production are given adequate consideration when determining water requirements for different purposes e.g. energy, agriculture, water supply.

I8SeeHorowitz, Michael and MuneeraSalem-Murdock, 1990. 7he Senegal River Basin MonitoringActivity: A Phase One Synthesis, Institutefor DevelopmentAnthropology, Binghamton, New York for a full discussion. I9MDRE, 1993. Atelier sur le developpementagricole de la vallee dans le contextede 1'apresbarrages. 20Horowitz,M. and Salem-Murdock,M, 1993. "Development-InducedFood Security in the Middle Senegal Valley",GeoJournal 30.2, pp. 179-184. 21Personalcommunication from Dr. Frechen, KfW. -13-

55. The flood is vital for sustaining flood-recession cropping, livestock production and fishing on which several hundred thousand households in both Mauritania and Senegal depend. The flood also recharges the surface aquifer, from which many villages obtain water for domestic use, and it provides soil moisture required by Acacia nilotica, the dominant tree species, so guarding against devegetation. Variation in the reservoir level may also destroy disease vectors thereby acting as a tool for minimizing dam-related diseases. Given the direct role the flood plays in sustaining agricultural production, water supply, biodiversity conservation and disease control, it is important to promote a stronger awareness of the role of the flood, particularly among decision-makers and technical staff responsible for control of dam management and overall water management throughout the valley.

56. One of the next steps forward in adopting a more integrated approach to development of the valley will be further consultation and agreement between the OMVS member states and donors on action to ensure a reliable artificial flood. The impacts of controlled flooding need to be carefully studied over the next five years. A clearer understanding is needed of the relationships between the amount and duration of flooding and the amount of cultivable land inundated, forest regeneration and aquifer recharge. Improved downstream water management is also called for. Another issue for agricultural development is opening up to annual flooding various flood plains, which have been closed by dikes and have not been used for irrigated agriculture. These plains could be opened up again for flood-recession agriculture by repairing existing and constructing additional water regulators. A more integrated approach to valley development also suggests paying more attention to increasing the productivity of local production systems: rain-fed and flood recession cropping, livestock, fishing, and vegetable gardening, which is primarily a women's domain. At present, agricultural research is focused almost exclusively on irrigation and commercial crops. Various othcr measures are also important, such as ensuring all irrigation development schemes incorporate tree planting.

Land degradation in the Guidimaka

57. In the Guidimaka region, just north of the Senegal River Valley bordering Mali, the central environmental issue is how to reverse the deterioration of land and increase sustainable agricultural production. This is an area of primarily subsistence farming where some of the poorest of Mauritania's population live and where issues of environmental degradation and poverty clearly overlap. The Guidimaka is virtually the only region with significant vegetation cover, largely because it has the highest rainfall in the country (350-600 mm/year). The region, however, is under significant population pressure -- having both the highest population density (11 people per km2) and the highest population growth rate (3.5% per year) of any rural area -- and is experiencing some of the most rapid land degradation in the country, particularly in the north of the region bordering Assaba. Water erosion is a particularly severe problem affecting an estimated one third of the land area.22 During the rains, flash floods wash away top soil and create large ravines.

58. Particularly high rates of outmigration are a distinguishing feature of the Guidimaka region and are an important underlying factor determining land use and investment in the land, though there is limited quantitative data on these trends. The nature of outmigration has changed over the past century in parallel with changes in the economic opportunities of the West Africa region. In the eighteenth century, when the Guidimaka was a relatively prosperous region at the heart of trade along the Senegal River Valley, many people travelled for trade purposes. In the early nineteenth century, as the region fell into economic decline, people went to work as laborers on the groundnut plantations in Senegal. During the middle of this

22MDRE, 1991. PMLCD, p. 52. -14- century, as the population in the groundnut basin increased and demand for labor fell, people were increasingly drawn to the major towns of the region. However, the overcrowded urban areas often offered few economic opportunities, and in the 1960s and 70s, increasing numbers of people migrated overseas to France. Rates of migration to France were particularly high among the Soninke, who represent the majority of the population of the Guidimaka. During the 1970s, 65% of the Mauritanians working in France were Soninke.23 The majority of migrants are young men between the ages of 15 and 25 years.

59. The result of this male outmigration is a severe shortage of labor in the Guidimaka. Many villages consist virtually entirely of old people, women and children. Male outmigration has shifted the responsibility for agricultural production increasingly to women. From a natural resource management perspective, the situation is largely negative. Large areas of land are left fallow. Agricultural production has stagnated. Many families cannot make sufficient income from agriculture and are heavily dependent on migrant remittances. Women, though de facto in charge of agricultural production, often do not have access to credit and services that are necessary to help improve agricultural productivity. This suggests the need for increased targeting of women in all agricultural development programs. Overall, there has been little investment in the land and few measures are taken to arrest the deterioration of land and water resources. However, as the situation for immigrant workers in France becomes more difficult, it is likely that many migrants will return to the region which may lead to increased investment in the land and improve the situation.

60. Another factor affecting land use is the immigration of camel herders and farmers into the region, which has increased over the past 20 years largely due to the drought which forced people to move into more fertile areas, such as the Guidimaka. Migrants are often given land use rights by local village chiefs. However, in some instances, land is taken over without permission and locally protected forested areas are cleared for cultivation. This removal of vegetation cover can expose the soil to water erosion, particularly on sloped areas. Large camel herds are also depleting vegetation resources at an alarming rate, though data on the increase in camels in the region is limited. The complexity of population movements in the region and increasing competition for natural resources is likely to make land tenure an increasingly important issue, as people try to claim and secure their rights to land. This highlights the need to examine the application of the 1983 land law reform to areas, such as the Guidimaka, and to determine how best to provide a land tenure framework that is well-adapted to the situation on the ground and provides incentives for sustainable natural resource management.

61. A third important factor is the lack of rural infrastructure and access to urban markets. Roads both within the region and connecting the region to major towns are inadequate and those that exist are unpaved and generally in poor condition. During the rainy season, most roads are impassable. This lack of access to markets is a major factor behind the economic decline in the region. It reduces returns to agriculture which in turn limits the amount of revenue available to invest in soil and water management techniques.

62. Reversing the detioration of land resources in the Guidimaka and the stagnation of agricultural output will require some major shifts in Government policy and investment. To date, the region has received little attention. However, in its Poverty Strategy, the Government has targeted the Guidimakaas a region where priority should be given to land use management and agricultural production. A "gestion de terroirs" approach that aims to improve soil, water, pasture and forest managementthrough targeting investment directly to the local leveland supportingcommunities in efforts to reverse land degradationand clarify issues of land tenure may be the best program approach to take in

23Bradley,Raynaut and Torrealba,1977. Le GuidimakaMauritanien: Diagnostic et Propositionsd'Action, p. 48. -15- the region. Priority should be given to protecting watersheds through the construction of small dams and other water management techniques.

Pastoralism 63. A central challenge facing Mauritania is how to ensure the continued economic and environmental sustainability of the livestock sector. Pastoral production is central to Mauritania's economy and to her society. It is the dominant agnrcultural activity in Mauritania, representing 80% of the agriculture sector's output. Data on livestock numbers is limited which makes analysis of livestock movements and their impacts difficult. Animal numbers vary widely from one year to the next in corollation with the incidence of drought. According to government estimates, cattle numbers have fluctuated from 800,000 in 1950, to 2,400,000 head in 1969, to 1,100,000 in 1973. Since 1980, numbers have stabilized around 1,200,000, however, there is an overall trend of decline in numbers, largely due to migration to pastures in the south (in Senegal, Mali and even the Ivory Coast). Camel numbers on the other hand have risen over the past 40 years to an estimated 1,050,000 head in 1992. The majority of the stockraising systems are transhumance- based. During the dry season, Mauritanian herdsmen often cross into Senegal and Mali in search of pasture. However, the last 20 years have been extremely difficult for pastoralists. This is due to a number of factors, including the droughts which caused the rangelands used during the rainy season to shrink; agricultural expansion in dry season grazing areas; the rise in the number of urban livestock owners now competing for resources with traditional herders; and lack of demand for Sahelian livestock products in the coastal countries due to cheap imports from the European Community.

64. The livestock sector is in a state of flux as patterns of ownership and herd management change. The droughts plus rising economic expectations led to rapid sedenterization of the nomads. This has been followed by a trend towards agro-pastoralism in the rural and peri-urban areas which has resulted in a build-up of livestock numbers in the south of the country, in the Senegal River valley and the Guidimaka. Unable to find enough forage further north, pastoralists are staying in the dry season pastures year round. This has particularly affected the Senegal river valley, where previously livestock used to graze for only four months of the year. Animal concentration in a limited area has increased competition for fodder and land resources among herders, and between herders and farmers. The result has been rapid devegetation and deterioration of the rangelands, particularly in the southwest and increasing tensions between herders and farmers. The Govemment estimates that the largest livestock increase is in camel numbers which cope better under drought conditions but have a more damaging effect on vegetation whereas cattle and goats have decreased in numbers.

65. Increasing numbers of livestock are owned by urban-based absentee owners. In 1986, it was estimated that up to 40% of the national herd was owned by absentee owners.24 This has led to increasing competition for water and range resources between traditional and 'modem' livestock owners. Absentee owners often prefer to keep their herds as close as possible to the towns to produce milk for the urban market. The bulk of herds belonging to Nouakchott-based owners are found within a radius of 100 kms around the city25. Such herd concentration in limited areas without any form of communal management can exacerbate sand dune devegetation and encroachment problems. Around urban areas, animals roam free and there is a situation of open access which is leading to overexploitation of the vegetation.

24ShanmugaratnamN. et al., 1991, Resource Managementand Pastoral Institution Building in the West African Sahel, WorldBank report preparedby NORAGRIC. 25Accordingto the MDRE,Nouakchott probably has the highest concentrationof camels anywherein Mauritania, with an estimated 100,000camels concentratedaround the city. -16-

66. Many complex issues emerge within the livestock sector, including land tenure, water point and range management and how to manage more integrated production sytems. In 1987, the Government, with World Bank support, promoted the establishment of Pastoral Associations (PAs) to provide a legal status to traditional pastoral groups and pnrvatize certain livestock sector activities. This policy decision has compelled a greater practical focus on pastoral institution building. It has provided PAs with an opportunity to take greater responsibility for natural resource management and strengthen their legitimacy with respect to land and water rights. There are several challenges to realizing the potential of PAs and resolving issues of land tenure and management. These include balancing the interests of traditional versus modern livestock owners, management of public wells, introducing improved rangeland management techniques and taking a more integrated approach to natural resource management, that looks at pastoralism, crop production and forest use within a multisectoral framework. Water Overexploitation in the Oases 67. The oases of Mauritania are a vital part of her history and her present. These small but fertile areas are generally situated along dry riverbeds (often called wadis). Oases are scattered throughout the desert region of Maunrtania, and are thus primarily found in the regions of Adrar, Tagant and Assaba and to a lesser extent in the Hodh el Gharbi and Hodh ech Chargui. Data on oases is extremely limited and there is much uncertainty as to the number of oases, their population and agricultural production. Since 1984, IFAD has collected data on the oases in conjunction with the Oases Development Project.26 They estimate that there are about 100 oases in Mauritania in which some 34,000 families live.27 Oasis agriculture occupies around 5,000 ha.28 Date production is the most important revenue-earner with annual date production estimated at 18,000 mt, worth approximately US$13 million. Vegetables and cereals are often grown in oases and many oases dwellers also raise livestock. 68. Agricultural production in the oases has declined over the past 20 years. This is largely a result of the outmigration during the drought years of people who worked as laborers on the date plantations. In the Tagant region, for example, population decreased at a rate of 1.2% per year during the period 1977- 1988.29 The exodus of laborers led to an overall shortage of labor, and date production fell due to the neglect or complete abandonment of the plantations. 69. As a result of the shortage of labor, many land owners began to invest in motor pumps to replace the traditional hand pumps. This has led to overexploitation of groundwater, particularly in the Adrar region.30 Safe yield, that is the quantity of water that can be withdrawn from an aquifer on a continual basis without depleting the underground reservoir, has been exceeded in a number of oases. A vicious cycle has started in the Adrar: drought, in conjunction with investments in wells and motor pumps, has led to rapidly falling water tables (estimates are that the water table has dropped by 100-200% over the last decade). As water levels fall, new technologies of deeper water extraction are developed leading to further overexploitation. Lowered water tables and decreased water quality lead to production losses due to inadequate irrigation and increased soil salinity.

