Ed Esperimenti Di Miller (USA, 1921-26)

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Ed Esperimenti Di Miller (USA, 1921-26) Dottorato di Ricerca in Storia Internazionale (Metodi di Elaborazione Multimediale) Ciclo XXIII Tesi di Dottorato di Ricerca Esperimenti di ether-drift nel XX secolo. Casi storici a confronto: Effetto Sagnac (Francia, 1913) ed Esperimenti di Miller (USA, 1921-26). FIS/08 M-STO/05 Candidato: Roberto Lalli Matr.: R07487 Tutor: Chiar.mo Prof. Pasquale Tucci Coordinatore: Chiar.mo Prof. Pasquale Tucci Anno Accademico 2009/2010 i Indice Cap. 1. Note introduttive p. 1 1.1. Introduzione p. 1 1.2. Il problema dell’etere alla fine del XIX secolo e le origini della teoria della teoria della relatività ristretta p. 9 1.3. Il rapporto tra teoria ed esperimento nella storia della teoria della relatività p. 12 1.4. I contesti nazionali nella storia dell’accettazione della teoria della relatività p. 15 1.5. Relazioni tra filosofia della scienza e storia della teoria della relatività p. 19 1.6. Il problema delle fonti p. 21 1.7. Ringraziamenti p. 25 Cap. 2. Immagini storiografiche p. 29 2.1. Introduzione p. 29 2.2. Filosofia della scienza: il caso Miller p. 31 2.2.1. Premessa p. 31 2.2.2. Popper p. 31 2.2.3. Polanyi p. 33 2.2.4. Lakatos p. 38 2.2.5. Feyerabend p. 41 2.2.6. Zahar p. 44 2.2.7. Laymon p. 46 2.2.8. Conclusioni p. 50 2.3. Libri di testo p. 52 2.3.1. Premessa p. 52 2.3.2. Gli esperimenti di Miller p. 53 2.3.3. Effetto Sagnac p. 57 2.3.4. Conclusioni sulla storia implicita nei libri di testo p. 57 ii 2.4. Biografie di Einstein p. 59 2.4.1. Premessa p. 59 2.4.2. Miller p. 59 2.5. Letteratura anti-relativista p. 62 2.6. Storia esplicita p. 67 2.6.1. Il caso Miller nei trattati di storia p. 67 2.6.2. L’effetto Sagnac nei resoconti storici p. 76 2.7. Conclusioni p. 84 Cap. 3 Premessa storica: l’etere luminifero nel XIX secolo p. 87 3.1. Introduzione p. 87 3.2. Esperienza di Bradley - La scoperta dell’aberrazione stellare (1728 ca.) p. 89 3.3. Teoria dell’etere luminifero stazionario p. 93 3.4. Il coefficiente di trascinamento di Fresnel p. 97 3.5. La teoria dell’etere trascinato di Stokes p. 102 3.6. L’esperimento di Fizeau p. 107 3.7. Teorie sull’impossibilità di osservare effetti ottici al primo ordine di v : Veltmann, Mascart e Potier p. 113 c 3.8. Etere elettromagnetico p. 118 3.9. Esperimenti di Michelson e Morley p. 123 3.10. La teoria dell’etere di Lorentz e la contrazione di Lorentz-Fitzgerald p. 136 3.11. Altri esperimenti ottici di ether-drift p. 141 3.12. Lorentz e Poincaré p. 144 3.13. Esperimenti elettromagnetici di ether-drift (1902-04) p. 153 3.14. Le teorie di Lorentz, Poincaré ed Einstein (1904-5) p. 155 3.15. La teoria della relatività generale e la conferma di Eddington della deflessione dei raggi di luce (1919) p. 161 3.16. Conclusioni p. 166 iii Cap. 4 L’effetto Sagnac: i predecessori, la scoperta e la relazione con la teoria della relatività nella Francia degli anni ’20 p. 169 4.1. Introduzione p. 169 4.2. L’esperimento di Sagnac del 1913 p. 172 4.3. Predecessori p. 178 4.4. Georges Sagnac: teoria ottica, ricerche sperimentali ed interpretazione dell’effetto (1899-1914) p. 182 4.5. Perché Sagnac fu il primo a sperimentare l’effetto? p. 189 4.6. Accoglienza ed accettazione dell’effetto in Francia negli anni successivi alla scoperta p. 192 4.6.1. Il contesto culturale francese p. 192 4.6.2. Georges Sagnac e la comunità accademica francese tra il 1914 e il 1921 p. 193 4.6.3. La derivazione relativistico-generale di Langevin p. 200 4.6.4. Nazionalismo e antisemitismo p. 204 4.6.5. La caduta di Sagnac p. 207 4.7. Conclusioni p. 209 Cap. 5 Miller e gli esperimenti di ether-drift in USA (1902-1933) p. 211 5.1. Introduzione p. 211 5.2. Esperimenti di Morley-Miller (1902-1906) p. 214 5.3. Le prime osservazioni di Miller al Mount Wilson Observatory (1921) p. 217 5.3.1. La preparazione p. 217 5.3.2. I primi esperimenti al MWO nell’aprile 1921 e la reazione di Einstein p. 219 5.3.3. Le osservazioni del dicembre 1921 al MWO p. 224 5.4. Le ricerche di Miller a Cleveland (1922-24) p. 226 5.5. Il risultato positivo di Miller e la prima fase del dibattito (1924-26) p. 234 5.5.1. L’annuncio del risultato positivo al convegno della NAS (aprile 1925) p. 234 iv 5.5.2. Il dibattito successivo al convegno p. 237 5.5.3. La conferma del risultato positivo al convegno della AAAS (dicembre 1925) p. 243 5.6. La reazione ai risultati di Miller p. 249 5.6.1. La campagna stampa p. 249 5.6.2. Il dibattito teorico nel 1926 p. 251 5.7. Le altre ripetizioni dell’esperimento MM e il ruolo di Michelson (1926-30) p. 259 5.7.1. L’esperimento di Piccard sul pallone aerostatico in Europa (1926) p. 259 5.7.2. Gli