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Mitigating Positive Impacts Without improving modalities /regulations in the project area, the perceived benefits will not be realized. The following initiatives will lead to realization of the mentioned positive impact. Setting by laws and adhering to them.

Employment opportunities being awarded to educated people in the local area. Impart the local with technical knowledge through exchange program and on job training The contracts should understood by the communities

Part of the Soda Ash should be utilized locally to establish or revitalize local industries.

Stakeholders analysis The participants were requested to identify all stakeholders that in one way or another can support the project positively or affect negatively the efficiency of the project. These stakeholders ranged from central government, district authorities, non-governmental organizations, religion groups and communities. The identified stakeholders were clustered. The clustering was based on their interests, expectations and possible responsibilities in the project of soda ash development project. These groups will have several responsibilities in the implementation of the Environmental and Socio-economic Management Plan. The management plan has to be implemented in collaboration of all the stakeholders. Every stakeholder identified has a certain responsibilities during the project cycle. The identified stakeholders are listed on Table C-1 below:-

Table C-1: List of Stakeholders Group Stakeholder. Authorities Ministries of Natural Resources and Tourism, Minerals and Energy, Water and Foreign affairs Pangani Basin/central basin Monduli, Ngorongoro and Longido District councils. Target group Livestock keepers Soda Ash business women Youth tour guides Tourism business operators Farmers Businesswomen selling beads Students Children Women who use makuruwili Traditional elders Co-operate Tourists Licensed hunters Hunting Companies Oxfam ERETO – NGO (Ngorongoro Pastoralist Program) MVIWATA/MVIWAMO – Agriculture and

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health Religious denominations Campsites like CAMAKIA PINGOS – Human Rights ACORD – HIV/AIDS Administrators African wildlife foundation (AWF) TAWIRI Ngorongoro Conservation area (NCA) Institute of Cultural Affairs (ICA) Community Resources Team (CRT) Investor NDC TATA

Environmental and Socio-Economic Management Plan

The facilitator guided the participant in preparation of Environment and Socio-economic Monitoring Plan. Participants were divided into three working groups. Each group was assigned a certain numbers of impacts from the list. The group had to identify the required mitigation measures for the impacts. The groups also were required to identify from the list of stakeholders, institutions that will be responsible for implementation of the mitigation measures, the supervisors, the frequency of monitoring and the cost required to implement the mitigation measures. All these were presented in a form of a matrix table.

On completion of the group work, during the plenary sessions, all participants from different groups were given a chance to comment and add more inputs on other colleagues work. The consensuses during the plenary session were taken as the workshop outputs. The facilitators further assisted the participants in identifying strategies for project improvement. The following, table below summarises the contents of the Environmental and Socio-economic Management Plan.

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Table C-2: District Input to Environmental and Socio-Economic Management Plan IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURE RESPONSIBLE SUPERVISOR MONITORING ESTIMATED COST (Tshs) Potential loss of Project area should be far away Investor and district Central and Local Before and after 1,000,000/= biodiversity due to from Flamingo gestation area councils Government (TAWIRI, project change in the use RAMSAR,WWF, IUCN, implementation of the Lake AWF) Potential change in food Government After every six 5,000,000/= security to the organisms living (Environmental months in or within the project area. Specialist) TANAPA, Further research should be done NCAA, FZS, Birdlife Identify biodiversity present in International the area and propose the mitigation measures Environmental Prepare sustainable Village Local Government During project 5,000,000/= degradation management system of government, (Natural Resource implementation (deforestation) harvesting forest products and investor and the Officer) tree planting communities Establish / improve Village Local Government All the time of 1,000,000/= environmental bylaws government, (Environment/social project investor and the committee, Natural implementation communities Resource Officer) (CBOs and NGOs) Potential increase Create community awareness Village Social security. All the project time 2,000,000/= in robbery and on civics and impacts of Government District Commissioner illegal drugs. robbery on community safety. Society Investor Improve patrol in wildlife area. OCD Central Government 4,000,000/= Village (NATURAL Government RESOURCES), Society TANAPA, NCAA Improve policing and its Village Central Government 28,000,000/= equipment Government (OCD) communities Hunting companies AWF

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IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURE RESPONSIBLE SUPERVISOR MONITORING ESTIMATED COST (Tshs) Increase of Educate communities regarding District Councils Government and other All the project time 2,000,000/= HIV/AIDS the HIV/AIDS infection. Investor (NDC and stakeholders (Community infections. TATA) Development Officer, Society health, ACORD, etc)

Improve health centers. 35,000,000/= provide medical treatment (ARV) Provide counselling to affected people by the disease Provide protective (condom) Change in land Proper plans on land use to be District Councils District Council One year 8,000,000/= use. strictly followed. Investor (NDC and Land Officer Educate communities on proper TATA) land. Society

GRAND TOTAL 91,000,000/= Increase in soil Prepare proper plans on land Agricultural District Councils and Every year 10,000,000/= erosion due to use. Extension officers Village Governments increased human activities. Plans for natural trees Society After every six 5,000,000/= plantation. months

Follow policy/ rules and Society, After every three 8,000,000/= regulations on proper MULWANO,CRT, months agriculture and pastoralism ICA, HEIFA practice. INT,ERETO – NPP Enforce environmental/soil Society After every six 6,000,000/= conservation techniques and by- months laws. Negative impacts Carry out water demand District Water District Council Every year 5,000,000/= on Irrigation assessment. Engineer Central Government activities at Improve irrigation District Civil Village Government Every year 50,000,000/= Penyiny village infrastructure. Engineer

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IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURE RESPONSIBLE SUPERVISOR MONITORING ESTIMATED COST (Tshs) due to water Develop alternative sources of Extension officers After every three 14,000,000/= abstraction for the water such as rain water harvest Ward Executive months project uses where possible. Officer Search /develop other sources Village Executive Every year 6,000,000/= of water. Officer To provide education. World Vision Sub-total 104,000,000/= Decrease of wards, Provide entrepreneurship skills Extension officers District Council After every six 6,000,000/= district and to communities and different Community Ministry for work, and months national income groups. World vision Youth Development from tourism and Develop substitute income MVIWAMO Every year 4,000,000/= other related generating. NDC,TATA activities. -Establish productive group chemicals After every three 5,000,000/= project months -Establish SACCOS Provide employment to - - indigenous people in project area. Project management should After every six 20,000,000/= improve economic activities of months communities in the project areas, these include agriculture Sub - total 35,000,000/= and livestock keeping.(good seedlings and livestock vaccination) 9. Decreased To provide sexual and gender Extension officers, District Council After every three 20,000,000/= morals, values and education OXFAM, ACORD months discipline within CRT the communities. Educate people on keeping Traditional leaders, Village Government After every six 8,000,000/= ( Increased marital good cultural and traditions community, Non- months conflicts within within the communities Governmental families) Organizations, MVIWAMO, ICA Empowering the community Religious Groups Religious Groups Every time - spiritually Total 28,000,000/=

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IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURE RESPONSIBLE SUPERVISOR MONITORING ESTIMATED COST (Tshs) GRAND TOTAL 167,000,000/= Increased drop Labour laws should be enforced Investor District Council Quarterly TShs.2,670,0003= outs of school District Council Ministry for work, 8,010,000/= children and Ministry for work, employment and Youth engage in casual employment and Development employment. Youth Development Enforce the Ministry of Village District Council Quarterly Tshs. 8,010,000/= Education policy/by-laws Government particularly those related to Communities school attendance and drop outs Investor region Create awareness to District Council All District Councils After every six EURO 13,600 communities on the importance Village months of formal education. Government Non – Governmental Organization Destruction of Animal Route identification and TAWIRI, District District Council Before project EURO 23,400 animal routes. protected Council, TANAPA, implementation N.C.A, Surrounding Community Identify the animals using the TAWIRI, District District Council route. Council, TANAPA, N.C.A, Surrounding Communities (Demarcate wildlife routes) District Council District Council To avoid project activities that Investor Investor can affect the animal route. Proper plans on land use. District Council District Council 11. Increased Increase social services such District Council District Council Quarterly pressure on social schools, hospital, water and Investor

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IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURE RESPONSIBLE SUPERVISOR MONITORING ESTIMATED COST (Tshs) services due to roads and etc Communities increased Non Governmental population. Organization 12. Environmental Establish/enforce District Council District Council Quarterly 2,000,000 pollution (noise, environmental by laws and Investor (TATA 8,010,000 air, soil and make sure it is strictly followed. and NDC) 10,010,000 Tshs water). Enforce environmental rules. Investor should establish a solid waste location and plastic waste to be burned.

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Conclusion and Recommendation The facilitator concluded the workshop by highlighting main issues discussed during the workshop. The objectives of the workshops were to involve the stakeholders in the project planning and implementation. The workshop also identified the stakeholders of the project. The main stakeholders include the Central government, the District authorities, Non government organizations, investors and communities.

The major impacts of the project include social, economic and environmental impacts. The negative impacts include the destruction of breeding place for flamingos, wildlife and cutting of trees for human activities. For social impacts HIV/AIDS and other sexual related diseases were also mentioned as treaty to human life. Competition of scarce resources such as water and other social services were mentioned as a fear of the communities living within the project area.

There were good numbers of positive impacts that will benefit the communities. These include economic growth, improved social services including financial services, communication and road network. It was concluded that the positive impact are more compared to the negative ones. Therefore the participants favoured the project. The negative impacts identified will be mitigated during the implementation.

Almost all the recommendations are within the Environmental and Social Monitoring Management Plan. However, it was recommended that to create awareness of the project to councillors, the workshop participants recommended that the workshop information should be disseminated to the councillors. This could be done easily through the full District council meeting of the respective authorities.

Evaluation of the workshop The participants were given a chance to evaluate the workshop. The areas evaluated included the following • Did the workshop achieve its objectives? • Participation of the participants in the workshop • Whether the services provided were satisfying the participants or not • Facilitation techniques, • Time Management.

Evaluation results are attached to this report as Annex 1.

The workshop was officially closed at 2:30 pm by representative of Director of Ngorongoro District Council Mr. Loomu who thanked the facilitators and all participants for their constructive ideals during the workshop. He stressed on improving means of communication to ensure timely access of information to all concerned parties. The workshop proceedings should also be sent to participants for easy reference.

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Table C-3: Workshop Participants list

No Name Status Contacts District. 1 Lydia C. Bajungu CDA 0784 - 430884 Monduli Chairperson of 2 Christopher Ndurway Ngaresero 0786 - 76369 Ngorongoro Planning 3 Mtambule Saad officer. 0784 - 585622 Ngorongoro

4 Prisca Peter Ayo PLO 0784 - 478405 Monduli

5 Masegeri Tumbuya Rural Ag 0784 - 449896 Ngorongoro

6 Loomu Meshack Potari DALDO 0786 - 828461 Ngorongoro

MEK 7 Peter Msoka PINYINYI 0786 - 911761 Ngorongoro 8 Abraham W.Mnzava CCDO 0784 - 443364 Ngorongoro 9 Sarupe Koleleen AG WEO 0786 - 815886 Ngorongoro 0754 - 578477/0787 – 10 Seraphin B.Mawanja AG DNRO 903729 Monduli 11 Charles P.Lawisso AG DED 0784 - 921154 Monduli 12 Mary Saiguran Local leader - Ngorongoro Division 13 Samweli N. Laizer leader. 0752 - 035863 Monduli 14 Twaha M.Kizuguto DALDO 0784 - 582901 Monduli 15 Dr Flora Ismail Norconsult Facilitator 16 Zainabu Kuhanwa Norconsult Facilitator 17 Anna Stella Kaijage Norconsult Facilitator

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ANNEX 1

Workshop evaluation

First day Participants Food Hall Facilitation Time A 3 2 1 4 B 2 3 1 2 C 1 2 1 3 D 2 2 2 E 2 3 1 2 F 2 2 1 3 G 1 3 2 1 H 2 2 2 2 I 1 2 2 3 J 2 2 2 3 K 2 2 1 1 L 3 2 3 2 M 3 2 2 2 1-Very good, 2-Good, 3-Average, 4-Weak.

Second Day workshop Facilitation Participans objectives Participation Food Hall Time I 1 1 2 2 3 II 1 2 2 3 3 4 III 1 1 1 2 2 2 IV 3 3 2 2 2 1 V 1 1 2 1 1 VI 1 2 3 2 3 VII 1 1 1 2 2 1 VIII 1 2 2 1 1 2 IX 2 1 1 2 1 X 1 1 2 2 2 2 XI 2 1 2 2 XII 1 2 1 2 2 1 XIII 1 2 2 2 2 2 XIV 2 3 1 3 2 4 1-Very good, 2-Good, 3-Average, 4-Weak.

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ANNEX 2

Scoping notice

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ANNEX 3

Scoping notice – Swahili version

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D - Environmental Management Plan

1 INTRODUCTION

It shall be the endeavour of the Lake Natron Resources Limited (LNRL) to take greatest possible care to ensure the Safety, Health and Welfare of its staff and communities living in the vicinity of its operations. Protecting the environment is a crucial component of this equation.

TCL (partner in LNRL) is a signatory to Responsible Care, a voluntary global initiative of the chemical industry, which calls on enterprises to demonstrate their allegiance to safety, health and environmental issues. Same allegiance shall be demonstrated by LNRL.

Tata Chemicals Limited is an ISO certified company and carries certification of ISO – 9001 for Quality, ISO – 14001 for Environment Management System and ISO – 18001 for Occupational Health and Safety Management System. The company is well versed with the standards and can extend the prevailing practices to comply the environmental norms in the form of guidelines, procedures, checklists, technical papers and textbooks laid down by Government of Tanzania, the National Environment Management Council (NEMC), World Bank Standards and other relevant standards. A detailed methodology will be adopted by which possible ill effects of development interventions (projects, policies, program or activities) can be ascertained and mitigated or prevented before the intervention is undertaken. Efforts shall be extended to comply with Town and Country Planning Ordinance, Local Authorities Acts, Regulation of Land Tenure Act, Wildlife Conservation Act, Mining Act, and other related with the project execution and operation.

For its operations in India, TCL has consciously and conspicuously enacted a vibrant policy in the critical area of safety, health and environment (SHE), making it a cornerstone of its responsibilities to its employees, the communities living around its facilities, and society at large.

TCL’s Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) Policy is: TCL will continue with its efforts to: • Comply with all applicable safety, health and environment laws and regulations. • Enhance SHE awareness among employees and associated stakeholders through effective communication and training. • Investigate all workplace accidents and illnesses in order to promptly correct any unsafe conditions or practices. • Integrate SHE considerations into business planning and decision-making. • Champion SHE responsibility among employees in their practices, and promote and value their involvement in achieving the goals of this policy. • Increase shareholder value through SHE excellence

Based on the Environment Impact Statement (EIS) and the Environment Management Plan (EMP), TCL shall incorporate into the design of the production facility all possible measures to curb emission and / or control the level of pollutants arising directly or indirectly because of the operations to the minimum possible levels. This would be done in accordance of the provisos of central and / or local government besides following the International standards in this matter

Lake Natron is known to be alkaline (only halophilic, salt-tolerant, microbes survive), and the surrounding landscape is extremely dry. However, it shall be TCL’s endeavor to ensure that impacts on the physical environment will be minimal. All necessary care shall be taken during the erection, commissioning and operation of the facilities to avoid any impact on the wildlife in the area.

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2 THE APPLICATION OF THE EMP IN THE CONSTRUCTION PHASE

This EMP details the commitments necessary for the proponent and construction contractors (CC) to meet the relevant environmental guidelines inline with the recommendations in the ESIA.

This component specific EMP, therefore, operationalises the guidance contained in the ESIA. The EMP follows the principles of ISO 14001 (1996) related to Environmental Management Systems, and provides a structure for the development, implementation and review of the Plan and a process which ensures continuous improvement in the environmental management of construction activities. The EMP:

• Includes an Environmental Policy statement; • Addresses contractual and regulatory requirements; • Provides procedures developed to address the environmental aspects and risks related to the construction; • Provides for the implementation and operation of the EMP to ensure that structure and responsibilities are assigned; staff are trained, aware and competent; and that there is proper communication, documentation, operational control and emergency preparedness and response. • Provides clear and precise organisational and technical procedures for implementation of the EMP which ensure that construction activities associated with potential environmental impacts are carried out in a controlled and responsible way. • Provides checking and corrective action through monitoring and measurement. • Provides records collection and storage, and programme audit; • Includes management review of the EMP and enables improvements to be incorporated in the Plan.

2.1 Environmental Policy

The proponent recognizes that best practice construction management gives full consideration to all environmental matters in connection to major construction activities, and attributes high consideration to the preservation of biodiversity and natural resources, to the prevention of pollution, to the public safety and to the respect of local communities.

In the context of the programme the proponent and Construction Contractors must commit to respect the following principles during the whole period of the construction activities:

• To manage construction activities with diligence and with the awareness that an important objective is to protect the environment and to minimize construction impacts, by employing the best control mechanisms, procedures and processes within the limits of their economic feasibility. • To comply with GoT, and other requirements and to provide self-monitoring to ensure compliance. • To respect internationally recognized good practices in the fields of concern. • To provide training and awareness programmes to construction staff in order to achieve continual progress in environmental protection performance. • To ensure all along the construction stage water, land and air quality preservation through effective pollution control, minimum destruction of agricultural land and local economic

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activities preservation, respect of communities and culture, safe and healthy working environment and measures for habitat conservation. • To efficiently implement measures outlined in this EMP and regularly monitor relevant activities and results.

2.2 Planning

The procedure used to derive suitable Mitigation Measures (MM) for significant impacts from construction is based on a relational path between Construction Activity, Potential Impact and Mitigation Measure.

2.3 Conceptual Framework

The EMP is prepared and should be implemented with regard to the following laws, regulations, standards & guidelines.

International Standards & Guidelines

• The Principles of ISO 14001 (1996) related to Environmental Management System • Guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO, 2004) • WHO recommendations on the safe use of pesticides. • WB safeguard policies

2.4 EMP Objectives and Concepts

It is the purpose of this EMP to describe measures that should be implemented by the proponent, and CC during the construction of the Project to eliminate or reduce key potential biophysical, social and health impacts related to construction activities to acceptable levels. Successful execution of this EMP requires that the specific measures presented in this EMP are committed to be undertaken by the responsible Project parties.

In keeping with this overall approach, the Project should avoid, where and when practical, those situations or incidents that could cause unacceptable, adverse biophysical, socio-economic, or health impacts. For those environmental situations or impacts that cannot be avoided, however, the Project should undertake appropriate mitigation measures.

The EMP has been developed on the basis of the following objectives:

• To reflect the environmental and social issues and impacts identified during project preparation and presented in the ESIA (2007), • To comply with GoT regulations and laws and with the principles of ISO14001; • To provide an operational reference and tool for environmental management during construction activities.

The EMP has been prepared as a flexible and adaptable document which provides for the possibility of changes in accordance with construction activities, areas and in environmental conditions. The information and statements contained in the EMP are considered to be accurate and applicable to the Project in its current form. However, as the Project progresses through construction, some changes in its specifications are bound to occur. Accordingly, it may be

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necessary to modify and adapt some of the environmental management measures and actions contained in this EMP to properly reflect Project changes.

Similarly, it may be necessary to add new mitigation measures to appropriately address new or unforeseen Project situations. In either case, all modifications or augmentations of the Project's environmental management objectives, measures, and programmes should be accomplished by adhering to a rigorous, systematic process to steward such changes. The management of change process to be implemented during the construction phase of the Project follows the recommendations of ISO 14001, including internal audit and management review process.

With regard to this EMP, it is not expected that there should be need to change the intent of the commitments made herein. However, the means specified to achieve certain levels of protection might be subject to correction or amendment via the process specified above.

To satisfy the objectives set for the EMP, the document has been developed based on construction activity type: for one typical construction activity, a link is established with the resulting potential impacts and the related mitigation measures to implement.

2.5 Implementation

All contractual and legal obligations relating to the EMP should apply to both the Construction Contractors and their Sub-Contractors. It is the responsibility of the Construction Contractors to provide adequate resources to ensure effective implementation and control of the EMP. Each Sub-Contractor should be responsible to its respective Contractor for compliance with the measures presented in the EMP. Construction Contractors and their Sub-Contractors should ensure that all project staff are trained and procedures are understood and followed.

2.6 Structure and Responsibilities

This section defines the organization set up by the EMP for the proponent and the Construction Contractors for the implementation of the EMP and the roles and responsibilities devoted to each position involved in the process.

2.6.1 Environmental Organization

Three levels of organization, fully complementary, are set-up by the EMP:

• The Environmental Auditor • The Environmental Management Officer (EMO), • The CC's designated Environmental Site Officer (ESO)

General organization is presented in the following figure:

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Figure D-1: EMP Organisation

The Environmental Management organisation described above includes an Environmental Management Officer (EMO) and an Environmental Site Officer (ESO). The EMO function is for the duration of the construction period plus post-construction audit period.

The EMO role is executed by:

• The specialist environmental management officer attached to the Project (and assistants); • Support from the Consulting Engineer (CE) through the site construction supervision staff.

The EMO coordinates (directly or through the CE) with the various CCs and with the ESO(s) appointed by the Construction Contractors. The overall role of the EMO is to oversee and monitor adherence to, and implementation of, the EMP by the CCs (which includes compliance with the relevant obligations contained in the EMP). The EMO is assisted by the CE site supervision staff and the ESO on the CC's side, responsible for monitoring construction-related activities and implementing environmental measures on site as part of the EMP conditions.

The ESO is the CC’s focal point for all environmental matters, and coordinates directly with the EMO and CE. The ESO is routinely on-site for the duration of the construction works.

ESOs are appropriately briefed technical officers (often the CC site engineer). The ESO carries out regular inspections of the CC activities in relation to environmental issues, and provides day- to-day advice to Contractor personnel about environmental issues. Verification is provided by the EMO.

2.6.2 EMO Roles & Responsibilities

The EMO should be responsible for monitoring, reviewing and verifying compliance with the EMP by the Construction Contractor. The ESO should also ensure compliance (as per the construction contract). The EMO's duties in this regard, and working with the CE who will have day-to-day interaction through supervisory staff, should include the following:

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• ordering the removal of person(s) and/or equipment not complying with the specifications; • verifying Environmental Compliance • the issuing of penalties for contraventions of the EMP; • taking decisions in case of severe non-compliances to the EMP are detected; • providing input for ongoing internal review of the EMP; • stopping works in case of emergency or if significant environmental impacts are apparent or imminent.

The EMO ensures the CC has all plans, procedures, approvals, and documentation in place to ensure EMP compliance prior to commencement of any work. The EMO's duties here include the following:

• supervising updating and maintenance of the EMP; • monitoring and verifying that the EMP is adhered to at all times and taking action if the specifications are not followed; • monitoring and verifying that environmental impacts are kept to a minimum; • sampling sites and surrounding areas regularly with regard to compliance with the EMP; • reporting on the environmental issues; • recommending the issuing of penalties (via the proponent) for contraventions of the EMP; • recommending to stop work in emergencies or if significant environmental impacts are apparent or imminent; • preparing the background information for the Quarterly Report; • participating, upon request in meetings with the environmental authorities as requested.

2.6.3 ESO Roles & Responsibilities

The ESO(s) has the principal responsibility for observing construction activities and ensuring that those activities are in compliance with the EMP requirements. To accomplish this, each ESO should be familiar with the EMP and contract specifications.

The specific responsibilities of the ESO are to:

• Monitor implementation of environmental measures by CC construction staff against contractual obligations by: • performing regular monitoring activities; • detecting non-conformance and approving corrective action (with advice from EMO if necessary); • evaluating CC environmental efforts and effectiveness; and • identifying circumstances requiring management decisions to evaluate variance or compliance issues. • Compile documentation of monitoring observations by: o collecting any specific data that the ESO is assigned to monitor; • Interface with EMO to assist in field interpretation of environmental requirements, provide advice regarding corrective actions and resolving non-compliance situations, and issue specific formal instructions to the CC workforce; • Interface with CC manager to help communicate requirements, obtain a hands-on view of special problems so that implementation difficulties can be communicated to the EMO to

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aid in problem resolution especially in situations where adjustment of compliance requirements may be necessary; • Communicate to EMO by: o interaction with EMO as needed to define corrective action recommendation for any identified non-compliance situation. • Implementation of environmental controls and measures specified in the EMP, Sub- Plans. • Ensuring measures to protect project staff health are implemented.

2.7 Training and Awareness

Each CC must ensure that its employees are adequately trained in the requirements of the EMP; environmental legal requirements and other obligations. All employees should have an induction presentation on environmental awareness, to be conducted in the language relevant to the employee.

Three levels of training should be implemented:

• General Environmental Awareness programme to all workers employed by the Construction Contractor or its Sub-contractors, raising environmental issues related to general issues as environmental conservation, waste management, health, hygiene and safety, social behaviour in camps, cultural resources protection; • Health and Safety Awareness, including particularly AIDS/HIV and STD awareness programme; • Job Specific Environmental Training of workers affected to particularly sensitive environmental activities such as vehicle maintenance, waste management, pesticides management, refuelling operations, etc.

Training should be conducted through short, focussed and systematic site seminars/meetings.

2.7.1 Environmental Awareness Programme

This training programme should be presented to all construction workers on commencement of their work, and include:

- Worker’s obligations regarding basic environmental and social protection measures; - General measures to follow throughout the construction period, such as the prohibitions on hunting and poaching of wildlife, purchasing wildlife meat, gathering and harvesting valued plants and trees, and possessing firearms, snares, traps and other hunting equipment; - Housecleaning and waste management in worker camps, in construction sites, along roads, nearby villages; - Pollution control during construction activities; - Ban of all kinds of narcotic drugs for all employee of the CC - Attending works while under the influence of alcohol - Measures for preserving health and the dissemination of vectors and transmissible diseases, including basics on hygiene; - Disciplinary consequences for violation of the measures presented as part of the Environmental Awareness Programme. The consequences should be important to add accountability to the EMP; - The preparation of posters in the relevant language to be posted wherever justified and practical: camps entrance, buildings, toilet entrances, etc.

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2.7.2 Health & Safety Awareness Programme

General Occupational Health and Safety issues should be addressed under the implementation of the CC's OH&S Code. The issues addressed under the present awareness programme should complement those in the OH&S Code and should focus particularly on basic hygiene practices, vector control and AIDS/STDs.

2.8 Communication

2.8.1 Internal Communication

Communications among the EMO, ESO, CE and various construction management personnel should include formal monthly reporting and review requirements, and urgent communications when needed to address issues that present an immediate threat to the environment. Internal communication guidelines are shown below in Table 1 that presents the communications responsibilities.

Table D-1: Internal Communication Guidelines

ORIGINATING PARTY RECIPIENT FREQUENCY/TYPE DESCRIPTION Internal communication ESO/CC EMO As Required Construction schedule update, specific activities and location of upcoming construction ESO EMO, CE As Required / meeting Short-term/sudden changes in activity or special monitoring needs CE, ESO EMO As Required / meeting Level III compliance issue communications

EMO CE, ESO, Proponent Monthly / reporting Monitoring summary report documenting observations, corrective actions, programme activity, and update on resolution of prior compliance problems. . EMO CE, ESO, Proponent Quarterly / reporting Routine monitoring summary report documenting observations, corrective actions, programme activity, and update on resolution of prior compliance problems. Revisions to compliance standards, monitoring practices, and/or corrective action to be implemented to resolve identified compliance issues. Site- specific applicability and general applicability to be specifically addressed. EMO ESO and CE As required but Non-routine or potentially critical violation immediate/meeting or observations (Level II or III) reporting Construction activities outside of planned construction area CC-Internal communication ESO CC Manager/senior As Required Report of status of compliance monitoring personnel CC Manager ESO As Required Construction schedule update ESO Construction Workers As required / Posters, Information of workers on environmental issues hazard alert, on-site

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ORIGINATING PARTY RECIPIENT FREQUENCY/TYPE DESCRIPTION briefing identified on specific sites CE Internal Communication CE Proponent Quarterly Reporting Routine monitoring summary report documenting observations, corrective actions, programme activity, and update on resolution of prior compliance problems. Revisions to compliance standards, monitoring practices, and/or corrective action to be implemented to resolve identified compliance issues. Site- specific applicability and general applicability to be specifically addressed CE Proponent As needed Corrective actions initiated for non-compliance levels III CE Proponent As Required / meeting Up-dated programme of construction activities regarding new site opening, clearing & operations with special environmental risk Summary of past month monitoring results and environmental activities.

2.8.2 External Communication

It is intended to have a Quarterly coordination meeting between the Environmental Authorities and the EMO to discuss latest Quarterly report and to set-up practical aspects of coming proposed programme of activities.