26This data was presentedas a statisticalatlas on oases publishedby FAO in 1985. 27This figure refers to the physical numberof oases. From a sociologicalperspective, there are roughly 350 oases which are managed as discrete "socio-geographic"units. 28FAO, 1993. PreparationReport for the Oasis DevelopmentProject Phase II, p. 15 29FAO, 1993. 30Instituteof DevelopmentAnthropology, 1994. Report preparedfor IFAD on the Oasis Project. -17-

70. Data on these trends, both groundwater and production declines, is poor and unreliable, which is an important impediment to designing the action programs which are needed to arrest the decline. Quantitative estimates of exactly how far water has fallen are not possible because of the absence of reliable baseline data. However, a consensus exists both in the literature and among hydrologists familiar with the oases that over-exploitation of water is a severe problem that threatens the long-term sustainability of oasis agricultural production. There is a critical need to carry out groundwater evaluations in oases to determine more accurately the magnitude and effect of the problem. 71. A major constraint to achieving sustainable agriculture is the lack of legislation placing limits on groundwater use. Water use is regulated by the Islamic Maliki law under which water is regarded as a gift of God. It it therefore common property and anyone may gain access to groundwater by constructing a well or borehole and utilize as much water as she or he wishes. The siting of wells is regulated, however. For example, an individual cannot dig a well that affects the water of other properties or wells belonging to other people. Given the evidence that there is a trend of overexploitation, strengthening of the legal and administrative framework regulating water use in the oases deserves priority attention. Setting of limits would follow the initial step of carrying out hydrological surveys to assess more accurately the magnitude of the problem and current trends. 72. A further threat to the the future of the oases is sand dune encroachment onto agricultural land. Unfortunately, there is no long-term time series data which assesses the rate of sand encroachment with any degree of specificity. Much of the information on this problem is anecdotal and based on observation which is inadequate to give a proper assessment of the situation. The problem appears to be most severe in Adrar where, although there has not been massive encroachment on to farmed land, local people report that dunes have destroyed palm plantings in Chinguetti and Toungad.31

73. It is highly likely that there is a relationship between dune movements and groundwater depletion which deserves further examination. Falling groundwater levels contribute to the destabilization of sand dunes. The capillarity of water contributes to the adhesion of dune materials. As water levels fall this zone of adhesion is lowered, and sand particles become far more susceptible to being blown by the wind. The implication is that if one controls water depletion one may reduce dune movements.

74. A further factor affecting the sustainability of production in the oases is the land tenure situation. Land tenure in and around the oases is complex. Ownership has tended to be concentrated in the handsof a few traditional landowners. Many of these landowners are today absentee landlords, either because they work in business or government elsewhere or because they have livestock that they must graze in areas far from the oases. It is difficult for anyone who is not a traditional owner of land to purchase land or gain legal rights to land. In theory, the 1983 law reform will change this situation as it abolishes traditional land tenure systems and provides all Mauritanians with the right to own land. The application of the law to the oases deserves special attention. This might offer a good opportunity to encourage more equitable distribution of land, which in turn might increase incentives for people to stay in the oases and reduce the labor problem. Sand Dune Encroachment "Sand dunes have become a huge problem for us. W'indsblow persistently throughout the year, forming dunes and sand hills. Our villages are surrounded by dunes, constantly threatening to close in on us. Sand blows across roads and tracks and accidents are caused - despite constant government efforts to clear the paths and plant shelter belts to halt the sand's movement. The major reason for this desertification is the drought, which has killed much of our vegetation. There is also

31Instituteof DevelopmentAnthropology, 1994. -18-

a human factor, particularly the cutting of treesforfuel and charcoal". - Hadk ouldSaleck, 50yr old manfrom Nouakchott.3 2 75. Sand dune encroachment is the most visible of Mauritania's environmental problems. It is a real and increasing problem, though more localized than generally perceived. Much good work has been done on describing dunal encroachment and developing and implementing methods to fix dunes, yet the causes and long-term trends of dune encroachment are relatively unstudied and rarely addressed. There is little systematic information on the relationship of dune movements to rainfall patterns or to human settlement. Indeed, ecologists do not agree on the nature and seriousness of dune migration. Some focus attention on the resilience of the desert regions of the Sahel and link dunal movements to rainfall patterns or lack of water due to other factors, such as overexploitation of groundwater.33 Others focus attention on the imnpact of human and animal population pressure and link dunal movements to overexploitation of vegetation cover. 76. This difference of opinion as to the importance of climatic as opposed to man-made factors is at the heart of the desertification debate. In the final analysis, it is largely a question of which factor predominates and most would agree that a combination of the two are at play. Though the Mauritanian environment is very resilient - rangeland production bounces back with the coming of good rains - many areas were without rain for so long and have been subjected to such heavy population and grazing pressure that the dunes have been stripped bare of all protective vegetation and become mobile when blown by the frequent winds. Once mobile, this process of "desertification" is very difficult to reverse. 77. There has been no systematic mapping of natural resources in Mauritania, so it is difficult to determine the nature of sand encroachment trends and their linkages to land use. Observations indicate that dunal movements are most severe around areas of settlement and infrastructure development. Along the roads in the Sahelian zone, sand encroachment is a constant menace to the road network. Some 164 kms of the Route de l'Espoir is already affected by sand encroachment and the problem is getting worse every year. 78. Nouakchott and its entry roads provide a classic example of the linkage between urbanization and desertification. The city, established in 1958, was built upon a dunal plateau formed between 25,000 and 10,000 B.C. stabilized by vegetation cover of Euphorbia balsamifera. During the drought of 1972-73, nomads from the drought-stricken interior of the country flooded into the city in search of food. Refugee camps were established and a ring of several kilometres wide around the town was quickly stripped of trees and shrubs by people desperate for material for housing, fencing and cooking and their animals searching for food. The large animal population close to the city graze on the vegetation necessary to stabilize the dunes. According to government estimates, Nouakchott has the highest concentration of camels anywhere in Mauritania, with an estimated 100,000 camels concentrated around the city.34 The dunal area was stripped bare and problems of sand dune encroachment problems soon became an evident and practical problem. This is the situation to date and explains in large part why Mauritania's leaders see dune encroachment as their priority environmental problem. Techniquesfor Sand Dune Fixation 79. Considerable experience of sand dune fixation has been gained in Mauritania, both around towns and along roads. Numerous sand dune fixation projects, many of them implemented by non-governmental organizations, are underway. A combination of two main techniques is used to fix dunes: mechanical fixation and tree planting. Mechanical fixation consists of building windbreaks along the top of the dunes

32AII quotes taken fromAt the Desert's Edge: Oral Historiesfromthe Sahel, Panos/SOSSahel, 1992. 33Thiscan destabilizedunes by reducingthe degreeof adhesionof dune materials. 34Personalcommunication from M. GueyeMalick, DelegueR6gional, MDRE, Nouakchott. -19-

from materials such as tree branches, palm fronds and synthetic materials. The second technique is basically afforestation, using fast-growing and drought resistant species such as Leptadenia pyrotechnica and Prosopis juliflora. The aim is to reestablish a sufficient density of vegetation to stabilize areas of moving sands. 80. On a strictly technical level, Mauritania has had relative success with sand dune fixation projects around settled areas. However, social and economic factors have often undermined dune fixation efforts, leading to their eventual failure. One of the main factors determining success is the degree of involvement of local people. Experience in Mauritania has shown that the success rate of dune fixation projects is dramatically increased where the local community is directly involved in the design, implementation and maintenance of the project. People are only wvillingto expend effort watering and protecting the newly planted trees from grazing animals if they have a vested interest in the project. At a village level, efforts to promote communitv participation in sand dune fixation projects and to promote local initiatives have proven successful at several sites (see box). 81. Salinization caused by sand dune fixation projects is a problem at certain sites, though there is insufficient data on the overall magnitLde of the problem. Planting trees in an attempt to solve one environmental problem has created another. At several sand dune fixation sites, villages have complained that well water supplies are becoming saline. The problem stems from the fact that fast-growing species used to fix the dunes draw up water very quickly. The solution may lie in making more use of indigenous species which are slower growing and so require less water.

Promising Dune Fixation at Maghta Lahjar At Maghta Lahjar the results of the dune fixationproject are truly remarkable. This town stretchesfor 10kmalong the Route de l'Espoir and has a populationof some 4,000 families. At the start of the project all the houses on the northern and eastern side of the town were completelyburied by sand dunes and had been virtuallyabandoned by their owners. The project started with the establishmentof a nurscry where trees were tended beforebeing planted out on the dunes. Initially, the town residentswere skepticalabout the project and there was little community participation: 'I must admitthat, to begin with, we were not clear exactly how we could benefitfrom this project. We therefore usedto watch the technicians going to and fro fromnthe project site with a certain amount of cynicism and indifference. But a year after their arrival, each one of utscould seefor himself the concrete results brought about by the project on the eastern side of the town." The trees took root and today nine years afler the start of the project there is a dense man-madeforest edging the town with trees reaching up to seven metres high. The roads, homes and fields have all been cleared of sand and peoplefeel sure that they are permanentlyprotected against the movingsands: "We have a feeling of security whichwe did not have before...The project site is an area that everyone use to avoid. Now the cominunityhas been movingback into the area. Thanksto this project we know the houseswill be free of sand long enough to pass on to our children." The dune fixationproject today servesa double purpose. Not only have the dunes been stabilizedbut the trees are sufficientlydense that they require thinning. The townspcopleplan to sell the cut trees for fuelwood.Thinning is necessaryas alreadythe fast-growingtrees are quickly depletingthe water reservesfound withinthe dunes, leading to salinization of the water table. The people plan to plant local, slower growing species and when these reacb a sufficientsize, cut downthe fast-growingtrees. Sources:Gaye Sidi, 1987. Glaciers of the Desert: A Report on the Projet de Stabilizationet de Fixation des Dunes, Ptwos Institute,p. 8; missionnotes.

82. In 1992, a joint UNSO-World Bank study reviewed the experience gained in stabilizing sand dunes along roads in Mauritania. This study concluded that it is technically feasible to protect highways oriented -20- at right angles to the direction of the dominant winds, but that not enough protective work has been carried out along roads oriented parallel to the prevailing wind direction for inferences to be drawn.35 The cost of dune fixation measures to protect the Nouakchott-Boutilimit road is estimated to be between UM2.6-5.7 million per kilometre ($21,500-$47,150/km). This was found to be more cost-effective than mechanically clearing sand as problems arise; the cost of the protective works was estimated at UM 2.2 million per kilometre, with annual recurrent costs of UM 70,000, whereas the recurrent cost of mechanical sand removal in 1992 was UM I. I million per year ($9,100 km/yr). Issues and Policy Implications 83. Risks of sand encroachment are inevitable when establishing towns or constructing roads in desert regions. Despite these risks, for various socio-political reasons, Mauritania's development path has resulted in 60% of Mauritania's population being concentrated in Nouakchott and the string of towns along the Route de l'Espoir in arid zones which are highly susceptible to sand dune encroachment. 84. This pattern of spatial development has three implications. First, the environmental impact of settlement and road construction in the arid zones needs to be factored into both policy decisions and investment projects concerning spatial planning and land use. Urban and transport planning, in particular, have not always taken sufficiently into account the risks of sand encroachment. It is vital that the costs of sand dune encroachment and mitigation measures be fully integrated into project design, particularly in areas of urban and transport planning. This essentially involves carrying out environmental assessments. This highlights the need to have a better information base on the incidence of sand dune encroachment and the linkages between dunal movement and land and water use. 85. Second, the impact of livestock browsing on the vegetation raises the issue of livestock management by settled communities and overall community-level land management and planning. Such concepts are new to nomads who have recently settled and will require their developing a new sense of range management. 86. Third, the magnitude of sand dune encroachment problems and the high cost of sand dune fixation projects in Mauritania raises some fundamental questions about the long-term economic and ecological viability of settlement and development in the arid zones. The growth of Nouakchott was far beyond the Government's expectations and largely out of their control. It thus illustrates the pitfalls in seeking to control or even predict development. Nonetheless, it seems probable and desirable that careful review of Mauritania's geography and development pattern would suggest a strong focus on promoting increased investment in secondary towns, such as Kiffa and Kaedi, and infrastructure in the southem, more fertile area of the country. This might reduce the population pressure in Nouakchott and stimulate more balanced growth throughout the country, that is both environmentally and economically more sustainable. Forest Degradation 87. Mauritania's limited forest resources are rapidly disappearing under pressure from agricultural expansion, woodfuel demand and animal browsing. Woodfuel (fuelwood and charcoal) is the most important source of energy in Mauritania, comprising 95% of household energy consumption and urban demand for woodfuel is one of the main causes of deforestation. Total annual woodfuel consumption is cstimated to be over ten times higher than the sustainable rate of exploitation36. In 1988, total woodfuel consumption in both rural and urban areas was estimated at 1,243,900 tons. Nouakchott is the area of

