Scandoromani Brill’s Studies in Language, Cognition and Culture
Series Editors
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (Cairns Institute, James Cook University) R.M.W. Dixon (Cairns Institute, James Cook University) N.J. Enfield (Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen)
VOLUME 7
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bslc Scandoromani
Remnants of a Mixed Language
By
Gerd Carling Lenny Lindell and Gilbert Ambrazaitis
LEIDEN | BOSTON This project has been funded by a grant from the Swedish Research Council (VR). Additional funding has been received from Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg Foundation (Swadesh-data and maps), Elisabeth Rausing Foundation, and Fil.Dr. Uno Otterstedt Foundation (traveling), and Faculty of Humanities and Theology, Lund University (proof-reading).
Cover illustration: The family Rosengren-Karlsson, ancestors of Lenny Lindell, photo taken at the farm Hangelösa in Västergötland, around 1930. Picture courtesy of Lenny Lindell.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Carling, Gerd. Scandoromani : remnants of a mixed language / By Gerd Carling ; in collaboration with Lenny Lindell and Gilbert Ambrazaitis. pages cm. — (Brill’s studies in language, cognition and culture ; 7) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-26644-5 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-26645-2 (e-book) 1. Languages in contact—Scandinavia. 2. Swedish language. 3. Norwegian language. 4. Romani language. 5. Scandinavia— Languages. I. Lindell, Lenny, 1981– collaborator. II. Ambrazaitis, Gilbert, 1979– collaborator. III. Title. P130.52.S34C37 2014 439.7’7—dc23 2013047335
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This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents
List of Figures viii Acknowledgements ix List of Abbreviations x Spelling and Glossing Conventions xii List of Contributors xv
1 Scandoromani: Language and Speakers 1 1.1 Background 1 1.1.1 The Various Groups of Travellers and Roma in Scandinavia 1 1.1.2 The Scandoroma: Language, Culture, and Identity 2 1.2 Scandoromani: A Mixed Language 5 1.2.1 Introduction 5 1.2.2 Earlier Sources of Scandoromani 8 1.2.3 What Is a ‘Real’ Language? On Broken Variants and In-group Lexicons 11 1.2.4 Influence on Scandinavian 15 1.3 Structure and Position of Scandoromani 17 1.3.1 Mixture Patterns 17 1.3.2 Placing Scandoromani in the Northwestern Romani Continuum 18
2 The Sounds of a Mixed Language 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.1.1 Speakers and Available Recordings 24 2.1.2 Allophonic Variation, Minimal Pairs, and the Phoneme Inventory 25 2.2 Methods and Materials 26 2.3 The Vowel System 27 2.3.1 Swedish 27 2.3.2 Swedish Romani 28 2.4 The Consonant System 30 2.4.1 The Core System of Equivalent Swedish Consonants 30 2.4.2 The Bilabial Approximant [w] 31 2.4.3 Affricates 31 2.4.4 The Voiceless Post-Alveolar Fricatives 32 2.4.5 Stops and Aspiration 42 vi contents
2.5 Word-Level Prosody 49 2.5.1 Lexical Stress 49 2.5.2 Quantity 51 2.5.3 Lexical Pitch Accents 52 2.6 Patterns of Allophonic Variation 55 2.7 Phonological Complexity 56 2.8 Historical Background 60
3 The Interdependence of Adaptation, Derivation, and Inflection in a Mixed Morphology 64 3.1 General Remarks 64 3.2 Nominal Morphology 65 3.2.1 Basic Principles 65 3.2.2 Nominal Inflection 70 3.2.3 Derivational and Loan Word Adaptational Morphology 76 3.3 Verb Morphology 80 3.3.1 Background 80 3.3.2 Inflectional Morphology 80 3.3.3 Derivational Morphology 81 3.4 The Emergence of a Mixed Morphology 82 3.4.1 Development of a New Morphology: Innovation and Structural Memory 82 3.4.2 Strategies for Adaptation of Loan Words 83 3.4.3 Attributes of a Mixed Morphology: Lexical Manipulation, Heavy Morphology, and the Anti-Zipfian Effect 84
4 Outline of a Syntax 91 4.1 Use of Unmarked Verbal Infinitive Form 91 4.2 Subject Place-Holder Omission 92 4.3 Verbal Place-Holder Omission 93 4.4 Relative Pronoun Deletion 94 4.5 Patterns of Code-Mixing in Free, Narrative and Written Speech 95 4.6 Samples of Speech 96 4.6.1 Frog Story 96 4.6.2 Story About a Fight 98 contents vii
5 Conclusion: Support for an Autonomous Model 100
Appendix I Vocabulary 103
Appendix II Texts 218 II.1 Trin Phralarna 218 II.2 Lollohubb 253
References 283 Author Index 289 Language Index 291 Subject Index 292 List of Figures
FIGURE Caption 1.1 Computational cladistic tree of Romani dialects, based on a Swadesh-100 list, divided into 8 subgroups. Data from ROMLEX and Vocabulary 20 1.2 Map, showing the distribution of the groups 1–8 in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1 21 1.3 Map, showing the distribution of number of nodes in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1 21 2.1 Wave form diagrams and spectrograms of puv and its variant phuv, spoken contrastively by speaker ll 47 2.2 Semitone F0 tracks aligned with corresponding speech signals for an Accent I/II Swedish Romani near-minimal pair spoken by ll: lánglo ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’ 52 2.3 Rules of pitch-accent assignment in Swedish (from Gårding 1977) 54 2.4 Stylized pitch contours for disyllabic words in the five prosodic Swedish dialect types (from Bruce 2010; after Gårding and Lindblad 1973, based on data from Meyer 1937) 55 3.1 The mixing process in Scandoromani morphology 83 Acknowledgements
A number of persons have been involved in the current project, whom we wish to acknowledge: First, we thank our families for their endurance and support. Lenny wishes to thank his parents, Lennart and Irene. Gerd thanks her family, Tomas and Herman, and her parents, Hans and Aina, for their support. Further, we thank our colleagues at the Department of linguistics, Lund University, Arthur Holmer, Jan-Olof Svantesson, Mechtild Tronnier, Anastasia Karlsson, and My Segerup, for valuable discussions and advice. We thank all contributors, research assistants, engineers, and others, Ylva Blomstrand, Hans Carling, Anne Goergens, Anja Hoppe, Niklas Johansson, Edin Kukovic, Per Lindell, Alex Rau, and Joost van de Weijer, for spending hours in typing, analyzing, glossing, editing, translating, coding, checking, and so forth (see Contributors). We thank Jens Braarvig and Faculty of Humanities, Oslo University, for giving us access to the material of the department (see Appendix I, Vocabulary). We thank Joel Parthemore for correcting our English. We also thank the anonymous rewiewers for valuable proposals. Finally we acknowledge Sandra Cronhamn and Anna Hed, who assisted in typing when Gerd broke her hand three weeks before final manuscript delivery.
Lund September 25, 2013 Gerd Carling, Lenny Lindell, and Gilbert Ambrazaitis
List of Abbreviations
Language Abbreviations
Arm. Armenian Dard. Dardic (dialect) Eng. English Fi. Finnish Gm. German Hi. Hindi It. Italian Lat. Latin mhg Middle High German MLat Middle Latin mlg Middle Low German Norw. Norwegian OFr. Old French ONor. Old Norse Pasht. Pashtun Pers. Persian Pkt. Prakrit Pol. Polish Rotw. Rotwelsh Ru. Russian Serbcr. Serbo-Croatian Skt. Sanskrit Slov. Slovak Sw. Dial. Swedish Dialectal Sw. Swedish ktd Speaker Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf ll Speaker Lenny Lindell
Grammar Abbreviations* adj adjective adv adverb
* With punctuation in text, without punctuation in Appendix I, Vocabulary. Longer forms are used in text (e.g., masc) list of abbreviations xi art article aux auxiliary cl clitic coll collective comp comparative conj conjunction cop copula def definite dem demonstrative expr expression fem/f feminine gen genitive indef indefinite inf infinitive interj interjection interr interrogative itr intransitive loc locative masc/m masculine n neuter neg negation nom nominative num numeral obl oblique part particle pass passive pers personal pl plural poss possessive prep preposition pron pronoun pst past pst ptc past participle r non-neuter (realis) s noun/substantive sg singular subj subjunction sup supine tr transitive uninfl uninflected xii list of abbreviations v verb vpart verbal particle
Glossing Abbreviations adv adverb cmp comparative def definite dem demonstrative gen genitive inf infinitive/unmarked verbal form nt neuter pass passive pl plural poss possessive ppt past participle prs present pst past ptc participle refl reflexive rel relative sg singular spl superlative sup supine
Spelling and Glossing Conventions
Our main source—both for the dictionary and for examples in the text—is Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Therefore, we follow their spelling conventions in chap- ters 1–5, see Table I. However, the Appendix I, Vocabulary comprises several other sources (see Appendix I, Vocabulary), all with their own spelling conventions, which we have opted to conserve here. In glossing, bold denotes a Scandinavian lexeme/morpheme. INF is used for the unmarked verbal form, used for both Infinitive, Past, and Present. spelling conventions xiii
Table i Orthographic table for Swedish Romani: spelling according to Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008); pronunciation represented by IPA, based on Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), adjusted to present analysis. Some deviations exist (see Chapter 2 for examples).
Letter Pronunciation Comments, examples
Long Short i iː ɪ * y yː ʏ * e eː e * ö øː œ * ä ɛː ɛ * a ɑː a * â aː note: long but front quality, e.g. nâni /ˈnaːnɪ/ o oː ɔ / ʊ [ʊ]: 1. word-final, e.g. bengalo /ˈbɛŋalʊ/; 2. in –opa, e.g. ternopa /ˈtɛrnʊpa/ ô uː ʊ * u ʉ̟ ː ɵ * ē, ī, etc. eː, iː etc. ** p p, pʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1 ph pʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1 t t, tʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1 th tʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1 k k, kʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1 kh kʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1 b b d d g ɡ gh ɡʰ [ɡ] plus breahy voice, see 2.4.5.2 tj tɕ / ɕ optional pronunciations, see tables 2.8, 2.9 kj kç f f v v s s c ɕ see 2.4.4 sh ʂ see 2.4.4 sch ɧ see 2.4.4 ch χ see 2.4.4 (Continued) xiv spelling conventions
Table i (Continued)
Letter Pronunciation Comments, examples
Long Short shj ɕ see 2.4.4 h h w w / v optional pronunciations, see 2.4.2 j j r r dialectal variation, e.g. [ɾ] [ʁ] m m n n ng ŋ l l
* Short vowel occurs before double consonant letter or cluster and in unstressed syllables, e.g., rommani /ˈrɔmːanɪ/, arknom /ˈarknɔm/, salvaris /salˈvɑːrɪs/. ** A bar above vowel letter denotes a long vowel, used in cases where subesequent consonant pattern would predict short vowel, e.g., sēnslo /ˈseːnslʊ/, or when long vowel occurs in unstressed syllable, e.g., bekknepā /ˈbɛkːnɛpɑː/.
Other Conventions
Scandoromani refers to all sources, Swedish and Norwegian. Swedish Romani indi- cates that only Swedish sources have been used. List of Contributors
Main Authors/Co-authors
Gerd Carling Main author, chapters 1, 3–5, co-author chapter 2, main author/editor Appendix I, main editor Appendix II.
