AARON LANDRY | 85 Inspiration INTRODUCTION and Τέχνη: In Plato’s Ion, inspiration functions in con- Divination in tradistinction to technē.1 Since Ion’s rhapso- dic expertise does not stand up to Socrates’ Plato’s Ion epistemological critique, his performances of Homer cannot stem from knowledge, but from elsewhere, from divine inspiration. The two are presented as a strict disjunction. Yet in both cases there is an appeal to divination. If rhapsody, and poetry by extension, cannot synthesize the two, why does Socrates seem 2 Aaron Landry to think that divination can? This puzzle has Humber College caused quite a bit of consternation about the 3 [email protected] value and subject matter of the dialogue. In particular, it is unclear what Socrates thinks about the nature of poetic and rhapsodic ins- piration. In this essay, I will argue that divi- nation constitutes an alternate, and improved, framework for Ion to model his expertise on. By clarifying the role and scope of divination in the Ion, I aim to show that Socrates’ disjunctive account – inspiration or technē – can actually be integrated. In so doing, I argue that there are in fact positive philosophical theses latent ABSTRACT in the dialogue. In part I, I rehearse the contrasting accoun- In Plato’s Ion, inspiration functions in ts of divination in the dialogue. In the first argumentative exchange, divination is refe- contradistinction to technē. Yet, paradoxically, in both cases, there is an appeal to divination. renced as a paradigmatic technē. The seer is I interrogate this in order to show how these best equipped to speak about the contrasting two disparate accounts can be accommodat- depictions of divination given by Homer and ed. Specifically, I argue that Socrates’ appeal Hesiod. When Ion fails to meet Socrates’ ques- to Theoclymenus at Ion 539a-b demonstrates tioning, the argument changes direction. Ion’s that Plato recognizes the existence of intuitive ability is now the result of divine inspiration; seers who defy his own distinction between again, Socrates cites divination as akin to what possession and technical divination. Such seers Ion purportedly experiences. provide an epistemic model for Ion; that he does In part II, I interrogate the final reference to not notice this confirms he is not an exemplary divination, which occurs when Socrates appeals rhapsode. to the Homeric Epics. Ostensibly, Socrates is trying to show Ion that the best person to judge Keywords: Ancient Philosophy; Plato; Ion. literary depictions of a technē is a practitioner http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/2183-4105_14_6 86 | Inspiration and Τέχνη: Divination in Plato’s Ion AARON LANDRY | 87 of that technē. In each case, and for slightly like Theoclymenus and Diotima, together different reasons, I show that Socrates fails with Socrates’ daimonion, complicate affairs to do justice to Homer. It is not that Socrates and carve out space for visionaries who always is only engaged in eristic with Ion, but that a retain their nous. deeper philosophical point lurks in the back- ground. Divination is Socrates’ final example and is quoted twice – first, Theoclymenus’ vi- PART I: TWO REFERENCES TO sion of the suitors’ destruction, and second, a DIVINATION bird omen appearing to the Trojans. I argue that Theoclymenus is what I call an ‘intuitive The first reference to divination occurs at seer’ in that he can simultaneously practice his the beginning of the dialogue. Ion’s specialty technē and claim to be divinely inspired. In is Homer, but can perform the works of other other words, he is a model for Ion to emulate. poets (531a)?7 Since Homer and Hesiod often In part III, I sketch a related, but funda- engage with the same subject matter, Socrates mentally distinct, account of divination offered reasons that he who can recite the former can by Brickhouse and Smith 1993. They too are also recite the latter. He urges Ion to consider interested in the relationship between technē those subjects like the seer’s art (mantikēs), and inspiration. Their account claims that the upon which Homer and Hesiod disagree (531b). technē of a possessed seer like the Pythia con- Which person can speak better about divina- sists of knowing how to enter into an inspired tion – Ion or a seer? Ion replies that it would state. Once in this state, the god who possesses be the seer. In fact, Socrates explicitly connec- the seer takes over and the seer can no longer ts Ion and divination by asking “Suppose you be thought of as in control of his or her thou- [Ion] were a diviner…” (ei de su ēstha mantis) ghts, utterances, and actions. 