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Mysticism’ in Victorian Poetry and Poetics

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Mysticism’ in Victorian Poetry and Poetics The making of an aesthetic and ineffable ‘mysticism’ in Victorian poetry and poetics Nada Abdullah Alotaibi Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of English February 2016 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2016 The University of Leeds and Nada Abdullah Alotaibi ii ABSTRACT Relying on a constructivist framework of analysis drawn from the disciplines of Philosophy, Religious Studies, and History, this thesis examines the contribution of Victorian poetry and poetic theory to the modern construction of ‘mysticism’ as an aesthetic and ineffable category. My analysis is guided by the Foucaultian notion that any definition of a given concept reflects issues of authority, which I use to propose that, in the increasingly secularized milieu of nineteenth-century culture, many Victorian intellectuals sought to assert the ineffability and aesthetic character of mysticism as part of a larger nineteenth-century search for an authoritative place for poetry. With a special focus on the writings of Thomas Carlyle and James Thomson (B. V.), the problematization of mysticism I offer here spans the period between the mid- 1820s and 1880s, a relatively broad context that allows me to draw connections among various poets, critics and their works, and weave these into a readable narrative where mysticism figures as a key player in the collective aesthetic consciousness of an age. Chapter I of this thesis establishes the conceptual and theoretical parameters of the debate informing the constructivist method I employ, with the aim of offering a critique of previous literary scholarship on Victorian poetry that adopts mysticism as a primary analytic category. I argue that such scholarship largely bases its analysis on essentialist definitions, and often ends up being ideologically exclusionary. Chapter II provides a detailed look at the conceptual overlap between mysticism and poetry in both Modernist and Victorian discourse for the purpose of establishing that modern mysticism is fundamentally a poetic and aesthetic construct, one that was shaped by the nineteenth-century discourse on poetry and art. Situating Carlyle’s discourse on mysticism within that of other contemporary figures, Chapter III examines his leading role in the nineteenth-century conceptual transformation of ‘mysticism’ from a term that was pejoratively used to signify ‘unintelligibility’ to one that was used to denote the transcendental legitimacy of poetry. Chapter IV traces Thomson’s career-long engagement with mysticism along his religious and intellectual development from a theist to a self-proclaimed atheist, arguing that it reflects on a larger scale the history of mysticism’s development in the second half of the Victorian age: how its Romantic appropriation in the mid-nineteenth century was especially freighted with religious meanings, and how this would gradually change at the turn of the century, where it would become more open to secular and naturalistic interpretations. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the School of English at the University of Leeds for creating a welcoming and supportive environment in which to study, and without which the completion of this thesis would have been a far more difficult task. In particular, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor Professor Francis O’Gorman, with whom it has been a privilege to work. His critical insights and instructive guidance throughout the entire process of writing this thesis have been invaluable to me. I am extremely thankful for his generous and unfailing encouragement, which has kept me going on some very hard days; and above all, I am grateful for his kindness. I am also deeply indebted to the English department at Umm Al-Qura University for the education they have given me, and for their continual funding and support of my research. Particular thanks go to Dr Mukhtar Chaudhary who ‘initiated’ me into the beautiful (and sometimes perilously fascinating) subject of mysticism, and whom I have always looked up to as an academic godfather. To the late Dr Rajih Al-Harby, I will be ever grateful for inspiring in me a love of literature that has withstood the jading effects of such a lengthy research project as the present one; my thoughts and prayers go to him. I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends on whom I have greatly depended for my emotional stability, and even sanity, through the ups and downs of writing this thesis. To my sisters and roommates Amal and Naseem, who know full well the kind of havoc that three PhDs (combined with a healthy level of estrogen) could wreak on a household, thank you for being the best support team I could have ever wished for. I am also very grateful to my