Lenny Lindell Language consultant, main author Appendix II.
Gilbert Ambrazaitis Main author chapter 2.
Other Contributors
Ylva Blomstrand Editing, typing, translating, Appendix I and Appendix II.
Hans Carling Checking etymologies, Appendix I, glossing Appendix II.
Anne Goergens Maps, figure 1.2–1.3, translating, Appendix II.
Anja Hoppe Checking etymologies, Appendix I.
Niklas Johansson Collecting Swadesh-data, Figure I, editing, Appendix I.
Edin Kukovic Programming of database which is the foundation of Appendix I.
Per Lindell Programming of database which is the foundation of Appendix I. xvi list of contributors
Alex Rau Translating and editing, Appendix I.
Joost van de Weijer Computational cladistics analysis, Figures 1.1–1.3. chapter 1 Scandoromani: Language and Speakers
1.1. Background
1.1.1. The Various Groups of Travellers and Roma in Scandinavia Like anywhere else in Europe, the Nordic countries have a number of groups known as Travellers or Roma. The identification of these groups—their lan- guage, their ethnicity, and their origin—is a complex and problematic issue. It is also a highly sensitive one, governed by changes in the political climate. Both Sweden and Norway have signed the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages (Council of Europe): Sweden in 2000 and Norway in 1998 in which Romani has been included. As implemented by these countries, the charter differs somewhat concerning the various dialects of Romani. The Norwegian treaty (Minoritetsspråkspakten) distinguishes Romani (the language of the Romany people: the so-called Travellers) from Romanes (the language of the Roma minority: the Gypsies).1 The Swedish treaty (Minoritetsspråkskonventionen) makes no such distinction but speaks only of Romani chib.2 That said, it does distinguish five dialects: Kelderash, Lovari, Arli, Kale, and Swedish (“Travellers’ ”) Romani. Meanwhile, the Danish treaty implementing the charter does not recognize Romani as a national minority language, even while acknowledging that Romani was spoken his- torically in Denmark. The Finnish treaty does recognize Romani and targets the Kale Romani minority in particular.3 The situation in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland reflects half a millennium of Romani immigration into Scandinavia, originating from various countries in at least three waves. Linguistic evidence (see e.g., Matras 2010, 31ff.) reveals much about the ori- gin and spread of Romani and the migration of the Romani people, all the way back to their presumed homeland in central India in the mid-First Century AD. The story leading up to their first appearance in the Nordic countries at the beginning of the 16th Century (one cannot exclude completely the possibil- ity of earlier migrations) is both interesting and complex. The reconstruction
1 See http://www.sprakrad.no for further information from the Norwegian government and the EU. 2 See Bijvoet and Fraurud (2007) and http://www.sprakradet.se for further information from the Swedish government, the Swedish Language Council, and the EU. 3 For further details, see http://www.coe.int and look under the various countries.
© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi 10.1163/9789004266445_002 2 chapter 1 of inward migrations in the 16th through 19th centuries is problematic, not least because of the almost complete absence of linguistic sources (see Section 1.2.2). Further migrations from Europe have continued, particularly during the 20th Century. The dialect Scandoromani, described in this volume, is a remnant of the language spoken by the first Romani immigrants to the Nordic countries. It belongs to the northwest continuum of Romani dialects (see Matras 2002, 10f., 2010, 45ff., cf. also 1.3.2): a group that also embraces the Sinte/Manouche dia- lects spoken in Germany, France, Netherlands, Hungary, Bohemia, Slovakia, Russia, and northern Italy, and the Finnish Kale dialect. All share a period of intense contacts with German dialects (Matras 2002, 10; see Section 1.4). Scandoromani—often mistakenly referred to as a “special vocabulary” (Matras 2002, 10)—is a mixed language. It almost completely lacks the pro- totypically Indo-Aryan inflectional system found in other Romani dialects, including Sinte or Kale. It is very different—not just in vocabulary, but also in inflection, grammar, and syntax—from later in-migrating dialects of Romani such as Kelderaš, Lovari, and Čurari (1860s–1920s); Polska Roma, Lovari and Kelderaš (1950s–70s); and Arli (1990s–2000s).4 The level of mutual intelligibil- ity between speakers of Scandoromani and other dialects in the Nordic coun- tries is generally very low. Unsurprisingly, loanwords into Scandoromani from other, later in-migrating dialects are almost completely absent, indicating that contact between Scandoromani speakers of the first migration and speakers of Kelderaš, Lovari, Romungro, Polska Romani, etc., of the second and later migrations has been relatively limited.
1.1.2. The Scandoroma: Language, Culture, and Identity Several studies have been devoted to the culture, language, and disposition of Scandoroma in Sweden and Norway. Most discuss problems of cultural/ethnic identity: a key notion in the wider debate on Scandoroma. Historically, this has been the big issue in Sweden and Norway: the identity of Resande (Reisende) and Tattare (Tatere), whether or not they are to be regarded as ethnic minor- ities. This is parallel to the situation in Great Britain, where one finds both Travellers of non-Romani origin (i.e., Scottish and Irish Travellers) and Romani Travellers (Romnichel) (see Matras 2010, 2f.). In the early literature such as Sundt (1852), Etzler (1944), and Iversen (1944), the population of Tattare (Tatere) is regarded as descended from the first Roma (Gypsies) to immigrate to the Nordic countries in the 16th Century, as reflected (among other things) in their language. Later literature such as Heymowski (1968, 1977) and Svensson (1993)
4 For an overview of later immigrations, see Fraurud and Hyltenstam (1999, 272). scandoromani 3 rejects this theory: e.g., Svensson (1993, 48ff.) regards the population of Tattare (Tatere) and Reisende (Resande) as a social construction caused by society’s response to perceived outsiders. The “social constructivists” employ mainly anthropological, genealogical, and linguistic arguments. Language plays a key role: i.e., whether the language of these groups is a “real” language equivalent to the language of the “Gypsies” (see e.g., Etzler 1944) or a variety of Swedish or Norwegian equivalent to other “secret” jargon-based languages (more on this below), but with a large amount of Romani loan words (see e.g., Gjerdman 1945, Svensson 1993, 38). Recent literature (e.g., Schlüter 1993, Lindholm 1995) modifies this view. In the preparatory work for the treaty on Swedish national minority languages (see Fraurud & Hyltenstam 1997, 1999), the language of the Scandoroma—labeled Swedish Romani—is fitted into the framework of other mixed languages of both Romani and non-Romani origin (see Section 1.3). The Norwegian treaty likewise recognizes the language of the Scandoroma as a national minority language, distinguishing it from Romanes. Present knowledge about contact languages is much greater than it was fifty years ago (Matras & Bakker 2003, Matras 2010); discussion of whether they are “real” languages is no longer of interest. Meanwhile, even if language is key to understanding the culture and identity of the Scandoroma, it cannot alone resolve questions of their ethnic identity or origin. Traditionally perhaps more than presently, the Scandoroma are clearly an ethnic minority with cultural patterns distinct from those of the majority pop- ulation. Until recently, they have been subject to severe discrimination, which has influenced both their culture and language. This study treats the Scandoroma as a distinct group with a clear ethnic identity, sharing a common language as well as a distinct ethnolect of the majority language: something that is often spoken of by consultants but has never been studied scientifically. A number of their cultural practices deviate from the pattern of the majority population. Typically, they engage in certain occupations, which reflect their itinerant nature and—at least to a certain extent—low social status. These include running circuses, amusement parks, and traveling shows and playing music, often as a family: traditions that con- tinue both in Sweden and Norway (Enevig 1965). Other traditional occupations include dealing in horses (and, more recently, cars), selling scrap, and taking part in traveling markets. Among the occupations they have abandoned after the industrialization of society are roofing, tin plating, knife sharpening, horse gelding, and window replacement. Of particularly low social status was their frequent former (up to 19th ct) employment as nattman or rackare: the execu- tioner’s henchman who disposed of the executed; carried out corporal pun- ishments; slaughtered dogs, cats, and horses; buried dead animals; and, each 4 chapter 1 night in the cities, disposed of garbage and cleaned the latrines (Levander 1975 [1933], 216ff., Minken 2009, 409ff.). From time to time, the executioners them- selves were of Scandoroma descent (Minken 2009, 414f.). Most typical and frequently noted among their cultural traditions are their choice of names and style of dress (see e.g., Minken 2009, 399f.). Their choice of names shows some change over time and between populations in Norway and Sweden. Family names are borrowed from the majority population and are typically peasant or soldier names: e.g., Björk, Magnusson, Djerf, Lindgren, Qvick, Faltin, Skenberg, Krans, Wigart, Holm, Lundberg, Lindberg, Rosenqvist, Lund, Rodin, Kindberg, Rosengren in Sweden; Lundberg, Faltin, Kvick, Bruun, Børessen, Solstad, Nilsen, Dahl, Lindberg, Rohde, Swartz, Holm in Norway. Often families have branches on both sides of the border: e.g., “Norwegian Faltin” and “Swedish Faltin”. Double surnames are common, as are the combi- nation of a “big family” name with a “small family” name. In earlier times, first names were often long or otherwise striking: e.g., Herrdinius, Severina; often borrowed from royalty or mythology: e.g., Andreas Goliat Tyrfing, Adolf Amianoti Engelbrekt, Oskar Fredrik Constantin Napoelon (Bergstrand 1942, 89f., Lindholm 1995, 174f.). More recently, names have often been often borrowed from movie or pop stars: e.g., Nemo, Elvis, Kid, Manelito. English sounding names are common: e.g., Kevin, Jonny, Sonny, Conny, Mike, Dickie, Jackie. Names with an obvious Romani etymology occur as well: e.g., Rajan, Soraya, Angelo. Girls’ names are often particularly fanciful: e.g., Lolita, Marlene, Marina, Rosita, and several traditional names are still being used, e.g., Elvira, Agusta, Severin, Fritjof, Brynolf, Gottfrid. Dress code also is commonly noted (e.g., Minken 2009, 370, Lindholm 1995, 175f.). Men often wear large hats, boots, earrings, and gold bracelets. Women often wear long dresses, scarves, earrings, and gold bracelets. Today’s style of dress is not nearly so distinct as in earlier times, though some people try to keep up the old ways. A less visible tradition—seldom mentioned and never studied—is the recurrence of certain tattoo patterns particularly among males. Typical cultural artifacts, often inherited from one generations to the next, include gold jewellery (arm- and necklaces), knifes, (pocket) watches, and paintings. During the 20th Century, the Scandoromani were subject to severe dis- crimination by the authorities, in particular during the 1920s through 1940s (Ericsson 2010, Montesino-Parra 2002, 106ff.). Partly in consequence, the num- ber of speakers of Scandoromani has rapidly diminished and continues to do so. Most fluent speakers today are elderly. They remain extremely reluctant to disclose their language, thinking of it like a secret code that is forbidden to scandoromani 5 share with non-Romani (buro). According to a very rough estimate—people do not all live in one village where they can be counted!—around 100–150 indi- viduals still speak the language in its “pure” form: horta romani ‘good Romani’. A far greater number know a broken variant: i.e., a form of Swedish with some insertion of Romani vocabulary. The precise boundary between horta romani and the broken variant is ultimately arbitrary, making it very difficult to esti- mate the overall number of speakers accurately.