35Governmentof Mauritania/UNSO,1992. Protection des Routes contre I'Ensablement:Technique - Couts - Benefices: Etat des Connaissances, by Axel Martin Jensen. 36MDRE/UNSO,1991. ProgrammeMultisectoriel de Lutte contre la Desertification. -21- greatest and most concentrated demand, accounting for 58% of total charcoal consumption.37 The scarcity of supply is reflected in the retail woodfuel prices in Nouakchott which in 1989 were 96 UM/kg, over four times higher than in any other Sahelian city.38 Prices in Nouakchott were also four times higher than in Kaedi, a secondary town along the Senegal River valley where there is no woodfuel deficit. In rural areas, demand is far more scattered and therefore woodfuel collection does less damage. However, massive devegetation is evident in some areas, partially as a result of the droughts and, in the valley, because of the poor floods which are necessary for the regeneration of the dominant tree species, Acacia nilotica. As a result, it takes increasing amounts of time to collect wood, a task that is done by women and children. The average distance for wood collection in Hodh el Chargul is 12km return trip every 10 days with a cart or 3 times a week with a headload39. 88. In 1988, the World BanklUNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) carried out a household energy survey. They identified the most serious energy problems as (i) the high demand for charcoal, which is causing over-exploitation of scarce wood resources far from the urban areas; (ii) the energy efficiencies of both charcoal production and consumption are low; and (iii) Mauritania's options to deal with fuel substitution are constrained by its total dependence on petroleum imports to cover the national demand for crude oil. If no action is taken ESMAP estimated that charcoal consumption would growvby more than 26% over the next ten years to 93,000 MT per year. To address these problems the Government developed a household energy strategy which is built on four principles that together will begin to address demand and supply side issues: (a) accelerated inter-fuel substitution, particularly to LPG, in the urban areas to replace charcoal as a cooking fuel. (b) demand management measures, such as promoting the use of improved cooking stoves. (c) improving biomass supply - it is imperative to know the status of existing forest resources, their rate of clearing, and a precise determination of all the actors involved. A larger degree of control and management of resources is required for their optimal utilization. (d) economic household fuel pricing - pricing policy should be geared more towards economic fuel prices which will not only enhance the use of substitute fuels and improved stoves, it can also generate a source of income to develop forest activities to protect the environment. 89. Charcoal production for urban areas is a relatively well-organized, commerical enterprise. The main source of forest resources are the forests of Acacia nilotica in the Senegal River Valley which makes very good charcoal. Forest resources are essentially treated as free goods as the prices of woodfuel do not reflect their actual scarcity value. The retail price of charcoal is low compared to the economic costs of charcoal production and tree replacement. Consequently, there is no economic incentive for people to economize on charcoal or start using substitute fuels. Though there are forestry taxes charged for cutting permits, they do not cover replacement costs as they are based on the quantity of charcoal produced rather than on the amount of wood cut. Charcoal production has been difficult to control as local officials are often involved in it and issue illegal cutting pennits. 90. To date, the Government's approach to arresting deforestation has been one of imposing restrictions on the cutting of live trees and trying to police the forests to catch and fine offenders. Forest agents have been primarily concerned with collecting fines even though their roles also includes promoting

37ESMAP,1990. Mauritania: Elementsof a HouseholdEnergy Strategy,p. 6-7. 38WorldBank/UNDP ESMAP Household Energy Surveys. 39Spurling,D. 1993. Sahelian Countries: Agricultural Extensionfor Women Farmers - The Working Paper on Mauritania,prepared for the AgricultureDivision, Sahelian Department,World Bank. -22- tree planting and the use of improved stoves. The inadequate salaries of the staff means that the incentives are to focus on enforcement rather than building up community relations and forest management capacity. Today, there is a growing realization that coercive solutions to the management of natural woodland do not work. The Government of Mauritania is in the process of revising the Forest Code to give more control to local people over forest resources. Many projects, particularly those associated with sand dune fixation efforts, are already making deliberate attempts to involve local people in the management of natural woodland and tree nurseries. Such decentralization and empowerment measures need to be accompanied by pricing and fiscal reforms that remove subsidies on alternative fuels and increasing the stumpage fees on charcoal to reflect the replacement cost of trees. Renewable Energy 91. For Mauritania, renewable energy sources, particularly solar, wind and biomass, are abundant and environmentally attractive resources with enormous economic promise. The last two decades have seen major technical developments for harnessing solar energy in ways that have greatly increased conversion efficiencies and reduced costs. The costs of photovoltaics (PVs) have fallen by a factor of 50-100 over the course of two decades40. 92. To date, investments in renewable energy in Mauritania have been small-scale and scattered. The Government, through the Cellule Nationale des Energies Alternatives (CNEA), with European Community (EC) funding, is promoting renewable energies on a small-scale basis. Wind-powered water pumps are in use for market gardening and it is planned to introduce 200 solar photovoltaic power units to supply electricity to health clinics in the rural areas with EC funding. The GEF, through the UNDP administered small grants program, is also financing a project to promote wind-powered water pumps. 93. There are three strong arguments why far more emphasis and investment should be placed on renewable energies. The first is economic. Already, renewables are competitive with fossil fuels and hydroelectric for small-scale applications and for electricity generation in remote rural areas. The economic gains from lower-cost energy resources might well be considerable. Solar power is especially suited to Mauritania with its high temperatures and vast land surfaces. 94. The second argument is environmental. Solar energy has no net emissions of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide or nitrous oxide, which pollute and can contribute to global warming. Furthermore, switching to renewables would reduce deforestation and consequent soil erosion. 95. The third argument relates to land use. The commnonlyheld notion that solar energy is too diff-use to harness and would require too much land needs to be dispelled. For solar-thermal and PV schemes, land requirements are comparatively small and considerably less than for hydroelectric schemes. Mauritania has a clear advantage, having large areas of arid areas with low population densities ideally suited for the location of solar schemes which would not compete with other land uses. However, the low population densities throughout the country in themselves may not justify large-scale investment in renewable energy in the short term. 96. The above arguments suggest that more proacative investigation, development and promotion of renewable energy is called for. As technologies develop, the cost-effectiveness of renewable energy is rapidly increasing. The European Community has already supported small-scale initiatives in solar power, primarily photovoltaic generating units. These have been plagued by dust problems and work is being done on how to solve these problems. Given the large number of livestock in the country, conversion of dung into methane is another renewable energy source for cooking and lighting that has proved successful in other parts of the world and merits further research.

4dAndersonD. and Ahmed K., 1993. "Where we Stand with RenewableEnergy", Finance and Development, A QuarterlyPublication for the InternationalMonetary Fund and the WorldBank, June 1993. -23-

B. COASTAL FISHING 97. Coastal fishing, a vital pillar of Mauritania's modem economy, poses important and urgent environmental issues. The sector provides a primary source of foreign exchange earnings, generating an estimated US$308 million (68%) of total foreign exchange in 1988, falling to about US$236 mnillion(54%/o) in 1991. Fish are exported primarily to Europe, Japan and Spain. The fisheries sector also makes a vital contribution to the budget, yielding about 20% of total budget revenues, and a small contribution to employment.4' 98. The Government of Mauritania has, over more than a decade, followed policies designed to provide pride of place to coastal fishing, and indeed it was one of the major sources of economic growth during the 1980s. However, recent declines in fish catches and production volume have signalled the start of a worrisome decline in the sector's performance and an indication of the depletion of fish resources. This crisis has been the area of intense study by the Government and the donors over the past few years. In 1992, as part of this work, the Bank undertook a Fisheries Sector Review which analyzed the sector's problems and outlined a framework for action. The recommendations in this report are currently under discussion. 99. Mauritania's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), declared in 1979, extends for 200 mnilesseaward along its 525 km coastline. The fisheries off the coast of Mauritania have been the object of intense and increasing fishing efforts since at least 1950. The vastness of the coastal waters and the limited resources of the Government make monitoring and surveillance of fishing activities particularly difficult. 100. All available information indicates that there is considerable overfishing in Mauritania. Evaluating the status of fish populations (stocks) and their growth trends is difficult to do at the best of times, but is made more difficult in Mauritania by the lack of data on fish caught in Mauritania's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). No system for the collection of data on catches existed until 1990. However, the status of the marine resources of Mauritania's EEZ was reviewed by the Mauritanian Centre National de Recherche Oceanographique et des Peches (CNROP), FAO and the French Institute for Scientific Research for Development and Cooperation (ORSTROM) in 1985, and more recently by CNROP in 1991 (see table below):4 2

4t Estimatesof employmentin the fisheriessector are incompleteand vary widelyamong sources. Accordingto the Bank's Fisheries SectorReview about 7-10,000people are employedin fishing and related activities. 42The WorldBank, 1992. IslapnicRepublic of Maurilania:Fisheries Sector Review. -24-

Pelagic Species Horse Mackerels 170 Over Exploited (125%) Other Mackerels 30 Heavily Exploited (80%) Sardinellas, etc. 140 Moderately Exploited (45%) All Tunas 15 Fully Exploited (95%) Other Small Pelagics 110 Over Exploited (175%) Demersal Species Octopus 48 Over Exploited (150%) Cuttlefish 10 Over Exploited (125% +) Squid 6 Over Exploited (100% +) Sparids (Breams) 50 Severely Over Exploited (160% +) Other Demersals 35 Mostly Fully Exploited (?%)

101. This analysis provides compelling evidence of overfishing. Total Catch-per-Unit-Effort (CUE) for the entire fleet has fallen by an estimated fourteen times over the past three decades from 1,400 kg/hour in 1964 to 100 kg/hour in 1990. For cephalopods alone, the average CUE has fallen by four or five times since the 1970s. These figures indicate that fish stocks are being depleted. 102. There appears to be a clear link between the value of the species and the rate of stock depletion. Catches of most higher-value species (e.g. octopus, cuttlefish, squid, bream) fell by roughly 55-75% from 1977 to 1990 whilst catches of lower value small pelagics (e.g. sardines, mackerals, and sardinellas) fell by about 2%. 103. Overfishing is a symptom of the lack of implementation of fisheries management practices. In 1987, the Government, concerned about the depletion of fish stocks and its impact on the sector, issued a new Declaration on Fisheries Policy. The main purpose of this measure was to improve fisheries management as well as to promote artisanal fishing and to increase national value added. In terms of fisheries management, strict limits were imposed on the volume of catch by species and on the number of fishing trawlers. Certain fishing zones were closed in order to preserve spawning grounds. To enforce this new policy, the Government increased the surveillance of waters by both sea vessels and airplanes, with the support of Germany and France. While the technical aspects of surveillance is improving, in 1991 it was estimated that less than 50% of violations against Mauritanian fisheries regulations were reported.44 Though fines are imposed for violations of fishing regulations, many go uncollected either because the vessel-owner has gone bankrupt or the vessel has left the water. 104. Overfishing is only one element of the fishing sector crisis; another related concern is the past history of easy access to credit to the sector. Most individuals depended heavily on credit to enter the fishing industry. The share of credit to the fisheries sector as a proportion of total credit to the economy rose from 15% during the period 1985-87 to 36% in 1991. However, a combination of poor catches,

43Theseamounts are approximateestimates of the maximumsustainable yield. Almostevery stock listed is on the decline side of a catch-per-effortcurve i.e. the more effort expended,the less catch results. "World Bank, 1992. FisheriesSector Review. -25-

increasing operating costs, deteriorating vessels and marketing uncertainties meant that most Mauritanian shipowners quickly became deeply indebted and unable, as well as reluctant, to fulfill their obligations to the banks. This led to a banking crisis with medium-term liabilities estimated at about US$110 million in 1991. 105. In 1991, the World Bank in collaboration with the Government and the donor community undertook a review of the fisheries sector oriented to the medium- and long-term operational and strategic concerns of the fishenres sector. The review resulted in an action plan, currently under discussion, which integrates both policy and technical recommendations to improve performance of the fishing sector and guard against overfishing. In terms of fisheries management, the study recommended the setting-up of a Fisheries Management Regime consisting of three elements: * A Fisheries Management System (FMS) that sets out rules for conducting fishing; * A Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) system to monitor fishing activities and enforce fishing rules; and * A Fisheries Judicial System (FJS) that complements the MCS and ensures adherence to the overall management system. 106. In addition, the study recommended immediate mcasures to reduce the total catching power of the demersal fleet and the introduction of interim fishing quotas until a satisfactory management regime is in place. Once catch ceilings are in place a system of allocating fishing effort would become necessary. This is not an easy task and success may largely depend upon the system being designed in consultation with the actors in the fishing industry. 107. A large number of options are available for setting up allocation systems, most of which tend toward granting a form of de facto tenure to operators. Examples include transferable quotas and long- term lease rights to certain areas. Setting up a system of competitive bidding might be the most efficient way of allocating such use rights of this scarce resource. 108. If overfishing is not curtailed, Mauritania's fish stocks may be seriously depleted and fish catches will continue to decline. Efforts to improve fisheries management are hampered by excessive public sector involvement in the industry. Government agencies have been heavily involved in the research, planning, financing, management and regulation of the sector. There is a clear need to reassess the dominant role played by government in the commercial aspects of the fisheries sector while strengthening its legitimate role in setting fisheries policy, carrying out fisheries management and research. Given the government's immediate needs for foreign currency earned fishery exports and license fees, it is tempting to sacrifice long term interests for short-term gains. Yet such a trade-off would, over the long-run, undermine Mauritania's overall economic development. Implementation of a fisheries action plan incorporating the measures mentioned above is therefore a priority. C. URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 109. Mauritania's remarkably rapid pace of urbanization has brought with it an array of urban environmental problems: lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, inadequate waste disposal, and salinization of the main aquifer supplying Nouakchott with water. The pattem of urbanization has also concentrated human settlement in the Sahelian zone on the edge of the desert where there is little easy access to food, fuel and water supplies and a high susceptibility to sand dune encroachment. This raises some fundamental questions about the long-term economic and environmental viability of settlement and development in the arid zones.45