External communication may also be established for practical reasons between the EMO, ESO and local authorities for site specific issues to be discussed.

Complaints handling and resolution should be carried out at CC/ESO level; fully registered information on complaints and resolution should be communicated to the EMO for further action if justified. The ESO should be in charge of routine check of registered complaints and to identify resolution solutions. If complaint origin is beyond responsibility of the ESO, he should report immediately to the EMO for appropriate action.

2.9 Reporting

Routine reporting from ESO and EMO is suggested in the following table. Results of field observations, either documenting compliance with environmental requirements or identifying non-compliance with those requirements, should be reported on standard forms. The use of these standard forms should help ensure that compliance-related observations are recorded in a consistent manner and in a standard format.

In addition to the routine reporting, special reports should be prepared for the EMO and CE, concerning non-compliance Level III cases.

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Table D-2: Routine Reporting

NO. NAME OF DOCUMENT PREPARED BY SUBMITTED FREQUENCY TYPE OF REPORT TO 1 Monitoring Report ESO EMO, CE Quarterly Summary of site issues and CC EMP observation 2 EMO Quarterly Report EMO CE, Quarterly Activity report including results of Proponent Monitoring, list of Non-Compliance detected & corrective actions 3 EMO Monthly Report EMO CE, ESO Monthly Short report including results of Proponent Monitoring, list of Non-Compliance detected & corrective actions

2.9.1 Communication Languages

The EMP communication language should be English. It should be applied for all written communication between the EMO and ESO. However, Swahili should be used for all communication processes involving construction workers and local authorities (request letters, posters, signs etc).

2.10 Documentation and Document Control

2.10.1 Documentation System

To effectively manage the environmental performance of the Project, the EMO should set up a process to document and track compliance and non-compliance observations, results of critical decisions, corrective actions taken, and the observed results of those corrective actions.

All documentation managed by the EMO should be in English. Any documentation managed by the CC should be in English and the most appropriate language for the users or originating parties.

All documentation regarding environmental management of construction activities should be classified and stored in appropriate files and registers in the EMO Office and in CC offices.

Anticipated documentation to be filed includes:

- Active printed versions of the EMP, - Sub-plans (and site plans if necessary). - All communications detailing changes of any design/scope that may have environmental implications. - site environmental monitoring reports from EMO. - Quarterly and Monthly Reports. - Training materials. - Non-compliance special reports (Level III). - Tanzania environmental legislation. - Permits, legal documents and authorizing letters from GoT. - Occupational Health and Safety codes.

Registration numbering of any document should follow the registration system as described below.

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2.10.2 Environmental Record Database

The EMO should maintain the environmental register. The register should be in the form of a key filing system or computer records as appropriate.

Records kept should include:

- Results from routine monitoring; - Site inspection sheets; - Non-compliance detected and corrective measures (Non-compliance level, type, date detected, date corrected, corrective measure types); - Related maps and drawings; - Photographic archive; and - Site closing sheet and related documentation on site restoration.

The register should be organized in such a way that information should be traceable on a construction site basis, in order to improve monitoring organization at site level.

Photographic Records

The EMO and CE should keep a photographic record of progress on site and an ad-hoc record of all incidents or events on site. Such photographs should be properly dated. This should include a photographic record of all major stages of construction, critical areas, all working and construction camp areas before and after the start of construction and at any time during construction if there are any deviations from or transgressions of the EMP.

This record can be used, where applicable, in case of disputes regarding environmental matters, and for the audit process after completion of construction.

Photos should be mainly taken with digital equipment and systematically stored with the EMO.

2.10.3 Documentation System of the Construction Contractors

The ESO should keep a summary record of all activities relating to environmental matters on site, including mail, meetings attended and minutes, method statements issued, structural measures implemented, results from operation monitoring, issues arising on site including cases of non-compliance with the EMP together with corrective action taken.

The CC and the ESO are responsible for systematic and up-to-date environmental record keeping as it applies to the EMP.

2.10.4 Document Control

A Quality Assurance Plan should regulate all documentation related to project construction including documentation and reports related to EMP implementation.

The EMO is responsible for the establishment of EMP documentation and revision of existing documentation.

All EMP and associated documentation should:

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- show the title of the document on each page; - show the version number (e.g. ”DOCUMENT TITLE v01”), with sequential version numbers assigned for revised and re-issued documents; - be dated with the date the current version was issued; and - include the total number of pages in the document on each page in the form “page X of Y”.

The EMP and related sub-plans and any site plans should be reviewed, and as appropriate revised. The review date should be recorded on the document cover.

A hard copy and electronic file of all superseded documents should be placed in the Obsolete Environmental Documents File.

Distribution of any EMP documentation by electronic file should be done only using Adobe PDF encrypted standard in order to avoid uncontrolled changes in the document

2.10.5 Forms and Model Sheets

Forms and model sheets are listed in the Standard Forms Register below and are presented in Annex of the EMP. Table D-3: Standard Forms Register

FORM NO. TITLE VERSION ISSUE DATE USER 01 Notification for Non-Compliance EMO 02 NC (Level 3) & Corrective Action Report EMO 03 Site Description Sheet EMO/CE 04 Site Inspection Sheet – Worker Camps EMO/CE 05 Site Inspection Sheet – HazMat Storage Areas EMO/CE 06 Site Inspection Sheet – Erosion Control EMO/CE 07 Site Inspection Sheet – Waste Management EMO/CE 08 Site Inspection Sheet – Traffic Safety EMO/CE

2.11 Emergency Preparedness and Response

Potential health and safety emergency situations and incidents should be planned for as part of the Occupational Health and Safety procedures (OH&S) that are part of the CC's personnel policy.

2.12 Control and Corrective Action

2.12.1 Compliance Monitoring

The objective of EMP monitoring activities is to ensure that mitigation measures listed in the EMP are implemented and are effective in minimising or preventing environmental impacts.

Specific objectives of monitoring should include:

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- At ESO monitoring level, to ensure on a day to day basis that mitigation measures are fully implemented with construction activities, and that results observed comply with the contractual obligations and national laws and regulations; - At EMO monitoring level, to ensure that monitoring results provided by the ESO are complete and to rectify any omissions.

2.12.2 Construction Contractor Organisation for Monitoring

In implementing the environmental monitoring effort, the CC should set up an approach allocating complementary monitoring responsibilities to any sub-Contractors.

Expected fields of activity of the ESO are presented below:

Table D-4: ESO Monitoring Tasks

FIELD OF ACTIVITY

EMP Awareness Worker Camps, Traffic and Health activities Clearing & Biodiversity Erosion control Waste Management (non-hazardous) Hazardous Materials & Waste (if appropriate) Water Quality Site restoration & revegetation

Each ESO should conduct routine inspections of sites and activities in their area of responsibility to evaluate compliance with commitments defined in this EMP.

2.12.3 Monitoring Activities by the EMO

The EMO should carry out routine monitoring of construction sites and the Construction Contractor’s activities in order to ensure EMP measures are efficiently implemented and minimise impacts. This activity should rely partly on the review and compilation of ESO monitoring activity reports. The EMO should visit construction sites every day. Information collected during each visit is reported on a standard “Site Inspection Sheet”, which provides a checklist of issues to control and a scoring system, depending on the compliance or non-compliance observed.

The EMO should follow up non-compliances to ensure the effective implementation of corrective action required.

Guidance for specific monitoring actions to be completed by the ESO, EMO and CE for particular sites or construction activities are presented below. For each action, the table indicates the expected frequency of monitoring observations.

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Table D-5: Indicative Construction Monitoring Routine

CATEGORY & MONITORING FREQUENCY OF MONITORING CRITERIA TOPIC ACTION MONITORING Drinking water Visual inspection of Weekly Cleanliness of system, stock of chlorine, etc supply supply facilities Sampling and Monthly Cleanliness of system, stock of chlorine, etc laboratory analysis against WHO standards Worker camps Routine maintenance Daily Cleanliness of camps and maintenance of and monitoring drainage & sanitation facilities Visual Inspection of Weekly General cleanliness of camp, collection and camps waste water and drainage of all water from sanitary facilities rainstorm water and canteens; stormwater drainage; drainage Inspection of drainage Weekly Water quality and discharge water leaving camps1 Registration of When required Toilets regularly maintained maintenance Visual inspection of Weekly/as required Presence of chemical toilet or other facilities and camps appropriate system ( pit latrine) Condition of toilet. Absence of defecation around camp Review of Weekly Date of maintenance & facility concerned; maintenance register Construction Visual inspection of Daily Temporary storage of chemicals. areas pollution control Temporary storage of waste, etc measures implementation Maintenance Visual inspection of Daily Refuelling area and storage for waste areas pollution control engine oil, grease, hydraulic oil etc. (workshops, measures garages) implementation Ensure presence and Weekly Presence of equipment according to maintenance of spill standard response equipment kit Procedures posted in the premises Drainage Ensure natural Weekly Visual observation drainage respected or mitigated during earthworks and site development Record presence of Weekly Visual inspection impeded drainage and ponding Erosion Ensure implementation Weekly Visual observation Control of erosion control

1 see Annex D-3 for water quality monitoring parameters

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CATEGORY & MONITORING FREQUENCY OF MONITORING CRITERIA TOPIC ACTION MONITORING Measures measures Top soil Ensure top soil Weekly during large Visual observation protection properly managed and excavation works, As preserved for eventual required later use in restoration Clearing Ensure demarcation & Daily observation Visual observation tree marking for during clearing clearing and respect of clearing limits Ensure appropriate Weekly Visual observation clearing technology applied Ensure burning carried Daily when occurs Burning programme of piles. Distance to out with respect of forest. Fire equipment available standards Monitor clearing Weekly Traces of freshly cleared trees outside area operations Revegetation Ensure revegetation As needed Visual observation done Conservation Ensure hunting ban Random observation Control at check-points the transport of any respected dead or alive wild animal. Presence of arms. Workers cooking wildlife meat Delineate sensitive Daily observation Direct observation of non avoidance by natural areas to be during clearing contractor staff avoided and inform by operation. Random flagging observation otherwise Garbage Ensure regular Daily Visual inspection collection collection of garbage Monitor effectiveness Weekly Visual inspection during site visits of garbage collection regarding equipment and presence of uncontrolled waste dumping sites along roads Hazardous Ensure appropriate Monthly Registration of disposal at approved sites Waste HW registration & Disposal disposal in accordance with obligations Hazardous Ensure appropriate Weekly Design of storage area, containers quality, Chemicals HazMat registration, labelling, safety procedures posted, PPE, storage & handling in etc accordance with obligations Traffic Safety Ensure respect of signs Random Register non-compliances on project roads & speed limits & observations and on public roads parking areas by project drivers Check road signs and Weekly Direct observation respect of speed limits

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CATEGORY & MONITORING FREQUENCY OF MONITORING CRITERIA TOPIC ACTION MONITORING & parking areas Ensure trucks & Random observation Non-conformity observed on the road vehicles appropriately maintained (engine, breaks, tires, lamps) Ensure truck load not Random observation Non-conformity observed on the road overweight, stabilized and covered if bulk Monitoring of traffic Random once a Direct observation safety month Ensure watering of Daily Visual observation roads in dangerous/dusty road sections to limit dust emission Worker health Ensure workers As required Interview awareness attended awareness programme programme Ensure use of PPE2 Daily Visual observation, interview STD and AIDS Ensure programme Monthly Posters printed and posted, Leaflet printed prevention implemented: and distributed, Prophylactics available. programme Malaria, and Ensure measures Weekly at site start- Camps inspection for bed nets, screens, vector control implemented in worker up, monthly spraying, and standing water/mosquito camps and in thereafter breeding places construction sites

Monitor enforcement Quarterly Visual observation from camps inspection of control and effects Hygiene Monitor enforcement Monthly Visual observation from camps and related disease of control and effects canteens inspection. control First Aid Ensure Foremen and Quarterly Interview Training and key personnel of “at Field risk” activity received Implementation First Aid Training Ensure First Aid Kits Quarterly Review of equipment and location available and fully supplied Injury/Illness Verify adequate Daily when relevant Visual observation reporting signage and barricades in hazardous construction zones

2 See Annex D-4

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2.12.4 Non-Compliance Detection, Correction and Prevention

Hierarchy of Non-Compliance Levels and Communications

To prioritise management attention on the most important issues, non-compliance observations should be separated into three levels on the basis of importance, and communications requirements for the observations should be commensurate with the severity of the non- compliance situation. The three levels of non-compliance situations are:

Non-Compliance Level I

Definition: A non-compliance situation not consistent with EMP requirements, but not believed to represent an immediate or severe threat to man or to the environment. Repeated Level I concerns may become Level II concerns if left unattended. Disposition: Level I situations should typically be addressed by the CE and ESO with construction personnel by normal coordination and routine communications (e.g. discussion with the Contractor's site construction supervisor). Corrective action should be agreed to and implemented as expeditiously as practical. Formal communication not necessary.

Non Compliance Level II

Definition: A non-compliance situation that has not yet resulted in clearly identified damage or irreversible impact, but which potential significance requires expeditious corrective action and site-specific attention to prevent severe effects. Repeated Level II concerns may become Level III concerns if left unattended. Disposition: Corrective action should be agreed to and initiated as expeditiously as practical, typically within the week following initial identification of the issue requiring attention. Special follow-up of corrective measures is required from the EMO and ESO concerned. Formal communication not necessary but should be noted in Monthly environmental reporting.

Non Compliance Level III

Definition: A critical non-compliance situation, typically including observed significant damage on the environment or a reasonable expectation of very severe impending damage. Intentional disregard of specific key prohibitions is also classified as a Level III concern. Disposition: Level III concerns are to be actioned by the EMO.

Corrective action should be agreed to and initiated within three days of original observation unless special circumstances require a longer period. Although a specific decision/response time frame may not be achievable in all instances, the general intent should be to define and initiate action to minimize adverse effects and/or curtail adverse effects as expeditiously as practical. An adequate response to a Level III concern should include the diligent involvement of the EMO, CC and ESO. If necessary, the EMO should request the concerned Contractor Construction Manager to halt specific activities in order to protect resources while corrective actions are implemented.

2.12.5 Non-Compliance Procedures

As presented above, the EMP should use a tiered approach to communicate and respond to non- compliance situations observed during the construction phase. The process to implement this tiered approach is illustrated in the following Figure 3.

In Figure 3, the general flow of communications, notification, and incident resolution decision making process is depicted with solid arrows, while the documentation and reporting processes are depicted with dashed arrows

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Figure D-2: Non Compliance Flow Chart

Non - Compliance (N -C) observation by EMO observer from CC, HC or NTPC

ObserverEMO determines determines incident incident severity severity level level (Level (Level I, II orI, IIIII) or and III) notifies& notifies as appropriate to appropriate person: CC site Manager, CEC or ECO. If needed, may recommend wo rk stoppage to CECEMO, or CE ECO. and HCESO - ESI follows follows up corrective up corrective work action by contractor by CC

ContractorC C takes takes (or has (or taken) has taken) immediate immediate and appropriateand appropriate corrective corrective actio actionn Yes consistent with E MMP? No

Level I Level II Level III

Routine notification byby TimelyImmediate notification notification by by UrgentUrgent ECOEMO notificationNotification (same Observer to CC - ObserverEMO to ESO to ECO. dayto ESO as observation) and Contractorto to CC EMO to ESOand and CEC Contractor S ame day as observation , Manager, CC Site Manager notification toby Contractor ECO to CC Corrective action developed by Manager, CC Site Manager ECO notifies HC -PD of non ESO Corrective action develop Correctivecompliance action same developed day. by EMO, ESO and contractor CC - Site Manager ECOCorrective notifies action HC - PDdevelopedof non HC -PD notifies NTPC of non by ESO and contractor compliance within 3 days compliance same day

Corrective action develop ed by Corrective action develop ed CC-Site Manager & CC under CC Manager leadership Technical Division

(+) HCEMO - ESI makesmakes follow follow -up observation. No Is situation satisfactorily resolved?

Yes As appropriate, carry out incident investigation to determine if changes in processes are needed to prevent future recurrences.

Is/was this a Level III incident?

No Yes Documentation in routine weeklyreport report Documentation in special report from from EFI to CEC and from ESI to ECO ECO to HC Project Director

Documentation in routineDocumentation monthly & quarterly in Monthly/Quarterly report from ECO Report to HC Project Manager and from HC Project Manager to NTPC

. Note: No(+) means that NC not addressed the first time should have its level raised.

In addition to the routine reporting, special reports should be prepared concerning Level III non- compliances.

The non-compliance procedure described above allows the following safeguards:

- work can be stopped in the event of a serious non-compliance situation - the EMO may recommend this to the CE Project Manager, but the decision can only be made by the after consultation with the concerned Construction Contract Manager; - the EMO is to make follow-up visits if necessary to the sites of observed non- compliance incidents to verify that the situation has been appropriately rectified by the Contractor; and

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- In case environmental impacts are caused before the non-compliance is rectified and closed out, the CC responsible should be requested to implement appropriate actions to mitigate any impact already observed.

2.12.6 Environmental Auditing

At the end of construction activities a Post-Construction Environmental Audit should be carried out by the EMO. This will establish the success or otherwise of MM and rehabilitation work. An Action Plan for any outstanding issues should be developed by the EMO.

2.13 Senior Management Environmental Review

Senior management of the Proponent should review annually the EMP implementation to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness regarding the project construction progress, and the CC’s commitment to continual improvement. The review should utilise information in the Quarterly Reports.

The review should address the need for changes to the environmental policy and objectives, and to the environmental activities and practices of the EMP in the light of changing circumstances and of the commitment to continual improvement.

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ANNEX D-1

Standard Forms And Reports

STANDARD SITE INSPECTION FORM

INSPECTOR SITE REGISTRATION NUMBER NAME

DATE OF VISIT DATE OF LAST VISIT

TYPE OF SITE PERMANENT TEMPORARY

ACTIVITIES ON SITE

ACCOMMODATION OF WORKERS HEALTH AND SAFETY

STORAGE OF HAZMAT SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

WORKSHOPS & GARAGES ROAD TRAFFIC

REFUELING POST

SIGNAGE OTHER

CONCLUSIONS ON SITE VISIT REQUESTS FROM COMMENTS & CONCLUSIONS SCORE & RECOMMENDATIONS PREVIOUS INSPECTION FROM THIS INSPECTION (1 TO 5) 1. General satisfaction level for implementation of previous recommendations

2. General Cleanliness of Site

3. Hazardous Substances Management

4. Occupational Health & Safety

5. Solid Waste & Sanitation

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CONCLUSIONS ON SITE VISIT REQUESTS FROM COMMENTS & CONCLUSIONS SCORE & RECOMMENDATIONS PREVIOUS INSPECTION FROM THIS INSPECTION (1 TO 5) 6. Drainage and Water Quality Control

7. Erosion Control

8. General Conclusions of Visit

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ITEMS Y/N COMMENTS SCORE CAMP SITE ACCESS Site fenced and fence is in good condition Access locked or controlled by barrier Watchman 24hrs Site access with safety road signs & speed limitation

WORKER ACCOMMODATION & CAMPS Dormitories Bed, mattress and mosquito net for each worker Fire extinguisher in sufficient quantity & controlled Regular spraying of insecticide for vector control No stagnant water in camps Good cleanliness of dormitories

Sanitation of Camps 1 toilet unit per 20 workers Flushing facility operational Toilet maintained and clean Absence of flies & mosquitoes concentration 1 shower for 30 workers Showers maintained and clean Septic tanks without overflow Septic tanks regularly maintained (Date last emptying) : Oil trap available for Grey water from kitchen Oil trap regularly cleaned & oil collected for disposal No stagnant used water around facilities

Workshops and Garages

GENERAL CONDITIONS Area well organized and clean Chemicals stored in safe & labeled containers Chemical storage area provides for spill contention Safety Posters and signs posted within premises

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT Used oils collected in safe & labeled containers Movements of used oils detailed in up-dated register Availability of spill response kits

DRAINAGE Storm water of the area drained in pond Oil trap well maintained

Fuel Storage Storage located at more than 50 m from labour camps

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ITEMS Y/N COMMENTS SCORE Metallic containers without corrosion No leakages observed Refueling equipment without leakages observed Safety signs and posters posted and visible Staff trained for refueling & spill response Fire fighting equipment available & maintained

Hazmat Main storages Storage Facility Closed storage protected from rainfall Access restricted with fence and lock Restricted access signs outside facility

CONTAINERS Containers leak-proof and in good condition Container chemically compatible with material stored Container closed unless material added or used

Labels Display of labels with words “Hazardous product/waste” Label describe content Label describe hazards for users For waste, label provide initial accumulation date

Safety Procedures for handling posted within premises PPE available on site Drainage water quality monitoring shows no pollution Firefighting equipment available and controlled

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Garbage General cleanliness of workers camps is good Garbage bins in sufficient number Garbage bins in good condition with cover Garbage bins regularly emptied and cleaned

Construction Waste Temporary disposal on site is appropriate Recyclable waste is separated and re-use Regularly collected from site for eventual disposal

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ITEMS Y/N COMMENTS SCORE TRAFFIC SAFETY Road Hazards Signaled By Appropriate Road Signs Speed limitation signs before villages & sensitive areas Dust prone areas regularly watered Truck & Driving safety (refer to special inspection form)

SEDIMENT & EROSION CONTROL Erosion

CLEARING & BURNING etc. Clearing Clearing area well demarcated No trace of clearing outside demarcated zone Clearing waste well stockpiled for drying & burning

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NCR No.

NC REPORTED BY: NAME: POSITION:

DATE OF FIRST OBSERVATION / / TIME: AM/PM

SITE CONCERNED

SITE REGISTRATION No.

SITE LOCATION

NC LOCATION WITHIN SITE

GPS POINTS (IF ANY REQUIRED)

SECTION 1: NON-COMPLIANCE

NON-COMPLIANCE DETAILS

Describe clearly Non-Compliance observed Attach referenced pictures to NCR

Referenced Photographs Nos:

Other attached documentation:

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CAUSE OF NON-COMPLIANCE

Describe clearly the circumstances leading to the non-compliance. As far as possible, verify the facts recorded and identify witnesses if justified

IMMEDIATE ACTION TAKEN (if any)

OFFICER RESPONSIBLE FOR ACTION DATE / /

IS FURTHER CORRECTIVE ACTION REQUIRED? YES / NO

If YES, complete the Corrective or Preventive Action Section 2 below

If NO, close this NCR in the Non-Compliance and Corrective Action Register

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SECTION 2: CORRECTIVE AND/OR PREVENTIVE ACTION

REQUIRED ACTION

Describe clearly Corrective and/or Preventive Action required

OFFICER RESPONSIBLE FOR ACTION DATE / /

Are changes required to EMMP Procedures & Documents ? YES / NO

SECTION 3 – VERIFICATION & CLOSURE

EMO/CE TO REVIEW EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTION BY DATE / /

IS EFFECTIVENESS SATISFACTORY ? YES / NO

EMO/CE SIGNATURE DATE / /

If YES, close this NCR in the Non-Compliance and Corrective Action Register

If NO, further Action is detailed in NCR No.

NCR Closure Date DATE / /

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NOTIFICATION FOR NON-COMPLIANCE OBSERVED

Recipient Contractor Site concerned Registration No. Location Date of first observation / / Observer Name Position

Non-Compliance Severity Level 1 2 3

We hereby notify a Non-Compliance of Severity Level ___ observed on a site under (Name of Contractor) responsibility. The above Contractor is requested to provide sufficient personnel, equipment, supplies and incidentals to implement within O 24 hours, O 72 hours, O 5 days, the necessary corrective action in accordance with the attached Non-Compliance Report No. ______Submitted by EMO/CE on (date, time) Received by Contractor on (date, time) Signature Signature

Corrective action taken.

Completed by Contractor on (date, time) Approved by EMO/CE on (date, time) Signature

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SPECIAL FORM FOR TRAFFIC SAFETY

This form to be filled on the basis of a survey of all vehicles crossing a check-point during at least 4 hours. To be carried out on a quarterly basis. One form per truck observed

INSPECTOR CHECK POINT LOCATION NAME (NO.)

DATE OF FROM (HR) TO (HR) SURVEY

TOTAL NUMBER VEHICLES RELATED TO PROJECT FULLY OBSERVED CHECKED

GENERAL INFORMATION

DRIVER NAME TRUCK TYPE

Driving License No. TRUCK PLATE

Project ID No. LOAD TYPE Company

ITEMS Y/N COMMENTS Number

MAINTENANCE OF PROJECT RELATED TRUCKS & CARS General appearance of vehicle is good Front lights operating Direction lights operating Rear brake lights operating Horn operating Tires in good condition Date of last maintenance for brakes LOAD SAFETY The truck respects its max load Load is well fixed and stabilized If bulk product, load is covered by net or sheet Transport of peoples over the load DRIVER Valid driving license

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ITEMS Y/N COMMENTS Number Has received eyes check when recruited No trace of alcohol absorption

TRANSPORT OF FORBIDDEN PRODUCTS Explosives or HazMat Dead or alive wild animal Hunting equipment or Arms

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ANNEX D-2

List Of Substances To Avoid Or With Restricted Use On Construction Sites

SUBSTANCE TO AVOID OR RESTRICT REASON FOR RESTRICTION ALTERNATIVES USAGE

Polychlorinated Biphenyls(PCBs) Human carcinogen, Silicones, esters, cast resin. bioaccumulative. Friable asbestos Inhalation of fibers causes lung Alternatives are readily damage. Regarded by World available for Insulation and Bank as hazardous substance, roofing uses. There are no use to be avoided. clearly superior alternatives for some uses such as brake pads for trucks. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and Human carcinogens, eco- Glutaraldehyde, isothiazolin formaldehyde (biocides) toxins. May meet World Bank (or other low toxicity biocide). definition of hazardous waste when discarded. Leaded paints Toxic at relatively low levels, Unleaded paints. Also, water bio-accumulative. May meet based or low volatility solvent World Bank definition of formulations can reduce hazardous waste when potential health effects of oil discarded. based paints. Chlorinated solvents (e.g., carbon May have toxic effects (vary Non-chlorinated hydrocarbon- tetrachloride, trichloroethylene), depending on the compounds). based solvents, steam cleaning. Heavy metals (reverse emulsion breakers) Various adverse effects. May Polymer (non-latex) based meet World Bank definition of formulations. hazardous waste when discarded. Mercury (in pressure-measuring devices Neurotoxic effects. May meet Differential pressure and instrumentation) World Bank definition of cells/transmitters, pneumatic or hazardous waste when electric instrumentation. discarded. Lead naphthenate (lubricant) Neurotoxic effects. May meet Lead-free lubricants. World Bank definition of hazardous waste when discarded. Leaded thread compound Toxic at relatively low levels, Lead-free thread compounds bioaccumulative. May meet such as Bestolife 2000 (for World Bank definition of tubing and casing). hazardous waste when discarded. Chromate corrosion inhibitors Hexavalent form of chromium Sulfite or organic phosphate is toxic to humans and many corrosion inhibitors, especially animals. those with reduced toxicity amine function.

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ANNEX D-3

Water Quality Monitoring Requirements

LOCATION PARAMETERS FREQUENCY Upstream and downstream of • Temperature As per monitoring plan stormwater discharge outlets at • Suspended solids (SS) all construction sites. • pH • Dissolved oxygen (DO) • Grease / oils • Faecal coliforms As per monitoring plan

Upstream and downstream of • Temperature As per monitoring plan construction work camp sites • pH • Suspended solids • Faecal coliforms

Work areas where vehicle or • Temperature As per monitoring plan equipment maintenance is being • pH undertaken if located within • Suspended solids 200m of a drainage channel. • Oil/grease Upstream and downstream of • Temperature As per monitoring plan waste disposal area if located • pH within 200m of a drainage • Suspended solids channel • Faecal coliforms Outlet of all sediment basins • Temperature Before discharge for sediment • Suspended solids basins associated with concrete • pH batching plants • Discharge rate

Discharge from sewage works • Suspended solids As per monitoring plan • Faecal coliforms • Colour • Odour Potable water supply at • Colour As per monitoring plan construction work camps • Odour • Chlorine Faecal coliforms As per monitoring plan

Other as necessary As per monitoring plan

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ANNEX D-4

Handler PPE for Hazardous Products

HANDLER PPE FOR HAZARDOUS PRODUCTS

Toxicity Category by Route of Exposure of End-Use Product Route of Exposure I II III IV DANGER WARNING CAUTION CAUTION

Dermal Toxicity or Skin Irritation Coveralls worn over long-sleeved shirt Long-sleeved shirt and long pants Long-sleeved shirt and long pants Potential1 and long pants Coveralls worn over short-sleeved shirt and short pants Socks Socks Socks Socks Shoes Shoes Chemical-resistant footwear 2 2 Chemical-resistant footwear Chemical-resistant Gloves No minimum Chemical-resistant Gloves2 Chemical-resistant Gloves2

No minimum2 No minimum2 Inhalation Toxicity Respiratory protection device Respiratory protection device2

Protective eyewear5 Protective eyewear3 No minimum2 No minimum2 Eye Irritation Potential

1 If dermal toxicity and skin irritation toxicity categories are different, PPE shall be determined by the more severe toxicity category of the two. 2 Although no minimum PPE is required for these toxicity categories and routes of exposure, the Agency may require PPE on a product-specific basis. 3“Protective eyewear” is to be used instead of “goggles” and/or “face shield” and/or “shielded safety glasses” and similar terms to describe eye protection.

