area handbook series Mauritania country study Mauritania a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Robert E. Handloff Research Completed December 1987 On the cover: Pastoralists near 'Ayoun el 'Atrous Second Edition, First Printing, 1990. Copyright ®1990 United States Government as represented by the Secretary of the Army. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mauritania: A Country Study. Area handbook series, DA pam 550-161 "Research completed June 1988." Bibliography: pp. 189-200. Includes index. Supt. of Docs. no. : D 101.22:000-000/987 1. Mauritania I. Handloff, Robert Earl, 1942- . II. Curran, Brian Dean. Mauritania, a country study. III. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. IV. Series. V. Series: Area handbook series. DT554.22.M385 1990 966.1—dc20 89-600361 CIP Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-161 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books now being prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Con- gress under the Country Studies—Area Handbook Program. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Acting Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 111 Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of Brian Dean Curran and Joann Schrock, who coauthored the earlier edition of Mauritania: A Country Study. Their work provided the organizational outline for the present volume as well as substantial portions of the text. The authors are also grateful to those individuals in vari- ous public and private agencies who contributed photographs, research materials, and invaluable time and expertise to the produc- tion of this book. The authors wish to thank members of the Federal Research Divi- sion staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the text. Thomas Collelo edited drafts, photographs, and maps; Richard F. Nyrop reviewed all drafts and provided guidance; Barbara Auer- bach, Sharon Costello, Barbara Dash, and Ruth Nieland edited the manuscript; Andrea T. Merrill performed the final prepubli- cation review; and Shirley Kessel prepared the index. Marilyn L. Majeska managed editorial production. Also involved in prepar- ing the text were Gwendolyn Brown Batts, Barbara Edgerton, and Izella Watson. Malinda B. Neale of the Library of Congress Com- posing Unit prepared the camera- ready copy, under the supervi- sion of Peggy Pixley. Lending timely and invaluable graphics support were Thomas Collelo, Carolina E. Forrester, and David P. Cabitto, who reviewed draft maps from which Greenhorn and O'Mara and Harriett R. Blood prepared the final maps. Additional thanks are due also to David P. Cabitto, who designed the cover artwork and the illus- trations on the title page of each chapter and who, assisted by Sandra K. Cotugno and Kimberly A. Lord, prepared charts and graphs. The authors also wish to thank several individuals who provided research and operational support. Meridel Jackson was instrumental in adapting software to the authors' word-processing needs. Naomi Greer helped prepare bibliographies and, with Patricia Rigsbee, assisted in research. Finally, the authors thank Madam Turkia Ould Daddah, cul- tural affairs officer of the Embassy of Mauritania in Washington, D.C., for providing photographs used in the text and for sharing her expertise. v Contents Page Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xi Country Profile xiii Introduction xix Chapter 1. Historical Setting 1 Rachel Warner EARLY HISTORY 6 SANHADJA CONFEDERATION 6 ALMORAVIDS 7 SUDANIC EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS 8 ARAB INVASIONS 9 EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS 11 FRENCH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 12 Pacification 14 French Colonial Policy 15 French Administration Through World War II 16 Postwar Reforms 19 The Road to Independence and the Quest for National Unity 21 INDEPENDENCE AND CIVILIAN RULE 23 Emerging Tensions 24 Time of Radicalization 26 CONFLICT IN THE WESTERN SAHARA , . 26 Background to Mauritanian Policy 27 Fighting the Desert War 30 MILITARY WITHDRAWAL FROM THE WESTERN SAHARA 32 DOWNFALL OF OULD SALEK 32 THE HAIDALLA REGIME 33 Consolidation of Power 34 Political Disintegration 37 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment .... 