1.2. Scandoromani: A Mixed Language
1.2.1. Introduction This study treats the language of the Swedish and Norwegian Scandoroma— known as Rommano to the speakers themselves and Tattare (Tatere) or Resande (Reisende) to the majority population5—as a single dialect of Romani, Scandoromani.6 This is not a new view. It is evident that the avail- able sources share a number of commonalities: not only with respect to the position within the Romani continuum, but also in the way they’ve adapted to the Scandinavian languages: e.g., the adaption of the Scandinavian inflectional system; see Section 3.2.2. On the other hand, some features argue for distinct regional (Swedish and Norwegian) varieties. The non-Romani vocabulary (i.e., the vocabulary bor- rowed later than the split from other Romani dialects) shows some correspon- dence to specifically Norwegian and Swedish sources. Further, the Norwegian sources are adapted more to Norwegian and the Swedish more to Swedish (e.g., in their inflectional morphology: see sections 3.2.–3.3). What is difficult to judge—in particular, when relying on written sources—is whether this results from writing the language with knowledge of a particular standard (Swedish or Norwegian), or if the differences originate in spoken language. Both primary and secondary sources indicate other dialectal divisions. Speakers themselves often refer to a difference between South Swedish Scandoromani and North Swedish/Norwegian Scandoromani (e.g., Johansson 1977, 12). The difference is most apparent in the vocabulary, with regional vari- ants for the same lexical notions. Speakers also claim a difference in word pronunciation.
5 For examples, see Appendix 1, Vocabulary. 6 For origins of the term ‘Scandoromani’, see Hancock (1992). 6 chapter 1
Within the framework of the present study, it has not been possible to inves- tigate these differences more deeply. The dialect of the two primary speakers in this study reflects the North Swedish variant. In Norway, another dialect-related—or rather variety-related—distinction is commonly made: between Romani and Rodi (Sundt 1852; Iversen 1945, 1950). The Romani variant is spoken by the baro-vandringene (‘larger vagabonds’) and the Rodi by the tikno-vandringene (‘smaller vagabonds’). What lies beneath this distinction is unclear; the present study offers no solution. A thorough study of Norwegian Romani—including deep interviews with speakers—would be required. Commonalities aside, the rich variation between the available sources is striking. Because of their relative paucity, sources should be regarded as doculects rather than dialects; the variation should be understood as arising within the register of individual speakers: the ideolects. The fieldwork for this study is based on linguistically deep interviews with two Swedish native speakers originating from different families in dif- ferent parts of Sweden: Lenny Lindell from the province of Västergötland and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf from the province of Halland (cf. Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008). It is quickly apparent that the register of any indi- vidual speaker includes a rich number of variants, which the speaker uses depending on the person addressed. Carling in Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008, 13) proposes the term familylect to supplement the usual term ‘dialect’, marking those variations—most notably in pronunciation—that relate to usage within families rather than between geographic areas. A given feature is often usefully ascribed to both: e.g., “this is typical of family x in area y”. The abundant linguistic variation is one of the most prominent features of the language. Every lexeme has a number of variants distinguished by allo- phonic, prosodic, and morphological variation, as well as variation in inflec- tion and usage. When all available sources are brought together, the variation becomes even clearer. Working with the language, one finds seemingly end- less variation due to the language’s non-standardized, non-literary character. In interviews with speakers, awareness that speakers of other families may use a different variant of the same lexeme is quickly apparent, and this is more important than their using a different lexeme for the same concept.7 The pragmatic aspect of the language’s learning and use is important to note: taught and learned as a minority language in an environment where the co-territorial, dominant language (Swedish and Norwegian) is also used at home in daily communication, the language is transferred with a pragmatic
7 For allophonic variation, see Chapter 2. scandoromani 7
‘overcoat’ attached to almost every form and lexeme. Speakers have clear notions about whether something is ‘pure Romani’ (horta romani) or ‘bad Romani’ (rodi), whether it can be used in a certain context, whether it is typi- cal of a certain family, and how it should be pronounced: e.g., whether or not, in the case of aspirated stops, it should contain an h (see Section 2.2.2). This pragmatic transfer can partly explain preservation of older forms—such as the aspirated stops—that would otherwise have disappeared since they are hardly pronounced (see 2.4.5). Whatever the cause of the preservations, it cannot be writing: the language has never existed in written form as something of daily use in the community. When the language sometimes pops up today in chat forums and other online communities, the orthography is completely ad hoc: i.e., non-standardized. Meanwhile, the level of education—traditionally and today—is generally low. This is particularly the case in families who preserve the language. In Angloromani, his important book on the language of the British Romnichel, Yaron Matras (2010) describes a language form that—in contrast to the language forms described in Iversen (1944), Etzler (1944), and Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008)—has reached a relatively high degree of dissolu- tion. It is basically a variant of English with insertion of a number of Romani lexemes. Labeled poggaddi jib (‘broken language’) by the Romnichel, it is used by groups of British Romnichel for communication. It often has the character of trying to remind its users as much as possible of the Romani vocabulary: i.e., the special word for this or that item (for mixture patterns in Angloromani, see Matras 2010, and Matras 2009, 295 ff.). The equivalent form of Scandoromani is widely used in Sweden and Norway today. This ‘broken’ form—a variant of Swedish or Norwegian with Romani lexemes inserted—is the variant people normally admit to having mastered when in contact with outsiders. When asked further about their knowledge of Romani, speakers tend to answer that they know ‘only a few’ words; but they claim to have an uncle, grandmother, or other relative who ‘really’ knows or knew the language. This ‘broken’ form, which one would only be able to docu- ment by collecting material from online chat forums and Traveller forum guest books or by interviewing users, has not been described for Sweden or Norway, where the focus has been instead on finding the ‘real’ speakers of ‘deep’ fami- lies (see e.g., Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008), describing their language before it disappears. That said, speakers of Scandoromani typically master forms of the language all the way from horta romani (‘good Romani’) to rodi (‘bad Romani’). They are always fully bilingual, speaking Swedish or Norwegian as their first lan- guage. The terms horta romani and rodi are often used when characterizing the 8 chapter 1 dissolution of the language, noting in particular rodi lexemes that are either ad hoc loans (with Romani adaptional morpheme) from Swedish or Norwegian or code-switched Swedish/Norwegian lexemes. The current study deals with several aspects of patterns of mixture in Scandoromani. Different from earlier studies on mixed languages, such as Bakker (1997), Muysken (1997) or Matras (2010), which have mainly dealt with patterns of mixture in syntax and code-switching/code-mixing, this study will focus on phonology, lexical stress/pitch accent and derivational and adap- tional morphology. Chapter 4 will give a brief outline of patterns of mixture in syntax.
1.2.2. Earlier Sources of Scandoromani Even though Scandoromani is fairly well documented (Matras 2010, 9; Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008)—at least its vocabulary—the historical paucity of sources is problematic. Early documentation is mostly limited to word lists, often of poor quality, mostly compiled by lay persons and often in prison: e.g., by prison chaplains or prison guards talking with sentenced convicts (Gjerdman 1947, 1950; Etzler 1944). No information exists on word usage, inflection, syntax, etc., except for short phrases showing how words are inserted into a framework of Swedish or Norwegian grammar/syntax. This makes the possibility of track- ing the historical change from inflectional to mixed language very remote. Any reconstruction of the change must be internal, relying mainly on indirect syn- chronic or historical evidence. The few existing phrase remnants indicate a very early change towards a mixed language. The earliest attested source of Scandoromani is a word list in a 1730 thesis by Samuel P. Björckman—Dissertatio academica de cingaris—in which he asked an imprisoned native speaker in Uppsala, Jacob Helsing, how much he recognized from the 1597 word list of Bonaventura Vulcanius: one of the oldest records of Romani.8 Björckman’s word list shows forms inflected in definite singular with Swedish post-posed suffix: e.g., chero-n (‘head’), juk- et (‘dog’), manro-n (‘bread’) (Ehrenborg 1909). This is an important change: Romani has a pre-posed definite article (Matras 2002, 97). Another early record comes via a phrase from a 1764 court record in Rönneberga in the province of Scania, southern Sweden, where Swedish Law was introduced in 1682/83: bengan der lingero truppo (‘the devil in their body’) (Etzler 1944, 179). The phrase is perfect Scandoromani—not an inflected vari- ant such as Kale or Sinte. Bengan is a variant of beng-en (‘the devil’), der most
8 See “A brief history of Romani linguistics” at Romani Project Manchester: http://romani .humanities.manchester.ac.uk. scandoromani 9 likely a misspelling of dre (‘in’), and lingero the 3rd-person plural of the posses- sive pronoun lengro, and truppo (‘body’). The reason this phrase is distinctly Scandoromani—and not an inflected variant such as Kale or Sinte—is the post-posed definite article -an (Kale and Sinte have a pre-posed definite article o beng [‘the devil’]). The form dre is found in Sinte (Kale uses andre); while truppo corresponds to trupo in Sinte, truppos in Kale (ROMLEX). Another early source mentioned in several books (e.g., Etzler 1944, 179f., 312– 314) is a booklet by Christfried Ganader (1780). Though the booklet was pub- lished by the Swedish Royal Academy, the language corresponds to the Finnish Kale dialect, including such examples as o tscharo (ʻa plate’), o tschaw (ʻa boy’), and mä drapawawa (‘I read’), which correspond well to later descriptions of Kale. Another important early source is Dorph (1837), who describes the now- extinct language of the peripatetic population of natmænd, kieltringer, or tatere in Jutland, Denmark. As in Sweden (see Section 1.1.2), this pariah-like group performed the dirty work of removing garbage, cleaning latrines, assist- ing executioners with corpses, gelding and slaughtering horses, and so forth. Because of the regulations allowing them only to perform their duties at night, they were called—as in Norway—natmænd (‘men of the night’). In Carl Jonas Love Almquist’s Swedish novel Tre fruar i Småland (‘Three Wives in Småland’, 1842–1843) one finds short sentences of Scandoromani that demonstrate a mixed language and correspond very well to later sources. Some of the words are misinterpreted or spelled strangely (see examples 1a, 1b).
(1a) Almqvist 1842–43 dova besch-ar baschtado-a allezuvâro they sit-PRS bastard-PL altogether (‘They were all big bastards.’)
(1b) Almqvist 1842–43 dove dick-as je fulano tjavo he see-PRS.PASS a dirty man (‘He is a nasty, mean man.’)
Several things should be noted here: the place-holder subject dova (see Chapter 4.2.), the -a(r) plural on nouns ending in -o (see 3.2.2.1), the -ar (active) and -as (passive) endings on verbs (see 3.3.2). Another important 19th Century source is the account of the Swedish prisoner Djos Per Andersson, written in prison in 1847 two years before his execution (see Ehrenborg 1928; Gjerdman 1947a, 1947b, 1950). His word list in 10 chapter 1
Scandoromani also contains a few examples (see 1c) that clearly demonstrate a mixed language incorporating a high number of Swedish words—similar to the samples of the languages of Almqvist (1a, 1b) and, later, Etzler (1d).