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007 Appendix E - Lake Natron Soda Ash ESIA E - 1

E – Assessment of Road Upgrading

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007 Appendix E - Lake Natron Soda Ash ESIA E - 2

Table of Contents

1 Introduction...... 3 2 Baseline or Existing Conditions – Eastern Shore Route...... 4 2.1 Bio-physical Environment 4 2.1.1 Climate 4 2.1.2 Geology and Soils 4 2.1.3 Topography 4 2.1.4 Physical Determinants of Lake Natron’s Ecology 4 2.1.5 Aquatic Biology 6 2.1.6 Small Terrestrial Vertebrates 7 2.1.7 Avifauna 10 2.1.8 Ungulate Wildlife Systems 12 2.1.9 Botany 15 2.1.10 Plant Ecology 15 2.2 Socio-economic and Cultural Environment 16 2.2.1 Administrative Areas and Gazetted Land Use 16 2.2.2 Demography 16 2.2.3 Land Use 17 2.2.4 Tourism 19 3 Impact Assessment...... 20 3.1 Social Impacts 20 3.2 Environmental Impacts 20 3.3 Impact Matrix 22 4 Mitigation Measures ...... 26 5 Conclusion ...... 29 1 Environmental ASSESSMENT for the Upgrade OF the EXISTING ALIGNMENT FROM MTO WA MBU TO ENGARE SERO ...... 30 1.1 Environmental and Social Baseline 30 1.1.1 Biophysical Environmental 30 1.2 Socio-economic and Cultural Environment 32 1.2.1 Archaeological sites: 34 1.2.2 Conservation and Tourism 36 1.3 IMPACTS 37 1.3.1 Potential Direct Impacts of Road Construction 37 1.3.2 Potential Direct Impacts during Operation 37 1.3.3 Indirect Impacts 39 1.3.4 Acceleration of Cultural Change 40 1.3.5 Tourism 40 1.3.6 Displacement and Involuntary Resettlement 40 1.3.7 Gender 40 1.3.8 Urban Growth 41 1.4 Mitigation and Monitoring 41 1.4.1 Mitigation During Construction 41 1.4.2 Monitoring 44 1.4.3 Environmental Management 45 1.5 Consultations 49

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1 INTRODUCTION This section addresses the impacts identified with regard to the access route between Mto wa Mbu and the proposed soda ash plant.

It should be noted that the excising road between Mto wa Mbu and Loliondo has been upgraded (partially gravelled) and TANROADS is commencing with final design for tarring of the road. The decision to tar the upgrade the road is not related to the proposed Soda Ash project and a separate and independent EIA is being prepared as part of the road design.

This assessment is therefore divided into two sections: The first addresses the concerns and impacts relating to the section of road between the Mto wa Mbo to Loliondo Road and the proposed Soda Ash plant – refered to as the eastern shore route.

The second section (annexure) outlines concerns relating to the existing road that TANROADS is upgrading between Mto wa Mbo and Engare Sero refered to as TanRoad.

Figure E-1: Location of the access routes between Mto wa Mbu and the proposed soda ash plant

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2 BASELINE OR EXISTING CONDITIONS – EASTERN SHORE ROUTE

2.1 Bio-physical Environment

2.1.1 Climate

The catchments area of Lake Natron has a hot climate in low altitude areas and a cooler climate in higher altitude areas. Temperature ranges from 20°C to 35°C on average. Rainfall ranges from less than 500mm in low lands to 900mm at higher elevations. The lake Natron basin has a high level of evaporation making it one of the hottest and driest places in northern Tanzania. In January and February temperatures are often above 40 degrees Celsius.

The high temperatures coupled with low rainfall within the lower Gregory Rift create a negative water balance situation of about 1400mm at the Lake floor. The system relies on inflows from both rivers and springs to maintain perennial pools of water within the Lake.

2.1.2 Geology and Soils

The geology and soils of the area are dominated by the volcanic activity and rift valley movement. The basin where Lake Natron is located was caused by block faulting of the Gregory Rift and is primarily composed of volcanic rocks such as phonolites, trachytes and basaltic lava flows. The lake is surrounded in the north, east and south by five Plio-Pleistocene volcanoes: Oldoinyo Sambu (2045 m), Shombole (1565 m), Gelai (2942 m), Oldoinyo Lengai (2878 m) and Embagai (3048 m). The Oldoinyo Lengai volcano is still active; it last erupted in in March 2006.

The area to the far north of Lake Natron forms a fairly level surface, it was created by Tertiary lava and ashes. A large residual hill mass called The Loita Hills rises to the northwest of this surface. The rift valley wall runs parralel to to the west of the road from Mto wa Mbu to the Lake.

This geology and history of flooding has created a landscape dominated by lake (lacustrine), volcanic (Haplic Solonetz), sedimentary (Eutric leptosols) and basment (Luvic and Chenozems) soils.

2.1.3 Topography

The Lake sits at the bottom of the Gregory Rift at about 610m. The rift follows a NNW-SSW trending alignment and is separated from the Magadi Lake by the Ewaso Ngiro delta. To the west the escarpment climes rapidly to about 1800m. To the east a ridge 700-750m (Ngejeki Plateau) separates the Lake from a wide swamp (650m).

The area is interpursed with a number of volcanoes Oldoinyo Sambu (2045 m), Shombole (1565 m), Gelai (2942 m), Oldoinyo Lengai (2878 m) and Embagai (3048 m) which dominate the landscape.

2.1.4 Physical Determinants of Lake Natron’s Ecology

As can be observed from the fossil river deltas and wave cut platforms located nearly 60 m above the present lake surface, the system has changed from a vast inland fresh water body less than 6,000 years ago to the present sodic lake today. The continuation of this desiccation process would, in the long term, result in dry saline lake beds. There is one significant difference between the Natron system and other lakes that have fully dried out, the presence of sodic springs discharging large volumes of water into the lake and maintaining the perennial lagoons.

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The volcanic activity of the Rift Valley has resulted in larva and volcanic ash covering the landscape and forming the sodic soils of the Natron lower basin. These soils and course grain sediments from the land in the upper catchment of the Peninj, Moinik, Sanjane (western areas), Engare Sero (south of the Lake) and the vast catchment of the Ewaso Ngiro (northern), have entered the lake, forming much of the surface we see today. The course sediments can be observed at the active river deltas where the combination of fresh water and alluvial (non sodic) soils allow for human settlement. In the southern section of the lake where sediment levels and fresh water inputs are high, the muds are exposed at the surface and can be traversed on foot during the dry season. In the north and central areas of the lake the sodic levels in springs are higher and during the dry season a crystalline crust of trona cover the surface forming a seal to evaporation. The brine solution below the trona consists of brine in a mud slurry solution.

Spriggs (2001) points out that the waters of these saline lakes are extremely inhospitable, with a saturated salt solution of pH 9 to 10, and temperatures that reach up to 41°C near the mineral springs. These conditions are not constant, but change abruptly during the rains. Heavy rains temporarily flood the lakes with cold water and lower the pH dramatically. The mud flats surrounding the permanent water are just as inhospitable. Temperatures are extreme, winds are strong, vegetation is scarce and movement across this thick muddy environment is impossible for most mammals. As a result it is an extreme and highly variable environment with low species richness.

The areas of highest diversity and productivity are the river delta’s, most of which flow sporadically in the wet season. The distribution of these delta areas and sodic springs are indicated in Figure E-2.

Figure E-2: Natural features of Lake Natron shoreline

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2.1.5 Aquatic Biology

The size and shape of the rivers and Lake change constantly in the cycle of dry and rainy seasons and between dry and wet years. The lake is also influenced by thermal springs due to its recent history of volcanic activity. The constantly flowing spring water is the main contributor to the formation of brine and soda crust in the lake. These hydrological dynamics of the Lake’s springs add an extra dimension to the riparian ecosystem as well as to the water resource management issues.

There are numerous permanent springs situated in the vicinity of the lake or in the lake itself, including hot water springs which feed salt rich water into the lake. The constantly flowing spring water is the main contributor to the formation of brine and soda crust in the lake. According to Guest and Steven (1951), there are about 28 hot alkaline springs flowing into Lake Natron. The temperature of the spring water is in the range of 30 - 50ºC.

There are several wetland patches associated with the lake: two relatively small Typha domingensis dominated wetland patches on the western shore and two medium sized to large partially fresh water wetlands on the eastern side. The wetlands are a source of water for wild and domestic animals.

A total nine microalgae species were identified from water samples collected from the six sampling sites (see adjacent diagram) . Contrary to the popular belief, Arthrospira fusiformis was not found in the water samples collected from six sampling stations for which microalgae were examined.

With regard fish, a small species of fish (possibly a sub-species of O. alcalicus) was collected in addition to the endemic alkaline tilapia Oreochromis (Alcolapia) alcalicus. The newly caught fish differ from O. alcalicus mainly by having an inferior suctorial mouth as opposed to terminal mouth which is characteristic of O. alcalicus. The new species was sampled from one site, a freshwater spring 400m from the edge of the lake on the eastern shore (sample site number 2A). O. alcalicus specimen ranging from 2.0 to 11.1 cm in length were caught from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from predominantly freshwater habitats in the Monik River (salinity = 0.2 ‰), hot saline springs on the periphery of the lake (salinity = 5-20 ‰) to numerous lagoons on the edge of the lake itself (salinity = 20-25 ‰).

On average, more than 65% of all male and female fish caught in the samples were carrying mature and/or ripe gonads. Capture of large number of spawning/spent females of the resident fish species suggests that the present conditions in the springs, pools and lagoons around Lake Natron are suitable for breeding of O. alcalicus. Breeding fish were only observed in Sites 1B, 2A, 3 and 4. All these sites were located in or near the freshwater inflow (along lower river mouths, hot saline and freshwater springs).

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The survey also revealed that fishing is not an important economic or social activity among local people around Lake Natron in Tanzania.

The major ecological importance of the alkaline tilapia in Lake Natron lies on food and feeding relationships where O. alcalicus contribute to a substantial increase in faunal diversity by extending the food chains to fish eating birds, of which the Great White Pelican is dominating.

With regard to their conservational status, O. alcalicus are classified as “threatened” in the IUCN Red data book. Due to a limited home range with no known history of undertaking long up-river spawning migrations into areas outside the lake, O. alcalicus are more susceptible to extinction from adverse environmental effects operating on a lake-wide scale.

2.1.6 Small Terrestrial Vertebrates

Given the harsh environment in the immediate surroundings of Lake Natron, little scientific study of its small vertebrate fauna appears to have been conducted. Early visitors and collectors focussed on what was termed the “Maasai area” of East Africa. The only report available to us which includes data on small mammals is that of Kasule et al. (1993); small mammal data was not included in the Uasso Nyiro report.

From 20-27 January 2007, Standard small vertebrate trapping techniques were used to assess the presence of the small vertebrate fauna. Table E-1: Summary of the field survey of the proposed project area

Taxonomic Common Scientific Name Distribution, Notes Group Name Class Amphibia Family Bufonidae Desert Toad Bufo xeros Widely distributed, from Algeria to the dry savannas of Sub-saharan Africa, known from the drier parts of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In addition to the individuals trapped, two were collected at the Moivaro tented camp area during the scoping exercise, when the males were also vocalising. Family Ranidae, Ridged Grass Ptychadena anchietae A single individual was collected at a wetland Ranid or “typical” Frog near Panini during scoping. frogs

Class Reptilia Order Sauria, Lizards Family Nyika Gecko Hemidactylus Known as an inhabitant of Acacia Gekkonidae, squamulatus Commiphora woodland, but also found in Geckos some places in dry Zambesian woodland. Banded Velvet Homopholis fasciatus The single individual sampled is a range Gecko extension, however, its occurrence is not unexpected, since it is known from dry country from diverse localities Turner’s Thick- Pachydactylus turneri A species of moist and dry savanna, from sea toed Gecko level to 1800 m altitude. In East Africa its distribution in East Africa is patchy. It is probably more widely distributed but is simply undersampled. Family Southern Long- Latastia longicaudata A common and widespread species of the Lacertidae, tailed Lizard Somali-Maasai semi-desert area but is also

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Taxonomic Common Scientific Name Distribution, Notes Group Name Lacertid Lizards found in Acacia-Commiphora woodland. This appears to be the first known from the Lake Natron area. Family Scincidae, Tree Skink Trachylepis planifrons A single individual was seen on the eastern Skinks shore of the lake during the scoping visit. Order Serpentes, Snakes Family Boidae, Kenyan sand Eryx colubrinus Known from northern and eastern Kenya and Boas boa northeastern Tanzania, with a single record from Ruaha National Park in southern Tanzania. The animals captured represent a range extension for this species, but it would be expected to occur. Family Northern Psammophis One individual was captured in a BPFL; it is a Colubridae, Stripe-bellied sudanensis widespread species and would be expected to “typical’ snakes Sand Snake occur in the Project Area.

Class Mammalia, Mammals Order Insectivora Family Soricidae, White-toothed Crocidura sp. Shrews or Musk Shrews Order Rodentia Family Muridae, Pygmy Mouse Mus sp. While there appear to have been to records Muroid rodents directly associated with the Lake Natron area, there is a record mapped in Kingdon (1974) indicating a position approximately between Lake Eyasi and Lake Natron for Mus bellus and we tentatively place the pygmy mice captured in that taxon until reports from a specialist on the genus Mus are received. Tatera Gerbils Tatera sp. Tatera cf robusta The single specimen trapped does not agree with all features of this species but this probably reflects inadequate original descriptions rather than an unusual taxon. Tatera gerbils are found in a wide variety of habitats, including grassland and woodland in dry areas. Spiny Mouse Acomys sp. Possibly Acomys wilsoni or Acomys nubilus; Swynnerton & Hayman (1951) record Acomys nubilus Dollman, 1914 the type specimen from “Magadi, (presumably in Kenya) southern Masailand “ and at the foot of Longido Mountain, Tanzania. The exact species boundaries of members of the genus Acomys have not yet been precisely determined (see Wilson & Reeder, 1993).

Order Chiroptera, Bats Suborder Microchiroptera, Insectivorous bats Family Yellow-winged Lavia frons Seen frequently in scrub in the vicinity of Megadermatidae Bat Moivaro tented camp and at Panini; recorded “False Vampire” from Ol Donyo Lengai by Swynnerton &

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Taxonomic Common Scientific Name Distribution, Notes Group Name bats Hayman (1951). Order Carnivora Family Hyaenidae Spotted Hyena Crocuta crocuta Widespread in the Lake Natron area, noted as present at Longido by Swynnerton & Hayman (1951) and heard and seen during the fieldwork.

Significance of Findings

There were few species of small vertebrate detected, it was to be expected that reptiles, many of which are adapted for relatively dry conditions, were relatively more speciose than the other groups. The large number of Bufo toads present probably reflected that they had bred earlier and we were capturing subadults. None of the vertebrate groups sampled was especially speciose or abundant.

None of the species detected is listed as threatened by the IUCN criteria. Several of the groups present represent taxa that are included in the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora) to which Tanzania is a signatory.

Table E-2: Reptiles of the Lake Natron area (some of which were detected during the present study) on the CITES Appendix II

Taxon Common Name Occurrence in Project CITES Appendix Area Testudinidae Tortoises At least one species Appendix II probably occurs Varanus Monitor Lizards Varanus niloticus Appendix II Reported to occur Pythonidae Pythons Python sp. probably Appendix II occurs Boidae Boidae Eryx colubrinus was Appendix II trapped Cordylidae Maasai Girdled Lizard Almost certainly Appendix II occurs, known from Longido area.

In conclusion no small vertebrate of conservation concern was collected, nor was any species endemic to Tanzania or the Lake Natron area. During the sampling period, conditions were dry and relatively few species and low numbers of animals were detected.

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2.1.7 Avifauna

Although the project area supports a wide variety of birds the study focussed on water birds and most particularly the lesser flamingo which is of greatest conservation concern.

Lesser Flamingo are known to move several hundred kilometres between saline (rift valley) lakes in East Africa, and between salt pans in southern Africa (Childress et al. 2004, McCulloch et al. 2003, Simmons, 2000), although there is little data to show a link between the two populations although some movement has been suggested. The species appears to be adapted to respond to deterioration in local conditions by moving elsewhere, and thus depends on a network of suitable sites (BirdLife International).

Previous studies, which include specific analysis of the Lesser Flamingo breeding sites (Brown, 1955, Brown & Root, 1971) and environmental impact assessments (Johnson, 1991, Knight, 1993) have in the past been carried out at Lake Natron. All of these studies have confirmed the critical importance of this ecosystem to Lesser Flamingo, especially its globally important breeding sites. Further conformation of the importance of this site is shown through the designation of Lake Natron as a globally important Ramsar site due again to the presence of Lesser Flamingo (see policy and legal framework in Chapter 3).

The ornithological survey included an assessment of the entire lake to identify the most important sites for not only Lesser Flamingo, but also other resident and migratory waterbirds Figure 5-11 illustrates the most suitable site for any construction, based on current knowledge was chosen for several reasons; ie there is no freshwater inputs, mudflats or standing vegetation so important to this and other species of waterbirds. The site is an equal distance from each of the known lesser flamingo breeding sites (c. 17km).

The Lesser Flamingo Phoenicopterus minor is classified “Near Threatened”, indicating that it is considered likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. The species is listed in Column A of the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) action plan, Appendix II of the Bonn Convention (CMS) and Appendix II of the CITES convention, and thus requires special consideration.

The total population is estimated to be between 2.2 - 3.2 million (this number is currently under revision) (Wetlands International, in press) and occurs primarily on saline lakes, pans and coastal wetlands throughout sub-Saharan Africa and from the Arabian Peninsula to India (BirdLife International 2000). Total population declines have been suggested (Simmons 2000), but this is difficult to quantify because of the extensive movement typical of the species. The Lesser Flamingo is known to breed successfully in only three locations (Sua pan in southern Africa, Lake Natron in East Africa, and the Rann of Kachchh in India (Ali 1974), all of which are threatened and require additional protection (Simmons 2000, Jadhav and Parasharya 2004).

Lesser Flamingo are known to move several hundred kilometres between saline (rift valley) lakes in East Africa, and between salt pans in southern Africa (Childress et al. 2004, McCulloch et al. 2003, Simmons, 2000), although there is little data to show a link between the two populations, some movement has been suggested. The species appears to be adapted to respond to deterioration1 in local conditions by moving elsewhere, and thus depends on a network of suitable sites (BirdLife International 2000, McCulloch et al. 2003, Childress et al. in press), many of which, like Natron, are completely unprotected (Childress et al. in press).

1 This could be flooding, drought, disruption in food sources or changing predator interactions.

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Environmental threats include soda-ash mining, salt extraction, damming of water inflows for agriculture irrigation, land claim, water pollution and human disturbance at breeding sites (BirdLife International 2000).

Lake Natron as a key site for Lesser Flamingo

Lake Natron is the only breeding site for Lesser Flamingo in East Africa and is globally the most significant breeding site for this species (Brown, 1955. Brown and Root, 1971. Baker and Baker,2002). The majority of breeding occurs during October – November2 although breeding to a lesser degree of success can occur throughout the year. There are a number of clearly significant reasons why Lake Natron is preferred by this species. There are five main conditions that the flamingo require to successfully breed at lake Natron:

1) Isolation of nesting sites from mammalian and avian predators. There is no other site within the range of the East African Lesser Flamingo which currently provides these parameters of isolation from mammalian predators. Documented evidence has suggested that a single episode of disturbance can cause the whole breeding colony to abandon the nest site.

2) Presence of freshwater springs throughout the year. The juvenile birds, once in a crèche move towards fresh water in large groups. If you look at the distribution of Lesser Flamingo’s at Natron, large concentrations gather at the river deltas and springs to wash their feathers. 3) Presence of microscopic salt water algae for feeding throughout the year.

4) Presence of suitable substrate for nest construction. This is extremely important, the ‘preferred’ breeding sites are in areas were this mud is available, in dry years the colonies can be more spread out and follow the cracks in the trona where suitable mud can be accessed (these are known as string formation nests).

5) Suitable areas for the young when in a crèche to move, feed and obtain freshwater as outlined above.

Other than breeding, Lake Natron is a key feeding site for this species throughout the Year with numbers often exceeding 200,000 individuals (c. 8% global population). As mentioned this species requires a network of sites in order to respond to changing environmental conditions.

Breeding Strategy and the Importance of Lake Natron

At Lake Natron, egg laying tends to occur at the end of the dry season between August and November and possibly into December (if rains are late and extend the dry season). Usually one egg is laid (in rare cases 2).

Iit is thought that the primary limitation on breeding may be the time needed by the female flamingo to save up enough energy to produce the egg, rather than the food concentration needed for incubation. Lake Natron is the only breeding site for a combination of factors, both biotic and abiotic, many of which are not fully understood.

Breeding attempts by this species in late 2006, early 2007 have failed at Natron due to heavy rains and excessive flooding.

2 Source; Tanzanian Bird Atlas

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Water birds other than Flamingo

Water bird populations require a network of suitable sites, rather than a single spatial or temporal resource. All of the migrant species that variously utilise Natron respond to changing conditions by moving, often daily. These changes in prevailing conditions are natural and sometimes dramatic, such as the rains of late 2006 which caused water levels to be extremely high; this will have reduced the areas of open mudflats which the waders tend to use most.

Important species are shown below:

Table E-3: Ramsar 1% species population levels and existing bird counts (these figures were substantiated for some of the species during this study) Species RAMSAR Count Results 1% levels 14-15 Jan 2005 Cape Teal 64 122 Chestnut-banded Sandplover 45 4,357 Marsh Sandpiper 750 1,451 Little Stint 10,000 19,276 Gull-billed Tern 380 64

Importance of Lake Natron for Birds

The main importance of Lake Natron is as the most essential breeding site for lesser flamingo, a threatened species under the IUCN categories.

Considering what is known about Lesser Flamingo and the critical importance of this ecosystem to the breeding and population dynamics of this species, along with thousands of other waterbirds, any form of development which may change the ecology of this ecosystem entails risk.

When land use change is considered, it must be on a regional basis, the network of lakes in the rift valley that are used by Lesser Flamingo, and many other species are all under threat. One of the unique elements of Natron is actually the lack of threats when compared with other rift valley lakes and the remoteness and harsh nature of Natron has always been a benefit from a pure conservation point of view. The springs and rivers that feed natron provide the environment for aquatic life that these birds feed on. Water birds would be effected if there were changes to the aquatic ecosystem which could alter the amounts or types of invertebrates and crustaceans available as a food source

Lake Natron is also the most import global site for Chestnut-banded Sandplover (a threatened species?)

2.1.8 Ungulate Wildlife Systems

The Lake has permanent and migratory wildlife populations. The permanent species are either those adapted to arid systems reptiles, rodents rodentivoures (foxes and jackal), insectivoures and generalists (mongoose, Gerinuk, ), or dependent on available fresh water. There are permanent

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populations of primates along the river systems and near settlement. There are also permanent larger ungulate populations in the well watered Galei forests.

Apart from the Wosi Wosi area, these permanent populations appear to be under threat from intensive land use practices. In the west side of the lake there is displacement of wildlife due to expansion of arable agriculture, irrigation and settlement. To the south east (Magadi) there is competition for dry season grazing and systematic attempts to exclude wildlife from the dry season range. On Gelai there is considerable settlement, arable agriculture and pastoral activities. Figure E-3: Wildlife systems and observations August 2006

During the dry season there are relatively large populations of migratory and nomadic ungulates using the fresh water and semi sodic springs and associated wetlands for dry season grazing. During the wet season ungulates move onto the open grasslands to the south east and south west.

Literature suggests two migratory corridors between the Lake and other wildlife systems:

• A link between the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Natron along the open grass plains • A link between Lake Manyara National Park (Mto wa Mbu GCA) and the Lake Natron GCA along the approximate alignment of the existing Mto wa Mbu to Engare Sero road.

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Figure E-4: Wildlife movement corridors suggested in the literature

The wet and dry season observations carried out during this study indicate that there are two sub populations of wildlife which are:

• Wildlife population in the Wosi Wosi area which have a link between the northern slopes of Gelai and the fresh water of the Ewaso Ngiro swamp • The Magdi population comprising the dry season ungulate population using the grazing resources in the south east (Magdi) area of the lake. Thes animals move onto the open grasslands between and south of the Gelai – Kitenbene area in the wet season.

The ungulate species comprise Grants Gazelle, Thomson’s Gazelle, Zebra, Wildebeest, Ostrich, Gerenuk (not found on the plains) and Giraffe.

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2.1.9 Botany

At the lakeshore the vegetation is mainly edaphic grassland (see below).

Acacia tortilis woodland

This vegetation type borders the edaphic grasslands and is common along the road from Engare Sero to Moinik and also from Magadani to Wosi Wosi area particularly in areas of fresh spring water. It is characterized a single stratum dominated with single tree species of Acacia tortilis with patches of grassland.

The understorey layer is dominated with small scrubs; such as Indigofera spinosa, Duosperma qudrangulare, Barleria submollis and Aerva javanica and some grass species like Digitaria macroblephara, Dactyloctenium australe and Sporobolus iocladus.

Calotropis procera scrubland

Along the road to Wosiwosi a patch of pure stand of Calotropis procera scrubland dominate the settlement at Magadi village. This unique overgrowth is representative of the effects of overgrazing and poor regeneration potential of natural species.

The Lake Vegetation

The lake is devoid of macrophytic vegetation, but is very productive in terms of algae, with blue- green algae (Cyanophyta) such as Spirulina spp. dominating the saline waters (Finlayson and Moser 1991). The large saline mud flats surrounding the waters are generally considered to be saline deserts. These salt-encrusted flats are covered in a layer of blue-green algae during the rainy season.

Swamp and Soda flats

Sporobolus spicatus is about the only grass on the seasonally submerged soda flats. On the edges of the flats particularly on the western Lakeshore close to Moinik village permanent Typha domongensis swamps are common. All around the Lakeshore swamps of Cyperus laevigatus dominate the mud flats.

In addition to the dominant swamp species a few halophytes are also found growing on the saline soils fringing the lake. These include Dactyloctenium spp., Juncus maritimus, Salvadora persica, Sporobolus robustus, Suaeda monoica and Triplocephalum holstii.

2.1.10 Plant Ecology

The lake is devoid of macrophytic vegetation except at the fresh water Typha swamps at the edge of the Lake in the area between the Moinik and Peninj rivers. The mineral composition and non turbid nature of the waters from the sodic springs provide ideal conditions for the production of blue-green algae (Cyanophyta).

The fresh water Typha beds and waters are important for waterbird diversity and as a source of fresh drinking water for the Flamingo.

Around the Lake, but predominantly on the southern shores there are large areas of short halophytic grasslands dominate by Sporobolus spicatus and S. robustus.

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In the areas of the less sodic springs, dence stands of Cyperus laevigatus and S. spicatus occur which are used, together with the Sporobolus grasslands, by domestic stock and wildlife as the late dry season grazing area.

As a result of the low rainfall and the sodic nature of the volcanic soils surrounding the Lake, the terrestrial vegetation of the plains is open grassland suitable for wet season ungulate grazing.

Forests and woodlands are important to the ecology of Natron but these are all situated in the upper escarpments and all, apart from some of Gelai Forest Reserve, fall outside of the Ramsar site.

2.2 Socio-economic and Cultural Environment 2.2.1 Administrative Areas and Gazetted Land Use

The project area is in Arusha region in the North of Tanzania. The main part of the project area is within Ngorongoro and Loliondo districts while the rest is in a new district of Longido. The project area is within Mto wa Mbu, Selela, Engaruka, Penyinyi, Gelai wards.