45See sectionon sand dune encroachmentfor discussionof this issue. -26-

110. Urbanization in Mauritania far outstripped government expectations. The history of Nouakchott is a good illustration of what has occurred. In 1958, the date of creation, the city was planned on the assumption that it would harbor 8,000 inhabitants in 1970. In fact by 1970, largely due to the drought, it was home to five times that number. The city plan was revised on the basis that 100,000 people would live in the city in 1980. Again estimates were way off target - over 200,000 people were living in the capital by 1980, many of them in tented encampments, which today have become "temporary-permanent" settlements known as kgbUs, and today Nouakchott's population is over half a million.46 Already, Nouakchott faces difficulties sustaining this population - there are few employment opportunities in the city which, as yet, has no real industrial or commercial base; many of those seeking employment lack the education and skills with which to find jobs; the city is far from food and water resources; and the outskirts face increasing sand dune encroachment problems. 111. Water supply in Nouakchott is wholly inadequate and greatly at risk of deterioration. Only 18% of the urban population have direct access to clean, piped water. The remainder gets its water from public standpipes or purchases it from private vendors who sell water transported in barrels on donkey carts. Surface water sources are scarce and the great majority of the population rely on fossil aquifers for drinking water. Nouakchott and Nouadhibou are located above saline aquifers, so drinking water is extracted from wellfields about 60km east of the saltwater front. However, exploitation of the Trarza aquifer, Nouakchott's water source, is already causing the saltwater front to advance at a rate that could lead to permanent salinization of the aquifer. Furthermore, fossil aquifers are not recharged. Given the rapidity with which they are being depleted, it is, as yet, unclear how future long-term demand for water will be met. Hydrogeological studies strongly recommend the construction of a new wellfield no later than 1996 to prevent irreversible saltwater contamination of the existing wellfield and to increase supply. The Bank-supported Water Supply Project (FY92) is helping the government develop a long-term water supply plan. 112. The service levels for sewage disposal are considerably lower: only about 4% of the urban dwellers in Nouakchott are serviced by a water-borne sewage system. The remainder rely on pit latrines, cesspools or septic tanks, or have no disposal system at all. Unlike in many other countries, these systems do not risk contaminating drinking water supplies as the groundwater below Nouakchott is saline and drinking water is supplied from the aquifer over 60 kms away. Untreated sewage discharge near to the market gardening areas is used by informal sector market gardeners to irrigate food crops. This poses a potential health hazard. Dealing with this issue through rehabilitation of the plant and restrictions on discharge forms part of the environmental mitigation plan developed under the Water Supply Project. The inadequate availability of safe water and sanitation facilities contributes to a high rate of infant mortality and water-related diseases among urban populations. 113. Domestic garbage disposal is another problem which can have a direct impact on health. Urban dwellers tend to dump their garbage at the closest convenient location, as they did when living in rural areas. As yet, there is little sense of community responsibility for keeping cities clean. As a result, towns tend to be dirty and strewn with garbage on roadsides. Solid waste is dumped directly into the gutters or canals, thereby clogging them. There is no systematic garbage collection service. The municipal authority organizes collection of garbage by donkey cart, but this effort has proved insufficient to keep the city clean. Private individuals and NGOs have also organized 'clean-up' campaigns which help the situation but do not provide a long-term solution. 114. The situation is worst in the keb6s on the outskirts of Nouakchott. Housing conditions are poor - mostly tents and shacks, built of scavenged materials including shipping containers - and the areas lack

46Estimatesof the populationof Nouakchottvary widely. The last census (1988) estimated that 331,000 people lived in Nouakchott,though the District of Nouakchottclaimed the figure to be 600,000. -27- water supply, sanitation and garbage disposal facilities, leading to a high incidence of disease and a high rate of infant mortality. A recent survey in a kebe neighbourhood found that one-quarter of the children under the age of five were suffering from diarrhea.4 7 115. It is the poor who overwhelmingly bear the health and financial cost of inadequate water and sanitation and waste collection. The scarcity of water in Nouakchott results in the following paradox: the poor pay nearly four times more for their water than wealthier families with a tap in their homes. The urban poor spend an average of 4% of family income on water. This percentage is even higher for families who buy water from the vendors who charge up to twelve times the average price at a public standpipe48. 116. Exacerbating the city's waste and sanitation problems are the municipal authorities' lack of manpower and financial resources. The Government aims to address these problems through its policy of decentralization. This will grant city municipalities new financial and operational autonomy. An important objective of the decentralization policy is to improve local tax collection and utilities revenue so as to strengthen the overall financial viability of the municipal governments. Increased attention should also be paid to strengthening community participation at the neighborhood level. Keeping Mauritanian cities clean will require that citizens become stakeholders in their cities' management. This will require intensive public education and ensuring that local populations pay at least a share of the cost of public services. 117. The Government has embarked on three major programs, with World Bank support, which together will begin to alleviate the most dehabilitating aspects of urban poverty and environmental degradation. The Water Supply Project (FY92) will provide investment for improving and expanding the water supply system. Priority will be given to fulfilling the water supply needs of the poorest section of the population at an affordable price. The project will also improve the financial management of the water supply subsector. The development and implementation of an Environmental Management Plan is an essential component of the project. The aim of the plan is to develop a groundwater protection plan for the Trarza aquifer and a long-term water resource management plan to address how to supply Nouakchott with water after the year 2000. Under the project, the government also plans to initiate a health information program to inform the public of the dangers of consuming vegetables grown near the sewage system while investigating cost-effective ways of re-using sewage safely for irrigation. 118. The Construction Capacity and Employment Proiect (FY93) will support the establishment of a private agency, known as AMEXTIPE, to contract out public works to local firms. As well as creating employment opportunities, it will go part way to improving the sanitation, waste collection and sand encroachment problems in the city. Projects contracted out through AMEXTIPE will include public drainage systems, private waste collection services, sand dune fixation projects, and the creation of city parks. The project also aims to increase public awareness and grassroots participation in urban management. 119. The proposed Highway and Urban Infrastructure Proiect (FY96) will continue and enlarge ongoing initiatives in the roads and urban sectors. The project has two components: an urban component and a highway component. The main objective of the urban component is to assist the Government implement the decentralization of decision-making and resources to regional and municipal levels. With regard to waste collection, this new project will aim at helping the Municipality of Nouakchott to implement an effective and comprehensive waste collection system comprised of primary collection by donkey carts and

47The World Bank, 1992. Water Supply Project: Staff Appraisal Report, Infrastructure Division, Sahelian Department. 48The World Bank, 1992. Water Supply Project: Staff Appraisal Report, Infrastructure Division, Sahelian Department,May, 1992. -28- haulage to the final depot by truck. The city population will be asked to pay for a share of the costs with the municipality financing the remainder. -29-

IV. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT A. POLICYFRAMEWORK 120. Much analysisand work has taken place on environmentalissues in Mauritania,particularly on issues of desertificationand the Senegal River Valley. This work, however, is not yet explictly integrated into the overall development framework and the policy choices involved are not clearly defined. Despite awareness of environmental problems, they have tended to be treated separately to overall development planning. 121. As in the rest of the Sahel,the droughtsof the 1970s and 80s placedenvironmental concerns firmly on the developmentagenda. In 1980, the Governmentorganized a nationalseminar on anti-desertification strategies,after which, for the first time, the National Plan includedreference to the broad outlines of a desertificationcontrol program. In 1984, CILSS (the Inter-GovernmentalCommittee for the Fight against Drought in the Sahel) sponsoreda conferencein Nouakchottto draw up a regionalstrategy for the fight against desertification. As a result, the Governmentof Mauritaniacreating a NationalCommittee for the Fight against Desertification(CNLCD), housed within the Directionde Protectionde la Nature49, which was mandated with the task of developinga national Plan Directeurde Lutte contrela Desertification (PNLCD).The UN Sudano-SahelianOffice (UNSO) and CILSS providedsupport to this effort. The PNLCD was finalized and approved by the Council of Ministersin July 1987. In 1990, UNSO was requestedby the governmentto translatethe PDLCD into an operationalprogram, based on the experience and lessons learnt from the pilot projects initiated under the original plan. UNSO supportedthe preparation of a "ProgrammeMultisectoriel de Lutte Contre la Desertification"(PMLCD) which was approvedin 1991. MUultisectoralProgram for the Fight against Desertification (PMLCD) 122. The Multisectoral Program for the Fight against Desertification (PMLCD) is the main environmentalpolicy documentin Mauritaniawhich provides a frameworkfor action to combat desertificationat the nationaland regional levels. The PMLCD provides a descriptionof the natural resourcepotential of Mauritania and the causes and extent of desertification- sand dune encroachment, wind erosion,water erosion,chemical degradation, deforestation, rangeland degradation and the impactsof degradationon agnrcultureproduction. It puts forward a plan of action to address these problemswhich prioritizesaction accordingto their immediate,medium and long-termpriority. Immediatepriority actions are: * to slow down the most severe effects of desertification,identified as sand dune encroachmnentand depletionof fuelwoodsupply; * institutionaland legislativestrengthening to improvenatural resourcemanagement; "responsibilisation" of local populations;and improvingenvironmental information, inventories, studies and research. Mediumterm priority: * improvenatural resourcemanagement in a mannerthat integratesagro-sylvo-pastoral resources Long term priority action: * establish conditionsto ensure sustainabledevelopment in a manner that improves the utilizationof natural resourcesand establishesnational parks and nature reserves.

49In 1993this wasrenamed the "Directionde l'Environnementet de l'AmenagementRural". -30-