(1c) Djos Per Anderson’s word list (Gjerdman 1950) var kam-ar diro di vavriga where have-PRS you they other spanare som kira-de spän-ett med thieves who do-PRT theft-DEF with diro ha-r di ga-tt sin drom you have-PRS they go-SUP REFL way (‘Where are the other thieves who did the theft with you; are they gone?’)
The first half of the 20th Century brings two, very important sources of Scandoromani, both from Norway: Iversen (1944) and Ribsskog (1945). Both sources consist mainly of vocabularies and contain no text samples; thus, they offer little information on usage. Iversen (1944) does provide information on inflection, as well as stress and pitch accent—making it the more important of the two sources. Meanwhile, Etzler (1944, 250–302) provides a contemporary source for Swedish Romani. It is mostly a word list again, collected in Långholmen Prison from nine informants over the years 1927–1943. The vocabulary lists the lex- emes without information on inflection or stress/pitch accent. However, at the end one finds relatively long samples of text. The mixed language is reminis- cent of Djos Per Andersson, containing a high number of Swedish words—as in Example 1d.
(1d) Etzler (1944, 306) me gono-a i rulla-n vi with sack-PL in wagon-DEF we tradr-ar vri i tämm att sjaffr-a travel-PRS out in country to collect-INF kutti ballvass å långast to våsjnos-a gräj little meat and oat to our-DEF horse (‘With sacks in the wagon, we travel out into the country to collect some meat and oats for our horse.’) scandoromani 11
The post-war period brings two principal scientific studies with native speak- ers of Swedish Romani: Johansson (1977) and Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). The latter forms the basis for the current study. Appendix I, Vocabulary is based mainly on the studies of Ribsskog (1945), Iversen (1945), Etzler (1944), Johansson (1977), and Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), to which an unpublished source of Norwegian Romani from Holm and Kristiansen has been added. For further information, see the introduction to Appendix I.
1.2.3. What Is a ‘Real’ Language? On Broken Variants and In-Group Lexicons The ways in which Scandoromani is most frequently used—in particular, the broken form—might, at first glance, resemble an in-group lexicon rather than a language. An in-group lexicon or mixed code (Matras 2010, 20; 2009, 291)— also known as argot or secret language—is typically used within a network of speakers of a language (often covert), who share a need for encryption or cam- ouflage of the co-territorial language. Their common ground is, of course, their understanding of the majority language. Through re-lexicalization, shared only within the group, they create a joint linguistic platform. An in-group lexicon is different from ordinary occupational jargons—the special lexicon of e.g., aca- demics and doctors—because the re-lexicalization normally goes beyond the special vocabulary needed for practice of the profession. In-group lexicons are frequently used by people with itinerant occupations (e.g., peddlers and cir- cus people), certain specialized occupations (chimney sweepers and healers), marginalized groups (homosexuals), and people who are in some way outside the society (criminals) (Matras 2010:21f.). In-group lexicons from Europe (e.g., Halliday 1976), Africa (e.g., Mous 2003), and other parts of the world have been thoroughly studied. A number of strategies characterize the re-lexicalization of in-group lexi- cons. Several of these re-occur in mixed languages such as Scandoromani, such as heavy or extending morphology or camouflaging morphology with clip- ping. The occurrence of in-group-type lexical manipulation in Scandoromani compared to other Scandinavian in-group lexicons is summarized in Table 1.1, which follows and extends Mous’ (2003, 222–223) overview. The mechanisms— with examples—will be studied in greater detail in Section 3.4.3. The strategies of lexical borrowing, loan translation, and onomatopoeia— as well as semantic extension, metonymy, and metaphor—are by no means phenomena restricted to in-group languages: they are common also in the language-changing processes of ‘ordinary’ languages. That said, they are the most important source of lexical innovation in in-group lexicons, often extended by other, more manipulative strategies such as those listed in Table 1.1. under ‘morphology’. A combination of strategies is common in in-group 12 chapter 1
Table 1.1 Occurrence of strategies for re-lexicalization in Scandoromani vs. other Scandinavian in-group lexicons, such as Månsing, Knoparmoj, or Gråmål
Strategy In Scando-romani In other in-group lexicons
Lexical creation Lexical borrowing Yes Yes Loan translation Yes Yes Ideophones, onomatopoeia No Yes
Semantics Semantic extension Occasionally Yes Metonymy Occasionally Yes Metaphor Occasionally Yes Antonymy No Yes
Morphology Borrowed derivational morphology Occasionally Yes Heavy morphology Yes Yes Extending morphology (prefix, infix, suffix, circumfix) Yes Yes Dummy affixes No Yes Camouflaging morphology with clipping9 Yes Yes Clipping No (see previous entry) Yes Syncope/apocope No Yes Aphaeresis No Yes Phoneme metathesis Occasionally Yes Syllable metathesis No Yes Sporadic phonetic substitution Occasionally Yes Reduplication No Yes Compounding Yes Yes (Continued)
9 With respect to the vernacular and slang, this type of morphological creation is often referred to as hypocoristic: i.e., it is a formation with a pragmatic side effect. In Scandoromani, the purpose is rather the camouflage of loan words. scandoromani 13
Table 1.1 (Continued)
Strategy In Scando-romani In other in-group lexicons
Complex manipulation10 No Yes Anti-zipfian effect Yes Yes
Prosody Prosodic manipulation Yes Yes
languages, setting them apart from languages like Scandoromani, even though Scandoromani reveals in-group lexicalizing tendencies that go beyond ordi- nary language. A few strategies in Table 1.1 require clarification: • ‘Borrowed derivational morphology’ means that the derivational mor- phemes are borrowed from another language. • ‘Heavy morphology’ means that the derivational morphemes are longer and more complex than is typical for the co-territorial language. Examples include full-word and two-syllable morphemes. • ‘Extending morphology’ is a mechanism for adding morphemes to lexemes for the purpose of encryption or camouflage. • ‘Dummy affixes’ are similar to ‘extending morphology’, except that the deri- vation is not strategic in the same way. • ‘Complex manipulation’ combines strategies—e.g., extending morphology, syllable metathesis, sporadic substitution, reduplication—to create new forms, unintelligible to outsiders. • The ‘anti-zipfian effect’—described in more detail in Section 3.4.3.7—is the tendency to create long, heavy forms of lexemes that, in accordance with Zipf’s Law, are typically short: e.g., pronouns (in the unmarked form), the copula, auxiliaries, and negations.
10 Mous (2003, 222–223), ‘Verlan, Loucherbem.’ This type of morphological creation includes such various manufactured morphologies as syllable metathesis and mechanical inser- tion of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes (often in combination with syllable metathesis). 14 chapter 1
Even though Scandoromani has many similarities to in-group lexicons— mostly within the non-Romani parts of the lexicon (including loans from Low German and Scandinavian: see sections 3.2.3 and 3.4.2)—one finds impor- tant differences. It is quickly obvious that Scandoromani is not a re-lexified variant of Scandinavian, as Para-Romani has previously been considered (see Section 1.1.2). Scandoromani has its own rules and structure and shows a high degree of autonomy from the Scandinavian languages. The use of transpar- ently manipulated forms such as somtis (‘if’)11—often referred to as rodi—has low status, suggesting that speakers are consciously aware of the differences between an in-group lexicon and the language itself. However, this conscious- ness need not necessarily embrace earlier stages of manipulation. Lexical manipulation seems to have a long history in Scandoromani: it occurs rela- tively frequently with loan words from Middle Low German, as shown in Section 3.4.3. The Nordic countries are home to several documented in-group lexicons, the most important being Månsing, originally (from the 17th through 19th cen- turies) the language of Västergötland peddlers and later a general term for the common in-group lexicon of several peripatetic, low-status groups (Bergman 1929, 1931, 1934c, 1935, 1941, 1947; Iversen 1950). Rodi (or Rotvälska) is the gen- eral term for the secret language of non-Romani peripatetic groups (Bergman 1931, Iversen 1945). Finally, one has occupational in-group lexicons such as Knoparmoj, the language of chimneysweepers (Bergman 1939); Skinnarmål, the language of tanners; and Gråspråk, the occupational jargon of peddlers— the latter two both from the region of Dalecarlia (Steensland 2012). Early sources—for Månsing, these go back to the beginning of the 18th Century—mainly consist of word lists with a few example phrases. They reveal a certain degree of co-occurrence of vocabulary between the in-group lexi- cons. Most of the lexicons—with the exception of Skinnarmål and Gråspråk, which are mainly based on Elfdalian and other, related dialects—derive their lexicon partly from Romani and continental Rotwelsch (Wolf 1985). Another important component—setting aside a few loans from other languages such as Danish, Finnish, German, and Sami—is lexical manipulation, mainly of words from the standard language or dialects, but also applied to borrowings from those other languages. Differences in both the amount and type of lexical manipulation are apparent between Scandoromani and the in-group lexicons mentioned here. Complex manipulation (syllable metathesis; mechanical insertion of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes; etc.) is common in the in-group lexicons (see Table 1.1)
11 Derived from Swedish som (‘if’). scandoromani 15
Table 1.2 Example of complex lexical manipulation in several Swedish in-group lexicons described in the text
Type of manipulation In-group Form Meaning Origin lexicon
Complex (b- + syllable Månsing bärahuns how Swedish huru metathesis) Complex (b-/el- + Månsing bällakins tonight Swedish ikväll syllable metathesis) Syllable metahesis Månsing fika coffee break Swedish kaffe Dialectal + -el Månsing ekel I, me Swedish dialectal ek Syllable metathesis Gråmål tşame the milk Swedish dialectal mjåtşᶒ Sound symbolism Gråmål knaster hard bread sound symbolic Metaphor Gråmål sker sugar Swedish skär (‘rock’)
but very rare in Scandoromani. Furthermore, sound symbolism is almost absent in Scandoromani. However, camouflaging and heavy morphology, with clipping of the root, occurs frequently—affecting mainly borrowings from Middle Low German and Scandinavian languages, as shown in Section 3.4. On the other hand, clipping without morpheme (frequent in slang) does not seem to occur in Scandoromani. Metathesis and sporadic phonetic substitution do occur, though only occasionally; while syllable metathesis—often the basis for complex manipulation in in-group lexicons—does not seem to occur at all. The derivational morphemes of Scandoromani essentially derive from Romani proper, even though one finds form-related adaptation to Scandinavian mor- phology (see Section 3.2).