Figure E-5: Administrative areas of the Lake Natron and surroundings

2.2.2 Demography

The majority of the population surrounding Lake Natron are the Masai followed by the Batemi (Sonjo) the later name not liked by the group. The sonjo are mainly found in villages surrounding the lake, these include Engasero, Penyiny and few are at Engaruka Villages, while the Maasai are found in every village within the project area, there are minority groups found in strategic villages where irrigation agriculture takes place. These tribes include the Rangi, Chagga, Pare, and Waarusha, The villages habited include Mto wa Mbu, Selela, Engaruka and Penyiny. Villages

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where there is no fertile land and water for irrigation are inhabited by the pastoralist Masai. Such villages include Alaillai and Losirwa.

Engare Sero Village

Administratively, the village has 3 sub villages that are are Leparkash, EngareSero and Monik. Engare Sero village has a total population of 4283 where 2011 are men.

For different reasons Engasero village is also occupied by mixed tribes from all over Tanzania because of its location as a small business centre. The rest settlements are occupied by Masai. This is a very old settlement though grow at a slow rate. Losirwa/Magadini village

Losirwa Magadini village is located in a new district of Longido. It has three sub villages namely Opraa, Arman, Mariki. It has a total population of 2400 people. The village government does not know the number of women and children but the number of men is known. There are 1054 men in the village. The reason why the number of other gender is not available was not revealed by the village government. One tends to conclude that since the Maasai culture do not value women this might influence the importance of recording women data as insignificant.

Alaililai Village

Administratively, the village has 4 sub villages that are Mlimani, Ilsapukin, Naudo and Wosiwosi. Alaililai village is inhabited by 2586 people of which 583 are men, 976 are women and 1027 children. Out of these people 16 are disabled. Village work force is 758. The average household size is four people below the national household size of 6 people. The total households is 779, out of these households 274 are headed by women. From the discussion with villagers households headed by women are poorer than households headed by men. This is because women have limited accessibility to means of production like land and cattle. Almost all the residents are pastoralist Maasai group.

2.2.3 Land Use

Livestock

This is a traditional and familiar source of livelihood for the majority of people in the three districts. For people living in the NCA, alternative economic activities are definitely limited. The mode of livestock production is semi-nomadic characterized by a fixed home based with seasonal movement of livestock to exploit spatial and temporal distraction of key resources like grazing, water, salt as well as minimal risk of diseases. They produce daily substance like food.

Cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and local chicken are kept. For details refer to the below table. Livestock though are kept for food cash generation and biological manure; the local people also regard them as signs of wealth and for security purposes. Having more number of herds raises the status of the person in the society. The quality of livestock is not a bother; instead, what matters is the quantity of the livestock head the family owns. Occasionally there are incidences of conflict between livestock keepers and arable agriculture.

According to the villagers consulted at Wosiwosi one livestock keeper could have 80 to 100 cows and/or 200 to 250 goats. One cow gives 1 litre of milk in the morning, the same amount in the evening.

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Table E-4: Livestock unit per village in the project area

Selela Village Units cattle 8,300 goats 20,0000 sheep 18,1500 donkeys 980 Engaruka Chini village Units cattle 4,684 goats 3162 sheep 2261 donkeys 416 Allaililai village Cattle 4464 goats 8840 sheep 7455 donkey 1661 Losirwa Magadini cattle 8,400 goats 5,800 sheep donkeys 1,000

During the wet season there are few constraints on livestock movement but during the dry season livestock are limited by two resources; water and forage.

Water: During the dry season most of the fresh water springs dry up and pastoralists are forced to water their stock on the perennial rivers (Peninj, Moinik and Engare Sero) and at semi sodic springs (north of Moinik and along the south eastern shores of the lake. Control of water resources by individuals and communities for irrigated agriculture and tourism have limited access to the scarce resources forcing large numbers of stock to water at concentration points. This results in social conflict and soil erosion.

Forage: At the height of the dry season, forage below the rift valley escarpment is limited to the Cyperus laevigatus sedgelands surrounding the sodic springs and the river delta’s. These areas (ca 630ha sedgeland) are a critical resource, which is used by both wildlife (early mornings and evenings) and livestock (from mid morning till late afternoon). The separation in use is enforced to limit spread of disease from wildlife to livestock. Cattle are less dependent on this Cyperus forage as they are herded onto the plains daily or, moved for periods up into the mountain around the Gelei Forest Reserve or onto the rift escarpment. Small stock, though, are almost entirely dependent on the sedgelands during the late dry season.

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Figure E-6: Location of important dry season forage areas

The grazing in the lake basin near the lake shore is restricted to the area between the lake and the escarpment or Gelai.

Livestock densities in Livestock Units (lsu) for the Monduli (now Longido) district wards adjacent to the eastern side of the lake were (in 1984) on average 19.8 lsu/km2 and had increased from 9.8 lsu/km2 six years previously. Lake Natron Ramsar area falls into the arid – semi arid lands (Olpurkei) where carrying capacity in the dry season is about 0.2 lsu3/ha Our observed livestock density on the Cyperus sedgelands during the 2006 dry season was 0.5 lsu/ha and a further 2 lsu/ha for wildlife using the same sedgelands.

2.2.4 Tourism The Department of Wildife reports that the area is divided into two hunting blocks, Lake Natron GCA and Loliondo GCA. Loliondo falls to the west of the lake (above the escarpment) between the Lake and the Serengeti National Park. While the Lake Natron GCA includes the entire Lake Natron (Error! Reference source not found.). The Lake Natron GCA is divided into two hunting blocks; Lake Natron North which is leased to Wengert Windrose of Arusha and operated by Tanzania Game Trackers while the Lake Natron South is leased to TAWICO. Income from the Lake Natron hunting blocks averages US$ 58,000 per year as indicated below. These returns were lower in the 2002-2004 period due to security concerns, but appear to be growing at about 8% on average. Total returns generated from hunting would be far higher than the lease fee as the companies are responsible to support development projects in their areas of operation and are required to pay tax and licence fees. Estimated direct returns to the District would be about US$ 70,000 (25% of fee plus developments similar to total fee charged) and to the nation as US$ 120,000 (remaining fee, licences at about, and taxes).

3 Lsu = livestock units

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3 IMPACT ASSESSMENT

3.1 Social Impacts

The proposed east shore route linking the soda ash plant to the Mto wa Mbu to Lioliondo exhibits a number of social impacts, these are:

• Lies within the Lake Natron Ramsar site boundary • Passes an area of restricted grazing (constrained between Gelai and the Lake) • Passes through an area of important dry season grazing for high numbers of stock) • Will impact on the wilderness value of the southern part of the lake and the Eldonya Lengai Volcano (visual, sound and lights).

Figure E-7: Location of social concerns combined as social sensitivity

3.2 Environmental Impacts

• Traverses loose soils and follows a highly dissected area between Gelai and the Lake. • Passes the critical dry season grazing area of the resident wildlife ungulate population • Passes adjacent to the sodic springs which are the prime habitat of the endemic fish species • Passes to the immediate east of the main Lesser Flamingo breeding area and will create disturbance.

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Figure E-8: Location of environmental concerns combined to indicate environmental sensitivity

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3.3 Impact Matrix

Component Specific Activity and Aspect Impact Quantification No. No. Rank Administrative and Planning A/P Change in Change in infrastructure will Development will undermine the 1 physical put extensive pressure on Ramsar planning process planning existing planning requirements and local authorities

responsible for implementing mod-minimal management plans A/P Establishment Change in infrastructure will Development may undermine 2 of put extensive pressure on changes occurring in GCA

infrastructure existing planning requirements planning and development of minimal and local authorities WMAs responsible for implementing management plans Physical /Chemical P/C Changes in Establishment of plant, housing Loss of grazing land A minimum of 0.5 1 crop and and access corridors km2 for plant, 1 km2 grazing areas for housing, 80 km, (productive taking 0.8 km2 for

land) mod-minimal additional road corridor (in addition to the planned Mto wa Mbwa to Engare Sere road). Additional area lost to landfilling of fly ash @5metric tons per hour and mud slimes at 93 cubic metres per hour. Loss of critical dry season 400 ha of Cyperus

grazing along SE shores of Lake mod laevigatus/Sporobilus Natron sedgeland/grassland P/C Change in Noise from large numbers of High noise levels will reduced Operation of steam 2 sound levels transport trucks wilderness value of the Lake plant (capacity), environment and disturbance to power generator biota moderate (capacity), vehicles and movement of transport trucks P/C Change in light High levels of light pollution Reduce nighttime wilderness e 24 hour operation 3 from vehicles operating at value of the Lake requiring high quality

night moderat lighting Biological/Ecological B/E Changes in Disturbace of the soda springs Potential threat to endemic One, possibly two

1 biodiversity through road construction and species of fish. Threat to lesser mod endemic fish species polution flamingo populations using springs and perennial lagoons B/E Changes in Access road along east side of The Cyperus laevigatus 400 ha of dry season

2 terrestrial plant the Lake sedgelands surrounding the semi mod grazing which is used populations sodic springs in the southern and at a stocking rate of at eastern sides of the Lake form least 2.5 LSU/ha in critical late dry season grazing for dry season domestic stock and wildlife. Increased pressure or disturbance could deplete the remaining wildlife populations

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Component Specific Activity and Aspect Impact Quantification No. No. Rank Access road along east side of Disturbance or loss of critical dry 400 ha of dry season

the Lake season habitat used by the mod grazing which is used resident ungulate population at a stocking rate of at least 2.5 LSU/ha in dry season Construction of site and Disruption of wildlife ungulate In the absence of a rail

transportation of products and movements in the Manyara - mod link to site, there will the associated high numbers of Natron migratory corridor be between 2-400 trucks travelling to and from tucks of ** tone the plant capacity using the road daily. In addition there will be high levels of domestic traffic B/E Change to bird Disturbance from plant High disturbance levels or change Up to 400 trucks a day 3 populations operation, abstraction, to habitat reducing the value of may pass along the recreational activities of staff the Lake to Lesser Flamingo and Lake shore

and the transportation of long term decline on flamingo significant product. Change in Lake populations in East Africa. habitat from plant operation. Flamingos are highly specialised feeders and sensitive to changes in their food source. Due to habitat loss and habitat contamination at other locations important for this species (e.g. Lake Nakuru), the current population is believed to be in decline and the value of lake Natron has been increased as a refuge for this species Traffic, aircraft, construction Disturbance to lesser flamingo During construction noise and change in ecosystem breeding sites 1000 plus staff daily properties flights in from Arusha and construction

mod-minimal activities near the lake shore a reduction in available water Loss of habitats essential for the due to offtake and increased survival of juvenile flamingo disturbance by trucks near

springs and river deltas significant regularly used by this species Social/Cultural S/C Changes Establishment of a tar access No losses identified

1 involving loss road none of housing S/C Changes Establishment of a tar access No losses identified

2 involving loss road none of commercial/pu blic buildings

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Component Specific Activity and Aspect Impact Quantification No. No. Rank S/C Changes Archaeological heritage close Potential loss of archaeology 80 km, taking 0.8 km2 3 involving loss to the proposed access road is relating to road construction and for additional road of cultural and known from Selela where borrow pits corridor (in addition to archaeological concentrations of MSA and the planned Mto wa

heritage LSA artefacts have been mod-minimal Mbwa to Engare Sere collected and reported. road) (excluding Extensive archaeological excavation for borrow remains of the ancient material) irrigation system at Engaruka, and the scatter of Acheuelan/MSA and LSA artefacts in the Gelai Oldonyo Lengai stretch have been reported S/C Changes to Land take Increased pressure on grazing Permanent loss of 4 livelihoods land resources due to land take approximately 3km2 for transport will increase social of grazing (equates to conflict. 60 LSU based on the

mod-minimal district average carrying capacity). Threat of disturbance to about 400 ha of critical dry season forage along the eastern shore of the Lake, which equates to 1,000 LSU based on field observations. S/C Changes to Development of the access Improved access ( as shown with No quantification

5 patterns of road the Stamico development and mod possible mobility and associated road access) may settlement result in an influx of people into the area and conflicts with existing communities S/C Changes No resettlement 6 involving expected resettlement of people S/C Changes in High numbers of truck drivers Increase in HIV/AIDS in existing Present HIV/AIDS 7 health and temporarily residing in the resident population levels are uncertain disease status Lake basin and the limited (poorly recorded), but

knowledge on HIV/AIDS significant would be expected to status in the Ramsar area rise to the highest average national levels S/C Changes to Plant, roads, rail, lights, noise Loss of tourism value of the Lake The present 8 aesthetic will change the wilderness "wilderness" tourism landscapes value of the lake industry is worth moderate about US$ 470,000/year S/C Changes to the Industrial development, Loss of wilderness value and 9 conservation settlement and impact on reduced conservation value status of Lake ecosystem processes Natron moderate Economic

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Component Specific Activity and Aspect Impact Quantification No. No. Rank E/1 Changes in Loss of grazing and Reduced livestock production

crop/livestock disturbance/disruption of mod-

generated grazing systems in the dry minimal incomes season refuge E/2 Changes in There are a number of tourist Negative visual impact on natural The loss of wilderness tourism camp sites and eco-tourism value, wilderness value and value and the change economy activities that occur in the tourism and loss of existing in tourist type (due to (potential) southern end of the Lake, tourism infrastructure investment moderate the new tar road to These could be both negatively (camps and marketing) Loliondo) will require (through visual impacts) and existing camps to positively (improved access) reorient their approach impacted upon to tourism. Professional hunting occurs to Reduced value of the Lake Significant reduction the east of the Lake in the Natron North concession Area in the wilderness value Windrose Safaris concession. of the concession Industrial development and moderate although hunting per increased human settlement sec may not be and trucking will negatively significantly reduced impact on this activity

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4 MITIGATION MEASURES

Impact Mitigation Monitoring Responsible

No. No. Party(s) Administrative and Planning A/P Development will Adhere to the basic principles of Ramsar Support and monitor the LNRL Senior 1 undermine the Ramsar area management. Establish preparation of the Lake Management, planning process communications and regular meeting with Natron Ramsar EMO, LN Ramsar Ramsar Natron Authority. Ensure all management plan. Adjust Authority future development/planning integrates activities where necessary into the Ramsar Management Plan for Natron and that any major deviation from present design is subject to EIA. A/P Development may Establish communications and regular Minute all meetings and LNRL Senior 2 undermine changes meeting with Ramsar Natron Authority/ decisions made Management and occurring in GCA GCA and WMA authorities. The meetings EMO planning and to be at the senior management level so development of that decisions can be made WMAs Physical /Chemical P/C 1 Loss of grazing land Projects have a tendency to spread. Fence Ensure areas fenced and EMO limits of development area and ensure no check spread of project spread beyond boundaries. Compensation area every 6 months to local communities for loss of grazing Loss of critical dry No access route to be developed between Annual assessment of EMO season grazing along the Lake shore and Gelai Mountain traffic along eastern shore SE shores of Lake Natron P/C 2 High noise levels will Place power generators outside of the Quarterly check on EMO and Head of reduced wilderness basin over the contour and located in the vehicle movements Transport and value of the Lake town. Plant to meet World Bank Logistics environment and guidelines. No truck loading, road disturbance to biota transport or rail transport during evening or night time P/C 3 Reduce nighttime Town to be over watershed and out of site Audit lighting six EMO, Engineer in wilderness value of the of lake basin. Plant to design lighting to monthly to ensure that charge of lighting Lake reduce upward and outward lighting. any new lighting falls Security lighting to face down. within plant design. Identify ways to reduce light impacts Biological/Ecological B/E Potential threat to Key fish breeding areas to be permanently These areas to be included EMO, 1 endemic species of off limits to project operations. No use of in the Ramsar Ornithologist, fish. Threat to lesser or disturbance to flamingo breeding and Management Plan. Wildlife Division, flamingo populations feeding areas as identified in this EIA or Protected under the LN Ramsar as updated by the NCL environmental Ramsar Convention. Management officer Check for signs of Authority flamingo breeding every ** months. If signs observed contract an aerial survey of nests B/E The Cyperus No access route to be developed between Annual assessment of EMO 2 laevigatus sedgelands the Lake shore and Gelai Mountain traffic along eastern shore surrounding the semi sodic springs in the southern and eastern sides of the Lake form

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Impact Mitigation Monitoring Responsible

No. No. Party(s) critical late dry season grazing for domestic stock and wildlife. Increased pressure or disturbance could deplete the remaining wildlife populations Disturbance or loss of No access route to be developed between Annual assessment of EMO critical dry season the Lake shore and Gelai Mountain traffic along eastern shore habitat used by the resident ungulate population Disruption of wildlife Haulage truck movements to be limited to Baseline information on ungulate movements in full daylight hours and truck speeds wildlife ungulate the Manyara - Natron limited to 60kph in corridor areas population using road migratory corridor corridor required from aerial survey of the wet season B/E High disturbance Establish mandatory protection in areas EMO, Department 3 levels or change to adjacent to nesting sites prior to of Civil Aviation habitat reducing the development of the plant. Integrate into value of the Lake to Ramsar plan and management. Location of Lesser Flamingo and airstrip and ensure that approach and take long term decline on off do not over fly the Lake. flamingo populations in East Africa. Disturbance to lesser Establish mandatory protection in areas EMO, Supervising flamingo breeding adjacent to nesting sites prior to Engineer sites development of the plant. Integrate into Ramsar plan and management. Aircraft approach and take off not to over fly the Lake. All Construction staff to undergo induction. Loss of habitats Zero removal of water from critical fresh Check all sources of water EMO, Utilities essential for the water habitats abstraction annually Engineer survival of juvenile flamingo Social/Cultural S/C 1 No losses identified Closed town, tight contractual requirements and control on labour, penalties and project payment retentions S/C 2 No losses identified Set and ensure enforcement of town population. Ensure controls limiting immigration in place prior to improving road access S/C 3 Potential loss of Archaeological assessment of selected Commission the EMO, National archaeology relating to borrow material sites archaeological collection Museum road construction and borrow pits S/C 4 Increased pressure on Plant and township to operate as a "closed Annual assessment of EMO grazing land resources town" where all services are internal, traffic along eastern due to land take for residence only if directly employed or a shore. Town population to transport will increase direct dependent. No access to the plant, be monitored annually for social conflict. fenced perimeters. No access along the increase eastern shore of the Lake S/C 5 Improved access ( as Establish a "closed town" during Town population to be EMO shown with the construction phase with sever penalties for monitored annually for Stamico development use of casual labour drawn from increase

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Impact Mitigation Monitoring Responsible

No. No. Party(s) and associated road temporary camps. Hire labour from access) may result in Arusha or nearest district centre only an influx of people into the area and conflicts with existing communities S/C 7 Increase in HIV/AIDS Tight control over temporary and Annual assessment of EMO, District in existing resident permanent staff. Induction course to HIV and other social Health population include HIV/AIDS. Coordinate with diseases district health facilities to ensure construction teams are provided information and protection. Surrounding rural population to be informed of the HIV/AIDS threat. S/C 8 Loss of tourism value Most change will occur due to the planned Monitor implementation EMO, Lake Natron of the Lake government road linking Mto wa Mbu to of noise, light and Ramsar Loliondo and not relate to this project. emissions mitigations. Management Mitigations to keep developments out of Meet annually with Lake Authority the Lake basin (where possible) reduction Natron tour operators to of light, sound and smell impacts discuss/address concerns identified above to be implemented S/C 9 Loss of wilderness Most change will occur due to the planned Monitor implementation EMO, Lake Natron value and reduced government road linking Mto wa Mbu to of noise, light and Ramsar conservation value Loliondo and not relate to this project. emissions mitigations. Management Mitigations to keep developments out of Meet annually with Lake Authority the Lake basin (where possible) reduction Natron tour operators to of light, sound and smell impacts discuss/address concerns identified above to be implemented Economic E/1 Reduced livestock No road on the eastern shore thus no Annual assessment of EMO production impact on dry season forage. traffic along eastern shore Compensation for loss of grazing using national compensation rates E/2 Negative visual impact Most change will occur due to the planned Meet annually with Lake EMO, Lake Natron on natural value, government road linking Mto wa Mbu to Natron tour operators to Ramsar wilderness value and Loliondo and not relate to this project. discuss/address concerns Management tourism and loss of Mitigations to keep developments out of Authority existing tourism the Lake basin (where possible) reduction infrastructure of light, sound and smell impacts investment (camps and identified above to be implemented marketing) Reduced value of the Mitigations to keep developments out of Meet annually with the EMO, TGT, Lake Natron North the Lake basin (where possible) reduction concession managers Wildlife Division concession Area of light, sound and smell impacts identified above to be implemented. Staff not to use the surrounding Ramsar site and GCA for recreational activities except through the legitimate facilities and activities supported by the Ramsar authority

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5 CONCLUSION

This assessment has shown that the road linking the soda ash plant to the TanRoad’s Mto wa Mbo to Loliondo road along the eastern shore of Lake Natron will have serious social and environmental impacts.

The alignment needs to be reconsidered to either link the site to the TanRoad via the eastern side of Gelai (not assessed in this EIA) or to bring in an alignment directly from Longido so as to remain outside of the Ramsar site.

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ANNEX 1:

1 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT FOR THE UPGRADE OF THE EXISTING ALIGNMENT FROM MTO WA MBU TO ENGARE SERO

1.1 Environmental and Social Baseline

A brief description of the biophysical and social environment for the project area is given below. The geographic scope of the project includes the access road from Mto wa Mbu to Engare Sero (including the eastern and western shores of Lake Natron).

1.1.1 Biophysical Environmental

The quality of air along the road and at the Lake is relatively clean though the main source of pollution is dust generated by passing vehicles and livestock. Approximately, 4-15 vehicles a day travel the entire road in the low tourist season.

Traffic/vehicle also contributes to noise pollution to the villages along the road such as Selela, Engaruka and Engare Sero where the road passes the village centres. Other noise sources are livestock and wild animals found in the villages and along the access road to Lake Natron though these have a very low level impact.

The land surface is characterized by a number of Isolated Mountains (Monduli, Lepurko, Loosimingori, Ketumbeine, Gelai, Longido and Lengai) and flat rolling plains. Altitudes range from 600m in the low elevations to 2900m at high elevations. The District has mixed vegetation – Forest, Bush lands, wooded grassland and grasslands.

The topography along the road from Mto wa Mbu to Selela is flat to undulating with gently sloping hills, while the land surface from Selela to Lake Natron is characterised by a number of isolated mountains (Ketumaine, Gelai, Longido and Lengai) and flat rolling plains.

Lake Natron area is largely in a basin, low lying along the Rift valley system. The first escarpment to the west of the lake rises to a height of about 800m followed by a gently rising plateau 5-15 km wide. Thereafter another escarpment rises to about 1,100 m the edge of which constitutes the proposed Ramsar boundary. In the western part of the Lake Natron area the landscape is formed by series of plateau’s and escarpments.

To the south rises the active volcano of Oldonyo Lengai to an altitude of about 3000 m. From the top of Oldonyo Lengai the Lake Natron lies to the North as in a bottom of a pot outlined to the West by the Rift valley escarpments and to the east by the volcanic peak of Gelai at 2900m followed by undulating hills at lower elevation to the north to the Kenyan border. Other old volcanoes include Shompole (1567m) to the northeast and Sambu (2043m) in northwest.

The route commences at a junction before Mto-wa-Mbu on the main Makuyuni to Mto-wa-Mbu road, which is currently being rehabilitated to gravel standard. The route proceeds NNE along the Gregory Rift Scarp towards Engaruka at about km 50. This section is characterised by calcareous tuff deposits and basaltic lava, both suitable for road gravelling. Spring water is utilised for agriculture with several open furrows crossing the existing track which sometimes cause difficulties for vehicles. The alignment is flat at the beginning with undulating sections later. It generally follows high ground and ridges and is at times rocky, although at km 20-25 it follows a valley, presenting drainage problems.

After Engaruka, the terrain is flat to gently undulating with similar materials to the previous section until the drainage area influenced by Oldonyo Lengai is reached at about km 75.

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Calcareous tuffs predominate in this section with some river crossings containing basaltic gravels and boulders. Old borrow areas are still visible and there is evidence of limited roadworks carried out previously by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development. However, in the drainage area of Oldonyo Lengai, numerous gullies and small river crossings containing loose basaltic sand, gravel and small boulders dominate, and present severe drainage problems for gravel road construction. This situation continues towards Lake Natron where the perennial Engare Sero River is crossed at about km 105. From this crossing and through Engare Sero village to km 117 similar drainage problems persist, with many gullies emanating from the rift fault escarpment to the west of Lake Natron. These all contain loose gravel and are sometimes wide and flat. Gravel movement takes place during heavy rains, thus continually altering the physical characteristics of the streams.

In general the geology and soils of the access road from Mto wa Mbu to Lake Natron are dominated by the volcanic activity and rift valley movements. However Lake Natron is a closed Lake basin situated in the Gregory Rift part of the Rift Valley system. A significant part of the lake surface is covered by an evaporite salt crust, which dissolves only during the rainy season. There are three main rock formations for the basin; old extrusive, younger extrusive and superficial deposits. The basin floor is covered with volcanic ash.

Vegetation

Five different vegetation types are encountered from Mto wa Mbu to the Lake and its environs. Starting at Mto wa Mbu, Acacia woodland communities dominated by pure Acacia tortilis, or Acacia – Commiphora and Tamarix nilotica scrublands are common. These woodland/ scrub communities are interspersed with edaphic Sporobolus grasslands. Some slight elevated ridges in the basin outside of Selela are covered with Adansonia digitata (Boabab) and Euphorbia kibwenziensis. Along the river drainages, thin expanses of riparian vegetation are found. Around the Lake there are Typh, and Cyperus wetlands/ swamps that depend on the seasonal flooding. Sporobolous grasslands are also quite extensive around the Lake on the Eastern shore. This shore is relatively less moist than the western shore with no fresh water sources and flatter topography. The vegetation is largely open woodland with Commiphora as the dominating species. There is one forest reserve in the vicinity of the project area; the Gelai District Forest Reserve on the summit of Gelai Mountain. This is a catchment forest dominated by Juniperus spp and has few timber species of economic value.

Fauna

The basin is rich in wildlife; wildebeests are known to migrate to Natron from the Tarangire National Park, more than 120 km to the south. There are still a few oryx herds in the area.

There is a permanent ungulate population that relies on grazing and spring waters of the south eastern end of Lake Natron during the dry season. This population moves out onto the plains through which the road will go.

On Oldonyo Lengai Volcano, the tracks of klipspringers are often found in the soft ash of the summit crater, and leopards use the same paths. Few species can survive in the hostile conditions of the lake itself. An endemic fish species, the alkaline tilapia, Oreochromis alcalicus, lives in saline springs.

Hydrology/Water Resources

There are perennial streams and permanent rivers in the area. The major perennial streams are Mto wa Mbu, Selela and Engaruka. Permanent Rivers includes Engare Sero. The permanent freshwater source in the basin is essential for people and wildlife in the dry season.

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1.2 Socio-economic and Cultural Environment

Typical of the Masai nomadic communities, settlements are not aggregated visibly. Most of the settlements in the project area are located along the road that includes the following villages; Mto wa Mbu, Selela, Engaruka Juu and Engaruka Chini, Engare Sero, Pinyiny (Penyiny is in the Eastern Shore of the Lake) and on the western part of the lake Natron there are Allaililai and Londo Losirwa.

Mto wa Mbu village: The village has a total population of 17000people who live in 2775 households. The average household size is 6 people, similar to the national statistic. The inhabitants of the village are the Masai, Iraq, Chagga, Pare, Wagosi, Nyesanzu and the Rangi. Settlement has extended alongside the minor road northward for two kilometres. Further north, the land is partially cultivated but sparsely populated. Wherever water is available nearby, from streams running off the escarpment, the range is grazed and, in some places, appears to have been heavily grazed. Between streams, it is almost unused.

Irrigated agriculture has been developed alongside some streams, with a network of channels feeding water by gravity flow to maize fields. This land use is particularly developed in Kitete wetland, between the track and the escarpment at the north end of this section, just before entering Selela village. The wetland is fed by the Kitete River and by many small streams off the escarpment.

Selela Village: Comparing with Mto wa Mbu, Selela has less population and smaller in size. The village has a total population of 3695 people out of these 1913 are men the rest are women. The average household size is 4. The household size is smaller than the average national household size of 6 people. This is very surprising because the Masai tribe normally have big extended families with many wives. There are 35 disabled people in this community. Out of the adult population only 1674 is a productive group. The rest are children under 17 years and old people above 65 years. The major ethnic groups living in the village include the Maasai who are the majority followed by the Arusha, Chagga, Mbulu and Nyiramba In migrants are engaged in agricultural activities along Selela river beds while the Masai are pastoralists.