123. Seven action program areas are identified, including environmental protection, water, energy, natural resource management, and institutional and legal framework. Activities under each program area are described. Detailed regional action plans were developed for nine of the country's twelve regions which prioritize actions at a regional level and list proposed project interventions. The entire program calls for a total investment of 15 billion UM ($124 million). A donor Round Table meeting on the PMLCD took place in May 1992 to discuss financing and implementation of the plan. UNSO, UNDP and IUCN are the donors most actively supporting the PMLCD. UNSO and IUCN are currently working with the MDRE to develop a more detailed proposal for the PMLCD institutional and legislative support program. 124. A more broad ranging policy document was prepared by the Government, with the assistance of UNDP, for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This UNCED National Report identified the key problems related to environment and development as high population growth. migration to urban areas, rural poverty, and reduction of pastoral and forest resources, land degradation including sand dune encroachment, loss of soil fertility and salinization along the Senegal River, and industrial pollution. 125. These exercises represent important building blocks towards developing a national environmental strategy framework. However, neither has yet achieved some important objectives defined for the NEAP process. Notably, broad national participation has been quite restricted and the programs appear more oriented towards preparing a list of projects for financing than on the key step of addressing policy and institutional reform. Further, they have focused only on "green" issues related to land degradation, and not on "brown" issues, such as urban sanitation, and they do not clearly integrate and set environmental issues within the Government's overall development strategy. B. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 126. The Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE) has the most direct mandate for environmental affairs. Responsibility for environmental issues falls under the Ministry's Direction de l'Environnement et de l'Amenagement Rural (DEAR). DEAR has institutional responsibility for the coordination and implementation of the PMLCD and for environmental strategy-making and planning. The CMLCD is presided over by an inter-ministerial committee and ultimately the President. Historically, the DEAR has been responsible for forestry and wildlife protection. It therefore lacks experience in environmental strategy making and environmental impact assessment. 127. There are many other ministries and departments wvhoseactivities impinge on the environment. These include the Ministerc de l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie (MHE) which is responsible for establishing the national water policy and the preparation and enforcement of water management regulations. The Departement de la Protection Civile et de l'Environnement within the Ministere de l'Interieur is responsible for marine pollution, the control of bush fires and regulation of waste disposal. The Ministere de la Sante (MS), through the Service d'Hygiene et d'Assainissement, is responsible for the planning and implementation of wastewater and solid waste disposal programs, and the preparation and enforcement of sanitation regulations. Another service of the MS, the Centre National d'Hygiene, operates a laboratory to monitor water quality throughout the country, and to carry out public health research projects. The Ministere des Peches et de l'Economie Maritime (MPEM) has overall responsibility for the fisheries sector and the Ministere des Mines et de la Geologie is responsible for the mining industry. 128. Given that environmental concerns cut across sectors, it is to be expected that many ministries are concerned about the environment. However, what is lacking is overall coordination of environmental affairs and an agency with a clear mandate for assessing, monitoring and regulating the environmental impacts of development programs. These institutional issues constitute a key constraint in responding effectively to the country's environmental concerns. A strong message from the highest levels of Government that environmental concerns are to be considered integral components of planning would -3 1- provide institutional impetus for reforms. The Government could then follow-up, perhaps as a part of the NEAP process, by clarifying lines of administrative responsibility. This may involve strengthening or restructuring existing institutions and reassessing staffing and training requirements, both in central Government and the regional bodies. C. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC INVESTMENT PROGRAM 129. Explicit consideration of the environmental impact of the public investment program is vital if environmental concerns are to be adequately addressed. Specific environmental assessment (EA) guidelines do not currently exist in Mauritania. This is an important gap and merits priority attention. EAs are the most powerful regulatory tool available to reorient development activities towards being more environmentally benign. The purpose of carrying out environmental assessments is to ensure that the development options under consideration are environmentally sound and sustainable, and that any environmental consequences are recognized early in the project cycle and taken into account in project design. 130. EAs provide critical information about environmental impacts. They ensure environmental concerns and mitigation measures are incorporated into planning from the start. Based on the information they provide, policy-makers decide whether the policy or project should be altered to take environmental concerns into account or whether some mitigating action should be taken. Many of the environmental problems faced by Mauritania highlight the need for environmental assessments. For example, given the susceptibility of the region to sand dune mobilization, the environmental impacts of transport and infrastructure projects clearly needs to be considered from the beginning of the planning process. The AMEXTIPE project is initiating an environmental assessment process for its public works which represents an important step fonvard in institutionalizing environmental assessments in Mauritania. The Govermment now needs to take the lead on requiring environmental impacts of all projects in the Public Investment Program and on ensuring measures are in place to tackle these concerns. D. INFORMATION CONSTRAINTS 131. Data with which to monitor and evaluate the conditions of the Mauritanian environment are poor and environmental information is an area in need of more systematic attention. Development policy and project decisions that could potentially affect the environment should ideally take into account the location, abundance and condition of the natural resources, their current uses, resource trends and the likely impact of development on the resources' sustainability. This is currently seldom the case in Mauritania. Despite the focus on desertification, there has been no systematic mapping of natural resources in Mauritania and the examination of land use trends over the last few decades. The only significant amount of work that has been done is in the Senegal River Valley but much of this information is held by OMVS in Dakar and is not available in Mauritania. 132. The biggest problem lies on the demand side: the processes that should be using environmental information are either not operative or are organized in such a way that they cannot use it. Information is rarely, if ever, conceived or organized to satisfy specific operational management processes and objectives. It is designed to describe problems - desertification. overgrazing, deforestation - not to formulate or implement solutions. For example, much good work has been done on describing dunal encroachment and developing and implementing methods to fix dunes, yet the causes and long-term trends of dune encroachment are relatively unstudied and rarely addressed. 133. The lack of a common data architecture, including data standards, is a major constraint to the use of information from different sources. Maps do not use a common geographic base; vegetation cover assessments or soil maps use different and incompatible nomenclatures. Databases are incompatible because they are tied to different platforms, are structured differently, and thus cannot be combined. As a result, it is difficult to aggregate data from a larger to a smaller scale. Key infornation infrastructures are -32- missing, the most important of which is a Digital Base Map Database (DBMD). The purpose of a DBMD is to serve as the common geographic support for thematic information, thus facilitating the overlay of different information layers, a crucial step in nearly all forms of environmental analysis and modeling. 134. Developing environmental information systems (EIS) in Mauritania is much needed. To date, environmental information-gathering exercises have been initiated in association with specific development projects, yet rarely have these developed long tenn capabilities to manage and update the various types of environmental information within the relevant institutions. Capacity-building for environmental information management and analysis, both institutional and technical is a priority. A central aim is to develop a network among the producers and users of data on the environment through which data compatibility and data sharing can be ensured. By tying individual project needs to broader national management needs, the funds available for monitoring and evaluating individual projects can also contribute to building a functional national data system usable by all government agencies and donors. Several points are key to the functioning of such a system; that all data be public and shared, that new data to be collected must be compatible with what already exists, and that the type of data to be collected be determined by the clearly identified needs of data users rather than by the technical interests of data suppliers. For the establishment of EIS to be sustainable it must be clearly linked to decision-making processes and be tailored to meet the needs of policy makers. Until a demand for environmental information exists, EIS initiatives are unlikely to sustainable. E. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 135. The legal framework for environmental management in Mauritania is somewhat scattered and poorly implemented. Many of the laws are based on the Islamic Shariah (Maliki school). Environmentally- related laws include the 1983 Land Law Reform, 1935 Forest Code (which is currently being revised), and the 1975 Hunting Code and a Mining Code. The MDRE is considering developing an environmental code. This would be a legal framework that would include the newly-revised Forest Code and a pastoral code giving increased legal rights to local producers over their natural resources. Several aspects of environmental management still go unregulated e.g. waste disposal, and those that exist generally need strengthening.50 Enforcement mechanisms are also weak. The country is vast with limited infrastructure which makes law enforcement particularly difficult. The vast majority of the population are unaware of many laws and, in practice, the majority of the rural population continue to regulate use of natural resources according to customary legal systems. Land tenure 136. Issues on land tenure are vital to natural resource management everywhere, and nowhere more so than in places like Mauritania where land degradation is an immediate problem. Land tenure issues have received considerable attention in Mauritania. This attention has focused primarily around development of irrigated agriculture in the Senegal River Valley. In 1983, a new land reform law was enacted. It set out to introduce a 'modern' legal system of individual private property rights to Mauritania. To date, this law is only being implemented on a test basis in a portion of the lower Senegal River Valley. Elsewhere, a mixture of traditonal and Islamic tenure systems continue to determine access to land, forest resources and water. 137. Traditional land tenure systems differ from one region to another, in accordance with the nature of the resource base, the ethnic group, production systems and religious and cultural factors. Land and other natural resources are communally managed under most customary land tenure systems. Tribal leaders were empowered to allocate use rights to land to members of the community or to outsiders, such as

50Mauritania'senvironmental laws and administrative regulations have been collected in CILSS (1988) and discussedin Colas-Belcour(1991). -33- herders who were allowed to graze their cattle on the harvested fields. Payment of tithes to the tribal chief to secure tenure rights ranging from "ownership" to temporary use rights was common. Most tenure systems therefore were of a hierachical nature, closely linked to the hierachical structure of ethnic groups. 138. Political changes over the past few centuries, including the establishment of emirates, has resulted in a complex mixture of legal bases for land claimhsin Mauritania with some groups (e.g the Halpulaar-en) asserting land rights based on conquest and others (e.g. the Haratin) basing their claims on the Islamic principle of indirass, which recognizes rights established through clearing the land.51 139. French colonial laws firther complicated claims to land rights and relations between groups, adding colonial laws to the traditional and Islamic systems already in existence. The French government passed a number of laws and decrees between 1830 and independence in 1960, which were applied to the whole of French West Africa. These included the decree of July 24, 1906 which recognized the existence of traditional forms of tenure and provided for their transformation into formal legal rights by a process of registration (immatrzculation). In practice, this process had little effect; few rural people registered their land according to formal legal procedures. 1983 Land Law Reform 140. In 1983, the Government of Mauritania embarked on a bold land law reform which has introduced a new tenure system to Mauritania, that of individual private property rights. The law was largely designed to promote private investment in irrigation in the valley. Long-term investment in the valley, it was felt, would be constrained by an unclear land tenure regime. Unless people had secure tenure to land they would not have the incentive to invest in developing it. The 1983 law (Ordonnance No. 83.127 of June 5, 1983) therefore introduced a tenure system that established a system of individual private property rights: Article 1: The land belongs to the State and every Mauritanian, without discrimination of any kind, can, in conformity with the law, own land. Article 2: The State recognizes and guarantees private property rights, which must, in conformity with the Shar'iah, contribute to the economic and social development of the country. Article 3: Traditional land tenures sytems are abolished. Article 5: Land registrations made in the name of chiefs and notables are understood to have been granted to their traditional associated collectivities. In 1984, a decree was passed (Decree 84.009) which provided guidelines for the implementation of the law including: Article 2: To be legally protected, the development of a plot must include constructions, crops, or dikes for retaining water. Article 21: Any collectivity that wishes to retain lands undivided must transform itself into a regularly constituted cooperative in which the members have equal rights and duties. 141. The legislation of 1983-84 established some specific requirements for implementing the law: all concessions from 5 to 30 hectares in size had to be approved by the Finance Minister and those greater than 30 hectares had to pass through the Council of Ministers. To expedite the application of the Land Reform Law, in 1985 the Government issued an executive order which made it possible for local authorities to distribute large parcels of land in the Senegal Valley.

51Park, Baro and Ngaido, 1991. Conflictsover Land and the Crisis of Nationalismin Mauritania, Land Tenure Center, Universityof Wisconsin-Madison,p.ix. -34-

142. The law led to a far greater allocation of land than anticipated. Many private individuals regarded irrigation as a good investment, particularly at a time when the droughts had hit the livestock sector hard. During 1984-1989, approximately 35,000 hectares were distributed, primarily in the delta and Senegal River Valley, to private investors, who mainly came from outside the region. Traditional land rights were frequently bypassed. Agricultural development schemes were set-up without compliance with the verification of ownership and compensation procedures of the 1983-84 legislation. This period of rapid but relatively uncontrolled distribution of land was further aggravated by the 1989 conflict between Mauritania and Senegal during which time some 70,000 villagers lost their ancestral land when they were expelled to Senegal. The plight of those refugees -- their repatriation and retium of their land -- is still an unresolved issue. 143. In 1990, the Government took measures to gain stricter control over the implementation of the law and allocation of land. A new decree (Decree No. 90020 of 31 January 1990) was issued which replaced the 1984 decree. This decree created a step-by step process by which people can file for acquiring formal legal title to land. First, a permit to exploit the land (autorisation d'exploiter) is granted. During this time one has to demonstrate use of the land (mise en valeur) for a period of five years. After this time, provided the land has been used effectively, a provisional concession is granted (concession provisoire) for a further five years during which time the land must continuc to be utilized on a permanent basis. Only after this ten year period is a definitive title (concession definitive) granted. The 1990 reforns also introduced a system of "land reserves" and "vital spaces" whereby all communities of more than 50 dwellings will be granted sufficient agricultural land for the use of present and future generations. This measure aims to safeguard the customary land rights of local communities. 144. A pilot operation Nvaslaunched in Trarza-Est in 1989 (supported by the Bank and other donors, through the Agriculture Sectoral Adjustment Credit (AgSECAL)) to provide a test area for implementation of these measures and to ensure that local community rights were respected. Application of the law is being carefully monitored in this area by the government authorities. After a relatively slow start, the operation started to make real progress in 1992. Under the direction of the regional Land Tenure Office (Bureau Foncier), the region is being mapped using aerial photography so as to establish the nature of land use in the region and to enable mapping and monitoring of land claims. In addition, efforts are being made to take a proactive stance to inform local communities of the law and their rights under it. Previously, few local commnunitiesunderstood the law, and little effort was made to ensure they were aware of the legal procedures and land allocations. Issues and Implications 145. A system of private property rights is well-suited to irrigated areas where infrastructure development is required for agricultural production. However, such a system is not so well-suited to regions where a number of overlapping natural resource use rights exist, as in most of the Sahel. If is often argued that lack of clear property rights is one of the main causes behind land degradation and lack of investment in the land. However, experience throughout Africa demonstrates two key points. First, security of tenure is often not the main limiting constraint to investment in the land; other factors, such as lack of market demand, rural infrastructure, and extension services, are often more important. Second, a system of individual private property rights is not necessarily appropriate to all forms of land use. Inadequate recognition is often given to the security communal tenure systems offer to a variety of users and to their ability to adapt in the fact of increasing constraints. This experience suggests that a review of the 1983 land tenure reform and its application to non-irrigated areas both inside and outside the valley would be beneficial. The complexity of traditional rights and uses demand further study so as to inform policy makers and project design. Given that competition for natural resources is likely to increase in the future and that property rights issues will thereby become of increasing importance, clarifying the land tenure system and providing legal recognition of the rights of traditional land systems is

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of vital importance. In particular, the application of the law to the pastoral areas and the oases deserves special attention. 146. In pastoral areas, the tenure situation is in a state of flux as pattems of herd ownership change and new forms of organization emerge. A process is underway to try and clarify the situation. In 1987, under a program supported by the World Bank, the Governnent promoted the establishment of Pastoral Associations (PAs). The aim of the PAs was that groups of pastoralists who normally live and move together would formalize this interdependancy by the creation of a legal association. The grazing lands of the group would be identified, and the traditional rights of access by any third party would be recorded. Usufruct rights would then be allocated to the PAs by the Government, subject to the respect of the rights of the third parties, in exchange for a commitment to manage the grazing land in accordance with sound practices and the advice of the regional livestock extension service. Any third parties contesting the allocation or wishing to register its rights to use the area would have to apply to the local authorities. 147. In practice, implementation of this land tenure policy has made little progress and its relationship with the 1983 law reform remains unclear. A large part of the problem stems from the increasing competition for land between the traditional pastoralists and 'modern' absentee livestock owners, primarily urban elites with sufficient money to invest in livestock. These absentee owners use the argument that the range should be managed under the Islamic shariah law which allows open access to all. According to Islamic law, natural resources, including land and water, are a gift of God to which anyone may have access for himself or his animals. The pastoral associations argue that traditional communal systems, not the Shariah, should be the basis of access rights. These issues are currently under discussion and resolution. Clearly, a communal system would be far more conduicive to improved range management than an open access situation. 148. In the oases, most land is owned by a few traditional landowners. It is difficult for anyone who is not a traditional landowner to purchase land or gain legal rights to land. In theory, the 1983 law reform will change this situation as it abolishes traditional land tenure systems and provides all Mauritanians with the right to own land, however, the law has not yet been implemented in the oases. 149. Another area that deserves a special look is women's rights. Though women may have equal rights under many formal and Sharia laws, in practice conservative customary practices often override these rights which places women at a disadvantage, particularly in relation to land tenure. This issue demands increasing attention given the large number of female headed households in Mauritania and their increasing responsibility for agricultiral production. -36-

V. ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES AND STRATEGY 150. The Bank's country assistance strategy, which is designed to support the Government's development objectives, rests on four pillars: (i) human resource development and vigorous efforts to alleviate poverty; (ii) support for private-sector led growth; (iii) strengthening economic management, capacity building and governance and (iv) improving environmental management. 151. Environmental management should be central to the Government's development objectives, given Mauritania's large and special challenges. As briefly described in this paper, in virtually all sectors and development plans, the Government is confronted with issues of environmental sustainability. Faced with such a complex array of problems and limited human and financial resources, priority setting and integration of environmental concerns into development planning become absolute necessities. 152. A key ingredient of several national environmental action plans has been the definition of a list of "franmework"projects to address environmental problems. This approach is not ideal, however, as it underestimates the importance of the policy framework and also makes definition of priorities and linkages difficult. On the basis of the qualitative analysis in this paper and taking into account the ecological, social, economic and health costs of environmental problems in Mauritania and the economic costs and benefits of addressing these problems, the following prioritization of environmental issues is given. Clearly such a prioritization is a simplification of the issues, however, it helps select where policy interventions can best be directed given that there are limited resources and institutional capacity in Mauritania. Problems with a high policy priority generally have some cost-effective means of dealing with them and will have the greatest ecological, social and economic benefits; those of lowvpolicy priority are either not intrinsically environmentally significant problems, or have few available cost-effective interventions.

