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Field Identification Guide to the Living Marine Resources in Kenya

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Guide to Orders and Families 81 lateral line scales above scales before dorsal fin outer margin smooth outer margin toothed (predorsal scales) lateral–line 114 scales cycloid ctenoidِّ scales circumpeduncular Schematic examples lateral line of typical scales scales below Common scale counts adipose fin finlets soft rays (segmented, spinyunbranched) rays or spines usually branched) (unsegmented, always Example of a continuous Accessory dorsal and anal dorsal fin of a spiny–rayed fish fins: adipose fin and finlets rounded truncate emarginate lunate side front side front from the dorsal and pointed and separated forked pointed soft rays (branched, spines (solid) segments, 2 halves) anal fins Construction Most common types of fin rays of caudal fins 82 Bony Fishes GUIDE TO ORDERS AND FAMILIES Order ELOPIFORMES – Tarpons and allies Fin spines absent; a single dorsal fin located above middle of body; pelvic fins in abdominal position; lateral line present; 23–25 branchiostegal rays; upper jaw extending past eye; tip of snout not overhanging mouth; colour silvery. ELOPIDAE Page 121 very small scales Ladyfishes To 90 cm. Coastal marine waters and estuaries; pelagic. A single species included in the Guide to Species.underside of head large mouth gular plate MEGALOPIDAE Page 121 last ray long Tarpons large scales To 55 cm. Coastal marine waters and estuaries; pelagic. A single species included in the Guide to Species.underside of head gular plate Order ALBULIFORMES – Bonefishes Fin spines absent; a single dorsal fin located above middle of body; pelvic fins in abdominal position; lateral line present; 6–16 branchiostegal rays; upper jaw not extending as far as front of eye; tip of snout overhanging mouth; colour silvery. ALBULIDAE Page 121 small scales last ray short Bonefishes To 100 cm. Coastal marine waters; pelagic. A single species included in the Guide to Species. mouth subterminal Order ANGUILLIFORMES – Eels Body very elongate; fin spines absent; usually scaleless. ANGUILLIDAE well developed dorsal–fin origin lips scales present set well back Freshwater eels To 120 cm. MainlyAnguilla freshwater, bengalensis but enter labiata estuaries; (Peters, projecting lower jaw benthic. AnguillaOf interest bicolor to fisheries. bicolor Four species recorded pectoral fin Anguillain Kenya marmoratawaters: Anguilla present mossambica1852); McClelland, 1844; Quoy & Gaimard, 1824; (Peters, 1852). Guide to Orders and Families MORINGUIDAE 83 Spaghetti eels To 50 cm. Marine; mostly inshore waters; benthic, projecting lower jaw Moringuaburrowing ferruginea by day, but pelagic at ;night. Moringua Of no javanicainterest to fisheries. ThreeMoringua species microchir recorded in Kenya waters: Bliss, 1883 feeble or absent (Kaup, 1856); Bleeker, 1853. pectoral fins dorsal and anal fins confined to tail CHLOPSIDAE posterior nostril opening False morays downwards in lip or absent small, round To about 50 cm. Marine; from shallow coastal waters pectoral fins present gill opening to depthsChlopsis of at least dentatus 300 m;(Seale, benthic. 1917) Of. no interest to fisheries. One species has been recorded in Kenya waters: MURAENIDAE Page 122 front of eye posterior nostril in Morays To 400 cm. Marine; mostly in shallow coastal waters small to depths of 165 m; benthic. Of interest to fisheries. gill opening Eighteen species have been recorded in Kenya waters, and are included in the Guide to Species. dorsal and anal fins restricted to posterior end of body in some species body compressed, SYNAPHOBRANCHIDAE oval in cross section posteriorof eye nostril Cutthroat eels very close to front To about 100 cm. Marine; from costal Synaphobranchus waters to depths kaupiiof 4000 Johnson, m; benthic. 1862. Of no interest to fisheries. One species is present in Kenya waters: gill opening ventrolateral pectoral fins present OPHICHTHIDAE Page 127 or absent posteriorinside mouth nostril pectoral fin present Snake eels within upper lip or To 100 cm. Marine and estuarine, one species entering freshwater; benthic. Of limited interest to fisheries. Six species have been recorded in Kenya waters, two of which are included in the Guide to Species. or absent body rounded, circular caudal fin present in cross section 84 Bony Fishes CONGRIDAE Page 127 lips well pectoral fins Conger eels developed present To 80 cm. Marine, coral reefs, and mud banks; benthic. Of interest to fisheries. Many species, of which two are included in the Guide to Species. MURAENESOCIDAE Page 128 dorsal–fin origin over or Pike congers before pectoral–fin origin ---------- To 250 cm. Marine, shallow coastal waters and estuaries to a depth of 100 m; benthic. Of interest to large gill fisheries. Two species are included in the Guide to Species. pectoral fins openings present large teeth in midline vomer Order CLUPEIFORMES – Herrings and allies Fin spines absent; a single dorsal fin located above middle of body; pelvic fins in abdominal position; lateral line absent; a row of scutes along ventral profile (except Chirocentridae, some Clupeidae and some Engraulidae); colour silvery.CLUPEIDAE Page 129 Sardines – Sardinellas To 25 cm. Coastal marine waters, estuaries and freshwater; mainly pelagic. Of interest to fisheries. Seventeen species are included in the Guide to Species. scutes present in most species Page 133 ENGRAULIDAE snout Anchovies prominent To 18 cm. Coastal marine waters, mainly pelagic. Of interest to fisheries. Nine species are included in the maxilla extending Guide to Species. well behind eye scutes present in most species CHIROCENTRIDAE Page 135 canine teeth Wolf–herrings body compressed dorsal fin set far back To 100 cm. Coastal marine waters, mainly pelagic. Of interest to fisheries. Two species are included in the Guide to Species. scutes absent Guide to Orders and Families PRISTIGASTERIDAE Page 13685 Pristigasterids To 20 cm. Coastal marine waters, mainly pelagic. Of interest to fisheries. One species included in the Guide to Species. anterior long anal fin with pelvic fin at least 30 rays Order GONORHYNCHIFORMES – Milkfish and allies Fin spines absent; a single dorsal fin located above middle of body; pelvic fins in abdominal position; lateral line present; 4 branchiostegal rays; mouth small, jaws toothless or teeth reduced; colour silvery. CHANIDAE Page 136 Milkfish scales small To 180 cm. Marine and estuarine waters; pelagic. Of interest to fisheries. One species is included in the Guide to Species. mouth small 4 branchiostegal rays Order SILURIFORMES – Catfishes Barbels present around mouth; a strong spine usually present at front of dorsal and pectoral fins; an adipose fin often present; scales absent, but a bony head shield often present. ARIIDAE Page 136 shield Sea catfishes exposed bony head adipose fin To 180 cm. Coastal marine and estuarine waters; also freshwaters; benthic. Of interest to fisheries. Five species are included in the Guide to Species. usually three pairs of barbels PLOTOSIDAE Page 138 Eel catfishes continuous fin To 40 cm. Marine, entering brackish and freshwaters; benthic. Of interest to fisheries. Two species are included in the Guide to Species. barbels four pairs of dendritic organ 86 Bony Fishes Order OSMERIFORMES – Argentines and allies A diverse assemblage of families characterized by the inclusion of the maxilla in the gape of mouth; fin spines absent; adipose fin often present. ARGENTINIDAE mouth small Argentines adipose fin To about 40 cm. Marine, from depths of 80 m to Argentina400 m; benthopelagic euchus Cohen, 1961.and pelagic. Of no interest to fisheries. One species recorded in Kenya waters:teeth absent in anal–fin origin upper jaw behind dorsal fin BATHYLAGIDAE Deepsea smelts adipose fin To about 20 cm. Marine, from the surface down to below 200 m; epipelagic to bathypelagic.Dolicholagus Of no longirostrisinterest to fisheries. ProbablyMelanolagus two species bericoides occur in Kenya(Borodin, waters, 1929). even if never recorded: (Maul, 1948); behind dorsal rays anal–fin origin 17–25 anal–fin fin ALEPOCEPHALIDAE head usually scaleless absent Slickheads dorsal fin adipose fin far back To about 70 cm. Marine, usually at depths of below 1000 m. Of no interest to fisheries. Perhaps several species, but no official records. not behind anal–fin origin dorsal fin PLATYTROCTIDAE lateral line leading to a large sac containing a tube behind shoulder girdle just below Tube shoulders luminous fluid under skin To about 20 cm. Marine, between depths of 200 m andrecords. 4000 m; meso– and bathypelagic. Of no interest to fisheries. Perhaps several species, but no official not behind anal–fin origin dorsal fin Guide to Orders and Families 87 Order STOMIIFORMES – Hatchetfishes – Viperfishes and allies Deepsea fishes, having light organs (photophores); chin barbels present in some; premaxilla and maxilla both with teeth, and included in gape of mouth; ventral adipose fin present in some. GONOSTOMATIDAE Bristlemouths To about 25 cm. Marine, mostly deeper waters at depths below 200 m; meso– and bathypelagic.Cyclothone Of no albainterest Brauer, to fisheries. 1906, CyclothonePerhaps several pallida species, Brauer, but 1902 only, branchiostegal rays Cyclothonethree species signata recorded Garman, in Kenya 1899. waters: 12–15 STERNOPTYCHIDAE Marine hatchetfishes To 20 cm. Marine, from the surface to depths below Polyipnus300 m; meso– bruuni and Harold, bathypelagic. 1994, Polyipnus Of no interestmatsubarai to fisheries. ThreePolyipnus species meteorirecorded Kotthaus, in Kenya 1967. waters: 6–10 branchiostegal rays light organs Schultz, 1961, STOMIIDAE behind head dorsal
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  • Constraints on the Timescale of Animal Evolutionary History