Engaruka Chini Village: Engaruka Chini has a total population of 3256 people, out of these 1541 are men the rest are women and children. The disabled are 25.There are 830 households in the village. Out of 830 households 60 are headed by women.

Engaruka Juu village: Engaruka Juu is the village within Engaruka ward and has 5 sub villages namely; Madukani, Arusha, Mulla, Donyo Naado and Irkung. Engaruka Juu has a population of 6420 and 712 households.

Engaruka villages are occupied by Maasai. There are few other tribes such as Sonjo and Somali. The Somalis and Sonjos are engaged in businesses such as shops.

Engare Sero Village: Administratively, the village has 3 sub villages that are Leparkash, EngareSero and Monik. Engare Sero village has a total population of 4283 where 2011 are men. For different reasons Engasero village is also occupied by mixed tribes from all over Tanzania because of its location as a small business centre. The rest settlements are occupied by Masai. This is a very old settlement though grow at a slow rate.

Penyiny: Administratively, the village has 3 sub villages that are Masusu, Penyinyi centre and Alobilin. Penyiny village has a total population of 4313 and 450 households.

Losirwa/Magadini village: Losirwa Magadini village is located in a new district of Longido. It has three sub villages namely Opraa, Arman, Mariki. It has a total population of 2400 people. The

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village government does not know the number of women and children but the number of men is known. There are 1054 men in the village. The reason why the number of other gender is not available was not revealed by the village government. One tends to conclude that since the Maasai culture do not value women this might influence the importance of recording women data as insignificant.

Alaililai Village: Administratively, the village has 4 sub villages that are Mlimani, Ilsapukin, Naudo and Wosiwosi. Alaililai village is inhabited by 2586 people of which 583 are men, 976 are women and 1027 children. Out of these people 16 are disabled. Village work force is 758. The average household size is four people below the national household size of 6 people. The total households is 779, out of these households 274 are headed by women. From the discussion with villagers households headed by women are poorer than households headed by men. This is because women have limited accessibility to means of production like land and cattle. Almost all the residents are pastoralist Maasai group.

Table EA 1: Population increase Village 1999 2006/7 Percentage population increase Mto wa Mbu 17000 (2775) Information not N/A available Selela 2240 (360) 3695 (1913) 65% Engaruka Chini 4053 (862) 3256 (830) N/A Engaruka Juu 5067 (1002) 6420 (712) 27% Engare Sero 3500 (1243) 4283 22.4% Pinyinyi Information not 4313 (450) N/A available Allaililai Information not 2586 (779) N/A available Londo Losirwa Information not 2400 N/A available Household numbers in brackets, N/A means not applicable

Ethnic groups:

The majority of the population along the access road to Lake Natron and surrounding the Lake Natron are the Masai followed by the Batemi (Sonjo) the later name not liked by the group. The sonjo are mainly found in villages surrounding the lake, these include Engasero, Penyiny and few are at Engaruka Villages, while the Maasai are found in every village within the project area, there are minority groups found in strategic villages where irrigation agriculture takes place. These tribes include the Rangi, Chagga, Pare, and Waarusha, The villages habited include Mto wa Mbu, Selela, Engaruka and Penyiny. Villages where there is no fertile land and water for irrigation are inhabited by the pastoralist Masai. Such villages include Alaillai and Losirwa. The tourism industry influences the mixed population observed at centres like Engare Sero village where tribes from all over the country are encountered.

Social services

Education in the area faces serious challenges as in addition to not being adequately staffed and equipped the Masai way of life does not encourage parents to send children to school. Girls are especially discriminated making only 39% of all registered students in the Districts. However every ward has a primary school. These schools do not have adequate school facilities such as classroom, toilets and qualified teachers.

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Health services are relatively poor with only two hospitals; one at Wosi wosi (on the Eastern shore) and another at Endulen. There is a dispensary Engare Sero and another under construction at Penyiny. The average distance to a health facility is 22Km but the range is 0 – 162Km, this is very far when compared to the recommended national range which is 0 – 5Km. Diseases prevalent in the area are, malaria, respiratory infections, pneumonia, eye infection, urinary tract infection and sexually transmitted diseases. There is little effort to address HIV/ AIDS in the area. Non-Governmental Organisations at Penyiny village include OXFAM and ERETO a local organisation addressing orphan groups.

Land Use

The principle forms of land use observed along the road from Mto wa Mbu to Lake include irrigated agriculture, pastoral farming, tourism (including Climbing of Oldonyo Lengai, Culture experience and visit to the cultural village, Walks up to Engare Sero river to the Waterfalls, Archaeological visits to Engaruka, photographic and Birding Safaris) and sport hunting. The villages along the route are remote and do not have electricity and communication facilities with the exceptional of Mto wa Mbu village. It is predominantly a Masai community area. Irrigated agriculture and dry land farming occurs on the delta deposits of the Penyiny, Moinik and Engare Sero rivers. Also Engaruka villages use seasonal streams for agriculture irrigation. Pastoral agriculture is undertaken throughout the route from Mto wa Mbu to Lake Natron and in Allaililai and Londo Losirwa villages. Extension services are poorly administrated due to staffing and availability of resources to access the communities.

1.2.1 Archaeological sites:

Lake Natron basin is best known from Penyiny. A total of 27 palaeontological and 8 archaeological localities have been found in the Penyiny area. Poor access to the area has contributed to the absence of information from the Northern and Eastern shores of the Lake. However, scatters of Palaeoanthropological remains have also been reported from Gelai, Wosi Wosi and Kipangaine.

Mto-wa-Mbu to Natron (Ngare Sero)

The existing track meanders through the plains extending from foothills of the escarpment overlooking Mto-wa-Mbu game controlled area, then northwards through Selela village and onto Engaruka. After that, the track continues north through the impressive volcanic craters and cones, to Lake Natron.

As intimated above, the track after Engaruka hugs the foothills of Kerimasi and Oldonyo Lengai volcanoes. The former is a slightly eroded volcano about 1200m high and lying 15km east of the world-renown palaeoanthropological region of Olduvai Gorge. According to Dawson (1964), the volcano consists of nephelinite pyroclastic rocks overlain by limestone considered to be recrystallized carbonatite ash. Its crater, known as Swallow crater or Loolmurwak is 1000m in diameter. The uppermost deposits are eolian tuffs of Oldonyo Lengai while the lowest three- quarters are gray tuffs and tuff breccias of nepheline melilitite composition. Mineralogically, they compare closely with the lower unit of the Masek beds in Olduvai Gorge (Hay, 1976). The Swallow crater tephra deposits are about 370000 years old (Macintyre et al 1974, Hay 1976, Dawson 1964).

Oldonyo Lengai, on the other hand is a little eroded, presently active, volcano 2100m high and the only known active carbonatite volcano in the world. It consists of nephelinite and phonolite pyroclastic rocks interbedded with lava. Both rock types seem to have been used for artefact manufacture. The younger deposits are represented by an alluvial fan of tuffs and Namrod ash of

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the Olduvai region. Oldonyo Lengai post-dates Swallow Crater. The older yellow tephra deposits of Oldonyo Lengai are mineralogically similar to the Naisiusiu Beds and Upper unit of Ndutu Beds of Olduvai Gorge, between 15000 and 60000 years BP (Hay 1976, Leakey 1971). Overall, the area between Engaruka and Natron could written off as hominid habitat because it appears too arid to have provided affordance to our ancestors, but this is probably due to mock aridity (Harris and van Couvering 1995).

Selela

At Selela some 25km north of Mto-wa-Mbu assessment of archaeological and historical heritage found are as follows;

Finds Graveyard A present-day grave yard marked by stone cairns lies at an estimated distance of about 40m from the existing track. Artefacts The bedrock which seems to consist of porphyritic lava appears to be of two types; a blocky broken up greenish lava with white phenocrysts and a more resistant less green one with black phenocrysts. The archaeology is mostly represented by scatters of chert and quartzite artefacts, but there are also a few made from the phonolite-like lava.

Engaruka

With the assistance of Chief Marias Olebel, the Maasai Laiganon, the team surveyed the area around new Engaruka, old Engaruka, Engaruka early Iron Age Ruins and the environs of Engaruka.

Finds Despite the proximity of Engaruka ruins, known for their elaborate irrigation system and flourishing agricultural economy thought to have supported an estimated population of between thirty to forty thousand (Foosbroke 1955), no archaeological remains of any significance were encountered. However, it is worth mentioning that some 100m down slope from the ruins is Donyo Nyado murram hill (GPS 36 8 29 093E * 96 68 372N). Quick survey established the presence of stone artefacts. However the murram and cement-like matrix on the artefacts renders them not easily recognisable, but they may be either of Middle Stone Age (MSA) or Acheulean character. The few artefacts recognised include flakes and cores.

Engaruka Environs

Finds At the junction of the track to Monduli, about 15km from Engaruka, is an area known to the Maasai as Olonanira (GPS 37 1 73 911 E * 96 76 765 N). Olomanira also refers to a swamp/dam which is considered sacrosanct by the Maasai. It is claimed it has been used by both Maasai cattle and the game since time immemorial. In additional to the dam which was now dry, the area revealed a good concentration of artefacts made predominantly from quartzite and chert.

Loolchartulan

Between the road to Gelai and the track to Natron is Loolchartulan (GPS 37 1 72 976E * 96 79 426 N), a long time Maasai traditional dam used as i) source of water for domestic as well as wild animals and ii) traditional offering place for the four neighbouring Maasai communities from Engaruka, Kitumbeine, Gelai and Kerimasi for circumcision/age sets and rites of passage ceremonies. The ceremonies associated with this place are known by the Maasai as Engipatata.

Finds

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The dam which was dry during the teams visit was devoid of any artefacts.

Oretit

The name refers to a broad river valley some 23km north of Engaruka (GPS 37 1 68 894E, 96 86 048N). Where the existing track crosses the valley the river has exposed an interesting sequence of sediments.

Finds The sediments are interesting because they seem to be a mixed bag of artefacts of different ages, probably brought down-stream by hydrological forces. However the degree of edge rounding was minimal implying that the artefacts could not have been transported for great distances. Indeed some of the artefacts and the fossil bones seen are probably eroding from the tuffaceous sandstone capping the surface in this area. Curiously, some of the artefacts are comparable, at least typologically, to those from the Masek/Ndutu beds at Olduvai. They consist of large flakes, cores and scraper forms. The raw material however is different being phonolite and lava.

Oldonyo Lengai

At 37km from Engaruka (GPS 37 1 68 580E * 96 86 086N) close to the foothills of Oldonyo Lengai is flat exposure on either side of the track with a large concentration of artefacts.

Finds On the surface are Acheulean/MSA artefacts made from lava and phonolite. Those which were collected include a crude biface, cores, flakes and scrapers. As in the previous encounter, a good surface collection is all that is needed as a retrieval measure.

The Natron Area

The Natron basin ranks as one of the most important palaeoanthropological areas in Tanzania after Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge. The oldest fossil bearing horizon at Olduvai, i.e. Bed 1 is thought to extend Northeast into the southern part of the basin (Hay 1976). The artefact and fossil, including hominid bearing horizons come from a long sequence of sedimentary and volcanic sediments known as the Humbu Formation in western Natron especially from the sites MHS and RHS. Both of these sites lie within the upper part of the Humbu Formation. Tools reported include hand axes, cleavers, knives, choppers, scrapers, miscellaneous trimmed pieces utilised flakes, utilised cobbles, chunks and debitage. Overall the West Natron aggregates are broadly comparable to the Lower Acheulean at site EFRH in Olduvai Bed 11. Faunal remains include Equidae, Rhinoceridae, Giraffidae, Carnivora, Bovidae, Suidae and Elephantidae.

1.2.2 Conservation and Tourism

The Lake Natron area is under the management of the Wildlife Division as a Game controlled area. Under this management, a combination of hunting and photographic tourism brings benefit to the local communities.

The mountain Oldonyo Lengai and ruins at Engaruka generate significant tourism income for Monduli District.

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1.3 IMPACTS

Potential impacts to the biophysical and social environment for the proposed project are presented in this chapter. For each predicted impact a description of its significance and occurrence during project phase and the suggested mitigation measure is presented in the following chapter.

1.3.1 Potential Direct Impacts of Road Construction

Direct impacts during construction tend to be local, short-term and easily identified. Indirect impacts can be diffuse, long-term and difficult to attribute to any single cause (such as the road project). Potential impacts mentioned below are readily identifiable direct impacts. Also the Indirect impacts are discussed, below.

Direct impacts of road-making all occur within the direct impact zone. The DIZ of a road being built (or rehabilitated) is a strip, including the right-of-way (200 to 600m wide depending on the road standard) which is directly affected by construction and thereafter by road-related activities. Specifically it accommodates construction and traffic noise, vibration, dust and exhaust fumes; immediate outflow from road drainage; land and property affected by realignment and works, thus becoming eligible for compensation; quarrying, earthworks, workers’ camps, clearance of vegetation; entrances, parking and climbing lanes.

Inevitable impacts of road works in protected areas and wilderness are dislocation of soil and vegetation along the route; disturbance of animals by human and mechanical activity especially appearance, noise, vibration and smells; and creation or reinforcement of a linear feature across the landscape. Likely but not inevitable (or not inevitably significant) additional direct impacts are extraction of soil from borrow pits; elevation (rarely depression) of the land surface along the road; excavation of drainage ditches (parallel and/or as turn-outs); local air pollution by fumes; local effluent pollution by oil spills and oily water (after use for compaction), and local land pollution by litter, food scraps and mechanical waste.

Possible ecological consequences of those impacts are contamination of soil and water by liquid waste; retention in the soil of long-lasting metal and plastic waste; alteration of plant succession favouring opportunistic species; dissemination of exotic plants; alteration to animal behaviour utilising roads, ditches and borrow pits, or shying away from them; alterations to drainage, affecting soil stability and the flow of surface water, and fire. Of all those possible consequences, the most common is the alteration of drainage; but every such consequence, unless temporary or trivial, infringes the integrity of a wilderness.

Potential socio-economic impacts during construction of roads in remote areas are: temporarily increased demands on health services during the construction period (and subsequently if the population rises); introduction of workforce from outside the project area leading to cultural conflict; stimulation of the local economy; social inter-actions between the workforce and local communities; depletion of wood-fuel stock and poaching by the contractor’s workforce; exchange of diseases between workforce and local communities; and traffic hazards from contractors’ vehicles and operations.

1.3.2 Potential Direct Impacts during Operation

Road improvement induces faster communication, access to previously inaccessible areas, all- weather reliability, increased capacity, greater comfort and lower VOC. On the other hand, it also increases the frequency and severity of accidents, especially collisions between vehicles and livestock.

Direct impacts of a road during operation are air pollution; smell, noise and vibration from traffic; visual intrusion by the road itself and by traffic; depletion of gravel, sand, rock, timber and water

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for maintenance; impoundment of water especially if culverts are inadequate, providing habitat for disease vectors; accelerated run-off, causing higher flood peaks and rapid arrival after rainfall, in consequence of clearance for the road, hard surfacing, and channelling of water; disturbance of customary drinking, laundry, animal watering and fording places; barrier effect for livestock and wildlife especially timid and/or migratory species; effects on pedestrian safety especially higher speed traffic, heavier vehicles and loads, and greater traffic volume.

Improved access, for people and vehicles, through or near protected areas causes habitat degradation and fragmentation; disrupts animal migration, wildlife corridors and dispersal areas; increases risk to threatened and endangered species; facilitates poaching and accelerates exploitation of natural resources generally; increases frequency and severity of road accidents; increases disease transmission, imposes visual impact, and increases litter and noise.

Commercial traffic is incompatible with wildlife, as has been demonstrated in Mikumi national park in Tanzania and Tsavo national park in Kenya. Vehicle impact kills and injures many wild animals in those parks. Road-user behaviour cannot be governed by traffic management measures in remote areas. Roads hardly present a physical impediment to animals; but those who do cross are hit and those who do not cross are restricted in their range. Predators exploit the elevated road for cover while stalking. Grazers are attracted to the pools of water, and associated green vegetation, parallel to embankments no matter how many culverts are installed.

Dry areas are prone to great variation of rainfall, receiving most of their precipitation in occasional heavy storms. Because it is uneconomic to make engineering provision for rare events, which cause inconvenience but not catastrophe, road drainage will tend to alter run-off and infiltration to the soil. If maintenance is neglected, the roads themselves become waterways, channelling run-off and prohibiting use for their intended purpose. If that is avoided by elevating the road on an embankment (as is usual), the causeway becomes a dam. Usefully it may promote regeneration of trees, especially Acacia species, by unintentionally engaging in water harvesting, and run-off can be directed into small excavated water-holes4 and/or natural depressions. Indeed borrow-pits may be allowed to become receptacles of run-off where this is desired by local people, notwithstanding that they could become breeding grounds for mosquitoes. If the water- hole is well used by cattle, the water and mud are too often disturbed for mosquitoes to breed and, for the herders; the benefits of water catchment far outweigh any potential disadvantages.

Rapid run-off from rural roads often starts gullying at the road-side. Gullies once started and fed by run-off, can strike across the adjoining land quite rapidly. Such outcomes can be foreseen and designed against by provision of sufficient culverts of adequate size; but such provisions can be unravelled by lack of maintenance. If culverts are blocked or broken, the sequence of channelling, gullying and erosion is inevitable. On sloping land, it is highly damaging both to the road itself and to the adjoining land.

Human activity, especially by vehicle, in wilderness and protected areas causes habitat degradation and fragmentation; disrupts animal migration, wildlife corridors and dispersal areas; increases risk to threatened and endangered species; increases poaching and other exploitation of natural resources; increases the number and severity of road accidents and associated mortality, both animal and human; increases risk of disease transmission; imposes visual impact; and disperses toxins, litter and noise. The severity of those impacts is related to the volume of traffic. Their significance varies according to one’s valuation of wilderness. For those, and they are many, who deem wilderness to be a gravely endangered global resource, such an outcome would be profoundly negative. Some other people view wilderness as unproductive wasteland. For the Maasai, it is home; and neither global or wasted. Any change is likely to be assessed by the Maasai in terms of impact on lifestyle and security of access to resources, rather than in relation to abstractions about global heritage or wasteland.

4 variously known as ‘hafir’ or ‘lambo’

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Parallel track proliferation and erosion associated with poor road maintenance degrade the environment of national parks, extensive grassland and semi-deserts. Long and wide tracts of land are deprived of their soil and grass. Road improvement and maintenance abate the impact by encouraging drivers to keep their vehicles on the carriageway.

Freedom of movement is enormously enhanced by road traffic. Even the poor majority, who cannot afford cars, become more mobile by way of bus rides and lifts on Lorries. Sick people may reach a hospital quicker by road; but that does not offset the number of injuries sustained in road accidents. The cost of accidents should be attributed to the projected number of deaths and injuries, and deducted from the calculated road project benefits. Faster traffic (following road ‘improvement’) causes more frequent and more severe accidents, displacement of non-motorised means of transport, increased air pollution, noise, roadside litter, injury or death to pedestrians, injury or death to livestock wandering in or attempting to cross the road, injury or death to wildlife, health risk from accidents involving hazardous materials in transit, pollution from accidents involving hazardous materials in transit, and water pollution from spills and accumulated contaminants on road surfaces.

Other potential socio-economic impacts during use of roads in remote areas are severance of communities (the barrier effect on movement between farms and homes); displacement and sometimes involuntary resettlement of roadside residents; disturbance and/or displacement (but sometimes stimulation) of roadside land uses especially sales, settlement and cultivation; impairment of non-motorised transport; as a result of rapid socio-economic change, marginalisation of women (sometimes but not necessarily), indigenous peoples, elderly, disabled, uneducated and weak members of society; institutional strengthening or weakening (depending how decisions are made, and by whom).

Economic benefits of road projects are all-weather reliability, reduced transportation costs, increased access to markets for local products, better access to employment centres, employment of local workers on road maintenance, and strengthening of local economies generally. Mixed adverse/beneficial impacts are induced development; higher land values versus disruption of local land ownership by speculation; and labour force migration and displacement (modernisation) of subsistence economies.

1.3.3 Indirect Impacts

In its widest sense, indirect impact zones of roads cover anywhere outside the direct impact zone (DIZ) where natural materials originating in the DIZ are taken now or will be taken during the project duration; anywhere outside the DIZ where project-related waste will be treated and/or deposited; and anywhere outside the DIZ from where materials for the site will be procured, processed and/or stored. For practical purposes, the indirect impact zone (IIZ) is the same as ‘the project area’ and is coincident with the service area of the proposed road(s).

Indirect environmental impacts of road construction or improvement are environmental changes arising from economic events and trends within the indirect impact zone as a consequence of opportunities created or enhanced by the project. Some indirect impacts arise at, and beyond, the terminus if traffic patterns and volumes are changed, as they usually are. Indirect impacts typically comprise induced development including attraction to the roadside of new settlement and commerce; competition for land and depletion of natural resources by in-comers following the improved road with its enhanced marketing opportunities; agricultural responses to improved access including extension of the ploughed area and cultivation of less durable crops; loss of fertile soil: desertification and deforestation; accelerated mineral exploitation; and more visitors Socio-economic benefits derived (at least theoretically) from road improvement are better marketing, mobilization of enterprise and resources, consequent stimulation of the local economy,

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improved access to social services, greater safety (sometimes, but usually not), and traffic removed from less suitable routes. Of those, the last mentioned is the only environmental benefit.

1.3.4 Acceleration of Cultural Change

Competition for land and water between herding and cultivation would tend to intensify after road improvement because the balance would have been shifted in favour of cultivation where poor access was previously a major constraint. To the Maasai, this would present a difficult dilemma. They could take up the enhanced opportunities for cultivation, as they do around Selela; but they should fear further encroachment upon their grazing lands especially in remote but fairly well watered areas. Intensified agriculture in former agro-pastoral areas increases food production in good years but reduces food security overall because of the increasing failure of maize. Moreover, commercial availability of maize-meal tends to discourage the labour-intensive cultivation of millet and cassava, with adverse effects during drought.

New roads hasten, but do not cause, the demise of distinctive local cultures. Contact with the outside world illuminates the marginalisation of impoverished (financially, at least, if not in terms of natural resources) people when it provides the opportunity to compare their material poverty with the affluence of road users. Usually no means of participating in the modern economy, other than emigration or marketing scarce natural resources, are available. On the other hand, the Maasai traditionally believe everyone else to be impoverished by their lack of cattle and so they might not be greatly affected by the presence of a few more traders and tourists on an improved road to Engare Sero.

1.3.5 Tourism

Wilderness values for eco-tourists and hunters would be diminished by improved access. On the other hand, the tourist-based economy as a whole would probably benefit since Lake Natron could become part of the northern circuit accessible by tourist mini-buses. Such a development would be beneficial for tour operators and the national economy but would confer few, if any, benefits on the Maasai, judging by their marginal position in relation to the tourist-based economy at Mto-wa-Mbu and Lake Natron.

1.3.6 Displacement and Involuntary Resettlement

Displacement of communities, which is a major consideration for some road projects, would be unnecessary in this case. Plenty of space exists to thread the road around existing villages or even through them if that is preferred by local people. Since the highest foreseeable traffic volumes will increase, it would seem necessary to by-pass settlements so long as provisions are made for traffic safety.

1.3.7 Gender

Women benefit when construction or improvement of a road eases access to health and welfare service facilities, helping to reduce maternal and infant mortality. During road construction and maintenance in poor hot countries, women sell food and beer to construction workers. Women are sometimes employed as road-safety guards at crossing-points during construction. After completion of the work, women enjoy better access to market outlets for home produce as middle-men find their way to the more local markets. On the other hand, cash cropping may diminish food security if men sell the crops. Construction workers and lorry drivers

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subsequently, spread STDs. Women suffer disproportionately when immigrants increase pressure on natural resources.

1.3.8 Urban Growth

Lake Natron is reached after a long and hazardous journey. The urban economies of Mto-wa-Mbu by contrast, benefit from being on a main road, much favoured by tourist traffic. Either Mto-wa- Mbu or Engare Sero will gain economically from this project. Engare Sero would again be on a through route rather than at the end of a road to nowhere, and Mto-wa-Mbu would benefit from being at a junction.

1.4 Mitigation and Monitoring Simple cost calculations cannot be made for mitigation measures because there are degrees of mitigation. While the ‘polluter pays’ principle, for example, is widely accepted, there is no such general acceptance of who is the polluter in the case of a road project. Candidates include the road makers and the road users.

Similarly society tolerates oil drips to road surfaces and moderate emissions of fumes, notwithstanding that both are temporarily and locally harmful to the environment and may also exert cumulative harm. To safeguard every plant and animal along the route would be impossibly expensive. To safeguard none, for cost saving, would be irresponsible and contrary to the wishes of the project proponents, and society in general. How much to spend on mitigation remains unclear while there is no generally accepted mechanism for attributing economic value to heritage.

All that being so, project proponents and regulatory authorities have to decide the amounts to be spent on social and environmental matters. The recommendation here is that the budget for mitigation and monitoring should just be sufficient to ensure that specifically recommended mitigation measures are put into effect.

Most of the measures require observance of appropriate behaviour by the contractor and, as such, impose no extra cost on the project. Expenditure is needed, however, to fund a campaign of traffic safety awareness and environmental education. That should be within the capability of one social worker, with transport and budgetary provision for local meetings and publicity materials. Compliance with the measures should also be subject to an environmental audit.

1.4.1 Mitigation During Construction

Mitigation during construction is primarily the responsibility of the contractor. The consultant’s Resident Engineer is responsible to ensure that all mitigation measures are fulfilled. In particular, the contractor should be deterred, by strong unambiguous wording in the contract, from emission of liquid wastes or leaving any waste material on the ground. Provision should be made for separate containment and careful disposal of human, metal, paper, plastic, rubber, paint, chemicals, fuel and oily waste. Especially care should be taken in the vicinity of watercourses and wetlands.

Should the contractor require a landfill for waste disposal, its location should be selected and agreed by the Resident Engineer prior to construction commencement. The landfill hole should be narrow, deep and excavated from impervious soil, away from drainage courses. When filled to within one metre of the top, it should be covered with soil (saved for that purpose), compacted and sown with grass and seedlings. Casual disposal of waste should be absolutely prohibited and this prohibition understood and agreed by the contractor, and advised to the workers.

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Table EA-2: Measures to be Incorporated into the Code of Conduct for the Contractor Items Precautions procurement of water Water for construction and camps should be brought in by the contractor. noise and air pollution All machinery and vehicles should be in sound mechanical condition and well maintained. Temporary diversions near settlements should be lightly watered during the dry season to alleviate dust. emission of liquid waste Adequate disposal must be planned, maintained and including sanitary waste enforced. abandonment of solid waste Adequate disposal must be planned, maintained and enforced. oil, grease, fuel and paint Fuel, lubricants and other chemicals should be stored spillage within clearly demarcated areas surrounded by concrete-lined drains leading to traps, from which effluent would be regularly removed and recycled or sold. To facilitate recycling, different chemicals should be stored separately. Drip pans should be placed under all machinery to catch oil drips. Waste oil should be recycled or given to villagers, in suitable small containers, for termite- proofing their building poles. soil erosion Temporary drainage works should prevent rapid run- off from disturbed surfaces. loss of fines from piled On-road piling to be as brief as possible material on road procurement of wood-fuel Fuel-efficient cooking facilities to be provided and for cooking at the camps used. blasting An alarm should be sounded before blasting. fire Incineration of waste by the contractor should be done at the camp or, if unavoidable on-site, should take place within containers (such as old oil drums) within patches of bare ground. Incineration should not be done during windy weather. Workers should be discouraged from discarding matches and cigarettes. Fire extinguishers to be available at the camp. The contractor should be willing and able to deal with any bush-fires which start near the workplace and camps. loss of trees and other Trees need not always be replanted in situ but no roadside vegetation fewer trees should be planted than are disturbed. Exposure of bare earth should be rectified by re- spreading top soil and, on slopes, accelerating the process of revegetation by broadcasting seed and fertilisers, and ...... on severe slopes (as in cuts) by securing the slope with wire, fabric or gabions long enough for natural regeneration. damage Damage should primarily be averted by confining the contractors’ activities to the road reserve.