4 In contrast, and (531b7), wouldn’t you be the person best equi- drawing on Diotima in the Symposium, I argue pped to explain the similarities and differences that intuitive seers are simultaneously divinely between the two poets? inspired and self-aware. They are able to re- The second reference to divination occurs flect and interpret their own divinations. I will in the famous magnet section (533d-534e). Ion argue that intuitive seers like Theoclymenus cannot explain his ability to perform Homer. and Diotima cannot be explained according to Socrates introduces a new concept – a divine the model proposed by Brickhouse and Smith.5 power (theia de dunamis) – in strong contrast to There is both a narrow and broad purpo- technē.8 Like the power of the magnet, Ion, toge- se for developing this interpretive possibility ther with the epic poets, is divinely possessed. in the Ion. From a dramaturgical perspective, Not only does the magnet attract the iron ring, Theoclymenus and seers like him offer Ion an it implants power into the ring itself, thereby epistemic alternative on which to model his enabling the ring to pull other rings. Similarly, purported expertise. His failure confirms that the Muse inspires Homer, who in turn inspires he is not an exemplary rhapsode.6 More broadly Ion, who is finally able to enchant his audien- construed, this serves to blur the distinction ce. Although Socrates introduces the concept of between having a technē and being divinely inspiration, specified as the rhapsode’s complete inspired. When this distinction usually crops lack of nous (ho nous mēketi en autō enē) (534b4- up, it is immediately undermined. But seers 5), Ion heartily subscribes to it. 86 | Inspiration and Τέχνη: Divination in Plato’s Ion AARON LANDRY | 87 For Socrates, if a person is in possession of The first example is chariot driving. So- their intellect, they are unable to create poetry crates prompts Ion to quote what Nestor tells or sing prophecy. The particularity of Ion’s ex- his son about turning post in the chariot race pertise is the best evidence that he is inspired during Patroclus’ funeral: by the Muse. According to Socrates, what ha- ppens to Ion is analogous to “prophets and go- Lean yourself over on the smooth-planed dly seers” (tois khrēsmōdois kai tois mantesi tois chariot just to the left of the pair. Then the theiois) (534d2) in the sense that no one thinks horse on the right – goad him shout him it is the seers themselves who divine.9 Rather, on, easing the reins with your hands. At it is the gods who use the seer as a medium.10 the post let your horse on the left stick ti- Note, furthermore, that Socrates connects seers ght to the turn so you seem to come right with prophets (khrēsmōdois), which etymolo- to the edge, with the hub of your welded gically means ‘singer of oracles’.11 wheel. But escape cropping the stone… In the next section, I examine the final por- (Iliad 23.335-340 qtd. at 537a8-b6,) trayal of divination in conjunction with the other technai discussed – chariot driving, medicine, κλινθῆναι δέ, φησί, καὶ αὐτὸς ἐυξέστῳ and fishing. My aim is to see how each example ἐνὶ δίφρῳ ἦκ᾽ ἐπ᾽ ἀριστερὰ τοῖιν: ἀτὰρ functions in the Homeric Epics. In the case of τὸν δεξιὸν ἵππον κένσαι ὁμοκλήσας, divination, I argue that Theoclymenus is best εἶξαί τέ οἱ ἡνία χερσίν. ἐν νύσσῃ δέ τοι conceptualized as an intuitive seer, someone who ἵππος ἀριστερὸς ἐγχριμφθήτω, ὡς ἄν experiences visions but nevertheless remains self τοι πλήμνη γε δοάσσεται ἄκρον ἱκέσθαι -aware. This is important because it serves as a κύκλου ποιητοῖο: λίθου δ᾽ ἀλέασθαι potential model for individuals like Ion. ἐπαυρεῖν. For Socrates, an expert in chariot driving PART II: THE HOMERIC is better able to interpret this passage than QUOTATIONS Homer, or a performer of the Homeric epi- cs like Ion. Undoubtedly, chariot driving, Socrates’ use of Homer is perplexing, due in like automobile driving, requires skill. But large part to his claim that a literary depiction does it qualify as a technē? In fact, Nestor of a technē requires the relevant practitioner initially qualifies his instruction by stating to adequately judge it. What about aesthetic that Zeus and Poseidon have ‘taught’ (edi- expertise? In what follows, I rehearse Socrates’ daxan) his son every form of chariot driving quotations as they function in the Homeric tex- and that there is no need for his ‘instruction’ ts. I show that each example, when considered (didaskemen). in context, does not support Socrates’ claim. In Nevertheless, Nestor goes on to say that An- each case, there is a slightly different problem tilochos’ horse is slower than the other racers, with Socrates’ argument. This serves to open and that he must therefore use his ‘cunning’ up alternate interpretations to what Socrates (mētis) if he is to be successful. It is in this overtly states. In the case of divination, the context that he offers advice on how best to final example, I stress its affinity with the kind round the post.