    Constraints on the Timescale of Animal Evolutionary History

    Palaeontologia Electronica palaeo-electronica.org Constraints on the timescale of animal evolutionary history Michael J. Benton, Philip C.J. Donoghue, Robert J. Asher, Matt Friedman, Thomas J. Near, and Jakob Vinther ABSTRACT Dating the tree of life is a core endeavor in evolutionary biology. Rates of evolution are fundamental to nearly every evolutionary model and process. Rates need dates. There is much debate on the most appropriate and reasonable ways in which to date the tree of life, and recent work has highlighted some confusions and complexities that can be avoided. Whether phylogenetic trees are dated after they have been estab- lished, or as part of the process of tree finding, practitioners need to know which cali- brations to use. We emphasize the importance of identifying crown (not stem) fossils, levels of confidence in their attribution to the crown, current chronostratigraphic preci- sion, the primacy of the host geological formation and asymmetric confidence intervals. Here we present calibrations for 88 key nodes across the phylogeny of animals, rang- ing from the root of Metazoa to the last common ancestor of Homo sapiens. Close attention to detail is constantly required: for example, the classic bird-mammal date (base of crown Amniota) has often been given as 310-315 Ma; the 2014 international time scale indicates a minimum age of 318 Ma. Michael J. Benton. School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, U.K. [email protected] Philip C.J. Donoghue. School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, U.K. [email protected] Robert J.