High Priority Moderate Priority Lower Priority Ensuring the sustainable Sand dune encroachment Sewage disposal and development of the Senegal River pollution of urban water Valley supplies52 Overfishing Soil erosion, particularly in the BiodiversityConservation Guidimaka Household energy demand and Wastedisposal Environmental impacts of supplymanagement mining Salinization of aquifers supplying Overexploitationof groundwater Coastal pollution urban water in oases

153. Ideally setting priorities is a four step process that includes (i) collecting and analyzing data; (ii) setting criteria, (iii) making monetary damage estimates, and (iv) ranking problems.53 Possible criteria

52Sewage disposal and pollution of urban water supply is placed as a low priority as, unlike in many other countries,lack of sewagetreatment does not risk contaminatingdrinking water suppliesas the groundwaterbelow Nouakchott is saline and drinking water is supplied from the aquifer over 60 kms away. Untreated sewage dischargenear to the market gardening areas is usedby informalsector market gardenersto irrigate food crops and does posesa health hazard. However,this issue is alreadybeing dealt with. 53WorldBank, 1994. A Stocktakingof Key Elements and Best Practices in National EnvironmentalAction Plans, prepared by the EnvironmentDepartment: Land, Water and Natural Habitat Division. -37- include human health effects, physical and natural capital effects, aesthetic value, irreversiblity,and distributionalequity. Monetarydamage estimates can be made for human health effects and physicaland natural capital effects, as was done for example,in the case of Burkina Faso for the economiclosses from soil erosion. The main problemswith doingsuch valuationin the Sahel are (i) the lack of reliable data, (ii) the lack of well-establishedmethodologies; (iii) the shortage of trained personnelwho can carry out this work, and (iv) the time and resourcesrequired to do a properanalysis. The Bank is making efforts to help build up nationalcapacity to carry out valuationwork in the Sahel. The Africa TechnicalDepartment, for example, has designed and organized training courses in environmentaleconomics in West Africa specificallytargeted at governmentstaff involvedin the NEAPprocess. 154. Solid analytical work is also essentialto determinepriorities for action. Faced with a complex array of environrnentalproblems and limitedresources, where shoulda governmentstart? Lack of priority setting within action plans has been a weaknessof many environmentalplanning exercises in the Sahel. Investmentplanning has not been based on a comparisonof costs and benefits (economic,environmental and social) among alternativeinvestment programs, consequently environmental action plans have resulted in a "shoppinglist" of investmentprojects demonstrating a lack of inter-ministerialcoordination or sense of where the priorities lie. Identifyingenvironmental issues and action in a more systematicway will be a centralchallenge of the NEAPin Mauritania. Strategic Framework 155. Improvingeducation and the skills base of the populationand slowingdown the populationgrowth rate are essential for sustainable developmentand improvingenvironmental management. These are alreadyhigh Government and Bank prioritiesand will not be furtherexamined in the contextof this paper. 156. The followingthree-fold strategic agenda is proposedfor Bank assistanceto the Governmentof Mauritania: * assist the Governmentin settingpriorities, develop an enablingpolicy and legislativeframework and build institutionsfor sound environmentalmanagement - ensurethat potentialadverse environmental impacts of Bank-financedprojects are addressed * assist the Governmentto build on the synergiesbetween poverty alleviation,economic efficiency and environmentalprotection through well-targeted investment programs 157. In Mauritania,public spendingfor the environmenthas often been directedto relativelylarge and "physical"projects, such as dune fixation, rather than more fundamentalpolicy and institutionalissues. This paper aims to launcha broaderand more intensivedialogue on environmentalissues from a policy and institutionalperspective. The most effective vehicle for addressingenvironmental problems lies in the domain of public policy and institutionalarrangements. Weaknessesin both contributeto problemsand impedesolutions. An overarchingpolicy and institutionalframework that clearly integratesenvironmental concernsinto developmentplanning is vital. Such a frameworkwould not only guide public investmentbut it can channel private sector energies, which in Mauritania offer the potential for significanteconomic growth, within a frameworkof economicincentives and legal regulationsthat ensurethis growth does not have negativeenvironmental impacts and is sustainablein the long-term. National Environmental Policy-makingProcess Policy Framework 158. Much valuable work has already been done on defining an environmentalpolicy framework, particularlyin regard to desertificationunder the PMLCD and throughongoing work to developan action plan to address overfishing. The next step in finalizinga NEAP will be to identifymissing elements so as to complete a comprehensivenational environmental strategy. In light of the vast array of environmentalconcerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisive importancein -38- implementing a realistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania, in collaboration with its donor partners, to identify areas it considers first priorities. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), or its equivalent, should focus on making explicit the choices and trade-offs between immediate economic gains and consumption and the long term benefits from the more equitable and sustainable use of natural resources. More emphasis needs to be given to policy and incentives measures to encourage improved environmental management, rather than direct investment prograrns. 159. Country ownership is essential for NEAP success. The Government should therefore focus on the process of developing the NEAP, ensuring that there is broad participation so as to build up ownership and consensus among different stakeholders. Ultimately, the lack of an environmental policy with strong political backing is one of the main constraints to environmental management. The NEAP process provides an opportunity to define such a policy and develop a national consensus as to where the priorities lie, as regards both the issues and the appropriate actions to take. Broadening of the environmental debate beyond the Ministry of Environment to other Government agencies, local authorities, community and associative movements will be a first step in the NEAP process. 160. The existence of a national environmental policy, supported and advocated at the highest level, would make a valuable contribution to raising environmental awareness at all levels of society and to providing a sense of responsibility both within government and among the general public towards protecting the natural resource base. Countering special interests' claims tendencies to over-exploit non- renewable natural resources for economic gains is one of the greatest challenges Mauritania faces. Government intervention vwillbe necessary in some instances to deal with special interests and market failures. In other instances, such as natural resource management, decentralizing control over natural resources to local communities and providing them with support is perhaps the best path to take. Strong leadership and vision, committed to the values of sustainablc development, will be required. Institutional Framework 161. The roles and responsibilities of the ministries and departments involved in environmental management overlap and need to be clarified, preferably by defining better mechanisms for cooperation and coordination among government entities instead of creating new structures. One agency could be restructured and strengthened as an inter-ministerial environment agency charged with formulating environmental policy and regulations, monitoring environmental standards, reviewing environmental impact assessments and coordinating environmental activities. The actual implementationof programs and projects would continue to be achieved through the respective ministries. Such a restructuring would require high-level political support to ensure that the agency had the decision- making and regulatory power to influence development planning decisions. It would also require training in new areas of expertise, such as environmental assessments and environmental economics. 162. Developing a more integrated approach to natural resource management within the extension services is a major challenge. Both forestry and agriculture extension agents badly need more and better training in available NRM techniques. Forestry agents have been trained in a paramilitary tradition which emphasizes protecting the environment from local populations. Instead they should be trained how to work in collaboration with the local people under new forestry regulations granting local management rights. 163. One of the major challenges ahead will be raising environmental awareness and disseminating information on appropriate technologies to improve soil and water management. In rural areas, populations are generally very aware of issues of land degradation, however, often they lack the knowledge or means (both financial and human) to tackle the problems with which they are faced. A national "gestion de terroir" program, such as is currently being discussed with the Government, may provide the vehicle with which to target areas of particular concern and build-up local capacity to tackle problems. Other ways of improving education and communication include functional literacy programs, -39- farmer-farrner exchange visits and making use of local radio. In urban areas, awareness of environmental problems is fairly poor. Many families have settled only during the past ten years and are confronted with new issues of waste management. Awareness of waste and sanitation issues and their health risks needs to be increased. This can be done through media campaigns, the extension service and formal and informal education of both youth and adults. 164. In the past, measures to address environmental problems have often focused on technical interventions, for example, dune fixation projects. These interventions have often been top-down and not demand driven. Little attention has been paid to how problems are perceived at the local level and the main constraints people face. The issue is largely one of participation in decision-making and program design and implementation. The Government of Mauritania is aware of the issue and through its policy of decentralization of central government functions to the regional and rural commune level it aims to increase popular participation in development efforts. The proposed Bank-supported Rainfed Natural Resource Management Project, which will build on the work done in empowering Pastoral Associations under the Livestock II project could help take this decentralization one step further and provide local communities with more responsibility and rights over their natural resource base and technical and financial support for the development and implementation of management strategies and measures to prevent land degradation. These steps, however, will need to be examined in the context of the 1983 Land Law Reform and the policy on decentralization to rural communes. Global Environment Facility (GEF) 165. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) was established to support efforts to address international environmental concerns: the loss of biodiversity, global warning and protection of international waterways. In particular, it provides grants to projects that are in the global environmental interest though perhaps could not be justified from a national perspective. Mauritania has two natural treasures of international importance that deserve special attention under the GEF. The Banc D'Arguin is a coastal wetland that serves as an important stopover for migratory birds. It also supports a rich and diverse concentration of birdlife, fisheries and marine habitats, including several endemic species exist. T-he IUCN is currently supporting projects in both areas. To date, it has received little international attention and its beauty and biodiversitv value are not well known outside of Mauritania. Though there is no immediate serious threat to the area, it needs to be put under careful watch to guard against future degradation. Given its high biodiversity value and the aesthetic pleasure it has to offer, the Government may wish to consider developing a program with GEF financing to protect the park and develop eco- tourism. Increasingly, the GEF is only willing to fund projects that fit within a national environmental strategy. Therefore, support for such a project would only be possible if the Government clearly identifies this in a NEAP or its equivalent. 166. The problems of the Senegal River Delta provide a classic example of problem that might merit attention under the GEF. It is part of an international watenvay, the Senegal River, and is internationally recognized as a critical stop-over site for migratory birds. It supports large populations of fish and birds and provides a breeding site for fish that are caught further up the coast of Mauritania. Deterioration of this ecosystem could undermine not just the biodiversity of the delta region but Mauritania's fishing industry. The Government has taken steps to conserve the biodiversity of the region by establishing the Diawling National Park in 1991. The main challenges facing the park authorities are ensuring that adequate water is allowed into the park area to sustain its wetland vegetation and large bird populations, and working with the surrounding local communities (approximately 17,000 people) to ensure that they derive benefits from the creation of the park. Water management within the delta remains a problem and park authorities argue that the water regulation gates are too small to allow for flooding of sufficient magnitude to sustain the park's ecosystem. In addition, the villagers have been antagonistic towards the establishment of the park. Traditional activities in the delta are livestock grazing and fishing. Lack of flooding has diminished the grazing areas available and many local fishermen have lost their livelihoods. -40-