1.2.4. Influence on Scandinavian The influence of Romani on the Swedish language is almost entirely restricted to the dialects of the bigger cities—Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmö, and Jönköping—and specifically to the lexicon.12 No comparable study on the spread of Romani vocabulary has been done in Norway, corresponding to Carling (2005). This study, which was based on extensive fieldwork into the spread of Romani loans in Swedish slang, demonstrated that knowledge of Romani vocabulary was limited to particular regions. A handful of lexemes
12 With a few examples of hypocoristic derivational morphology (see below). 16 chapter 1
Table 1.3 Examples of hypocoristic formations with -o and -is in Swedish standard language and vernacular (sources: Kotsinas 1998, Ernby 2008, SAOL)
Form SAOL* Meaning Origin Meaning miffo No retarded person missfoster monster fyllo Yes drunkard fyllerist alcoholic pundo No drug addict pundare drug addict dagis Yes daycare center daghem daycare center skådis Yes actor skådespelare actor kompis Yes friend kompanjon friend fegis Yes coward feg (adj.) coward
* SAOL 1998. All words are marked as vulgar or negative. were borrowed into the standard Swedish vocabulary, listed in Swedish dictionaries and known to all informants.13 Other words were known to all informants but not listed in the standard dictionaries. Other words were known to a few informants only; here, social and geographical background played an important role. The borrowed-from-Romani vocabulary reflected many changes related to slang or in-group lexicon (see Table 1.3): the variation between forms, depending on region and social background, was huge. The vocabulary that had been borrowed into slang sometimes represented words or word forms that obviously had been lost in Scandoromani itself: neither were they recognized by speakers of Scandoromani nor did they occur in the sources. However, they recurred in Kale, Sinte, or other dialects of the region, but were not found in Scandoromani. When asked, Scandoromani speakers said that ‘this word is avoided’ because it ‘is bad Romani’ (or slang). Scandoromani has influenced Swedish in another way: through the hypoco- ristic suffixes -is and -o used frequently in Swedish, normally by being added to truncated roots—of which, in contemporary language, -o has the more neg- ative and -is the more familiar, diminishing effect. Examples from both stan- dard language and vernacular are given in Table 1.3. The -o suffix clearly has its origin in Scandoromani, becoming increasingly frequent towards the latter half of the 20th Century. The -is suffix has a longer history in Swedish, going
13 In this study, informants with a Scandoroma background were treated separately, differ- ent from ‘ordinary’ slang users. scandoromani 17 back to the 19th Century; it is found as well in the secret language Månsing (see 1.2.2).
1.3. Structure and Position of Scandoromani
1.3.1. Mixture Patterns Scandoromani is normally taken to be a mixed language of a type known as intertwined. It derives its grammatical morphemes from one language: the grammaticiser language (here, Swedish/Norwegian); its lexical roots from another: the lexifier language (here, Romani) (Bakker 2003, 109ff.). In this respect, Scandoromani is similar to a number of other Romani dialects: Basque Romani, Caló, and Angloromani (Matras 2002, 243). Intertwined languages are generally similar in the way they combine material from the grammaticiser and lexifier language (Bakker 2003, Matras 2003; 2009, 288f.): the grammaticiser language provides the word order, grammatical morphology, TAM marking, infinitive marking, and sentence syntax; while the lexifier language provides the basic lexicon of verbs, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Variation in the lexicon arises among the copulas, negation particles, demonstratives, inter- rogatives, numerals, and adpositions (Bakker 1998, 2003, 111ff.; Matras 2003). In relation to the debate over the structure and origin of mixed languages (see e.g., Muysken 2000), Bakker (2003, 125f.) assumes that mixed languages are autonomous systems: i.e., able to develop structures independent from both component languages. He takes several arguments into consideration. First, he considers the ability of mixed languages—as exemplified by Media Lengua— to preserve features from their component languages: if the co-territorial lan- guage changes, the mixed language need not; it may even develop in its own direction. Second, he considers the ability of mixed languages—as exempli- fied by gender assignments in Caló (Bakker 2003, 127–128)—to develop fully autonomous structures only loosely based on structures from the component languages. The evidence from Scandoromani supports Bakker’s autonomous model, revealing preservation of earlier structures from the co-territorial language as well as various progressions of autonomy. One also finds exceptions in the data to the expected patterns—raising questions about any strictly mechanical model of language mixing. Phonological, morphological, and syntactic struc- tures are often intertwined in the truest sense, weaving complex structural pat- terns out of various stages of Romani and Scandinavian; even while the overall structure follows the model outlined in previous studies. A few examples, which will be further treated in the following chapters, can be mentioned: 18 chapter 1 • The verbal inflectional language (Matras 2003, 154f.) is always Scandinavian (Section 3.3), and the stress/pitch accent patterns of verbal inflection always follow the Scandinavian pattern (Section 3.3.4). An exception is the frozen expression te avel, which corresponds to a Romani infinitive (‘to be’, found in phrases like te avel barvalo: ‘to be rich’). • The nominal inflectional language is essentially Scandinavian (Section 3.2.2.1), and the stress/pitch accent patterns in the inflection follow the Scandinavian pattern (Section 3.2.2.3). An interesting exception is the -s plu- ral, most likely borrowed from Low German (Section 3.2.2.1). • The lexicon of the open word classes (i.e., verbs, nouns, and adjectives) is either derived from Romani or borrowed from non-Scandinavian languages. Scandinavian loan words are generally either camouflaged or manipulated (Section 3.2.3). • The closed word classes (i.e., pronouns, noun adjuncts, verb adjuncts, par- ticles, conjunctions, copula, interjections, and negations) show a high degree of code mixing that varies from speaker to speaker depending on the speaker’s knowledge of the language or on level of speech, as a pragmatic effect of language use (see further chapter 4.5).
The following chapers will delve into the phonology (Chapter 2), morphology (Chapter 3), and syntax (Chapter 4) of Scandoromani. Here, focus will be laid on various patterns of mixture as well as the origin of the constituents in the patterns of the mixture. The picture is modified when one looks at the data in greater detail. Scandoromani reveals a number of strategies indicative of development autonomous from the co-territorial language: Swedish or Norwegian.
1.3.2. Placing Scandoromani in the Northwestern Romani Continuum Scandoromani belongs to the northwestern sub-group of the northern Romani continuum, which contains the Sinte-Manouche dialects in Germany, France, Austria, and parts of northern Italy, the Kale dialect in Finland, and the (extinct) Lajenge Romani dialect in Estonia: all of which share a joint prehistory in German-speaking territory (see Matras 2002, 10f. ). More distantly related are the Kååle dialect (or Welsh Romani; Sampson 1926) and the Romnichel mixed language (or Angloromani; Matras 2010) of Great Britain. Matras (2005; 2010, 82–94) has listed a number of phonological and morphological dialectal fea- tures grouping Scandoromani with all of these dialects. Previous subgroupings of Romani (Bakker 1998, Matras 2002, 2005, 2010) have been based mainly on the distribution of isoglosses, both derivational/ inflectional morphological (e.g., -e-/-o- in 1Sg.Prs. of the copula) as well as lexical (e.g., the distribution of scandoromani 19 variants for lexemes such as jaro/aro ‘egg’), yielding a subdivision of mainly four dialectal areas: 1) Northern (Northwestern/Northeastern), 2) Central, 3) Vlax, 4) Balkan, mainly corresponding to major historical political divisions, in which the Romas have been isolated extending over periods of time. These are 1) The Ottoman Empire for Balkan dialects, 2) The Romanian principali- ties and adjacent areas for Vlax dialects, 3) The Austro-Hungarian Empire for Central dialects and, 4) the Holy Roman/German and Czarist Empire as well as regions beyond them, such as the Iberian peninsula, the British Isles, the Swedish-Norwegian Union. An alternative method gives a similar but somewhat more detailed subdivi- sion. It uses computational cladistic analysis of a Swadesh 100–list; see Figure 1.1. Together with results from more traditional areal linguistic methods—e.g., distribution of isoglosses—this method gives languages like Scandoromani, which has lost all its inflectional morphology, better motivation for being a part of the cladistic tree. In their basic vocabulary, Scandoromani and Angloromani are no different from the inflectional dialects. The rectangles in Figure 1.1. rep- resent subdivisions of the cladistic tree, generated by the software. Overall, the output it produces is quite striking. In particular, the dialects of the tra- ditional northwestern group—Sinte-Manouche, Kale, Angloromani, and Scandoromani—are situated at a higher level in the cladistic tree; whereas the dialects of the traditional Northeastern, Central, Balkan, and Vlax groups are more deeply embedded, allowing a greater number of intervening branches nodes from the presumed proto-language (see map figure 1.2). The geographical distribution pattern in the cladistic tree is similar to patterns observed elsewhere, e.g., the Arawak language family of Amazonia (Carling et al. submitted). High-level branches with fewer branching nodes are situated in the geographical extremes of the language family area; more deeply embedded dialects with more branching nodes are found in a central area of innovation: for Romani, Central Europe and the Balkans (see map figure 1.3). Focusing on the non-basic vocabulary, and in particular the non-Romani vocabulary, i.e., the vocabulary outside the around 1000 lexemes that recur in all dialects (see Matras 2002) and which is mainly borrowed from adjacent lan- guages, it is interesting to compare the distribution of non-Romani vocabulary in Sinte and Kale to that of Scandoromani. Scandoromani typically uses Low German loan words for such common cultural terms as houseware (‘fork’, ‘cup- board’), tools (‘hammer’, ‘fishhook’), and occupations (‘smith’, ‘tailor’). Kale, on the other hand, typically uses Swedish loan words; while Sinte often uses High German loan words. Sometimes, a Low or High German loan word is found in all three dialects, but Kale has extended it with a Swedish loan word. Table 1.4 overviews the origins of a randomly selection of words within the 20 chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Computational cladistic tree of Romani dialects, based on a Swadesh-100 list, divided into 8 subgroups. Data from ROMLEX and Vocabulary. scandoromani 21
Figure 1.2 Map, showing the distribution of the groups 1–8 in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.3 Map, showing the distribution of number of nodes in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1. 22 chapter 1
Table 1.4 The distribution of lexical origins for a selected vocabulary within topic areas such as houseware, tools, and occupations in Scandoromani, Kale, and Sinte (LG=Low German, HG=High German, Sw=Swedish, Ro=Romani, Ru=Russian, Fi=Finnish). ‘Romani’ means that the lexemes occur in European Romani; they may also be borrowings. Kale and Sinti sources: ROMLEX. For origins, cf. References, section of Appendix I, Vocabulary
Lexical item Scandoromani Kale Sinte
peasant buro (LG) buuros (LG) gadžo (Ro) smith simpa smittos (LG) šmito (LG) smitto (LG) seffarle tailor snajdare (HG) skrendaris (Sw) sipaskaro (Ro) sivrare (Ro) šnajdari (HG) cupboard schefflan, scheffan (LG) skoopi (Sw) šanka, šranka (H/LG) hammer dank hamros (H/LG) hamro (H/LG) svejarist mertel zinkel, zingel bear bullo (H/LG) rič (Ro) rič (Ro) starsman bero, beri (HG) cock kanno baxno pono (HG) kokko (HG) fork furka, furkla (LG) gafla (Sw) gabla (HG) forka ʻhay fork’ gate porga puorta (Sw) Toara schopa (LG) hook, fishhook anglo (L/HG) anglo anglo hakkos (Sw) hoko kouka (Sw) tent serga, sargan (Ro) telta (Sw) celta (HG) shop spekkari (LG) huusa (Sw) lada, lade (HG) (coffee) pot balldrik (LG) piiri (HG) kana (HG) piri (Ro) chin tjokkis (LG) čefta (Sw) paxoni, paxuno (Ro) pavunis (Ro) star beda (Ru) čeerna, xeerna (Sw) sirna astro glimmos (Sw) štarna, štarla, šterna (HG) (Continued) scandoromani 23
Table 1.4 (Continued)
Lexical item Scandoromani Kale Sinte coffee morshta (Fi) kaali (Ro) kafea (HG) meli wall vanta (HG) vanta (HG) vanta (HG) face listjo (Ru) ansixta (Sw) muj (Ro) flattan (Sw) muoda pleesa gun puffra (HG) kardiini (Ro) karamaskeri kardini (Ro) puxka banduk puška
topic areas of houseware, tools, and occupations, revealing clear tendencies in the distribution. The possible reasons for this are manifold. The overwhelming majority of loans from Low or High German may have entered Scandoromani later than the split from Kale and Sinte. Alternatively, Kale may have been overwhelmed by lexical borrowings from Swedish, pushing aside most of its Low German vocabulary. Or again, Swedish loan words in Kale and Low German loan words in Scandoromani may have entered those languages after they settled in Finland and Norway/Sweden respectively: the need to keep their vocabulary distinct from the co-territorial language may have forced them to borrow from neighboring languages rather than the co-territorial language. chapter 2 The Sounds of a Mixed Language
2.1. Introduction
This chapter presents an overview of the Swedish Romani sound system.1 We examine segmental features: vowel and consonant inventories; as well as word- level prosody: lexical stress, the quantity distinction, and lexical pitch accents. Since the core of the sound system has been adapted from Swedish, a com- parison with Swedish underlies the synchronic description of the language in sections 2.3–2.6. We focus on two segmental features for more detailed analysis: (i) an aspiration feature in the voiceless stops /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ and in the voiced stop /ɡʰ/ that is not present in Swedish: the aspirated voiceless stops go back to Romani, whilst the /ɡʰ/ represents an innovation; (ii) a series of voiceless post-alveolar fricatives: Swedish has a similar series, but it is simpler in several respects. We pay special attention as well to a third feature of the lan- guage: the conspicuous occurrence of variation in pronunciation at all levels of phonology. Although mainly adapted from Swedish, the sound system contains traces of European Romani. In Section 2.8, we compare it to that of other Romani dialects. We make no attempt to present a complete description of the Scandoromani sound system. In particular, we leave aside issues of sentence-level prosody and syllable structure, partly due to insufficient data. Meanwhile, phonetic and phonological analyses of Scandoromani are complicated by factors spe- cific to the language and its users: see the discussion in sections 2.1.1–2.1.2.