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Items Precautions Any damage to fences, walls, drains, roads, tracks, buildings, fields, pastures and trees is to be avoided insofar as possible and, when inevitable, to be made good as the first opportunity. accidents The contractor should be required to adhere to high standards of safety. Prevention of accidents is the first priority. Adequate provision should be made for first aid and transport to a hospital. Every accident should be properly documented and an enquiry into the circumstances made by the resident engineer. Safety rules and procedures should be tightened in the light of that information to reduce the chances of recurrence. sanitation at work places and Sufficient toilets to be provided, even at temporary camps work-places, and to be properly maintained and satisfactorily decommissioned after the project displacement of roadside Acceptable temporary alternative sites to be made trading areas available. decommissioning of camps Work sites to be made good to an acceptable and work sites condition including the removal and safe disposal of all waste material, and stopping of incipient gullies. no unacceptable disclaimers The contractor is responsible for the actions of sub- of responsibility contractors and for the actions of the workforce, even out of working hours. reports and follow-up A senior representative of the contractor, nominated to oversee compliance with the environmental mitigation measures, should pass a monthly report to the RE specifying that:- ....all previously notified failures to comply with the mitigation measures have been rectified; ....all newly notified requirements have been fulfilled, and ....all standard requirements (as specified in this assessment) have been put into effect. The RE should countersign this report and make it available to the Ministry of Works who, in turn, should pass a copy to the NEMC and the Regional Council, all within a reasonable period, not exceeding one month from receipt. disturbance of cultural An archaeologist should draw up a straightforward heritage guide for the contractor and RE on how to recognise possibly significant relics, and provision should be made to call in the archaeologist in the event of such discoveries, in which case the archaeologist should be afforded maximum co-operation in the salvage of such relics. Local sensitivities with regard to burial sites and sacred places must absolutely be respected. In the event of such disturbance becoming possible, deconsecration ceremonies should be requested and modestly funded.

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Notwithstanding the contractor’s primary responsibility, certain mitigation measures are best undertaken by local communities with the support of government agencies and NGOs.

Table EA-3: Mitigation Measures to be effected by Local Communities Items Precautions health measures NGOs and/or government agencies already active in the area are best placed to combat the spread of HIV and AIDS. Their efforts need to be reinforced for the project period. communication between Village leaders along the route should be encouraged local communities and the to form a council for the duration of the project, so project that they may communicate effectively with each other and with the project. The contractor should appoint an information and liaison officer who should be obliged to communicate the project’s intentions to village councils well in advance of engineering work being done, to hear their views, to communicate them to the project managers and to convene meetings between the two groups in the event of any lingering concerns or unresolved difficulties. increased likelihood (both of Communities will have to exercise greater frequency and severity) of responsibility in keeping livestock away from roads. collisions between vehicles Discussion in the proposed council of villages along and livestock the road is recommended as a matter of urgency. Proposals for fencing could be sympathetically considered, for the most hazardous spots, near settlements only, so long as villagers contribute towards the cost and erection, and undertake to maintain the fences. attraction to the roadside of Not to be allowed in this case except at existing new settlement and settlements. No construction within the demarcated commerce road reserve.

1.4.2 Monitoring

For most purposes, monitoring compliance with the recommended mitigation measures can be entrusted to the consultant supervising the contractor. Monitoring specifically related to the project is the responsibility of the Ministry of Infrastructure Development; but the official environmental and community development agencies normally exercise responsibility for the conservation of natural resources (National Environment Management Council) and the well- being of local communities (Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children) — and they would continue to do so throughout the project period.

That implies that local officers of those agencies should periodically inspect the work during the course of their normal duties and report to their head offices. The Ministry should have in place a procedure whereby they would respond rapidly and effectively to requests or complaint from the environmental or community development agencies during construction.

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1.4.3 Environmental Management

Monitoring would serve little or no useful purpose if it simply recorded data. Failure to implement an approved measure should incur a penalty in terms of the contract. The Resident Engineer’s job should include enforcement of mitigation measures; but, sometimes, an approved measure can turn out not to have the desired effect, or unforeseen adverse impacts can arise. Again, the first level of responsibility lies with the Resident Engineer to ensure that he understands and promotes the objectives of road rehabilitation with minimal adverse impacts, ecologically and socio-economically, regardless of whether they have been specified in this report. Then he can promote environmentally-friendly road construction, under all circum- stances.

The failure of a measure to mitigate an adverse impact should be reported to the Ministry, which would need to be capable of finding out why, and of commissioning appropriate further measures. The absence of such a mechanism would render the whole mitigation and monitoring process futile.

Table EA-4: Potentially Adverse Impacts during Construction Potentially adverse impacts during Scope for mitigation construction, maintenance and repair noise and dust intrusion into the incapable of mitigation; but temporary wilderness oil pollution and wanton discharge of adherence to code of acceptable waste by the contractor and workforce behaviour required disturbance of natural drainage to be avoided by design and careful supervision contamination and/or depletion of scarce adherence to code of acceptable local water supplies in dry areas behaviour required; water to be brought to workers’ camps by bowser disturbance of cultural heritage avoidance of Engaruka Ruins and of other sacred sites as advised by local leaders disruption of irrigated farming at Selela design to accommodate irrigation furrows displacement of roadside dwellings not an issue over 99% of the road but just and/or businesses possible within the settlements where it should readily be resolved by local involvement in micro-siting of the roadworks at the time of construction; displacement, if at all necessary, would involve only moving back a few metres and need not be a problem. fire hazard in dry bush adherence to code of acceptable behaviour required; risk associated with excavation trenches to be back-filled before quitting site; borrow-pits to be reshaped so that they do not accumulate water unless specifically requested by the local community poaching and depletion of roadside wood adherence to code of acceptable and useful plants behaviour required; only fallen sticks to be used for cooking fires by the work- force poor sanitation at work places and camps adherence to code of acceptable

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Potentially adverse impacts during Scope for mitigation construction, maintenance and repair behaviour required abandonment of littered insanitary adherence to code of acceptable campsites behaviour required

interchange of communicable diseases prioritise local employment and publicise between the workforce and local people health risks, especially HIV increased demand on local health services The contractor should be equipped with medical supplies and knowledge of first aid. Employment of local labour as much as possible would offset increased demand. villagers’ self reliance diminished by a engagement of a social worker to major project in their area, in relation to promote local involvement with the which they have no influence and with project and to foster environmental which they have no ready means of education and safety communication except as job applicants occupational health and safety Contractors should assume responsibility for safety, taking precautions to minimise the risk of accidents, and having contingency plans for the treatment and (if necessary) evacuation of injured workers and any local people injured by the equipment or contractor’s vehicles. spread of invasive weeds Pieces of Lantana camara and prickly pear, disturbed by site works or road- works and/or growing within the site or road reserve should be burned, not merely discarded.

The ‘code of acceptable behaviour’ mentioned in the preceding table should be written into the contract agreement with the road contractor as a set of due-diligence requirements. With the invitation to bid for the contract, bidders should be forewarned of the need to comply with such a code. The Resident Engineer would be responsible to induce compliance and to penalise non- compliance.

Table EA-5: Potentially Adverse Impacts during Use Potentially adverse impacts during use Scope for mitigation occasional traffic noise, fumes and visual incapable of mitigation; but intrusion into the wilderness tolerated by society, by default unsustainable offtake of roadside woody practically none for opportunistic vegetation leading to degeneration of the offtake by travellers; offtake for riparian woodlands along watercourses and charcoal making could be restricted wadis and to depletion of local residents’ only by local residents and the police. available source of firewood poaching control by local people, supplemented by spot checks by Wildlife staff at terminal points collisions between vehicles, people and install warning signs and speed livestock bumps on the outskirts of settle- ments fire effectively incapable of mitigation

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Potentially adverse impacts during use Scope for mitigation and a serious risk over much of the route except the central part where vegetation is already sparse; warning signs could be erected to sensitise drivers entering vulnerable areas modification of natural drainage patterns, engineering design to avert these accelerated run-off and soil erosion risks

The project lacks any beneficial environmental impacts. All of those listed below are socio- economic and, as such, are intended project benefits already taken into account in the feasibility study.

Table EA-6: Potentially Beneficial Socio-economic Impacts of the Project Potentially beneficial socio-economic impacts, Scope for realisation both during construction and use easier marketing of agricultural produce from well- major beneficial impact, as watered land around Selela and near Lake Natron, long as cultivation is not leading to intensified farming in those areas extended into unsuitable areas, displacing pasture and woodland faster and easier access to social services major beneficial impact requiring no additional commitment discovery of archaeological artefacts during provision of a modest budget excavation, especially near Lake Natron which is for archaeologists (who are potentially an important archaeological area nearby at Olduvai Gorge) to be present during major excavations enhanced security through easier movement of police a major benefit in an area prone to banditry (at least, at present) employment during construction, maintenance and local hiring preference and repair training marketing to travellers the road should pass through, or near, the existing settlements reducing the isolation of Lake Natron automatic, with the project

Table E-5: Potentially Detrimental Indirect Impacts of the Project Potentially detrimental indirect Scope for mitigation impacts erosion of the wilderness by capable of mitigation by uncontrolled roadside development confinement of all new building, including petrol filling stations, to the existing settlements; village planning; road reserve demarcation to be introduced desertification in consequence of education of district and village

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Potentially detrimental indirect Scope for mitigation impacts inappropriate attempts to farm decision-makers; encourage- unsuitable dryland ment of sustainable land uses (pastoralism and tourism) cultural conflict between the incapable of mitigation in the indigenous people and incomers short-term and capable of increasing with pressure on resources; incomers could pay a settlement fee to the local village council disease transmission between health education travellers and local people visual intrusion from roadside prohibition and control by hoarding village and district councils litter incapable of mitigation in the short-term; long-term environmental education accelerated offtake of wood for promotion of woodlots at building and firewood settlements Note: Indirect impacts are those which occur slowly over a wide area, partly in consequence of the changes induced by the project. As such, they are difficult to predict and difficult to mitigate. Nevertheless they have to be considered.

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1.5 Consultations

Table EA-7: Persons consulted in Dar es Salaam

Prof A S Kauzeni professor U-Dsm, IRA Mr Mwaipopo Directorate of EIA NEMC Esther Kerario Head, Directorate of NEMC EIA Dr Sarunday wildlife ecologist NEMC Mr H I Sariko legal advisor Wildlife Department

Table EA-8: Project Area Consultation

A E Moshi head teacher, primary school Arash Josephat Bura teacher Arash Pareson Kuito technician Arash Baraka Oleta village member Arash Farem Sanagi village member Arash Joshua Mushi village member Arash Justin Lembrus village member Arash Kandai Kumari village member Arash Muofapha Abdi village member Arash Nangury Kereri village member Arash Paulo Lenyeda village member Arash Rakanja Petat village member Arash Sabath Male village member Arash Saigilu Oltinayo village member Arash Sangany Mbario village member Arash Marias Olepello Chief of 672 moran of the lowland Engaruka area Alias Olepello village member Engaruka Juli John village member Engaruka Kuya Nduapuru village member Engaruka Loleka Mipauge village member Engaruka Maomic Kimaai village member Engaruka Marias Olokuaeta village member Engaruka Ms Endito Olekine village member Engaruka Ms Maura village member Engaruka Mwalimuu Omar Ms Ngarusa Ngidari village member Engaruka Ms Ruti Kelel village member Engaruka Mzee Steven village member Engaruka Ormanoo Lesalula village member Engaruka Saiula Kisitel village member Engaruka Stefano Songoon village member Engaruka Tulito Olepello village member Engaruka Yusuf Hassan village member Engaruka Omari Kiamu Asst OCS, police Engeraser o Sgt Gregory Makuru OCS, police Engeraser o

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Joseph Losoit village executive officer Engeraser o Joel Clemence village secretary Engeraser o Abraham M Mrase Ngorongoro District Administrative Loliondo Secretary Ngorongoro District Executive Loliondo Director Michael Massawe Ngorongoro District Land Officer Loliondo J J Mboya Ngorongoro District Planning Officer Loliondo Richard Ngowi OCD Loliondo Loliondo Abraham Labi village member Malambo Asaya Olulu village member Malambo Godson Mepukori village member Malambo Lemayani village member Malambo Olenaisodo Meesi Parerong village member Malambo Samwel Marco village member Malambo Satunini Berere village member Malambo Yohani Marco village member Malambo Daniel Elisante youth chairman Malambo Esau Sigalla Monduli District planning officer Monduli Ally Suleman revenue collector Mto-wa- Mbu Abdalah Matongo village chairman, Barabarani Mto-wa- Mbu Frank Sumbizi village executive officer, Barabarani Mto-wa- Mbu Rehema Sabilla ward executive secretary Mto-wa- Mbu Killian Lugwe Serena Lodge Manager Ngorongo ro Julius Hyuma village executive officer Sale Charles Kasawala village member Sale John Merere village member Sale Steven Nasedo village member Sale Loidiko Langulala chairman of Ranch Selela Herman Minja head teacher Selela Yesse Dunda village chairman, district councillor, Selela traditional elder

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F – Specialist reports

1.1 Aquatic

1.1.1 Sampling locations

During the present study the survey of fish and aquatic environment was expected to last for six days, with first three days spent on sampling sites on the eastern side of the lake and the other three days on the western side of the lake. The proposed coverage included at least three lakeshore and three hot spring sites on the eastern site (a pair of which would fall within the direct impact zone of the project near Wosi wosi village). On the western side three lakeshore locations near the entrances of Engare sero, Monik and Pininj rivers and selected riverine locations (on the three rivers) were intended to be covered. The choice of possible sampling sites was made based on initial maps (with GPS locations) provided by Norconsult prior to departure to Lake Natron. However, due to scattered rains experienced around Lake Natron at the time of sampling visit, an entire sampling day (20th January 2007) was lost by pulling 4WD field transport vehicle stuck in the mud close to the Old Stamico camp on the eastern Lake Natron. Likewise, sampling on the western side could only proceed as far north as the Monik River because the road between this site and Peninj River on the north western part of the lake could not be negotiated even with the 4WD vehicle that was at our disposal. For this reason, only six of the proposed nine sampling sites were covered during this study (Figure 1).

1.1.2 Sampling methods, treatment of sample and data analyses

Microalgae species composition and abundance

For phytoplankton species composition 20 µm mesh sized plankton net was used to collect and concentrate phytoplankton samples (Plate 1, Appendix 1). The samples were then kept in 50 ml dark glass bottles and fixed using formalin to the final concentration of 4%. Water samples for phytoplankton numerical abundance were taken at the surface using 50 ml dark glass bottles. The samples were immediately fixed using 0.5 ml lugol’s solution and formalin added to a final concentration of 1%. All samples for phytoplankton analyses were stored at room temperature in a dark container until brought to the laboratory. Quantitative benthic microalgae samples were not taken during this sampling session. Back at the University laboratory, microalgae were identified using a light microscope following the morphological description given by Desikachary (1959); Prescot (1978); Anagnostidis and Komárek (1985; 1988); Komárek and Anagnostidis (1986); and Hasle et al. (1997). Phytoplankton cells were counted using a Sedgewick Rafter cell as described by Woelkerling et al. (1976). Cells and trichomes were counted to a confidence limit of 90% according to Andersen and Throndsen (2003).

Fish

In all except sampling site 2A fish were caught using a seine net. Small rocky surface water areas found at the source of hot water spring peripheral to the lake at site 3A precluded the use of seine net as a gear of choice and it was replaced by a scoop net. Lack of fishing boat during the present sampling meant that fish (and phytoplankton) samples could only be collected by wading in waters not exceeding 1m deep. In the lake sampling was mainly conducted on the edge in shallow lagoons fed by alkaline hot springs where salinity never exceeded 30 ‰.

The seine net consisted of 8 m long by 1 m wide net panel with 5 mm mesh and attached to holding rods at either end. Two people, one at each end, were needed to operate the net. The net was set across the shallow parts of the stream or lake (< 1m) then pulled towards the banks. Fish were then trapped and encircled. A single cast net sweep lasted for a period of 5 minutes. Two cast net sweeps were deployed at each fish sampling site.

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The scoop net used in fish sampling was 0.25 m wide by 0.3 m deep (mouth area: 0.625 m2), with a 1.48 m long handle. The netting material was made of knitted polyester with 1 mm mesh size. Each scoop net round lasted for 1 minute and covered an average area of 4 m2. Five scoop net rounds were taken to constitute a complete fish sampling event at a sampling site. Fish species identification, length and weight measurements, sex determination, gonad inspection and counting of fish were conducted on site, but when the catch was too large some of the activities were carried out at the expedition camp site. Voucher specimens of each species were photographed using a digital camera and similarly preserved with formalin for onward deposition in the University fish Museum. Fish were identified according to the taxonomic guides by Trewavas (1983), Eccles (1992), and Skelton (1993). Total lengths and wet weight measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 mm and 0.1 g, respectively. Sex of each individual was determined from gonad inspection following anatomical dissection and/or external characters for larger specimens. Gonad state was assessed using a five-point scale modified after Bagenal (1978) (Table 1).

1.1.3 Results and discussion

Physical habitat

Habitat descriptions and the environment of the seven sampling sites around Lake Natron are given in Table 2. With regards to salinity of lake water, an important observation was a sharp increase in salinity just a few metres from the edge of the lake. For example, at sites 2B and 3B salinity was around 20 ‰ at the shore, 30-50 ‰ at 3-4 m from the shore and > 100 ‰ at 5-8 m from the shore.

Microalgae

The tropical East African alkaline-saline lakes like other soda lakes in the tropics and subtropics are known for a unique cyanobacterial community characterised by massive growth and blooms of filamentous cyanobacteria. Early investigations and general descriptions have mentioned persistent almost unicyanobacterial blooms of Arthrospira fusiformis (Vorochinin) Komárek (syn. Spirulina fusiformis Voronichin = Spirulina platensis) as the typical characteristic feature of the East African and other alkaline soda lakes in the tropics and subtropics, including Lake Natron (Rich, 1931; Beadle, 1981; Vareschi, 1982; Melack 1996).

Arthrospira have been considered as the main (and sometimes the only) food source for the characteristic bird of the alkaline-saline lakes, the Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor Geoffroy) (Jenkin 1929, Ridley et al. 1955) and fish species Oreochromis (Alcolapia) alcalicus and O. a. grahami (Kasule et al.,1993) which are endemic to Lakes Natron and Magadi, respectively. Therefore, variations in the cyanobacterial community may have significant impact on the food chain, especially on the Lesser Flamingo and resident fish species.

Contrary to the popular belief, Arthrospira fusiformis was not found in all microalgal water samples collected from six sampling stations in Lake Natron during the study period. The dominant microalgae were pinnate diatoms Navicula ssp. (especially Navicula scolipleura and Navicula sphaerophora) which were encountered in water samples from all except sampling site 1A. Other microalgae found in the water column in Lake Natron included cyanobacteria of the genera Pseudoanabaena, Chroococcus, and Microcystis as well as a diatom Navicula oblonga although these occurred at relatively low numbers (Table 3). The results from this study are in line with that of Lugomela et al. (2006) where Arthrospira fusiformis were not found in water samples collected in Lake Natron but were the dominant microalgae in water samples from Lakes Manyara, Big Momela and Embagai in northern Tanzania.

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These results suggests that in addition to Arthrospira fusiformis, there must be other important food sources for resident Lesser Flamingo and cichlid fish flocks in Lake Natron and other saline lakes where these animals are found. According to Kenya Power Company (1992 b) the Lesser Flamingo feed primarily on Arthrospira fusiformis when they abound (bloom), but switch to water column and benthic diatoms at other times. Likewise, Seegers and Tichy (1999) have demonstrated that although the primary food sources of O. alcalicus are blue-green algae Arthrospira fusiformis that may abundant in the lake’s alkaline waters, the fish are capable of subsisting almost entirely on other food sources including diatoms, crustacea (copepods) and dipteran larvae. Tuite (1981) has shown that a seasonally changing lake systems the density and dominance of A. fusiformis may also undergo seasonal variations and their density reduced from predominantly or sole component of the phytoplankton biomass. Under such conditions their contribution to primary production and food source for other consumer organisms may become almost negligible while that of other algae become predominant.

Although not encountered in the water samples collected in this study, it is worth noting that more recently, hepatotoxins and neurotoxins produced by A. fusiformis and Spirulina subsalsa were blamed for deaths of hundreds of Lesser Flamingos in Lake Bogoria, Kenya (Krienitz et al., 2003; Ballot et al., 2004) and Lakes Manyara and Momela, Tanzania (Lugomela et al., 2006), respectively. The authors were able to detect these toxins in stomach contents, intestine and fecal pellets of the dead Lesser Flamingos in the lakes that were investigated. They concluded that intoxication with cyanobacterial toxins could occur by uptake of detached cyanobacterial cells from mats, as the birds need to drink fresh or brackish water and to wash their feathers, which they do in the vicinity of the hot springs.

In addition, the ecology of a cyanobacterium A. fusiformis has stunned many researchers that have investigated the occurrence of mass mortalities of Lesser Flamingos in east African Rift Valley lakes. For example, while gut content analyses indicated that A. fusiformis was the main food item of the flamingos in Lake Big Momela and Embagai, deaths of flamingos were observed in the former but not the later (Lugomela et al., 2006). Likewise, A. fusiformis isolated from Lake Bogoria produced both microcystins-YR and anatoxin-a, and that from Lake Nakuru produced only anatoxin-a while the A. fusiformis isolate from Lake Elmenteita had no toxins (Ballot et al., 2004).

These findings raise a number of important questions, some of which may relate to environmental implications of the proposed Soda Ash project. The first question is whether there are two strains of this cyanobacterium in the east African soda lakes, a toxic and non-toxic A. fusiformis. The second question is whether the species only produces toxins under certain endogenously or externally driven conditions, i.e. the species has the potential of becoming toxic under certain environmental circumstances such as those that may arise as the result of implementation of the proposed soda ash project. The third question is whether toxin production by toxic A. fusiformis takes place throughout the life span of an individual only to reach high concentrations capable of killing Lesser Flamingos at certain concentrations of the cyanobacterium in the water column. Data generated during this study could not provide adequately answers to the three questions and therefore, although not within the realm of the proposed Soda Ash project, further studies on occurrence and dynamics of cyanobacterial toxins in Lake Natron are needed.

Fish

Information collected prior to the present study indicated that only one species of fish Oreochromis (Alcolapia) alcalicus has been reported to live and breed in the shores and peripheral springs of Lake Natron. Apart from this tilapiine cichlid which is found in the lake, six more species of fish were reported to be resident in the Ewaso Ngiro River (Kenya Power Company 1992 a), one of the permanent streams feeding into Lake Natron. The fish species

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include: Clarias sp., Tilapia sp., Auchenoglanis sp., Labeo, sp., Barbus sp. and Engraulicypris sp. Because of the hostile environment created by high temperatures and salinity in Lake Natron none of the above six species was found to be living in the lake itself.

An interesting observation during the present fish sampling in Lake Natron was the presence in the fish catches of a small species of fish (possibly a sub-species of O. alcalicus) which differ from O. alcalicus mainly by having an inferior suctorial mouth as opposed to terminal mouth which is characteristic of O. alcalicus. The fish was caught by scoop nets in the rocky habitat at the source of freshwater hot spring in the periphery of the eastern shore of Lake Natron (Site 2A, Figure 1). Another observation made during fish sampling expedition was that fishing is not an important economic or social activity among local people around Lake Natron.

The fish caught at various sampling sites in Lake Natron are listed in Table 3 while length-weight data and maturity stages of the encountered specimen are given in Appendix 2 (Excel format file). An important problem encountered during the present study was lack of ice for cooling the fish specimen from the time of capture to the time of taking key measurements and examination of sex and maturity stages. Due to high temperatures around the lake small bodied fish spoil rapidly after capture if not preserved in ice. Fish samples caught in sampling areas 1A and 2A were not subjected to systematic length-weight measurements and examinations because they were badly spoilt at the time the sampling team reached the camp site.

Photographs of voucher specimen of O. alcalicus and the un-named/undescribed species are given in Plate 2 (Appendix 1). Preserved specimens of the un-named species caught during the present sampling at Lake Natron are awaiting taxonomic identification/confirmation from the cichlid expert at the British Natural History Museum.

1.1.4 Description and the biology of fish species collected from Lake Natron

Oreochromis alcalicus

The species has terminal mouth and is sexually dimorphic with breeding males having yellow colouration on the throat and belly areas. Breeding males can also be distinguished by having left and right thirds or whole of their lips brilliantly white (Plate 3 Appendix 1). Breeding females, on the other hand, has intense black colouration. With regard to the feeding habits, the fish have long and coiled gut, indicating the herbivorous feeding habits. The herbivorous feeding habit was also confirmed by gut content analyses which showed algae to make up more than 80% of the stomach contents, the rest consisting mainly of unidentified invertebrates (zooplankton).

Elsewhere O. alcalicus, also known as the alkaline tilapia, has been described as an endemic fish species to two alkaline soda lakes of the Rift Valley and can only grow to the maximum size of 69.0 mm SL (Seegers and Tichy, 1999). The sub-species O. a. grahami is found in Lake Magadi, Kenya and the sub-species O. a. alcalicus in Lake Natron, Tanzania (Trewavas, 1983). Once a continuous water body, Lake Magadi separated from Lake Natron approximately 10 000 years ago and has since developed a different geomorphology and water-chemistry (Goetz & Hillaire- Marcel, 1992).

The fish has been described to have no marked breeding season. During breeding the male possess breeding territory and constructs a pit of about 15 cm in diameter where it tries to attract females to spawn. No firm pair bond relationship is known to exist between sexes. Female is a mouthbrooder, brooding period lasting about two weeks (Seegers and Tichy, 1999). During the present study more than 65% of the males and females caught from numerous sampling sites were carrying ripe gonads.

In the present study specimen ranging from 2.0 to 11.1 cm in length were caught from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from predominantly freshwater habitats in the Monik River (salinity =

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0.2 ‰), hot saline springs on the periphery of the lake (salinity = 5-20 ‰) to numerous lagoons on the edge of the lake itself (salinity = 20-25 ‰).

The distribution of O. alcalicus in the neighbouring Lake Magadi appears to be very patchy with the density decreasing and the mean fish size increasing from in-shore to off-shore regions. At noon the fish concentrate near the shore and at night they move off-shore, a migration pattern probably reflecting a preference for higher temperatures (Vareschi, 1979).

Although nothing is known about the physiology of the Natron tilapia (O. a. alcalicus), the Magadi tilapia (O. a. grahami) has developed unusual morphological and physiological adaptations to the high pH and alkalinity. These include the excretion of urea rather than ammonia as their sole nitrogenous waste, through expression of the ornithine-urea cycle (Randall et al., 1989; Wood et al., 1994). This condition of 100% ureotely is unique among teleost fish and renders O. alcalicus of special evolutionary importance.

In addition, the Magadi tilapia is known to exhibit an extremely thin blood-water diffusion barrier (Maina, 1990; Laurent et al., 1995; Maina et al., 1996) and the use of the swim-bladder as a primitive air-breathing organ (Maina et al., 1995). Very few tropical freshwater fish species such as lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) and catfish (Clarias sp.) are known to possess accessory breathing organs other than gills.

Un-described (Oreochromis?) species

Not sexually dimorphic and differ from O. alcalicus by having an inferior mouth. They have gut morphology and possibly feeding habits that are similar to those of O. alcalicus. In the present sampling visit the fish were caught from single location, a freshwater hot spring about 400 m from the edge of the lake on the eastern shore of Lake Natron.

1.1.5 Fish species abundance and distribution

In fish studies a number of computational techniques can be employed to the catch obtained from experimental fishing in order to provide information on the relative abundance and distribution of resident fish species among sampling sites. One such technique is catch per unit effort (CPUE). As a QA/QC measure for the present study only fish caught by seine net, the fishing gear consistently used in many sampling sites, were used for calculation of CPUE at each site.

Each seine net cast was operated for 5 minutes, which gives 0.083 seine net-hour of effort. Considering a situation in which 100 fish were caught, for example, catch per unit effort was calculated by dividing the number of fish caught by the seine net-hour (100/0.083), resulting in a CPUE of 1,204.8 fish per seine net-hour. Values of CPUE computed for the Lake Natron fish sampling sites are given in Table 4. High CPUE encountered at Site 1B is a result of fish being concentrated by a small pool of water where they were easily encircled by the sampling gear (i.e. seine net). Another computational technique that has been commonly employed to the catch data to provide information on between-site comparisons of fish life histories is length-weight measurements. For sampling sites in which sufficient sample sizes of O. alcalicus were obtained and length-weight data recorded, the length-weight relationships were evaluated and compared between sampling sites. The values of the constants (a = intercept and b = slope) and correlation coefficient (r2) for O. alcalicus and sampling sites are given in Table 5. When slope “b” of fish data was compared with isometric slope b = 3 (Cube Law; LeCren, 1951), it was observed that the value of ‘b’ for all sampling sites was lower than b = 3 indicating a negative allometry. In fish, the functional regression “b” value represents the body form and is directly related to the weight affected by ecological factors such as temperature, food supply, spawning conditions and the characteristics of habitat within a year (Ricker, 1975). If the fish retains the same shape, its specific gravity remains unchanged during lifetime. It will be growing isometrically and the value of exponent ‘b’

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would be exactly 3.0 (Ricker, 1975). A value less than 3.0 shows that the fish become lighter for length as it grows while an exponent greater than 3.0 indicates that the fish becomes heavier for its length as it increases in size. Therefore, the differences observed in the functional regression values from different areas might be attributable to spatial and temporal changes in their different nutritional conditions. For these results ANOVA indicates that there are no significant differences in the values of exponent ‘b’ (slope) between sampling sites (p = 0.25), which may also suggest that there is probably no significant difference in key ecological factors such as temperature, food supply, spawning conditions and the characteristics of habitat between the sampling sites within a year. A synthesis of literature data did not find a study in which the exponent ‘b’ for O. alcalicus or its closest relative O. a. grahamii has been computed. However, the negative allometry (i.e. the functional regression “b” value less than 3) observed in fish examined during this study likely indicate the hostile environment in which these fishes are living. The adverse environmental effects resulting from the Soda Ash Project should be expected to further reduce the exponent ‘b’ value of the fish.