167. IUCN is currently working with the park authorities to assist them develop an integrated management plan for the park in collaboration with the communities which would zone the area into protected areas and grazing areas. Further support may be required to look at the problems of the delta globally and identify measures to improve water management. Such action would best be done in close cooperation with Senegal and suggests the need for closer collaboration between these two Governments, not just on the future of the delta, but on the development of the Senegal River valley as a whole. Information Gaps and Areas for Future Research 168. From the analysis in this paper, it is clear that there are many areas on which data with which to analyze and evaluate environmental conditions and trends in Mauritania are lacking. Below, is a brief list of issues where it appears further information gathering and investigation is warranted: * the underlying causes and long-term trends of sand dune encroachment; * the relationship between flood volume in the Senegal River valley, its duration, and cultivable land inundated; * the potential for renewable energies in Mauritania; * effect of reduced fish breeding in the Senegal River delta on the coastal fishing grounds; * the extent of groundwater overexploitation in the oases; * salinization; pesticide and chemical fertilizer use and impacts. VI. CONCLUSION 169. The issues discussed in this paper pose a daunting agenda. The plentiful questions that remain to be resolved are all the more vexing for their reciprocal and causal relationship with poverty. While this linkage may complicate the situation, it can also facilitate solutions, since it suggests that environmental concerns will be best addressed as part of an integrated overall development policy. Correspondingly, incorporating environmental measures into the Government's central development designs serves to institutionalize those concerns and ensure them a permanent place in economic planning. In light of the vast array of environmental concerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisive importance in implementinga realistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania to identify areas it considers first priorities, and, with the help of the international community, further develop the objectives and means by which it can pursue a development path that enhances the management of natural resources both through increased efficiency and improved equity. 170. Throughout this paper, recommendations are made as to how to integrate environmental concerns into development planning. These focus on the areas of policy definition and action and the need for better incorporation of environmental information into decision-making. For the Bank, they highlight the need to strengthen policy dialogue on environmental issues and specific issues to be addressed in project preparation and supervision in the lending program. Working in close partnership with the Government and other donors on these issues will be essential. AMNEX 1

RALNALL DISTBUTION BY REGION

WCAYA MCC*W{ATA = L dla m 103-2C MO 30 3ODa 400 5W

L.HM MMCA QW 117(a L 3 ismo 3A. _ DNG ~~~~~~~3-9W 3-9

aA130tNU 16-i 65 l00 TDCBEDGHA 9.1tn 210 7 . NEAlam 5 4zD 4"

:L lsu

TIN7ANX LL10 L475 A All 4.OM KOSEN t 765 &765 TAMlCHA T L3s6s 13 Ut AIOUN EL AM=Ui 1uS9 16.9w 2a

I SSA 36.6 I?W 17.900nS 6 ME .~~~~XNOS IOA 4-6a 6 f= ELAJL 7DM n S =c aJERRW 3.6&0 3. 600 aFA 10.7m 3M 7.7 i ~~~~~~~BOUMDEXD4.7m 4.7WS

4. eORoL 13.600 7-950 _5.650 KAZO *CC 3.OM 1-3 MACLAAA2.50 2.350 MIBOUT 5.40: 3.400 Xt boSJam 1550 1.550 S.BLa 33M0 4160 23M0 5.610 BOClEm L435 970 465 . ~~~~~~BAB S55t5 MBGN? 70 no0 ALE 1:t5A35 12. 35MS 1. !d~~~~~~AGTALAW.R 14MS 4.160 IC.= OLTAZ 67MO 45m0 KEUR EASN 2.2m 21 . ~~~~~~ROSS Ua 1.3115_ MMMWRRA 7- 7.750 R 'X &I540 5.140 OJAD NA- 19A35 I170 2-t< . h~~~ ~~OUTU4T31A75 27m 4.175 7. _DU 2= ila225 . - s~~~~TAR 34m 34200 . ~~~~~AOUTEFT 3I.7X 31.700 CGUEtIX 74.MO 7i4.700 OCADAM 74.7W 74.7M * =csNxr No4cu NOUADHIBOU 17m0 17 0 17m *. TAcAr 95 773 MomD MOUMDR1 1IQ940 1.740 7.2M TID=A 19.720 16 t0 3 6C TICHrT 64540 57-0 7.2M .zLGLW 10 l 51X) 5i 4OM SET 3AY 6.720 3= 3.7X 0=JL YE!4G 3.58 5C0 Z7 300 IL MS 2DM 25J.5J0 z so B R MtOCiREN 81.70 St.Mo _F 'DERICX 176J80 176SJ0 u. f4 AXJOUrT 46-Vo 46-_ MALMffAM~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1£.7 A96 1267X SA.W6 21.450 D ANNEX 2

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY REGION

POPULAnOn. 198

. ?.AL L23AM JLIAL S M.AM

L mIo" am . 1r..7ItW Ms 46M 162.= 14Lm 67m L14 2.6 S

. Dll~~~0JGUEM 3-9m 12 = 34m IL79 AMOW 9.= 40 iz 2. 4is SASSOCOUNU 16.X Is=J 1S 1.D9 TOMEDGUBA 9.1w 54.O 1a 44= 5S3 ME4A t 12= 32Z 440/m 4,40 OU.ATA l3u.= 6& 6_ _ 2.NKC.tLOI. S3.4W 5 33MJa .1j Ul.= 4L1 VIS * LASs s 724TANI 1.1i0 38o II.= 27 3,14 KOWE4M V765 Ss.a 3 SM 5mo 6,67 TAMCIAWM 13.565 1It= 3.m 13s L1s -AOUH E. ATXOUs 1I.mo 39= LS= 24mD 2D5

. FAUA 36.6W 161= 39ma L s 236. 243 4.40 +,2. s KLA XOSSA 10a.6 463= 3.m 433m 4.39 AJOL 7= s33 331a 4.71 GUa ROU 34C 243W II= L3.OM 6n )a"A 10a. 493W 24W 25mo . 4A3 3OUhDm 4.7m 7=W 73 L60 4.oooL 13.C ISO=D 45mo L15. I6ds 14 1 .2A + 1.7 % XAEDC 4= 59. 2L.SW 3L 13J4 MAGHAMA 2-3D IL= 7.0 31. 1617 M3OUr SAC 67.00 S= 62 1:2.- mm L550 1is. 43W 1oJ 9.6

i XNA 33M 18 n 35mo 1513W 162.sW 235. 5.64 1.9V BOG-di 1.U35 51 1. Z3W 31-5W 35.54 LALA.3 85 25.5 &w 17.5 27.49 M'AQE rs0 303W 3.= 27. 3&61 ALEGC 15.35 47= &o 39= 3.01 MAGTA LAMAR 14.sS 34.m 5= 2SO 2.38 T. n73W z_WO 72ma 1213 176X0 23. 2.95 -Ca- aUR MASS5M 2.2 170 171 7.54 ROSO L3W 53Ml 32 21mo 40461 ~D EtA Fw73 23m 73o 163W 3.04 5.140 33M 5 6.424 .OUAD AGRA 19.m 14= 14.71 .So0uTDT 311751 ama 2L 32. U9 t ADAA 2.1m Gi3 313mo 30m3 563W 5= , .9- ATAR ' 343W 31 25mo 6 WI91 ACUJFr 31.= 16MO 16mo am0 '4cuEzrt 74.5W 0om3 GM 43= 0.13 OUADAX! 74.57 4.m 4=m 0m5

* 0ACL CT _ N4OUADRBOU 173 60W 5303 I0. = 59ma 1337 , V. * 9. TAQ f0 65mo 93W 56 .7 7.5sm 0X.6 - 1L23 % MtOUDERA 10940 26 2. 23 2.3S T=D=JA 19.730 3= 6.5m 2I5 1.77 McKr r o4540 4.o 4.m GA6

in_XAQL 10.30 117=W 1.5W 1 19.50 7.55 1136 + 315 % _ . S=E..AY 6.7m *3W0 lom 733mW 135 OULD TEVC! 3 34M sm 29o 9. sO u. zm _m 258.583 34m3 23mW 6.0m 3Il3 3.cm 03 * 3175 s Bsa MOCG7N 31.70 23W 2= 0. F 'DWCK 176.J8 3O3W 28.3W 4.. 0o.8

UL AYJO= 464 3 14mo 9=o 5.0 .. 2.03 0.30 - 2.5 %

_ALMJTM~ 1.0)3.705 1.1263W 3)3.m)3 1.0263W LL60m6 z3a I.77 * 2.5 s ANNEX 3: LAND USE IN MAURITANIA

Wilaya Total Agricultural Potential Sylvo- Classifie Other Surface (lm2) pastoral d forests (km2) Rainfed Flood Oasis Irrigated recession Districtof 120 - - 120 Nouakchott Hodhech 182,700 700 80 - 35,000 - 146,920

HodhEl Gharbi 53,400 420 160 5 30,000 15 22, 800 Assaba 36,600 150 85 15 - 25, 000 160 11,190 Gorgol 13,600 250 200 - 105 11,000 45 2,000 Brakna 33,000 130 430 350 13,000 90 19,000 Trarza 67,800 - 165 - 550 10,000 85 57,000 Adrar 215,300 - 280 20 - - - 215,000 Dakhlet 17,800 - - - - 17,800 Nouadhibou Tagant 95,200 - 125 15 7, 000 60 88,000 Guidimaka 10, 300 550 25 - 7, 000 25 2, 700 TirisZeGnmour258,580 T - - - - 258,580

Inchiri 46,300 - - l - 46,300 lMauntania 1,303,700 2,200 1,550 55 1,005 138,000 480 887,410

Source: MDREIUNSO, Program Multisectoriel de Lutte contre la Desertification, 1991. ANNEX 4: PROTECTED AREAS IN MAURITANIA

MAURITANIA - PROTECTED SITES NationaVlinternation Name Manageme Comments al designations nt Area (Iha) National Park/ World Banc d'Arguin 1,173,000 See text. Heritage Site/ Ramsar Site NationalPark Diawling 13,000 Major wetlandof west Africa. An importantbreeding site for fishand birdpopulations. Faunal Reserve Reservede Moufflon Created in 1982 to protect mountainsheep. Integral Reserves Baie du Levrier(Cap Blanc) 310,000 Supports an important populationof monkseals and four species of turtle. Its integrationinto Banc d'Arguin has beenreconmmended. lies Mauritaniennes Established in 1962, this reserve protects fish breeding ______areasand nesting birds. Las Cuevecillas Contiguouswith Bancd'Arguin l______.. and is importantfor waders. Partial Faunal Reserves El Agher 250,000 Established in 1937, this reserve is one of the last wildland areas of typical L______Sahelianflora and fauna. ANNEX 5 CLASSEFIED FORESTS

FORETS WLAYA Nr DE'GArON _

TRARZA I For6t de Boo Haim 320 ha 2 Kbur Maur 450 ha 3 Caui 2.=0 ha 4 M-Barwudi 486 ha S Dioldi 627 ha 6 Komdi 4.470 ba BRAKNA 7 Tenem 453 ba 8 Mboyo 2.90 ha 9 Dar el rha 328 ba 10 Olo OloSo 217 ha 11 Sdb 2.736 ha 12 Aia+ Toocidiexi 507 ha + 62 ha 13 LApel 582 ha 14 IGan 600 ha

GORGOL - 15 Diotbivol 754 ha 16 Dinde 395 ha 17 Dao 958 ha 18 Yamc NDuaye. 530 ha 19 NGoye 1.825 ha

GLUMAKA . 20 Melgue 606 ha 21 Seydou 320 ha 22 Bouli 600 ha 23 Kalmioro 610 ha 24 Oued Jdd 115 ha ASSABA 25 Nehame 13.040 ha 26 Mxni Sedcr 3.065 ha TAGANT 27 E Machn 450 ha 28 Lqdcim 550 ha 29 Tem 4.995 ha HODH EL GHARBL 30 Tamoi de Tcmc s L.60 ha

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES

DAXHTI NOUADHMOU Pam Nationl et lCHnlI du Banc CAZSuin LSO0.000 ha (envio) HODH EL GHAPBI Ricrve de Facc dS_Aga 270.000 ha