39 LaVerle Berry PHYSICAL SETTING 42 Major Geographic and Climatic Zones 43 vii Expansion of the Desert 47 POPULATION 48 ETHNIC GROUPS AND LANGUAGES 50 Maures 52 Black Africans 56 RELIGIOUS LIFE 58 Origins of Islam 59 Tenets of Islam 60 Brotherhoods and Saints 62 CHANGING SOCIAL PATTERNS 65 EDUCATION 69 Traditional Islamic Education 69 Modern Education 70 HEALTH AND WELFARE 73 Medical Care 73 Housing 74 Chapter 3. The Economy 77 Peter D. Coats ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT 81 FISHING 84 MINING 90 Iron 90 Copper, Gypsum, Phosphates, and Oil 97 THE RURAL ECONOMY 98 Herding 98 Farming 101 MANUFACTURING AND INDUSTRY 106 ENERGY 106 TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS 108 TRADE 109 Exports Ill Imports Ill Direction of Trade 112 BANKING AND GOVERNMENT FINANCES 112 Banking 114 Government Finances 114 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, DEBT, AND FOREIGN ASSISTANCE 115 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 119 Robert E. Handloff POLITICAL CULTURE 122 Attitudes Toward the Political System 122 Impediments to Change 124 Vlll GOVERNMENTAL POWER 125 Constitution 125 Constitutional Charter 128 Legal System 130 Local Government 132 Local Elections 135 POLITICAL POWER IN THE MID-1980S 136 INTEREST GROUPS 138 Ethnic Minorities 138 Traditional Elites 140 Women 140 Trade Unions 141 FOREIGN RELATIONS 143 Foreign Policy 143 Relations with France 146 Relations with Morocco 148 Relations with Other States of the Maghrib 149 Relations with Arab States 150 Relations with Communist States 150 Relations with the West 150 Relations with Other African States 151 International Organizations 152 Chapter 5. National Security 155 Kate Bullard EXTERNAL SECURITY PERCEPTIONS AND POLICIES 157 War in the Western Sahara 157 Regional Security Concerns 158 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMED FORCES 163 The Preindependence Period 163 The Independence Period and the French Military Legacy 164 THE ARMED FORCES 165 Organization and Strength 165 Manpower and Military Training Schools 169 Role of the Military in Society 171 Defense Budget and the Economy 172 Civic Action and Disaster Relief 172 Foreign Military Assistance 172 PUBLIC ORDER AND INTERNAL SECURITY 176 Internal Security Forces 176 Law and Crime 177 Internal Security Threats 178 ix Appendix. Tables 183 Bibliography 189 Glossary 201 Index 205 List of Figures 1 Administrative Divisions of Mauritania, 1987 xviii 2 Almoravid and Sudanic Empires, Eleventh to Seventeenth Centuries 10 3 Territorial Claims in Northwest Africa, 1987 28 4 Topography and Drainage 44 5 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Sector, Fiscal Year (FY) 1984 80 6 Economic Activity, 1987 86 7 Iron Ore Exports, 1973-83 96 8 Grain Production, 1973-85 102 9 Transportation System, 1987 110 10 Current Account Balance, 1973-85 116 11 Nouadhibou and Vicinity, 1987 162 12 Organization of National Security Forces, 1987 166 13 Military Ranks and Insignia, 1987 170 14 Organization of Internal Security Forces, 1987 176 x Preface Mauritania: A Country Study replaces the edition published in 1972, twelve years after Mauritania became independent. Between 1960 and 1972, Mauritania struggled to achieve political unity and eco- nomic independence. It also suffered a drought and an attendant economic dislocation that lasted through the 1970s. In the period between 1972 and 1987, intermittent drought, desertification, and the war in the Western Sahara further exacerbated Mauritania's political and economic problems. Like the earlier study, this edition seeks to provide a concise and objective account of the history and dominant social, political, eco- nomic, and military aspects of contemporary Mauritania. Sources of information included scholarly monographs and journals, official reports of governments and international organizations, periodi- cals, and foreign and domestic newspapers. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources appear at the end of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table to aid readers is included (see table 1, Appendix). A glossary is also