1.1.6 Breeding

Maturing ovaries and testes (Stage 3 and above, Table 1) were considered mature for determination of breeding status of fish caught. The proportion of sexually active (carrying mature gonads) fish at different sampling sites and sexes computed during the present sampling are given in Table 6.

The present study was conducted during the short rains in early January 2007 and, on average, more than 65% of all males and females caught in the samples were carrying mature and/or ripe gonads. Capture of large number of spawning/spent females of the resident fish species suggests that the present conditions in pools and lagoons around Lake Natron are suitable for breeding of both O. alcalicus and the presently un-identified species. This may also suggest that possibly breeding/spawning of resident fish in Lake Natron proceeds throughout the year (Seegers and Tichy, 1999) but with peaks during rainy seasons. However, this statement would perhaps better be confirmed with the dry season sampling.

1.1.7 Ecological/evolutionary significance of the Lake Natron fish

The ecological and evolutionary importance of the alkaline tilapia in Lake Natron can briefly be described under three closely related points. First, from the food and feeding relationships perspective, the main impact of O. alcalicus on the lake's ecosystem is a substantial increase in faunal diversity by extending the food chains to fish eating birds, of which the Great White Pelican is dominating. The breeding of Pelicans at neighbouring lakes causes a considerable nutrient export (~ 13 tones of phosphorus/year) (Vareschi, 1979). Second, is the development of unusual morphological and physiological adaptations to the high pH and alkalinity. The fish species excrete urea rather than ammonia as their sole nitrogenous waste, through expression of the ornithine-urea cycle (Randall et al., 1989; Wood et al., 1994). Ureotely is unique among teleost fish and renders O. alcalicus of special evolutionary importance. Third, is the use of the swim-bladder as a primitive air-breathing organ (Maina et al., 1995), an evolutionary phenomenon known only from African lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) and catfishes (Clarias sp.) among tropical freshwater fish species.

1.1.8 Conservation status of fish species in Lake Natron

The criteria used to assess the conservation status of fish species occurring in Lake Natron are those given in the IUCN Red List (Baillie & Groombridge, 1996). Under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 (IUCN, 2001; http://www.iucnredlist.org) all taxa listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are described as threatened.

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007 Appendix F - Lake Natron Soda Ash ESIA Page F - 7

The Tanzania national fish conservation ranking is in accordance to the 1996 biodiversity country study commissioned by National Environment Management Council-NEMC (e.g. Nhwani et al., 1996). Unfortunately, Lake Natron and its endemic cichlid O. alcalicus were covered in the 1996 country biodiversity study. However, O. alcalicus are classified as “threatened” in the IUCN Red data book (Bayona and Akinyi, 2005).

As for threatened fish species, no specific management requirements have yet been set for fish species included, for example, in the national conservation ranking in Tanzania. However, Protected Areas near water bodies where these fishes occur, and in particular those within the Lake Natron Ramsar site and Lake Natron Game Controlled Area (for this study), form a vital component of the conservation and management of freshwater biodiversity in that part of the Tanzanian drainage network. O. alcalicus has a limited home range with no known history of undertaking long up-river spawning migrations into areas outside the Ramsar site. Establishing management requirements for fish of conservational concern is the focus of ongoing work by NEMC.

Table 1: Fish maturity stages (modified after Bagenal, 1978) Stage 1. Immature Young individuals which have not spawned before. Gonads very small. Male and female gonads may be difficult to differentiate with naked eyes.

Stage 2. Developing/Recovering Female and male gonads differentiable. Gonads translucent to grey red; sexual products have not yet begun to develop according to the naked et\ye.

Stage 3. Maturing Gonads enlarging, occupy 2/3rd of the body cavity. Testes opaque and reddish-white, no milt drops appear under pressure. Ovaries orange-reddish. Eggs clearly visible but not ripe.

Stage 4. Ripe gonads/spawning Gonads fully enlarged in size and extend for 99% of the abdominal cavity. Gonad contents ripe. Testes white, drops of milt fall with pressure. Eggs completely round.

Stage 5. Spent (or resting) Gonadal products have been discharged, occasional residual eggs or sperms. Genital aperture inflamed at first but inflammation subsides later. Gonads become smaller. Testes dark brown in colour. Ovaries reddish in colour.

Note: After resting from a previous breeding cycle a fish is considered to begin the next cycle at stage 2, i.e., stage 1 is restricted to fish that have never spawned (immature fish) and stages 2 and 3 to fish that were beginning or repeating their spawning cycles.

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Table 2: Description of the aquatic environment and geographic location of the sampling sites around Lake Natron Site Place / Location Description Position Salinity Tempera ID (‰) ture (o C ) 1A Lake Natron at Lake shore lagoon where hot saline 02o25'983" S 28 31.5 Old Stamico spring enters the lake. An important 036o05'522" E Camp Lesser flamingo breeding site as eggs hatched and nests used in the previous breeding season were seen on site. Sandy muddy substrate. White streaks of crystalline trona form greater part of the exposed lake shore and water appears pink.

1B Saline water 0.8 m deep pool of hot saline water 02o26'046" S 18 35 spring at Old about 800 m above the edge of the lake 036o05'947" E Stamico Camp shoreline. Located along a small channel draining hot saline spring found 10 m upstream of the site. Thick muddy substrate. Possibly an important feeding site for Lesser flamingo as an estimated 30 birds flew away as we approached the site. The surrounding area covered by swamp and soda flat type of vegetation dominated by Sporobolus spicatus.

2A Freshwater Scattered rocky pools at the source of 02o27'368" S 0 37 Spring hot freshwater spring water about 036o05'285" E 300m from lake shore. A site where strangely looking fish thought to be a new species or a sub-species of the endemic O. alcalicus were caught. Sodic vegetation dominated by Sporobolus spicatus. Rocky substratum with scattered crevices.

2B Lake Natron Lake shore lagoon at the entrance of a 02o27'259" S 30 31 channel draining water from the hot 036o05'107" E freshwater spring upstream. Sandy muddy substrate. White streaks of crystalline trona form greater part of the exposed lake shore and water appears pink.

3 Monik River Seasonal freshwater river at road 02o29'195" S 0.2 21.5 crossing about 1 km before the river 035o53'313" E empties into Lake Natron. From this point to the lake shore the river flows inside extensive permanent wetland

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comprising mainly Typha domongensis. The site is also an important cattle drinking point. Predominantly sandy substrate interspersed with muddy sections.

Lake Natron at Southermost tip of Lake Natron near 02o35'319" S 27 30 4 Southern lagoon the entrance of the perennial Engare 035o54'879" E Sero River. Highly turbid lake water due to increased inflow from Engare Sero river as a result of ongoing short rains. Possibly one of the main breeding and feeding ground for Lesser flamingo in Lake Natron. More than 1000 birds were seen wading the shallow waters around this site. Thick muddy substrate influenced by fine sediment brought down the lake by Engare sero river.

Table 3: Algal and fish species composition and abundance for six sampling sites in Lake Natron. Day Site ID & Algae Fish Place Species Cells/ml Species No. caught 19th 1A Pseudoanabaena sp. 2 Oreochromis alcalicus 25 Lake Natron at Gomphocymbella burni 2 Old Stamico Microcystis sp. 1 Camp

21st 1B Navicula scolipleura 1006 Oreochromis alcalicus 1433 Saline water Navicula sphaerophora 1251 spring at Old Navicula sp. 1 1014 Stamico Camp Microcystis sp. 2

21st 2A Navicula scolipleura 39 Undescribed species 33 Freshwater Navicula sphaerophora 8 (samples awaiting Spring Navicula oblonga 3 taxonomic Chroococcus minutus 3 identification) Cymbella sp. 2

21st 2B Navicula sphaerophora 35 Oreochromis alcalicus 17 Lake Natron Navicula scolipleura 20 Navicula sp.1 1 Navicula oblonga 6 Chroococcus minutus 1 Cymbella sp. 4

22nd 3 Navicula scolipleura 42 Oreochromis alcalicus 218 Monik River Navicula sphaerophora 112 Navicula oblonga 7

22nd 4 Navicula oblonga 1 Oreochromis alcalicus 254 Lake Natron at Navicula scolipleura 3 Southern Navicula sphaerophora 5

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lagoon Cymbella sp. 2

Table 4: CPUE data for fish sampling sites in Lake Natron. SAMPLING SITE CPUE

1A 301 1B 17265 2A 398 2B 205 3 2627 4 3060

Table 5: Parameters of the relationship (W = aLb) between gross weight (in g) and total length (in cm) for O. alcalicus collected from three different sampling sites in Lake Natron. SAMPLING MALES FEMALES POOLED SITE a b r2 a b r2 a b r2

1B 0.1008 2.1987 0.89 0.1214 2.0387 0.84 0.0865 2.2651 0.93

3 0.0528 2.3854 0.92 0.0089 1.6103 0.46 0.0566 2.3381 0.93

4 0.0245 2.767 0.94 0.00247 2.7737 0.93 0.0413 2.4828 0.96

Table 6: The proportion of sexually active and inactive male and female fish caught at different sampling sites in Lake Natron Sampling site Sex of the Sexually Sexually inactive fish active (%) (%) 1B Males 90.6 9.4 Females 66.7 33.3

3 Males 55.3 44.7 Females 81.8 18.2

4 Males 85.2 14.8 Females 95.2 4.8

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2 VEGETATION

2.1 Methodology

The survey was largely qualitative whereby records of vegetation, plant species and classification of different physiognomic types communities was made from all sites of relevance to the project. The field observations were complemented with reference to earlier studies made in the area for the purpose of Soda Ash extraction and general botanical information. Maps and GPS locations of all critical areas were provided by Norconsult (T) Ltd were used to locate the key areas, aided with the guidance of a driver who was participated in a reconnaissance visit to the area. For plant species that could not be easily identified in the field, specimens were collected, pressed and carried to the herbarium of the University of Dar es Salaam for further identification and documentation. For identified species reference was made to the CITES list (Convention on International Trade an Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants and animals, to single out species that were cited in the above lists. The Globally threatened plant species from the IUCN Red List are listed as Extinct (Ex), Extinct/Endangered (Ex/E), Endangered (E), vulnerable (V), Rare(R) and Indeterminate (I).

2.2 Results

Acacia - Commiphora scrub

This vegetation covers the area north of Wosiwosi hamlet, around the lake where the plant is to be constructed and most of the access south of the plant site, changing only at the outskirt of Magadi village. The composition is mainly deciduous dwarf woody shrub with scattered medium height trees supported by relatively un-weathered basaltic larva and exposed rocky outcrops. On the rocky outcrops there are a number of succulents and tall trees. The dwarf and succulent species commonly associated to this Acacia – Commiphora scrub include Adenium obesum Commiphora camestris, Kleinia longiflora, Euphorbia uhligiana, Sansevieria ehrenbergiana, Jatropha ellenbeckia, and Euphorbia matabelensis. Non succulent species are Acacia tortlis, Sterculia quenquiloba, Delonix elata, Acacia melifera and Cordia sinensis. The herbaceous and shrub layer is composed of mainly Duosperma, Barleria eranthemoides, Hypoestes verticillaris, Tephrosia pumilla and Justicia flava. Common grass species around this area are Cenchrus setigerum and Aristida barbicollis. At the lakeshore the vegetation is mainly edaphic grassland (see description below).

Acacia tortilis woodland

This vegetation type borders the edaphic grasslands and is common along the road from Engare Sero to Monic and also from Magadani to Wosiwosi area particularly in areas of fresh spring water. It is characterized a single stratum dominated with single tree species of Acacia tortilis with patches of grassland.

The understorey layer is dominated with small scrubs; such as Indigofera spinosa, Duosperma qudrangulare, Barleria submollis and Aerva javanica and some grass species like Digitaria macroblephara, Dactyloctenium australe and Sporobolus iocladus

Calotropis procera scrubland

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Along the road to Wosiwosi a patch of pure stand of Calotropis procera scrubland dominate the settlement at Magadi village. This unique overgrowth is representative of the effects of overgrazing and poor regeneration potential of natural species.

The Lake Vegetation

The lake is devoid of macrophytic vegetation, but is very productive in terms of algae, with blue- green algae (Cyanophyta) such as Spirulina spp. dominating the saline waters (Finlayson and Moser 1991). The large saline mud flats surrounding the waters are generally considered to be saline deserts. These salt-encrusted flats are covered in a layer of blue-green algae during the rainy season.

Swamp and Soda flats

Sporobolus spicatus is about the only grass on the seasonally submerged soda flats. On the edges of the flats particularly on the western Lakeshore close to Monic village permanent Typha domongensis swamps are common. All around the Lakeshore swamps of Cyperus laevigatus dominate the mud flats. In addition to the dominant swamp species a few halophytes are also found growing on the saline soils fringing the lake. These include Dactyloctenium spp., Juncus maritimus, Salvadora persica, Sporobolus robustus, Suaeda monoica and Triplocephalum holstii.

Edaphic Grassland

A continuum of grass cover with few scattered woody plants characterizes this vegetation type. This formation is widespread in the southern and south-eastern areas of the lake basin growing on volcanic ash possibly spewed out from the active volcano, Oldonyo Lengai. Coverage of project area is from Engaruka up to Engare Sero at the foot of Mount Oldonyo Lengai Dominant grass species are Dacyloctenium australe, Digitaria macroblephora, Setaria sphacelata, Sporobolus ioclados and Sporobolus consimilis the latter forms a community on the flood plain. The grasses are commonly grazed by groups of wild and domesticated animals. Scattered tree species include Acacia tortilis, A. mellifera, Cordia sinensis, Balanites aegyptiaca and Boscia coriacea.

Access to Peninj Village

Vegetation types from Engare Sero village to Peninj village where the project intends to source fresh water were also assessed for potential impact. If water from Peninj River is to be drawn for consumption by the project, pipes will be laid across the lake from the Eastern shore and a small station constructed at Peninj village to monitor the pumps. This would necessitate upgrading of the access to Peninj village.

Evergreen Riverine Forest

Along streams and rivers and in areas where the water table is high moist riverine vegetation is found. This vegetation type is characterized by tall trees with relatively well closed canopy of one or more strata and is found along the rivers of Engare Sero River, Monic and Peninj. Ficus mucuso, Trichilia emetica, Acacia tortilis and Cordia sinensis make up the moist tree component and the understorey shrubs include Pluchea dioscoridis, Tabernaemontana pachysiphon and Clausena anisata.

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Capparis viminea, Parquetina nigrescens and Cyphostema cyphopetalum are lianas that are frequently observed in these patches of vegetation clinging to branches of Cordia sinensis and Acacia tortilis. The understorey of these patches of vegetation is dominated by herbaceous species; Acalypha ornata, Achyranthes aspera, Wissadula rostrata and Abutilon mauritianum. Scattered grass species on the ground becomes Setaria homonyma and Setaria verticillata.

Cultivated land and settlements

Around the villages of Engaruka, Engare Sero and Monic the Masai and Sonjo practise cultivation in addition to pastoralism. Maize (Zea mays), Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), Banana (Musa spp.) Sorhum(Sorgum bicolour), Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) and Mango(Mangifera indica) are the main crops grown around these areas.

Tamarix nilotica scrubland

Tamarix nilotica is found on eroded deltas and old river gullies particularly close to Monic village.

3 FLAMINGOS

3.1.1 Breeding strategy and the importance of Lake Natron

In order to stimulate nuptial display and thus breeding, Lesser Flamingo form flocks ranging in several 1000’s which carry out an elaborate display. Mating then may or may not occur, but if it does it usually occurs on the outer edges of the display flocks. These display grounds tend to be in specific locations and not specifically in breeding areas, for example Lake Nakuru is known to be an important display ground but no breeding has occurred there for 45 years (Brown & Root, 1971). At Lake Natron, egg laying tends to occur at the end of the dry season between August and November and possibly into December (if rains are late and extend the dry season). Usually one egg is laid (in rare cases 2).

A critical point in the breeding cycle is outlined by Pennycuick & Bartholomew (1973); ‘it is possible that the primary limitation on breeding might be the time needed by the female flamingo to save up enough energy to produce the egg, rather than the food concentration needed for incubation’. The authors go on to point out that food type (microscopic algae) needs to be in a concentration of c.0.25 kg / m³ adjacent to suitable breeding areas. The important point to note here is that Lake Natron is not the only breeding site for one reason but for a combination of factors, both biotic and abiotic, many of which we fail to fully understand and thus could not fully mitigate against.

Breeding attempts by this species in late 2006, early 2007 have failed at Natron due to heavy rains and excessive flooding. In southern Africa breeding has failed this year at Sua Pan due to intense heat and drought causing the adults to abandon their young (G.McCulloch, pers comm.).

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Appendix II. Results of Ground Survey. November 6th – November 11th 2006.

Count Site Code A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Spp. Totals Species Name

Egyptian Goose 2 11 22 47 23 105 Black Crake 1 1 2 Sacred Ibis 1 1 7 9 Squacco Heron 3 3 Blacksmith Plover 1 2 2 17 7 2 9 4 2 6 4 8 64 Little Egret 1 1 12 5 2 2 86 1 2 16 41 169 Glossy Ibis 55 4 128 155 342 Ruff 15 5 34 15 125 39 121 354 Little Stint 20 1 10 4 22 2236 275 6 185 1415 230 10 23 239 4676 Marsh Sandpiper 1 2 7 5 6 1 8 20 50 Three-banded Plover 2 11 2 1 1 17 Greater Flamingo 15 15 155 no 645 200 30 600 250 150 2060 data Greenshank 1 3 1 9 4 18 Lesser Flamingo 20 25 1052 no 4500 2500 113 18,000 274 37 400 25000 100000 151921 data Moorhen 3 3 Wood Sandpiper 6 9 15 Black-winged Stilt 4 20 2 2 2 3 1 34 Saddle-billed Stork 1 1 Grey Heron 1 6 1 3 11 Hammerkop 1 1 2 Great White Pelican 300 22 11 38 8 379 Water Thicknee 1 1 African Marsh Harrier 1 1 Avocet 9 19 14 15 3 2 140 58 14 17 291 Common Sandpiper 1 1 2 Yellow-billed Stork 350 220 24 30 5 1 51 681 Spoonbill 24 3 5 32 Pink-backed Pelican 9 12 21

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Marabou Stork 6 3 13 22 Gull-billed Tern 2 1 3 Cape Teal 4 4 Little Grebe 18 18 Whiskered Tern 51 2 53 Chestnut-banded Sandplover 1 6 75 42 719 9 25 877 Curlew Sandpiper 1 16 17 Cattle Egret 1 1 12 14 Black-necked Grebe 1 1 Ringed Plover 1 1 Greater Cormorant 2196 117 Kitlitz Sand Plover 3 3 Hadada Ibis 1 1 Total Waterbirds 102 46 73 2123 441 7448 3086 11 464 21135 579 61 430 25413 100983 162395 Total Spp. 11 7 9 23 22 13 11 4 12 16 7 3 5 15 18

Appendix II. Results of Aerial Survey, 1st November 2006. Count and observations of Lesser Flamingo at Lake Natron. (Parameters from Watson & Nimmo, 1991) Lagoon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Σ Est Number Estimated 135000 13000 10000 0 0 25000 450 5000 200 10000 60 325 25,000 650 5000 200 229,855 Number Greater yes yes no na na yes no yes no no no no no no no no with Lesser Flamingo Presence of no no no na na no no no no no no no no no no no Juvenile Presence of no no no na na no no no no no no no no no no no fledglings in crèches Activity feeding feeding feeding na na - feeding feeding feeding feeding feeding feeding feeding - feeding Feeding preening preening

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007 Appendix F - Lake Natron Soda Ash ESIA Page F - 16

Nests in no no no na na no no no no no no no no no no no string formation Nests in no no no na na no no no no no no no no no no no colonies Presence of no no no na na no no no no no no no no no no no nests being constructed Presence of No juv no no no no no No juv. no no no no no no no no no unattended or ad or ad nests observed observed Presence of yes no no no no no yes no no no no no no no no no abandoned nests

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007 Appendix F - Lake Natron Soda Ash ESIA Page F - 17

4 CULTURAL HERITAGE

4.1.1 Methods of investigation

Desk top Preparation: Efforts at library search for information about the Archaeology of the area to be impacted by the project, i.e. bounded by UTM 740000-830000 E 9740-9750 S proved almost futile as there had been no previous archaeological investigation. However given the rich fossiliferous and artifact bearing sediments in the western part of the lake particularly Monik and Peninj, as discussed above, the team was confident that the eastern lake flats would also contain archaeological and palaeontological relics spanning the Plio-Pleistocene period. In other words, eastern Lake Natron was until this study, a terra incognito, archaeologically speaking.

Survey: The field work was dominated by survey and a few test pit excavations. Being pioneering work in the area, survey was the only way to obtain a bird’s view of the archaeological and palaeontological heritage of the project area. The archeological team walked as much of the area to be impacted as possible noting surface remains of artifacts and fossils and collecting a few. Constraints such as, the time at the team’s disposal, difficult terrain to walk over and differential archaeological visibility militated against employing more sophisticated sampling and surveying procedures. As such the surveying and sampling were for the most part opportunistic in the sense that only areas with good archeological visibility, a dense scatter of artifacts and areas not so difficult to walk over were surveyed while areas with formidable terrain were avoided. Nevertheless the teams felt it had covered a large enough area to be able to make scientifically valid statements about the archeology of the study area. As for the road, the team made several stops on the way to and fro the project site and looked around for both archaeological as well as palaeontological remains.

Sampling: Two approaches of sampling were adopted; total recovery of exceptionally high concentration of artifacts and excavation of test pits to assess the depth and temporal distribution of the archeological heritage.

Survey methods consisted of the team of four people walking at an interval of 5m from each other towards the same direction and stopping whenever an archaeological surface was encountered. Several areas of unusual concentration of artifacts were observed and a few were sampled while the majority, were simply noted in the notes and the GPS recorded as discussed later on. Overall, there are many archeological remains in the area.

In more details, the team started surveying one of the Korongo known as Kipii (GPS 37M080213/9741774) by the local people. The point was to gain a birds view of the stratigraphy and temporal distribution of the archaeology by examining the sides/banks of the Korongo. At the time of visit the Korongo which runs roughly SE-NW to the lake had some little water. The Korongo bed was strewn by rubble some of which were chert nodules. Chert is one of the most popular a raw material used by the makers of the Middle Stone Age (MSA), the cultural expression of anatomically modern man known to have lasted roughly from 200,000 to 20,000 yrs B.P, and marking the beginning of regional variation and in technology and cultural adaptation (Willoughby 1993). Its popularity is attributed to its superior physics of conchoidal fracturing. In the Natron area, east and west of the lake it seems to dominate all the other materials used during MSA (Bushozi, Masao). On closer examination, some of the chert rubbles in the Korongo were found to be artifacts. Stratigraphy:

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The section from the northern bank varies from 1.6-2.0m 1. Top sandy clay ca. 30 cm thick with very few rubble and artifacts 2. Layer of rubble and gravel varying in thickness from 30-50cm with many chert artifacts. 3. Compact silty sand with very few rubble and measuring ca. 50cm thick 4. Gravel and rubble layer with lots of chert nodules and chert artifacts.

In all no fossil bones were encountered. The team surveyed the floor of the river for about 200m downstream then moved to the northern side of the valley for about 500m towards the lake. A transect ca. 200m wide was established on the northern side of the Korongo between the Ngejeki ridge and the lake flats. Several patches of artifact were observed in the areas where the top layer (soil) had been washed away. Such exposed surfaces were littered with chert nodules, basaltic rubble and other rock .One such concentration was seen at locality denoted by GPS 37M0179833/9741926, where the whole surface was littered by chert artifacts. Most exposed patches exhibited comparable concentration of artifact and non-artifact chert pieces.

Cursory examination of the artifacts revealed an Acheulean-like biface made from basalt, diminutive biface or a bifacial point, scrapers, notched pieces and several flakes and cores. This observation was important because it indicates the type of archeology to expect. A detailed discussion of the assemblage will be found in a subsequent section.

The team also noted variable concentrations at the following localities denoted by the GPS coordinates. The more important sites are also shown on the map herewith enclosed.

37M0180331/974352 is a locality with a concentration of artifacts most of which are made of chert, but also a few made from basalt. Recognized types included crude picks, and a biface both of which are made from metamorphosed sandstone and Levalloisian flakes made from chert. There were several other artifacts all of which suggest MSA affinity.

37M0180409/9743710 an extensive high density scatter of artifacts dominated by chert.

37M01808779/9744482 at this locality there was very scanty archaeological remains here as most of the pieces are natural rubble.

37M0180944/9744596 part of the lower ridge of the Ngejeki plateau. Some artifacts made from metamorphosed sandstone are observed but the density was relatively light. A few were collected for further study.

37M0181380/9744926 close to deep ravine-like gully, but no archeological remains were seen.

37M0182420/9746240 on Ngejeki plateau and at the southern limit of the bush/woodland vegetation. Though the archaeological visibility is slightly impaired by the vegetation, a rich scatter of artifacts was observed in the patches where the vegetation was a little sparse.

37M0182936/9747052 a locality in the bush/woodland zone of Ngejeki plateau, with lots of naturally shaped metamorphosed sandstone rubble. However a few archeological artifacts made from chert and obsidian were also encountered.

37M0181929/9748738 marks a high concentration of obsidian artifacts and a few chert artifacts. Judging by the microlithic size of the artifacts it is tempting to suggest a Later Stone Age (LSA) affinity.

37M0181778/9749032. At this location obsidian artifacts persist, but in a reduced concentration compared to previous locality. The vegetation is scattered bush.

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37M0181060/9749116. At this lower lake terrace locality a concentration of chert artifacts and a few fossils was encountered. Due to the fossil remains it was earmarked for excavation

37M0181247/9747838 marks scatter of artifacts dominated by chert was observed and recorded as termite site on account of an impressive termite mound.

37M0181213/9747064 and 37M0180635/9745686. Though not very extensive these two localities were among richest concentration of chert artifacts. Some of the artifacts were in such a mint condition that they could not have been exposed more than 10 years ago, perhaps during the 1998 El Nino rains.

37M0180562/9747064 an 37M0180565/974538; Denote an extensive area, roughly 170 x 150m with an unusually high concentration of artifacts. Two recovery strategies were adopted. i. A 5m radius was inscribed in an area opportunistically chosen and all artifacts in the circle collected. A summary of the artifacts will be seen in the table below. ii. A 1x 4m stepped trench was laid and excavated to the sterile layers as discussed in the section on excavation.

37M0180267/9744556, a locality on the lake flats with a scatter of artifacts covering and area of ca.400 sq m. Some of the chert artifacts are patinated while artifacts made from other raw materials are heavily weathered, suggesting that the artifacts have been exposed for a long time.

37M0180945/9747342 is a locality called sardine site on account of a nearby saline spring abounding in sardines. A dense concentration of artifacts dominated by chert was observed at the interface of the spring and the lake shore. While the chert artifacts are in relatively good condition, those made from lava and metamorphosed sand stone are heavily weathered. The area richest in artifacts seems to be the strip of land between the soda ash flats and the 720 contour line.

37M0180167/9743082 (Camp site 1) is on the lower part of the Ngejeki plateau and exhibits a rich scatter of chert artifacts. The assorted assemblage seems to be dominated by cores, presumably because they are more resistant to slope wash than the lighter artifacts. Some of the flakes had denticulate edges, perhaps resulting from use.