PRE;I ADRAR PamcNatioal de Ouadan HODH EC4 CHARGTI Rcsave de Faume de Trdemsi 700.000 hi TRARZA Parc National dc Diawlmg 17.000 ha ANNEX 6 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Backgroundd Carr, David, 1984. "Difficultyof restoringeconomic viability with lopsideddevelopment: the Mauritanian Case". Journalof DevelopingAreas. No. 18, April, 1984, pp. 373-86. Chasseyde, Francis, 1984. Mauritanie 1900-1975:Facteurs economiques,politiques, ideologiqueset educatifsdans laformation d'une societe sous-developpee,L'Harmattan, Paris, 1984. Conde,Julian and Pap Diagne, 1986. South-NorthInternational Migrations - A Case Study:Malian, Mauritanianand SenegaleseMigrantsfrom Senegal River Valleyto France, DevelopmentCentre Papers, OECD,Paris, 1986. Courier,The 1986. Mauritania: outposts of the desert, No. 98, July-August1986, pp. 40-56. Gritzner,Jeffrey, 1981. EnvironmentalDegradation in Mauritania,Board on Scienceand Technologyfor IntemationalDevelopment, National AcademyPress, Washington D.C. 1981. Kane AmadouHadya, 1993. Situationdes RessourcesNaturelles et Propositionsd'Amelioration des Conditionsde leur Protection,Exploitation et UtilisationDurables, prepared for the Ministredu Ministere du DeveloppementRural et de 1'Environnement(MDRE). KawalecAleksander 1992. Reflexions sur les OrientationsMethodologiques pour la Preparationdes Projetsde Gestiondes RessourcesNaturelles/Gestion des TerroirsVillageois en Afrique Soudano- Sahelienne,Food and AgricultureOrganisation (FAO), Rome. LudwigD., R. Hilbornand C. Walters, 1993. "Uncertainty,Resource Exploitation and Conservation:Lessons from History",Science, Vol. 260, 2 April 1993, p. 17 & 36. R6publiqueIslamique de Mauritanie, 1989. Programmede Consolidationet de Relance (1988-1991), preparedby the 2e Groupe Consultatifpour la Maun'tanie,Paris, July 1989. Schissel,Howard, 1983. "Droughtstrikes again in Mauritania",West Africa 21 February, 1983 pp. 457-459. SouthDakota State University,Remote Sensing Institute, 1982. ResourceInventory of Southwestern Mauritania,financed by USAID in cooperationwith the Governmentof Mauritania. Spurling,Daphne, 1993. Sahelian Countries:Agricultural Extensionfor WomenFarmers: The Working Paper on Mauritania, preparedfor AF5AG,The World Bank. Suter J., 1993. Drought in the Sahel: A ConciseStatement on Current Understandingsand Predictionand MonitoringCapacity, Sahelian Department, The World Bank. UnitedNations Conferenceon Environmentand Development,1992. Agenda21, Chapter 12: Managing Fragile Ecosystems:Combating Desertification and Drought. UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP), 1992.Programme-Cadre de DeveloppementRural: Documentde Reference. USAID, 1980. Women in Mauritania: The Effects of Droughtand Migration on their EconomicStatus and Implicationsfor DevelopmentPrograms, preparedby MelindaSmale. USAID/IslamicRepub!ic of Mauritania, 1982. Rural AssessmentManpower Survey (RAMSproject). Demography IgnegongbaKeumaye, 1992. Mcondite et Ethnieen Maurilanie, prefacede Yves Charbit, Centre d'ttudes et de Recherchesur la Populationpour le D6veloppement(CERPOD), Bamako, Mali. Ministere du Plan, 1988. Resultats Prioritaires du Recensement de la Population et de l'Habitat 1988, Office National de la Statistique. Senegal River Valley and the Guidimaka AGRER S.A., 1993. Etude Macro-conomique d'un Programme de Developpement Integre du Bassin du Fleuve Senegal, prepared for l'Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS). BDPA-SCETAGRI, 1993. Schema d'Amenagement de l'Espace Rural dans le Delta du Fleuve Senegal: Dossier Definitif, funded by the Caisse Francaise de Developpement, prepared for the Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE). Bradley P., Raynaut C., Torrealba J., 1977. Le Guidimaka Mauritanien: Diagnostic et Propositions d'Action, a study financed by War on Want (UK). Darghouth, Salah, 1990. "Private Irrigation Development in the Senegal Valley" in Irrigation in Sub-aharan Africa: The Development of Public and Private Systems, eds. Shawki Barghouti and Guy le Moigne, World Bank Technical Paper No. 123. Diawara, Georges, 1992. Irrigation and the Soninke People: Organisational and Management Problems: Current Situation and Prospects, ODI Irrigation Management Network Paper No. 16, July, 1992. Euroconsult/RIN, 1990. Profil de l'Environnement de la Vallee du Fleuve Senegal, pp. 19-20. GERSAR, 1988. Creation de P6les Verts sur les Deux Rives du Fleuve Senegal: Rapport Final d'Evaluation du Suivi des Operations, Paris. Horowitz, Michael, 1989. "Victims of Development", Development Anthropology Network, 7:2, pp. 1-8. Horowitz, Michael and Muneera Salem-Murdock, 1990. The Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity: A Phase One Synthesis, Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, New York. Horowitz, Michael, 1991. "Victims Upstream and Downstream", Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol 4. No. 2, 1991 pp. 164-181. Horowitz M. and Salem-Murdock, M, 1993. "Development-Induced Food Insecurity in the Middle Senegal Valley", Geojournal, 30.2 pp. 179-184. King, Jack, 1990. Agropedology of the Middle Senegal Valley, Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity Report, Binghamton, NY, lnstitute for Development Anthropology. LeMarquand, David, 1990. "Intemational Development of the Senegal River", Water International, 15 (1990) pp. 223-230. Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement et Ministere du Plan, 1993. Atelier sur le Dgveloppement Agricole de la Vallee dans le Contexte de l'Apres Barrages: Rapport de Synthese. Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1983. Seminaire sur la Gestion de l'Environnement dans le Bassin dzi Fleuve Senegal: Aspects Suirveillance, financed by USAID. Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1992. Termes de Ref6rencepour l'Elaboration d'un Etat de Lieux et d'un Plan d'Action pour la Protection de l'Environnement et la Protection des Ecosystemes du Bassin du Fleuve Senegal Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1992. Document du Projet: Assistance a I'OMVS pour la Gesticn et le Suivi de l'Environnement et du Developpement par l'Utilisation de la Teledtection dans la Bassin du Fleuve. Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1993. Barrage deManantali: Etude du Plan d'Alerte (Premiere Phase), prepared by Groupement Manantali Ingenieurs-Conseils. Republique Islamique de Maun'tanie, 1993. Atelier sur le Developpement de la Vallee dans le Contexte de l'Apres-Barrages, 27-29 May, 1993. USAID, 1983. Document de Projet: Projet de Developpement Integre USAID/OA4VS. Sand Dune Fixation Abderramhane, Mohamed Abdoullah ould, 1989. Role des Communautes Rurales dans la Reforestation et la Protection des Ressources Naturelles: Cas du Projet Lutte contre l'Ensablement et Mise en Valeur Agro- Sylvo-Pastorale. Corera Alassane, 1992. Etude Technique de Protection de la Ville de Chinguitti contre l'Ensablement, prepared for the Ministere de Developpement Rural et de 1'Environnement. FAO/CP, 1993. Lutte Contre l'Ensablement et Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale: Mauritanie - Conclusions et Recommandations du Projet. Rome.

Governrnent of Mauritania/UNSO, 1992. Protection des Routes contre lEnsablement: Techniques - Coats - Benefices: Etat des Connaissances, by Axel Martin Jensen. Hanley Mary Lynn, 1989. "Anchoringthe dunes of Mauritania", World Development, March 1989, pp.10- 11. Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1986. Plan Directe7urde Lutte contre Ia Desertification. Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1987. Projet PlNes Verts: Programme cd'Intervention 1988-1992, prepared by consultant mission, December, 1987 in cooperation wviththe Direction de la Protection de la Nature. Minist&redu Developpement Rural, 1989. Plan Directeur de LuetteContre la Desertification: Approche Participative des Populations: Rapport Provisoire, prepared by Professor Cheikh Saad-Bouh Kamara, financed by UNDP. MDR/FAO, 1990. Programme de Stabilisation et de Fixation des Dunes et Projet de Lutte Contre l'Ensablement et de Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale. Rapport de Fin de Mission en Mauritanie, prepared by Hajej Mohamed Sahbi. Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1991. Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre La Desertification aPA4LCD),prepared by the Direction de Ia Protection de la Nature in cooperation with United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO). Ministere du D6veloppementRural/Government of Germany/GTZ, 1992. Gestion Integr&e des Ressources Naturelles de l'Est Mauritanien (GIRNEM).4Plan d'Operatzon - Phase Pilote Avril 1991-Mai 1994, document elaborated at a planning workshop held April/May 1992 in Aioun El Atrouss. Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE)IUnited Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO),1992. Experiences Mauritaniennes de Protection des Routes contre L'Ensablement. Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1992. Rapport dEvaluation de la Table Ronde Internationale des Donateurs sur le Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre La DJsertjfication (PMLACD),Nouakchott, 2-7 May, 1992, Direction de la Protection de la Nature, Secretariat Permanent du Comite de Lutte Contre la Desertification.

Ministeredu DeveloppementRural et de l'Environnement,1992. Projet de Lutte Contre l'Ensablement et de Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral (PLEA'fVASP).De la Strategie Participative a la Perspective de Responsabilation Communautaire. Prepared by Dr. Taher Moustapha ould Saleh, FAO Consultant. United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO), 1991. Sand Encroachment Control in Mauritania, Technical Publication Series. World Bank, 1993. L ¶EtudeRoutier et l'Environnement, Sahelian Operations Review, Infrastructure Division, Sahelian Department. Pastoralism Cheikh, Abdel Weddoud ould and Pierre Bonte, 1982. "Production Pastorale et Production Marchande dans la Societe Maure" in Contemporary Nomadic and Pastoral Peoples: Africa and Latin America, Studies in Third World Societies, No. 17. Shanmugaratnam N. et al., 1991. Resource Management and Pastoral Institution Building in West African Sahel, report to the World Bank, prepared by NORAGRIC. Oases Food and Agriculture Organisation/ Centre d'Investissement (FAO/CP), Projet de Developpement des Oasis - Phase II: Rapport de Preparation, Programme de Cooperation FAO/FIDA. Urban Environmental Problems D'hont, Olivier 1986. "Les kebe (bidonvilles) de Nouakchott", Afrique Contemporaire Vol. 23 pp. 36-55. Schissel, Howard 1984. "Nouakchott: Capital or Cancer?", West Africa 19 March, 1984 Societe de Construction et de Gestion Immobiliere de Mauritanie (SOCOGIM) et al., 1988. Amenagementde Terrains Urbains: Nouakchott, Nouadhibou, Rosso, Koedi, Kiffa, by Daffa Bakari and Serge Theunyck. World Bank, 1993. Staff Appraisal Report: Construction Capacity and Employment Project, ifrastructure Division, Sahelian Department. Coastal Fishing African Business, 1982. "Mauritania, Senegal Push Fishing Rights," Vol 49 (September), pp. 49-55. Gibbs, David, 1984. "The Politics of Economic Development: The Case of the Mauritanian Fishing Industry", African Studies Review, vol. 27, no. 4, December 1984, pp. 79-93. Water BURGEAP, 1988. Etude d'une Stratigie d'Alimentation en Eau en Milieu Rural, prepared for the Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie. Energy Conservation Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1989. Etude Socio-Economique sur la Diffusion des Foyers Ameliores en Milieu Urbain: Cas de Nouakchott, prepared by Projet Diffusion des Foyers Ameliores. United Nations Development Programrne (UNDP)/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Progranime (ESMAP), 1985. Republique Islamique de Mauritanie: Problemes et Choix Energetiques. Biodiversity Dugan Patrick ed., 1993. Wetlands in Danger, New York: Oxford, pp. 136-137. IUCN, 1992. Mauritanie. Strategie Nationale de Conservation, prepared for the Government of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. IUCN, 1992. Coastal Assessment of Parc National du Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, A Marine Conservation and Development Report. Prevost Yves, 1986. Etuides sur la Faune Mauritanie: Bilan et Recommandations, Programme de Cooperation FAO/Gouvemement, report prepared for the Gouvemement de la Republique Islamique de Mauritanie. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1993. Ecologically Sensitive Sites in Africa, Volume V: Sahel, prepared for the World Bank. Land Tenure Bloch, Peter et al., 1986. Land Tenure Issues in River Basin Developmentin Sub-Saharan Africa. Land Tenure Center Research Paper No. 90. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Grayzel, John, 1988. "Land Tenure and Development in Mauritania: The Causes and Consequences of Legal Modemization in a National Context", Land and Society in Contemporary Africa, 1988, pp. 309-339. Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement, 1992. Bilan et Plan d'Action 1993-1997 Reorganisation Fonciere et Domaniale. Park Thomas et al., 1991. Conflicts over Land and the Crisis of Nationalism in Mauritania. Land Tenure Centre, University of Wisconsin. Environmental Legislation Colas-Belcour, Francois, 1991. Elements de Propositions pour une Revision du Droit de la Protection de la Nature de la Republique Islamique de Mauritanie, in cooperation with IUCN, Ministere de l'Environnement (France) and le Conseil National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage (France). Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Secheresse (CILSS), 1988. Recueil des Textes Reglementaires et LUgislatifs en Matihre de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles: Volume 7 -Mauritanie, published by le Service Ecologie Environnement Secretaniat Executif du CILSS, Burkina Faso. MAP SECTION

IBRD25383

12- MOROCCO _ MAURITANIA - ALGERIA AGRO-ECOLOGICALZONES SPRANI -

NATIONAL PARKS MAURITANIA No-kd °tl AI AGRO-ECOLOGOCALZONES: ' , I' MALI

SENEGAL RIVER AREA THE SENEGA,L N CAMBIA--,M.- NG RAINFIELDAGRICULTURE GUNEAJl, FAS 28° FLOOD RECESSIONAGRICULTURE MOROCCO u GLSNEA_. i OASIS AGRICULTURE -28_ LEONE CEE )AN

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- -- -* PAVEDROADS UNDER CONSTRUCTION

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- - - - - INDICATESTHE TERRITORYOF THE, \ FORMER SPANISH SAHARA ------(WESTERNSAHARA) r MEr FO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N

-2A4 SPANISH ! -- --I24' - 0 50 100 150 200 250 SAHARA I I I I I I . . KILOMETERS

MALI

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NOVEMBER1993