2.1.1. Speakers and Available Recordings The number of potential consultants for studies on Swedish Romani is quite small, partly due to the small number of speakers and partly due to the lan- guage’s traditionally secret status (Section 1.1.2). This makes the number of available audio recordings small indeed. Although the lack of recordings can, to some extent, be explained by technical circumstances, a bigger problem that persists is the unwillingness of speakers to be recorded. Earlier descrip- tions of the language (Section 1.2.2) have been solely based on transcriptions,
1 It has only been possible to do recordings and deep interviews with Swedish speakers, Lenny Lindell (LL) and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (KTD); see Section 2.1.1.
© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004266452_�03 the sounds of a mixed language 25 mostly performed by linguistically and phonetically untrained persons. The description by Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) is based on interviews with two speakers, with recordings made of one of them (Lenny Lindell, LL).
2.1.2. Allophonic Variation, Minimal Pairs, and the Phoneme Inventory Swedish Romani exhibits a high degree of formal alternations, concerning both morphology and—more importantly to the present chapter—phonol- ogy. Often one or more speech sounds or lexical stress patterns, or both, differ between forms. Many words containing one of the voiceless post-alveolar2 fric- atives [ɕ ʂ ɧ χ] can exchange this fricative with another fricative from the same group. Speakers are well aware of such variations in pronunciation,3 evidenced by the deliberate choice of our language consultants—the authors of Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008)—to encode these variations into the writing of their dictionary. The word bàscha ‘1. to bark, yell, argue, be difficult, be stu- pid; 2. epithet’ can be pronounced with three different fricatives and written as bàsha, bàscha, or bàcha. Such sound alternations may signal either regional affiliation or family membership: i.e., they go back both to different regional dialects and different ‘familylects’ (Section 1.2.1). Given that a speaker usually is either a member of or has close contact with several families that can be spread out over several regions, it is generally difficult—if not impossible—to assign a word form to a specific dialect or familylect or draw precise boundaries between variants. One will often obtain a number of phonological variants from a single speaker; in many cases—at least our consultants LL and KTD—the speaker regards several word forms as possible within his idiolect. We cannot be certain that regional affiliation and family membership are the only factors behind the rich variation in pronunciation: one or another morphological or phonological word form could be chosen on stylistic or pragmatic criteria. For these reasons, we have not tried to label precisely which variety of Swedish Romani we are investigating; we note only where our two language consultants come from (LL from the county of Västergötland and KTD from Halland). We treat the phonological variants obtained from them as free
2 The term ‘post-alveolar’ refers in IPA to a specific place of articulation. We use the term in a modified, broader way to refer to all places of articulation posterior to the alveoli. In this way, we can refer to a series of fricatives containing [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], [χ] that are not otherwise well covered by a single term: e.g., dorsal fricatives does not work, since [ʂ] is not dorsal. Note that we wish to include only lingual fricatives and not [h]. 3 This is only true for segmental features and lexical stress patterns: speakers do not seem to be aware of variation in pronunciation with respect to lexical pitch accent. 26 chapter 2 allophonic variations within a single language variant, even though some of them may indeed result from dialectal variations. One finds a considerable degree of free allophonic variation in Swedish Romani, as discussed at various points through this chapter. Speakers perceive this rich variation as charac- teristic of their language. The language’s phoneme inventory should therefore not be the only or even main object of interest in describing its sound system. Rather, all aspects of the sound system—but particularly the inventory of free allophones—call for a detailed description. A classical phonological analysis—using minimal pairs, resulting in a pho- neme inventory—is not only not terribly relevant in this case, but also diffi- cult, since there are hardly any minimal pairs available, probably due to the relatively small vocabulary. Usage of Swedish Romani is limited to certain contexts, and all speakers are bilingual: they are native speakers of a Swedish dialect, too. In this chapter, we present an enhanced inventory of those sounds that can be described as distinctive phones. Many are potentially phonemic (distinc- tive in a narrow sense); others occur as free allophonic variants nevertheless recognized by speakers as distinct speech sounds whose alternation fulfills communicative—though not phonemic—functions (distinctive in a broader sense). We are forced to make at least a qualified guess which of the distinctive phones have phonemic status, in order to draw conclusions about the com- plexity of the sound system and compare it to the Swedish system (Section 2.7). Where possible, we discuss the phonemic status of distinctive phones, either by means of real or near-minimal pairs. For the comparison with Swedish, we must consider distinctive phones in Swedish that may lack phonemic status. That said, Swedish has almost none of the free allophonic alternations of the kind found in Swedish Romani4— which means that the set of distinctive phones is roughly equivalent to the phoneme inventory.
2.2. Methods and Materials
This chapter presents a phonological/phonetic description of Swedish Romani based on two analyses. The first study (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008),
4 Of course, one finds regional variation in pronunciation. However, it is generally unproblem- atic to distinguish between dialects in Swedish: most speakers speak only a single dialect. Consequently, it does not make sense to describe cross-dialectal variation in pronunciation as free allophonic variation. the sounds of a mixed language 27 based on transcriptions of the speech of ll and ktd, was performed by Gerd Carling (gc), assisted by phonetician Per Lindblad (PL). Only GC had contact with the language consultants, including making the recordings with LL.5 This meant that she had to work out an indirect method for the phonetic transcrip- tion: first she learned the Swedish Romani speech sounds from the consul- tants; then she discussed their phonetic values with PL. The second study sought to improve and extend the phonological/phonetic analysis begun in Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Gilbert Ambrazaitis (GA) undertook more detailed phonetic transcriptions and instrumental/pho- netic analyses of parts of the material recorded from LL. The recordings con- sist of (a) a word list containing approximately the same words as listed in the dictionary part of Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), (b) interviews testing for specific grammatical or phonological problems, and (c) a number of narratives. GA analyzed only the data from (a) and (b). All of the recordings— but especially (a) and (b)—contain a degree of spontaneous meta-linguistic conversation: e.g., LL’s production of words in (a) was frequently interrupted by discussions between GC and LL over various aspects of the words.
2.3. The Vowel System
2.3.1. Swedish The vowel phoneme inventory of Swedish is represented here by the standard Central Swedish variant (Engstrand 2004). Table 2.1 lists the Swedish vowels, using a broad phonetic transcription (for fine phonetic detail, and allophonic6 and dialectal variation, see e.g., Engstrand 2004, Bruce & Engstrand 2006, Bruce 2010). The inventory is based on an underlying nine-fold vowel quality contrast plus a quantity contrast. For reasons that will become clear in the following discussion, this yields 17—rather than 18—distinct surface combinations of quality and quantity. In nearly all of the quantity pairs in Swedish, the two vowels differ also in quality, as Table 2.1 indicates: e.g., /iː/ vs. /ɪ/. This quantity-dependent change in quality varies widely between vowel pairs (Elert 1964; Behne, et al. 1997). In the case of /ɑː/ vs. /a/ it is quite pronounced: the long /ɑː/ is near cardinal 5 [ɑ], while the short /a/ is much more fronted—though seldom reaching a cardinal 4 quality [a]. It is also highly salient in /eː/ vs. /ɛ/ and
5 These were recorded over several interviews 2006–2008. 6 The allophones we refer to here are complementary allophones; as noted in Section 2.1.2, one finds almost no free allophonic variation in Swedish of the kind found in Swedish Romani. 28 chapter 2
Table 2.1 The Swedish vowel system, according to Engstrand (2004). The short /e/—placed by Engstrand in parentheses to indicate that it has vanished from most Swedish dialects, including standard Central Swedish—is omitted to make the table more comparable to the table on Swedish Romani (Table 2.2). iː ɪ yː ʏ ʉ̟ ː uː ʊ eː øː ɵ oː ɛː ɛ œ ɔ a ɑː
/ʉ̟ː/ vs. /ɵ/; in both pairs, the short vowel is more open than the long one (see Table 2.1). Transcriptions indicate the same difference in openness for /øː/ vs. /œ/ and /oː/ vs. /ɔ/, although /øː/ is often fairly open, near to [œː], while /ɔ/ is rather close, near to [o̞]—resulting, for both pairs, in a less salient difference in quality. The same phonetic symbol is generally used for both the long and the short version of /ɛ(ː)/, reflecting a negligible difference in quality. The qualitative distinction between the long and short version is also rather marginal in the front and back close vowels. The transcriptions /i ɪ/, /y ʏ/, and /u ʊ/ used here are common in the Swedish tradition, even though they tend to exaggerate the actual difference in vowel quality: the same phonetic symbols are typically used for the corresponding German and English vowels, where the qualitative difference between /i ɪ/, /y ʏ/, and /u ʊ/ is much larger than in Swedish. From this perspective, the Swedish short vowels /ɪ/, /ʏ/, and /ʊ/ would better be tran- scribed as /i/, /y/, and /u/; but we elect here to follow common Swedish practice. Engstrand’s (2004) vowel inventory contains a short /e/—though set in parentheses—beside the short /ɛ/. The historical contrast between short /e/ and short /ɛ/ survives in writing in the letters
2.3.2. Swedish Romani For Swedish Romani, we assume an inventory of 19 vowels: i.e., two additional elements compared to the Swedish system, one of which occurs as a free allo- the sounds of a mixed language 29
Table 2.2 The Swedish Romani vowel system: potential vowel phonemes and [e]—a free allophonic variant of /ɛ/. iː ɪ yː ʏ ʉ̟ ː uː ʊ eː [e] øː ɵ oː ɛː ɛ œ ɔ aː a ɑː
phonic variant7 only (Table 2.2). Otherwise, the system basically corresponds to the Swedish one (Table 2.1), including the typologically marked richness of close and close-mid front vowels. As Table 2.2 shows, Swedish Romani contains an additional long open front vowel /aː/. However, it occurs only in a few words: e.g., nâní /naːnɪ/ ‘not, nothing’. Several other vowels in the table could be characterized as marginal for the same reason: long /oː/ and /ɛː/, and the typologically marked front- rounded vowels long /yː/, short /œ/, and long /øː/. Long /øː/ occurs in a single word only: böló ‘bull’, borrowed from dialectal Swedish böl. We have opted to include short [e] in the table; it occurs as a free allophonic variant beside short [ɛ]. The two vowels are never distinctive in a phonemic sense in Swedish Romani—as they were in Swedish historically, and still are in some Swedish dialects (remember the example of sett vs. sätt). They occur only as free allophonic variants: e.g., beng [e] vs. bäng [ɛ] ‘devil, Satan’. Our main source for this [e]—[ɛ] alternation is KTD. One finds only a few exam- ples from the recordings with LL; in a majority of words containing short
7 Recall from Section 2.1.2 that we are discussing the ‘distinctive phones’ in a broad sense. 30 chapter 2
Table 2.3 The Swedish consonant system, adapted from Engstrand (2004); the presentation is modified slightly to facilitate comparison with Table 2.4. It comprises the consonant phonemes plus [ ʂ], which may occur as a free (stylistic) allophonic variant of /ɧ/. p b t d k ɡ f v s [ʂ] ɕ ɧ h l j r m n ŋ
hug’ vs. chèla /eː/ ‘to pet’ or gráshni /ɪ/ ‘mare’ vs. gráshno /ʊ/ ‘stallion’. Therefore, we would classify all vowel contrasts (apart from [e] / [ɛ]) as potentially phonemic. We can draw the tentative conclusion that Swedish Romani has 18 vowel phonemes: i.e., one more than Swedish; or 19 distinct vowels in a broad sense.