esperimenti MM del Caltech (1926-27) p. 261 5.7.3. Il ruolo di Milchelson p. 265 5.8. Il definitivo rigetto dei risultati di Miller negli anni ’30 p. 279 5.9. Conclusioni p. 284 Cap. 6 La nuova analisi di Shankland dei dati di Miller p. 287 6.1. Introduzione p. 287 6.2. La relazione tra Miller e Shankland (1934-41) p. 289 6.3. La prima fase del lavoro di Shankland sui dati di Miller (1950-52) p. 292 6.4. I cambi di argomentazione e la pubblicazione dell’articolo (1952-55) p. 298 6.5. L’accoglienza dell’articolo presso la comunità scientifica p. 306 6.6. Conclusioni p. 309 Conclusioni p. 311 Bibliografia p. 319 v Capitolo 1 Note introduttive 1.1. Introduzione Una parte minoritaria della comunità scientifica contesta la validità della teoria della relatività, sia ristretta, sia generale, sulla base di alcuni esperimenti ottici della prima metà del secolo XX che furono interpretati dai loro autori come prova dell’esistenza di un moto rispetto all’etere, inteso come sostegno delle onde di luce. L’esistenza di questa esigua percentuale di scienziati è una costante che ha esempi lungo tutto l’arco del XX secolo ed è caratterizzata dall’utilizzo di medesimi argomenti e dalla credenza nell’esistenza dell’etere. Secondo questi fisici, che definirò anti-relativisti, alcuni esperimenti costituirebbero anomalie all’interno del quadro teorico relativista rispetto ai due principi alla base della teoria della relatività ristretta: il principio di relatività rispetto a tutte le leggi della fisica (Principio I) e il principio dell’indipendenza della velocità della luce nel vuoto dal moto della sorgente (Principio II). Si tratta degli esperimenti di Dayton Clearence Miller (1866- 1941) condotti a Mount Wilson (California) tra il 1921 e il 1926, e degli esperimenti che hanno portato alla scoperta dell’effetto Sagnac da parte di Georges M. M. Sagnac (1869- 1926), compiuti a Parigi nel 1913. Miller e Sagnac sono accomunati dal non aver mai accettato le teorie della relatività e dall’aver creduto nella possibilità di ripristinare una comprensione dei fenomeni ottici basata sull’esistenza di un etere luminifero che Einstein aveva posto fuori dall’ambito della ricerca scientifica nel 1905 con l’esplicita frase: “Die Einführung eines ‘Lichtäthers’ wird sich insofern […] überflüssig erweisen”.1 Nell’immensa bibliografia sulla storia della relatività esiste una quantità non irrilevante di riferimenti a tali lavori. Alcuni studi storici approfondiscono specificamente l’uno o l’altro 1 Einstein, A. (1905) “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper”, Annalen der Physik, 17 (1905): 891-921, p. 892. La traduzione italiana è “l’introduzione di un ‘etere luminifero’ si dimostrerà superflua” in Stachel, J. (ed.) (2001) L’anno memorabile di Einstein: I cinque scritti che hanno rivoluzionato la fisica del Novecento (Bari: Dedalo, 2001), p. 134. 1 di tali esperimenti, ma la quasi totalità di questi studi ha un inquadramento teorico ben determinato; essi sono scritti da fisici che avevano il fine principale d’interpretare tali risultati sperimentali e sono, quindi, viziati da una visione precostituita sulla loro importanza e/o sul loro significato. Questo risulta vero qualunque sia la posizione del fisico autore di tali studi, anti-relativista o relativista che sia. Gli altri studi storici, che non si riferiscono alla polemica teorico-interpretativa, approfondisco alcuni dati parziali della storia di tali esperimenti, ma nessuno di questi mette in relazione tali eventi storici tra loro e in un contesto adeguato, ossia quello della ricezione e comprensione delle teorie di Einstein nella prima metà del secolo XX all’interno delle rispettive comunità scientifiche nazionali. Mi ripropongo, con questa ricerca, di colmare tale lacuna storiografica, compiendo un lavoro sia di revisione dei dati storici delle fonti secondarie, sia di approfondimento e re-interpretazione delle fonti primarie scevra da qualsiasi teoria precostituita sul loro significato fisico. Con il mio studio intendo affrontare il rapporto delle comunità scientifiche nazionali con tali esperimenti dalla loro esecuzione fino al momento in cui la questione da questi posta venne considerata risolta, ovvero fino al momento in cui la quasi totalità di tali comunità smise di considerare i loro risultati un problema per la teoria della relatività ristretta. Tale scelta implica una diversità del termine superiore nei due casi perché, come si vedrà, l’effetto Sagnac ebbe una conclusione accettabile già negli anni ’20 in Francia, mentre per gli esperimenti di Miller si considera come termine superiore la pubblicazione di un articolo di Robert S.
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