37M0179978/9742558 (camp site 2) marks an extensive spread of artifacts dominated by chert. The locality is on the edge of the terrace overlooking the soda flats. A small sample was collected for further study.

37M0180100/9741954 marks another area with a great number of artifacts and rubble. Like in most of other localities, chert dominates the rubble and artifacts.

37M0180420/9745492 denotes an exposed locality on the lake flats littered with artifacts and naturally shaped pieces of chert and metamorphosed sand stone.

37M0180576/9746050 a very expansive exposed surface on the lake flats measuring 800x 800m. The surface has a rich scatter of both rubble and artifacts. Although metamorphosed sand stone occurs in great quantity, chert still dominates. It is one of the more important collections, because of the presence of bifaces including handaxes and core axes which are considered to be the fossil directeurs of the MSA and even earlier industries. Earlier industries would be Acheulean.

37M0179779/9742104 denotes an area close to the lake flats and with a scatter of artifacts dominated by chert. A sample of the artifacts was collected and a telephone booth test pit excavated at the locality to view the stratification.

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Excavations: Not only do excavations take a long time to execute compared with survey, but they also neither yield as much material especially if the purpose is to salvage material from an impending and imminent threat, natural or anthropogenic, nor give as a good general overview of the archeological potential of an area as survey does. On the other hand the information gleaned from ground survey alone, will be scientifically limited especially in terms of building cultural history or detecting typo-chronological changes. If resources were unlimited one would wish to see the whole area excavated and all fossils and artifacts threatened by the project rescued. The ideal and practical option is a combination of excavation and survey. The team therefore excavated three test pits the stratigraphy of which gives a fairly good picture of the temporal sequence of the archaeological heritage of the area.

Test Pit 1: This was a 1 x 4m stepped trench excavated in the area denoted by the GPS coordinates 37M0180565/974538; The excavation revealed four distinct stratigraphical units which starting from the top are: 1. 15cm thick sandy clay with a few crude artifacts. 2. A 17cm thick diatomaceous layer with intercalations of sandy soil. Artifacts were noticeably rare. 3. Silty clay soil measuring 15cm thick and very rich in artifacts made from phonolite and chert. 4. Sandy layer and less compact than the preceding layer. While artifacts still occurred they were very scanty. 5. Gravel layer with inclusions of decomposed bed rock. No artifacts were encountered here. Excavation was stopped at 1.0 below surface.

Test Pit 2: Fossil Site1:37M0181060/9749116. A 0.5x2.0m stepped test pit was excavated at this locality to check the stratigraphy and vertical distribution of artifacts. A few artifacts and fossil bones were found on the surface and hence the excavation anticipated finding a few more fossils. 1. The first layer consisted of silt sand with very few artifacts. 2. Compact sandy clay which peels in layers with neither artifacts nor bones. The lithology turns into earthy clay with depth. Excavation was taken to 50 cm below surface and thereafter stopped since there were no more artifacts.

Test Pit 3 Lake flat Site 1: 37M0179779/9742104 A 1.0 x1.5 test pit was excavated at this site. The surface was littered with artifacts and a few fossil bones. Decision to excavate this site was influenced by the anticipation of finding more fossil bones. The stratigraphy: Three distinct stratigraphical units/levels were recognized: 1. 14 cm thick brown sandy clay with artifacts. This unit is distinguished from the underlying one by a high density of flat chert nodules. 2. A 20cm thick layer of olive green waxy sandy clay with a few artifacts. A bifacial disc (MSA or earlier) is one of the artifacts recovered. Artifacts seem to decrease with depth 3. Thick whitish laminated clay intercalated with waxy clay. No artifacts were recovered and therefore further excavation was stopped.

Archaeological Findings

The whole project site from the lake flat up to the first terrace and on to the Ngejeki Plateau is one expansive site but concentrations of artifacts vary from one locality to another depending on the relief. Localities on flat ground tended to have denser concentrations than those on slopes.

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Table 1: Summary of artifacts recovered from the circle at locality denoted by the GPS coordinates 37M0180565/974538 Artifact type Weathering Raw material Modification Frequency Core Chert Plain 46 multiplatform Core Phonolite 5 multiplatform Core Metamorphosed 2 multiplatform Sand stone Core fragment Chert 43 Core fragment Phonolite 4 Core Scraper Chert 5 Crescent Chert 1 Blade Chert 1 Flake Chert 78 Flake Phonolite 7 Flake Lava 1 Flake Meta sandstone 3 Scraper Chert 2

Scraper Phonolite 4 Scraper Meta sandstone 1 Disc Chert Backed Chert 1 Fossil bone NID 1

Table 2: Summary of artifacts from Circle no.2 Artifact type weathering Raw material Modification Frequency Bifacial point 1 Chert Bifacially 10 retouched Diminutive 1 Chert Do 7 bifaces Unifacial point 1 Chert Trimming on one 3 side Utilized flake 1 Chert Broken edge 18 Flake plain 1 Chert None 6 Ut. flake blade 1 Phonolite Broken edges 1 Ut. flake blade 1 Meta Sand stone None 1 Multiplatform 1-2 Chert None 56 core Multiplatform 1-2 Phonolite None 16 cores Multiplatform 1 Metamorphosed None 2 cores sand stone Unif. core axes 1 Chert Retouched 25 Bif. core axes 1 Chert Retouched 35 Alt core axes 1 Chert Retouched 6 Scraper 1 Chert trimming 31 Trimmed backed 1 Chert Trimming 1

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Artifact type weathering Raw material Modification Frequency piece Trimmed backed 1 Phonolite Trimming 1 piece Notched piece 1 Chert Notched 1

Table 3: Summary of artifacts recovered from Test Pit 1. Level Artifact Weathering Raw Modification Frequency type material Surface Mult. plat 1-2 Chert None 10 Core Mult. plat 1-2 Phonolite None 5 core Single plat 1-2 Phonolite None 2 core Bipolar core 1 Phonolite None 1 Mult. plat 1 Meta 2 core Sandstone Denticulate 1 Phonolite 1 Scraper 1 Phonolite 2 Scraper 1 Meta 1 Sandstone Flake 1 Phonolite 7

Flake 1 Chert 1 Flake 1 Meta 1 Sandstone I Flake 1 Chert 14 Flake 1 Phonolite 3 Mult. plat 1-2 Chert 28 Core Core 1 Phonolite 1 Flakes 1 Chert 14 Flake 1 Phonolite 3 Core frag. 1-2 Chert 13 Flake 1 Chert 9 Scraper 1 Chert 2 Level 2 Mult. plat 1-2 chert 10 core Core frag. 1-2 Chert 5 Core frag. 1-2 Phonolite 2 Flakes 1 Chert 2 Level 3 Scraper 1 Chert 10 Ut.. Flakes 1 Chert 15 Notched 1 chert 5 flakes Flakes 1 Chert 10 Blades 1 Phono 11 Scrapers 1 Phono 13 Flakes 1 Phono 70 Ut flakes 1 Phono 17

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Mult plat 1 Phono 20 core Single plat 1 Phono 10 cores Bip core 1-2 Phono 10 Core 1 Phono 8 scraper Single plat 1 Chert 4 core Mult plat 1 Chert 4 core Core frag 1-2 Chert 15 Core frag Phono 78

Table 4. Summary of artifacts recovered from Trench no 2. Level Artifact type Raw Weathering Modification Frequency material Surface Multi plat Basalt 1 None 2 core Multi plat Chert 1 None 3 core Bipolar core Chert 1 None 1 Flake Chert 1 None 1 Flake Basalt 1 None 1 Core frag Chert 1 None 2 Core scraper Basalt 1 None 2 Hard scrape Utilized flake Basalt 1 None 2 Flake plain Basalt 1 None 7 Scraper Basalt 1 None 1 Multi plat basalt 1 None 7 core Fossil Bone Bone 1 NID Level 1 Sterile Level 2 Sterile

A variety of stone artifacts as summarized in the tables above were recovered by surface survey and the limited excavations. A few of the artifacts are illustrated as shown here. As is discussed below the recovered data suggest a two distinct cultural industrial component, the MSA and LSA with a possibility of a late Acheulean component. The assemblage is reminiscent of comparable materials from the Lake Eyasi Basin and the western part of Lake Natron. Very few fossil remains were recovered but this is seen more as a reflection the recovery strategies than denoting presence or absence of such relics. The author believes that excavations are likely to produce fossil remains.

The Mto wa Mbu –Ngaresero Road: A few stops were made at arbitrary intervals along the road and both sides of the road searched for archaeological remains. Scatters of artifacts were observed near Selela, Engaruka and the stretch between Gelai plains and Ngaresero, but there were no major clusters of sites. Like it was

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reported by the archaeologist, most of the Archeological remains belong to MSA and LSA (Masao 1999).

Technical Types and Reduction Strategy Given the paucity of known sealed dense MSA sites in Tanzania, the eastern part of the Lake Natron, especially the northeastern, seems to be an important large archaeological site which needs to be studied in more details. Studies focusing on MSA lithic technological attributes would be particularly suitable since there are so many artifact types. The bifaces for example, though not many, may be intriguing for it is not easy to assign them to any industrial taxon unless they have been found in high enough frequencies or associated with other diagnostic artifacts, an assignment obviously not with in the scope of the just ended field work. They may either belong to an industry earlier than typical MSA in which case they would suggest the presence of a Njarasa like industry as that one recognized by Mehlman (1989) from the Lake Eyasi Basin, or alternatively they may belong to an industry intermediate between MSA and Terminal Acheulean. Whatever the case, evaluation of the significance of the few bifaces found is necessary and hence the need to look for sealed sites in the area.

Stratification is very shallow and therefore other than the surface material very little archaeological heritage would be threatened by the project. In addition to the artifacts, most of the ground in the project area is strewn with nodular chert, basaltic lava, green and olive yellow phonolite, banded iron formation-like material and metamorphosed sand stone boulders. These boulders together with the grass cover in some areas reduce the overall archeological visibility. In addition, the boulders and rubble complicate easy recognition of the artifacts since naturally shaped pieces of rock can easily pass as artifacts and hence the need to be extra careful in selecting the artifacts. In a few patches however, where erosion has had its toll, only artifacts and naturally shaped pieces of rock are found. The whole stretch of the north eastern shore and lake flats are littered with rubble and artifacts which seem to have been washed down the slope from the lake terrace and the Ngejeki plateau.

5 WILDLIFE

5.1.1 Materials and Methods

From 20-27 January 2007, Standard small vertebrate trapping techniques were used to assess the presence of the small vertebrate fauna.

Small mammals

Rodents (rats and mice) and insectivores (shrews, etc.) were assessed using standard techniques shown to be effective elsewhere in East Africa (Stanley, et al., 1996; Davies & Howell, 2002). These methods include pitfall trapping, snap trapping and Sherman trapping. Studies of these authors indicate that a minimum of seven trap nights, and preferably ten, is needed to adequately sample the smaller rodent and insectivore fauna.

Pitfall trapping

Pitfall arrays consisted of a line of eleven 20 litre plastic buckets (internal diameter 30 cm, depth 33 cm) buried into the ground at 5 m intervals such that the opening to each was flush with ground level. A drift fence made of transparent plastic sheeting approximately 0.5 m high and supported by wooden stakes to which the plastic was stapled served to guide animals which encountered the fence into the buckets (Fig. 1). Following standard techniques and practice (see references cited above) we did not use bait to attract animals to the BPFLs (Davies & Howell,

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2002). Bucket Pitfall Lines (BPFLs) were established in each of the representative habitat types at sites likely to be directly affected by the project.

Figure 1. Arrangement of a BPFL indicating positions of buckets and the drift fence

Snap and Sherman trapping

Standard metal Snap (Breakback traps, Rat traps, 16 x 9 x 1 cm) and Sherman (also termed “live”) traps (approximately 11 x 22 x 35 cm) were used to trap small mammals. These traps were set parallel to and 10 m from either side of each BPFL, at an interval of 5 m). Generally a total of 25 snap traps and twelve Sherman traps were set along each BPFL. Traps were baited in late afternoon using equal sized pieces of fresh coconut which had been lightly fried and rolled in peanut butter.

All traps were checked soon after dawn. Old bait was removed and discarded away from the trapline.

Larger Mammals

Records were kept of any mammals observed, and tracks (spoor) and scats (dung) noted during fieldwork. Local residents were interviewed informally as to the presence or absence of mammals and other fauna.

Mammals were identified using the standard field guide for Africa ( Kingdon, xxxxx) and Kingdon (1974).

Amphibians

Amphibians were sampled using bucket pitfall traps with drift fences. Some individuals were retained as voucher specimens and preserved.

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The standard guide to the identification of amphibians for East Africa, Channing & Howell (2006), was used to identify amphibians.

Reptiles

Reptiles were also sampled using the BPFLs and any encountered were captured by hand. Identifications were made using Spawls et al. (2004).

Locations and habitats of Traplines

The georeferenced locations and habitat of each of the four traplines are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: Trapline locations and habitats Trapline Georeference Habitat, Notes Number BPFL1 37M 0178444, UTM Bushed grassland estuary 97355790

BPFL 2 37M 0179891, UTM Bushed grassland on rocky 9742852 hill top (Proposed Project Site)

BPFL 3 37M 0180454, UTM Bushed grassland on rocky 9742645 hill top (Proposed Project Site)

BPFL 4 37M 0180349, UTM Riverine vegetation north of 9743881 proposed Project Site

Trapping Results

Trapping results are presented in the usual format for small vertebrate studies, including cumulative number of trap nights (=trap effort, in which a single trap set for one night = one trap night ), cumulative number of species (CNS) captured, and cumulative number of individuals (CNI) trapped.

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Bucket Pitfall Line Trapping, Amphibians

Results for amphibians are presented in Figure 1. Despite a considerable trap effort, only thirty- one individuals of a single species of amphibian, Bufo xeros were collected.

The Cumulative Number of Species curve is flat, indicating that probably with even a much greater trap effort, no or only very few new species would have been added to the list by greater trapping effort.

Figure 3

BPFL Trapping Jan 2007 Amphibians

35

30

25

20 CNI CNS Numbers 15

10

5

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Cumulative BPFL Trap Effort

Bucket Pitfall Line Trapping, Reptiles

Results are presented in Figure 3.

The CNS curve appears not to have reached its asymptote, indicating that further trap effort might have yielded a larger number of reptile species. The Cumulative Number of Individuals (CNI) is not large, indicating relatively low densities of reptiles.

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Figure 3

BPFL Trapping January 2007 Reptiles

16

14

12

10

CNI 8 CNS Numbers

6

4

2

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Cumulative BPFL Effort

Bucket Pitfall Line Trapping, Small Mammals

The results of trapping small mammals using Bucket Pitfall Lines are presented in Figure 4.

The CNS of small mammals was only two, indicating that very few species were present; the number of individuals taken was also not great as evidenced by the low CNI.

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Figure 4

BPFL Trapping January 2007 Mammals

6

5

4

CNI 3 CNS Numbers

2

1

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Cumulative BPFL Effort

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Snap Trapping, Small Mammals The results of Snap Trapping for small mammals are presented in Table 2. No mammal was taken in 568 Snap Trap nights, indicating that few if any larger rodents were active in the study area during our visit. Table 2 Cum Snap Date Effort CNI CNS 20-Jan 25 0 0 21-Jan 50 0 0 22-Jan 98 0 0 23-Jan 192 0 0 24-Jan 286 0 0 25-Jan 380 0 0 26-Jan 474 0 0 27-Jan 568 0 0

Sherman Trapping, Small Mammals

The results of Sherman Trapping for small mammals are presented in Figure 5. Only two species of small mammal were taken in Sherman live traps after which time no new species were added to the CNS curve, which appeared to have reached its asymptote. The number of individual animals was also low, indicating low abundance at the time of trapping.

Figure 5

Sherman Trapping Small Mammals

4.5

4

3.5

3

2.5 CNI CNS

Numbers 2

1.5

1

0.5

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Cumulative Sherman Trap Effort

Species accounts based on animals captured/observed

Table 3: Summarises data on the species detected during the field work. Taxonomic Group Common Name Scientific Name Distribution, Notes Class Amphibia Family Bufonidae Desert Toad Bufo xeros Widely distributed, from Algeria to the dry savannas of Sub-saharan Africa, known from the drier parts

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of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.

In addition to the individuals trapped, two were collected at the Moivaro tented camp area during the scoping exercise, when the males were also vocalising.

Family Ranidae, Ridged Grass Ptychadena A single individual was collected at Ranid or “typical” Frog anchietae a wetland near Panini during frogs scoping.

Class Reptilia Order Sauria, Lizards Family Nyika Gecko Hemidactylus Known as an inhabitant of Acacia Gekkonidae, squamulatus Commiphora woodland, but also Geckos found in some places in dry Zambesian woodland.

Banded Velvet Homopholis The single individual sampled is a Gecko fasciatus range extension, however, its occurrence is not unexpected, since it is known from dry country from diverse localities Turner’s Thick- Pachydactylus A species of moist and dry savanna, toed Gecko turneri from sea level to 1800 m altitude. In East Africa its distribution in East Africa is patchy. It is probably more widely distributed but is simply undersampled.

Family Southern Long- Latastia A common and widespread species Lacertidae, tailed Lizard longicaudata of the Somali-Maasai semi-desert Lacertid Lizards area but is also found in Acacia- Commiphora woodland. This appears to be the first known from the Lake Natron area. Family Scincidae, Tree Skink Trachylepis A single individual was seen on the Skinks planifrons eastern shore of the lake during the scoping visit.

Order Serpentes, Snakes

Family Boidae, Kenyan sand boa Eryx colubrinus Known from northern and eastern Boas Kenya and northeastern Tanzania, with a single record from Ruaha National Park in southern Tanzania. The animals captured represent a range extension for this species, but it would be expected to occur. Family Northern Stripe- Psammophis One individual was captured in a

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Colubridae, bellied Sand sudanensis BPFL; it is a widespread species “typical’ snakes Snake and would be expected to occur in the Project Area. Class Mammalia, Mammals Order Insectivora Family Soricidae, White-toothed or Crocidura sp. Shrews Musk Shrews

Order Rodentia Family Muridae, Pygmy Mouse Mus sp. While there appear to have been to Muroid rodents records directly associated with the Lake Natron area, there is a record mapped in Kingdon (1974) indicating a position approximately between Lake Eyasi and Lake Natron for Mus bellus and we tentatively place the pygmy mice captured in that taxon until reports from a specialist on the genus Mus are received. Tatera Gerbils Tatera sp. Tatera cf robusta The single specimen trapped does not agree with all features of this species but this probably reflects inadequate original descriptions rather than an unusual taxon. Tatera gerbils are found in a wide variety of habitats, including grassland and woodland in dry areas. Spiny Mouse Acomys sp. Possibly Acomys wilsoni or Acomys nubilus; Swynnerton & Hayman (1951) record Acomys nubilus Dollman, 1914 the type specimen from “Magadi, (presumably in Kenya) southern Masailand “ and at the foot of Longido Mountain, Tanzania. The exact species boundaries of members of the genus Acomys have not yet been precisely determined (see Wilson & Reeder, 1993).

Order Chiroptera, Bats

Suborder Microchiroptera, Insectivorous bats

Family Yellow-winged Lavia frons Seen frequently in scrub in the Megadermatidae Bat vicinity of Moivaro tented camp “False Vampire” and at Panini; recorded from Ol

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bats Donyo Lengai by Swynnerton & Hayman (1951).

Order Carnivora

Family Hyaenidae Spotted Hyena Crocuta crocuta Widespread in the Lake Natron area, noted as present at Longido by Swynnerton & Hayman (1951) and heard and seen during the fieldwork.

Other species that probably occur in the area, based on their presence in dry habitats and general widespread distributions in the region are presented in Table 4: Table 4: Class Amphibia Family Bufo parkeri This small toad is undercollected Bufonidae and is known from dry localities north of Lake Natron (Olorgesaille in Kenya) and to the south (Usangu area, Tanzania) (Channing & Howell, 2006) and so might well be found in the Natron area.

Family Ranidae Sand Frog Tomopterna sp. A specimen of frog collected by Fischer in the late 1800s had for years been misidentified as a member of another genus and only recently was placed in this genus.

Class Reptilia Family It is likely that at least one species Testudinidae, of tortoise, Geochelone pardalis, Tortoises the Leopard Tortoise, occurs in the Lake Natron area but due to the harsh, dry conditions these would have remained in hiding or aestivation during our visit. Given the lack of suitable habitat (granite fissures in kopjes), it would seem unlikely that the Tanzania/Kenya/Zambia endemic Pancake tortoise, Malacochersus tornieri, would occur in the Project Area.

Order Sauria, Lizards Family Cordylus This species has only recently been Cordylidae beraducci described and is known from the drier portions of northern Tanzania and is also found in Kenya (Spawls et al., 2004).

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Family Scincidae Trachylepis This skink was only recognised as dichromis different from Trachylepis brevicollis in 2005 and Branch et al (in prep) indicate that it is found in the vicinity of Lake Natron. Family Nile Monitor Varanus Nile Monitor lizards were reported Varanidae niloticus by local residents to occur on the western side of the Lake. Order Serpentes, Snakes Family Python sp. Pythons would be expected to occur Pythonidae in areas of wetlands with freshwater. Family Elapidae Dendroaspis Black Mambas would be expected polylepis. to occur as they are widely distributed and able to survive in dry areas. Naja spp. Cobras are probably present, based on their wide distribution in similar habitats. Family Viperidae Bitis arietans Puff Adders are widely distributed and likely to occur in the Natron area.

Other records from the literature:

Small Mammals

The study by Kasule et al. (1993) trapped 33 small mammals in bushland and Maasai dwellings. Four of these were shrews (no attempt was made by the authors to identify these to genus) and twenty-nine were Multi-mammate rats in the genus Mastomys . The latter is a widespread genus associated with human agriculture and disturbance. Kasule et al. (1993) further remark upon the absence of the Roof Rat Rattus rattus, a common human commensal species.

The only standard reference for the Tanzanian mammalian fauna that provides detailed locality data based on specimens is Swynnerton & Hayman (1951) but the taxonomy used therein is outdated, sometimes making comparisons difficult. Furthermore, little collecting seems to have done in the immediate vicinity of Lake Natron. However, the following records were noted and are provided for comparative purposes:

The species “white-toothed” or “musk” shrew, Crocidura fisheri Pagenstecher, 1885 was described from Nguruman, west of Lake Natron, and has also been reported from near Engare Nanyuki. These specimens will need to be examined by a specialist before they can be identified to species level.

Kingdon (1974) is the standard reference for East African rodents, but unfortunately, he did not provide detailed localities nor details of specimens examined. However, he does record a member of the “Egyptian Gerbil” genus, Gerbillus, Gerbillus pusillus, from immediately south of Lake Natron. He also notes that this rodent is recorded as prey of Eryx colubrinus.

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Other comments on fauna:

No concentrations of large mammals were evident; occasional individuals and/or small groups of zebra, gazelles, and wildebeest were seen, however. Surprisingly, no baboons were seen in the vicinity of the proposed project site. Insectivorous bats unidentified to species, possibly members of the family Hipposideridae, were seen catching insects at night at the Moivaro tented camp during scoping. No nocturnal primates (galagos, bushbabies) were seen or heard.

Significance of findings:

Species richness and abundance

There were few species of small vertebrate detected, it was to be expected that reptiles, many of which are adapted for relatively dry conditions, were relatively more speciose than the other groups. The large number of Bufo toads present probably reflected that they had bred earlier and we were capturing subadults. None of the vertebrate groups sampled was especially speciose or abundant.

Faunal relationships Based on our limited sampling, the small mammal and herpetofaunal affinities of the Lake Natron area appear similar to those of the generally dry areas of Africa, as indicated by the presence of the amphibian the Desert Toad, Bufo xeros, also known from desert and semi-desert in west and north Africa and the snake Eryx colubrinus, the Sand boa, known from semi-desert and desert areas of Africa. Egyptian gerbils in the genus Gerbillus, typical of semi-arid habitats, are recorded from near Lake Natron (see Kingdon, 1974). We are unaware of any species of small terrestrial vertebrate endemic to the Lake Natron area. The other species of small vertebrates detected are distributed widely in woodland and other habitats.

Caveat on taxonomic limitations: We obtained only a very small number of animals during our sampling, and some of the groups, especially the shrews, will require the services of a specialist taxonomist to identify them to species level. This is generally true for the small mammals as a group; taxonomists also often require long series of individuals to make a positive identification and it was not possible to obtain these.

New taxa of small vertebrates are constantly being discovered in Tanzania and it is not possible to say for certain that in the future, these will not be detected in the study area. Furthermore, science constantly re-assesses itself. Rodel & Hallerman (2006) recently showed that a specimen of an amphibian collected in the Natron area in the late 1880s and described in 1884 was incorrectly assigned to a genus, and this amphibian, now placed in the genus of Sand Frogs, Tomopterna, cannot be identified to species level based on the existing information.

Potential Human Interactions with Wildlife

Diseases Transmission by Wildlife

Plague: Plague, a disease caused by the bacterium Pasteurella pestis, is endemic to parts of Tanzania, including northern Tanzania. It is transmitted from rodent to rodent by fleas, and it is maintained in association with wild “field” rodents such as Tatera, Mastomys, Arvicanthis, Rattus and other genera (Msangi, 1968; Wilcocks & Manson-Bahr, 1972). A person may be infected with the bacterium when bitten by a flea that has previously fed on an rodent carrying the bacterium in its

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blood, but once the disease is present in humans it can then be spread from human to human via coughing, etc.

Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease usually transmitted to humans by the bite of a carnivore. However, other species of mammals may be involved depending on the situation. Rabies is widespread in Tanzania and project staff need to be aware of its signs and what to do if someone is bitten by a suspected rabid animal.

Rift Valley Fever: This is a viral disease of domestic animals (usually livestock, but also may affect mammalian pets) that can be transmitted by direct contact with contaminated flesh, blood, etc or by mosquitoes. An outbreak in Tanzania in 2006 and 2007 has caused wide concern among the public and has been difficult to control.

Avian Flu:

At present there are no data available on the presence of the Avian Flu virus in wild birds in Tanzania.

Introduction of commensal species of rodents

Rattus rattus, the Roof Rat, is found in most parts of Tanzania in close association with humans and their dwellings. It does not generally occur in natural habitats but once established in human dwellings and associated buildings is extremely difficult to eradicate. It would be expected to make its appearance at the Project Site. Buildings need to be designed as “rat proof” and policies and practices need to be in place such that Roof Rats are not provided with cover and food. Some of these practices need to be implemented at the larger project scale, others at the household level.

Venomous stings (insects, arthropods)

Dry areas are known to harbour scorpions and centipedes and these may pince, as well as inject venom when threatened. Such events are not usually medical emergencies but some individuals may show sensitivity to venoms.

Snakebite

The bites of many snakes in the Natron area are harmless. However, Pythons are present, these are not venomous but a bite from a large python can result In tissue damage due their large number of large, curved teeth. Pythons are large constrictors but rarely attacked humans unless provoked. They will kill and swallow domestic pets, however.

Large venomous snakes such as the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), various species of cobra (Naja spp) and Puff Adders (Bitis arietans) are likely to be present in the area. These may be encountered both in the construction and operation phase of the Project and also may be encountered on roads. A bite from any of these species is a medical emergency and it is suggested that medical personnel on site be trained in stabilizing victims of snakebite and that a procedure be put in place to evacuate within half an hour by aircraft to a hospital with which there is an agreement by which such victims will be given antivenom treatment. If during construction large numbers of snakes are encountered, it is suggested that a specialist be brought in to train staff as to which species of snakes are potentially harmful and train staff members how to avoid snake bite, and how to manage any snakes encountered.

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Mitigations: Most of the disease issues can be mitigated by education and awareness but there will need to be a health and safety inspection regularly of both the Project factory and housing facilities, as well as policies in place as to the proper handling of all forms of waste, especially household and cafeteria food. Medical staff need to be aware of these diseases, their symptoms and treatment and a disaster management plan needs to be developed and in place to deal with any potential disease crisis.

Policies that might be considered to reduce the contact of staff with potentially diseased animals include a “no mammalian pets” policy, ie, no cats, dogs, or guineapigs and similar animals. Such a policy may also serve to reduce contact with some larger snakes, that might wish to include these pets in their diet.

Project Decommissioning, Closure

We have not seen any details regarding decommissioning and closure but this phase also needs planning as regards possible effects on small vertebrates, especially as regards any destruction of the physical plant components (will these be left in place, what if any steps will be taken to replace any natural vegetation that might have been originally present). Consideration also needs to be given to any non-biodegradables present on site, such as plastics and metals and how these may interact with the environment.

DRAFT Norconsult 3 May 2007