2.4. The Consonant System
The consonant inventories of Swedish (Engstrand 2004) and Swedish Romani are given in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. As with the vowel system, the Swedish Romani consonant system comprises the entire Swedish system with some additional consonants.
2.4.1. The Core System of Equivalent Swedish Consonants A majority of Swedish Romani consonants—the stops /p b t d k ɡ/, nasals /m n ŋ/, and liquids /l j r/, as well as the fricatives /f v s h/—seem phonetically and functionally equivalent to their Swedish counterparts. All occur in con- texts equivalent to their Swedish counterparts, and none represent allophones in a complementary distribution:8 i.e., they have potential phonemic status. As with the vowels, a number of near-minimal pairs exist and even some real min- imal pairs such as fàkka /f/ ‘to work’ vs. làkka /l/ ‘solder’ or dosch /d/ ‘breast’ vs. mosch /m/ ‘1. man, fellow, 2. old man, bachelor (widower)’.
8 The classical case of [h] and [ŋ]—also found in English—is an exception. These two are dis- tributed complementarily: [h] occurs only in syllable-initial position, [ŋ] always in syllable- final. They are typically treated as distinct phonemes due to their phonetic dissimilarity. the sounds of a mixed language 31
Table 2.4 The Swedish Romani consonant system, including potential consonant phonemes and (set in []) apparent allophones. pʰ p b tʰ t d kʰ k ɡ ɡʰ tɕ [kç] f v s ʂ [ɕ] ɧ [χ] h [w] l j r m n ŋ
All of the consonants discussed here can occur in words lacking any consonant alternations: i.e., they can occur as the only possible option. Certain of them can take part in free allophonic alternations (see Section 2.6).
2.4.2. The Bilabial Approximant [w] The bilabial approximant [w] (as in English ‘what’) occurs only as an allophonic variant of the labio-dental fricative9 /v/. This phone is absent from standard Swedish and marginal in Swedish Romani: it seems to occur only in swéschter, shwéster ‘sister’, borrowed from the German Schwester. Note that, in German,
2.4.3. Affricates We identify two affricates in Swedish Romani: alveolo-palatal [tɕ] and palatal [kç]. Palatal [kç] occurs only as an allophonic variant of /tɕ/ or /k/ and only in a couple of words. Examples are listed in Table 2.5. Alveolo-palatal [tɕ] alternates with [kç] as well as with post-alveolar frica- tives and some further consonants (see Table 2.5). Apart from this allophonic usage, [tɕ] also occurs in words lacking consonant alternations. A number of (real) minimal pairs exist, demonstrating its phonemic status. Examples are tjòva /tɕ/ ‘to throw’ vs. tòva/tòvva /t/ ‘to wash’ and tjáro /tɕ/ ‘plate, bowl, con- tainer’ vs. /ɧ/ʂ/ scháro/sháro ‘sabre, scythe’. The alternation of [kç] and [tɕ] with each other and with other (simple) consonants, suggests that speakers treat them as two (distinct) sound units.
9 This phoneme is often realized as an approximant, as in Swedish vem ‘who’ or English ‘very’. 32 chapter 2
Table 2.5 Examples of allophonic alternations of the affricates. For further examples of alternations between [tɕ] and several post-alveolar fricatives, see Table 2.6. (For some of these words, further pronunciation alternatives exist.)
[tɕ] ~ [kç] (~ [k]) [kç] ~ [k] tjálo, kjálo ‘full, fed’ däkkan,́ däkkjà ‘sabre’ tjèrmo, kjèrmo, kérmo ‘worm’ fòssika, fòssikja10 ‘pocket’
[tɕ] ~ [t] [tɕ] ~ [k] (~ [ɕ] ~ [ɧ]) kórtja, kòrtja, kòrta ‘crofters holding, tjìngra, kìngra ‘to cut, fence’ cottage, homestead, place (where you live)’ nùtta, nùttja ‘sweater, cardigan’ tjírklo, kírklo, ‘bird’ círklo, schírklo
[tɕ] ~ [ɕ] shöldrano,́ tjöldrano ‘cold’
Therefore, we have decided to treat them as affricates and not biphonemically (i.e., as combinations of /t/ + /ɕ/ and /k/ + /j/).
2.4.4. The Voiceless Post-Alveolar Fricatives We propose that four post-alveolar fricatives—[ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ]—are distinguishable in Swedish Romani. These phones operate in a complex manner:
1. They participate in free allophonic alternations: i.e., many words con- taining a post-alveolar fricative allow pronunciation variants. As many as three of the four can alternate with each other in the same lexical item. 2. In addition to this free allophonic usage, they tend strongly toward a complementary distribution in words for which no free allophonic alter- nations have been attested:10 a. Only [ʂ] tends to occur in word-medial position: i.e., after a vowel. b. Only [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] are found in word-initial position, depending on the vowel context:
10 Although Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) report this word form, it is not evi- denced in the recordings with LL. the sounds of a mixed language 33
i. [ɕ] before [ɪ] (front and close articulation) ii. [χ] before [ɑː] (back and open articulation) iii. [ɧ] elsewhere. 3. These points aside, the evidence suggests a potential phonemic contrast in word-initial position between /ʂ/ on the one hand and [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] on the other, which we represent with the phoneme /ɧ/.
Before we analyze these conclusions in detail (sections 2.4.4.2–2.4.4.5), we present briefly the case of Swedish, which has as a similar set of post-alveolar fricatives.
2.4.4.1. Swedish /ɕ/, /ɧ/, and [ʂ]11 Swedish has two post-alveolar fricatives with phoneme status: /ɕ/ and /ɧ/. /ɕ/ is typically realized as the voiceless aveolo-palatal fricative [ɕ] and is rather stable in its pronunciation, even across dialects (with the exception of Finland Swedish). It occurs only initially, as in köra /ˈɕøːra/ ‘to drive’ and tjock /ɕɔk/ ‘thick’, where it contrasts with /ɧ/ as in sköra /ˈɧøːra/ ‘fragile’ and chock /ɧɔk/ ‘shock’. Pronunciation of /ɧ/ varies considerably according to regional, positional, and social/stylistic factors. Dialectal variation is mainly between a back [ɧ] and a front [ʂ]. In addition, the velar component of /ɧ/ can dominate other, simultaneous constrictions,12 resulting in a realization near the plain velar fricative [x]. /ɧ/ can occur in initial position: e.g., skör /ɧøːr/ ‘fragile’; in final position: e.g., dusch /dɵɧ/ ‘shower’; or in medial position: e.g., duscha /ˈdɵɧa/ ‘to take a shower’. Central Swedish has complementary allophones: A typical realization of /ɧ/ in initial position is [ɧ] as in skör [ɧɶːr]; but it is pronounced [ʂ] in medial or final position, as in dusch [dɵʂ]. Beyond these dialectal and positional variants, the literature describes free allophonic alternation of front and back variants of /ɧ/ for Central Swedish dialects. A front [ʂ] is said to be more common among the higher educated, as well as being used more frequently by woman and the older generation. Elert (2000) writes that front [ʂ] and back [ɧ] can alternate within a single speaker depending on speech style, where front [ʂ] tends to be used in stylisti- cally marked—e.g., ceremonial—speech. Since we are concerned with distinc- tive phones in a broad sense—as phonemes plus free allophonic variants—we have included [ʂ] in Table 2.3.
11 This section is based on Elert (2000) and Bruce (2010). 12 According to IPA, [ɧ] represents double-articulated [ʃ] and [x]. The contribution of a post-alveolar component is disputed: the Swedish sound transcribed [ɧ] has also been characterized as labio-velar (Bruce 2010). 34 chapter 2
2.4.4.2. Swedish Romani [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] For Swedish Romani, we recognise a series of post-alveolar fricatives contain- ing the same three qualities as in Swedish—[ɕ], [ɧ], and [ʂ]—with the addi- tion of a uvular fricative [χ]. Although one finds a striking phonetic similarity between the inventories of post-alveolar fricatives in Swedish and Swedish Romani, their patterning is different—and more complex—in Swedish Romani (see the summary in Section 2.4.4 above). As Table 2.6 shows, we have initially used six different labels for transcribing post-alveolar fricatives: [ɕ ʃ ʂ ɧ x χ]. These labels must be regarded as no more than a simple tool for capturing the phonetic variation we regard as percep- tually distinguishable (and representable by IPA symbols), even though they sometimes reflect fine differences in pronunciation. Our task was to determine which of the six sounds ought to be regarded as distinctive phones in a broad sense—possibly even as phonemes.
2.4.4.3. Free Allophonic Variation We consider [ʃ] and [x] to represent phonetic detail that should be excluded from the inventory of distinctive speech sounds. We base this on the following considerations:
1. If speakers can distinguish between n pronunciation variants of a phoneme in a single word, there must be at least n free allophones, and hence n distinctive phones in the broad sense.