brother, sister, and sister-in-law, Sami, Manal and Fatimah, for their love, constant confidence in me, and for lending a supportive ear whenever I needed it. My gratitude extends to my adorable nephews and nieces, Saud, Khawla, Abdullah, Ahmad, and Khuzama, whose refreshing innocence has brought so much joy to my life. To my long-time friends Fadiah Mereani and Suha Alansari, with whom I have spent more Skype sessions than is probably healthy for any of us, thank you for your companionship, humour, and for always being there. I would also like to thank my dear friend Iman Metwally for being nothing short of a sister to me in my times of need, and whose lovely family has treated me as one of their own. Special thanks are also due to my Liverpudlian friend Latifa Al-Abdulkarim for being ‘Muth-hilah’, and for always reminding me to be healthy. To my parents, Abdullah and Jawaher, who have gone far above and beyond the call of parental duty to drag me towards the completion of my goal, my gratitude is ‘ineffable’, as the mystics would say. I cannot imagine being where I am today without your loving presence and support; you have tirelessly encouraged, guided, fed, cajoled, and even bullied me into finishing every stage of this project, and I have loved and appreciated every moment of it. This thesis is for you. I hope I have made you proud. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv TABLE OF CONTENTS v CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 1. What is Mysticism? 6 2. Essentialist Theories of Mysticism 8 3. Constructivist Theories of Mysticism 10 3.1. The First Wave 10 3.2. The Second Wave 12 3.3. Mysticism and Power: A Genealogical Account 16 4. Problematizations of Mysticism in the Literary Context of Victorian England: A Review of Literature 33 5. Moving Beyond the Essentialist/Constructivist Divide: A Critique of Essentialist Readings of Victorian Poetry 40 6. Thesis Scope and Structure 51 CHAPTER II: ‘Poetry then is our Mysticism’: The Victorian Making of an Aesthetic ‘Mysticism’ 56 1. The Aestheticization of Mysticism in Modernist Discourse 57 2. The Victorian Making of a Poetic and Aesthetic Mysticism 69 CHAPTER II: ‘I am bound to find you in reasons, Sir, but not in brains’: Carlyle and the Nineteenth-Century Reinterpretation of the Obscurity of ‘Mysticism’ 102 1. ‘Mysticism’ as an Ineffable Construct in Twentieth-Century Modernist Discourse 107 2. ‘Mysticism’ as ‘incomprehensible gibberish’ in the Victorian Poetics of 1830-1870 109 3. ‘Toleration is all I ask’: Carlyle and the Redefinition of ‘Mysticism’ as Ineffable 122 4. Beyond Carlyle: Other Victorian Voices in Defence of an Ineffable ‘Mysticism’ 141 CHAPTER IV: ‘Poetic Inspiration’ in James Thomson’s TWo Phases of ‘Mysticism’ 166 1. Thomson and ‘The Mystical’: A Literature Review 172 2. Thomson’s Career from 1855-1866 180 2.1. Early Aesthetic Theory: The Poet as a Surrogate Guide 180 2.2. ‘Mysticism’ in Thomson’s Early Poetic Theory 192 3. Points of Continuity Between Thomson’s Early and Later Aesthetic Theory 207 CONCLUSION 221 Bibliography 229 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In T. S. Eliot: Mystic, Son and Lover, Donald Childs argues that ‘in response to the scientific, materialist rationalism of the nineteenth century, the variety of phenomena gathered into the term “mysticism” at the beginning of the twentieth century offered an alternative epistemology – opposing the material with the spiritual, the intellectual with the intuitive, the external with the internal’. ‘A tide of mysticism’, Childs states, ‘was coming in after the ebbing of Arnold’s Sea of Faith’, and the century was witnessing a general diffusion of the taste for it: as ‘an alternative epistemology’, it appealed to many philosophers, including Henri Bergson and William James; to several Roman Catholic and Anglican theologians; and to a wide variety of poets, including T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, the Georgian poet Rupert Brooke, as well as the Imagists Richard Aldington and John Gould Fletcher. According to Childs, ‘mystical experience seems as important to these ostensible modern poets as it was to such romantic precursors as Wordsworth and Shelley’.1 A somewhat similar view has been articulated in The Beginning and End of ‘Religion’ by religious historian Nicholas Lash, whose genealogical account of the term ‘mysticism’ suggests that ‘the word flared up’ at the onset of the seventeenth century, and ‘flourished for little more than half a century, then died away’ until the early modernist period, where ‘it became the focus of intense discussion’.2 The similarity between the two views lies in the fact that both Childs and Lash construe most of the nineteenth century as constituting a period marked by a discontinuity in the kind of intellectual fervour for mysticism that characterized the periods that both predate and follow it.
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