This criterion enables us to determine a minimum number of distinct (free allophonic) post-alveolar fricatives, simply by looking in the data for the word with the highest number of allophones: e.g., the words bàscha/bàcha/bàsha and basht/bashjt/bacht have three variants (Table 2.6). One finds only a few words with a larger number of variants; and in these cases, factors beyond the choice of fricative come into play. So in e.g., pùscha and mosch, both the frica- tive and the preceding vowel can alternate, yielding six variants of each word (cf. pronunciation column in Table 2.6). For each vowel context, however, one observes at most three alternating post-alveolar fricatives in mosch. In pùscha, as many as five allophonic variants of the medial consonant can be identi- fied for a single vowel context, but only three are post-alveolar fricatives—the other two being the affricate [tɕ] and the stop [k]. We thus assume a minimum of three distinct—and consciously distin- guished—post-alveolar fricatives. The members of this alternation may be different in different words, as Table 2.6 shows: e.g., one observes an alterna- tion between [ʃ x χ] in bàscha/bàcha/bàsha, [ɕ ʂ χ] in basht/bashjt/bacht and the sounds of a mixed language 35
Table 2.6 Examples of allophonic alternations of post-aveolar fricatives according to LL’s pronunciations; spelling alternatives according to Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Note that in some cases, there is no obvious correspondence between spelling alternatives and pronunciations. Lexical pitch accent (marked in orthography) is not transcribed.
Spelling alternatives Pronunciation
àsha, àscha, àcha [ˈaʃːa], [ˈaɕːa], [ˈaʂːa] ‘to be, go, come’ áttjer, àtsher, àtscher [ˈatɕɛr], [ˈaʂːɛr] ‘of’ bàscha, bàcha, bàsha [ˈbaxːa], [ˈbaχːa], [ˈbaʃːa] ‘1. to bark, yell, argue, be difficult, be stupid, 2. epithet’ basht, bashjt, bacht [baʂt], [baɕt], [baχt] ‘year’ bèscha, bèsha, bècha [ˈbɛxːa], [ˈbɛʃːa], [ˈbɛχːa] ‘1. to sit, 2. to seat (oneself), 3. to put, 4. doing time (in prison)’ bèsha, bàscha13 [ˈbɛʃːa], [ˈbaχːa], [ˈbɛxːa] ‘to play (a musical instrument)’ bìsha, bìscha [ˈbɪʃːa], [ˈbɪχːa] ‘to send’ bjùsha, bjùssa, bjùcha, bùttja [ˈbjɵɧːa], [ˈbɵtɕa], [ˈbɵɧːa] ‘to be called, be named’ círklo, schírklo, tjírklo, kírklo [ˈɕɪrklʊ], [ˈxɪrklʊ], [ˈtɕɪrklʊ] ‘bird’ dústus, dúshtus, dùstus [ˈdɵstɵs], [ˈdɵʃtɵs] ‘flour’ kach, kass [kaχː], [kaʃː] ‘1. hay, 2. straw’ kòscha, kòsha [ˈkɔɧːa], [ˈkɔʂːa] ‘to curse, swear’ krèsha [ˈkrɛʃːa], [ˈkrɛχːa] ‘cattle, livestock’ láttjo, láscho, lácho [ˈlatɕʊ], [ˈlaɕːʊ], [ˈlaχːʊ] ‘1. good, nice, fine, 2. good-natured; sufficient’ mosch, much, mush, mosh, [mʊɧː], [mɵɧː], [mɵʃː], [mɔxː] ‘1. man, fellow, 2. old moch [mɵχː], [mʊχː] man, bachelor (widower)’ nàcha, nàsha [ˈnɑːχa], [ˈnɑːɕa] ‘1. to run, 2. to escape, run away’ pùscha, pùcha, pùchka, [ˈpɵɧːa], [ˈpɵχːa], [ˈpɵkːa], ‘to ask’ pùsha, pùttja [ˈpɵʂːa], [ˈpɵtɕa], [ˈpʏʃːa] (Continued)
13 Homophoneous with bàcha. 36 chapter 2
Table 2.6 (Continued)
Spelling alternatives Pronunciation scháro, sháro [ˈχɑːrʊ], [ˈʃɑːrʊ] ‘sabre, scythe’ schéro, chéro, shéro [ˈɧeːrʊ], [ˈʃeːrʊ] ‘head’ schònna, schỳnna, shỳnna, [ˈxʏnːa], [ˈʃʏnːa] ‘to hear, listen’ shùnna shôppa,́ schôppa,́ shòpa, [ˈɧʊpːa], [ˈʂʊpːa] ‘gate’ schòpa shúkklo, schúkklo [ˈɧɵkːlʊ], [ˈʃɵkːlʊ] ‘sour, bad’
[ʂ ɧ χ] in pùscha/pùcha/pùsha. The question naturally arises: does one need to assume six distinct post-alveolar fricatives, or do some merely reflect fine phonetic variants not consciously distinguished by the speakers? To resolve this, we offer a second criterion:
2. If two post-alveolar fricatives never alternate with each other—i.e., never occur together in the list of pronunciation variants of a word—they likely do not represent two distinct free allophonic variants: i.e., consciously selected options; rather, they are minor phonetic variants of the same distinctive allophone. This conclu- sion is likelier the more similar the two variants are phonetically.
One could argue that what we have transcribed as [x] reflects a phonetic vari- ant of [ɧ] or [χ]. [ɧ] and [χ] are clearly distinct perceptually and articulatorily; while [x] represents a phonetic quality between the two: its velar articulation is like [ɧ]; but it lacks any double articulations and is often perceptually close to [χ]. The three phones [ɕ ʃ ʂ], being sibilants, are likewise perceptually similar. While [ɕ] and [ʂ] are perceptually relatively distinct—[ɕ] sounds sharp and light; [ʂ] sounds dull and dark—[ʃ] represents a phonetic quality between the two. One could argue that what we have transcribed as [ʃ] was intended as [ɕ] or [ʂ], depending on the word in question. Our hypothesis—i.e., [ʃ] and [x] do not represent distinctive phones in their own right—is largely confirmed by the data (Table 2.6). One cannot find a single word in our corpus where the phones [ɧ], [x], and [χ] all alternate: at most two participate in an alternation, as in bàscha/bàcha/bàsha. We can the sounds of a mixed language 37 conclude that these three phones represent a phonetic continuum, divided by native speakers into two categories, represented by the extremes of the velar/ uvular fricative continuum [ɧ]14 and [χ] in Table 2.4. In similar fashion, one mostly finds words where at most two of the three post-alveolar sibilants [ɕ ʃ ʂ] alternate, as e.g., in bash/bashjt/bacht. We con- clude it sufficient to assume two distinct post-alveolar sibilants [ɕ ʂ], where [ʃ] is a minor phonetic variant of one or possibly both. The only counterexample in our data is àsha/àscha/àcha, produced by LL as [ˈaʃːa]/[ˈaɕːa]/[ˈaʂːa]. We believe this is an artifact of the recording situation. In summary, our analysis yields a set of four distinct post-alveolar fricatives [ɕ], [ɧ], [ʂ], and [χ], which can alternate in series of maximally three free allo- phonic variants. A next step would be to determine whether some of the four represent a potential phonemic contrast.
2.4.4.4. Complementary Distribution As with the affricate [tɕ], one finds words in our data for which no allophonic alternation of the post-alveolar fricative is attested. Examples are given in Table 2.7 for the word-medial and Table 2.8 for the word-initial position. In the medial position, only [ʂ] (or [ʃ])15 occurs in words that do not allow free allophonic alternation of the post-alveolar fricative (Table 2.7). One excep- tion is lesht, which we have transcribed with [ɕ]; we address this exception below. The pattern revealed in Table 2.8 is diametrically opposed to the one in Table 2.7: only [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] appear in initial position—never [ʂ]. The choice of fricative in initial position is generally sensitive to vowel context: the front [ɕ] (spelled with
14 Another reason for choosing [ɧ] rather than [x] to represent the velar quality is to reflect how the velar fricative of Swedish Romani often has the same phonetic quality as the Swedish /ɧ/. 15 We do not believe that [ʃ] and [ʂ] are consciously distinguished (Section 2.4.4.3). 38 chapter 2
Table 2.7 Examples of word-medial post-alveolar fricatives not participating in allophonic alternations; pronunciation according to LL.
Spelling Pronunciation
áshi, àshi [ˈaʂːɪ] ‘certainly’ bránshno, bráshno [ˈbranʃnʊ], [ˈbraʃnʊ] ‘skinny, meager’ brìshepa [ˈbrɪʃːepɑː] ‘rain’ bróchno [ˈbrɔʃnʊ], [ˈbrʊʃnʊ] ‘conceited, pretentious’ búshni [ˈbɵʃnɪ] ‘goat’ dóchalo [ˈdɔʂːalo] ‘guilty, responsible’ lesht [lɛɕt] ‘last’ léshter, léster [ˈlɛʂtɛr] ‘him’
Table 2.8 Examples of word-initial post-alveolar fricatives not participating in allophonic alternations; pronunciation according to LL.
Spelling Pronunciation chàla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to hug’ chèla [ˈɧe:la] ‘to pet’ chèkla [ˈɧɛk:la] ‘loose (immoral), half dressed, shabbily dressed’ cikk [ɕɪk:] ‘cheek’ címpi [ˈɕɪmpɪ] ‘Swedish turnip’ chòcha, schoìschoi, schôscho,́ [ˈɧoɧ:a], [ˈɧoɧ:o], ‘hare’ schôschalí [ˈɧʊɧ:alɪ] schàla, shàlla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to kiss, butter up, suck up to, brown nose’ schôrnan,́ schòrnan [ˈɧuːrnan] ‘barn’ schùmba [ˈɧɵmban] ‘hill’ schýnslo, schúnslo [ˈɧʏnslʊ] ‘ear’ shàddra [ˈɕadːra], [ˈtɕadːra] ‘1. to vomit, throw up, 2. to scratch, dig’ shàra [ˈɕɑːra] ‘to flatter, praise, brag’ tjáro [ˈɕɑːrʊ] ‘plate, bowl, container’
(Continued) the sounds of a mixed language 39
Table 2.8 (Continued)
Spelling Pronunciation tjávo [ˈtɕɑːvʊ] ‘1. boy (traveller), 2. little child, kid ’ tjérri, tjéri [ˈɕɛrːɪ] ‘sky, heaven’ tjill, tjìlla [ˈɕɪlːa] ‘to be’ tjíno, tjínno [ˈɕɪnːʊ] ‘tired, faint, worn (out)’ tjòmma, tjòmra, tjùmra [ˈɕɔmːa], [ˈɕɔmra] ‘to kiss’ tjôra,́ tjòra [ˈɕuːra] ‘to steal’ tjóro, tjórro [ˈɕoːrʊ] ‘poor’ tjúkkni [ˈɕɵkːni] ‘whip’ tjúro, tjúri [ˈɕʉ̟ːrɪ], [ˈɕʉ̟ːrʊ] ‘knife’ tjỳllri [ˈɕʏlːrɪ] ‘cold, chilly’
before vowels (word-initial) and sensitive to vowel context; [ʂ] after vowels (word-medial). Although this distribution clearly is phonetically motivated, it is not entirely out of the speaker’s control: as we have shown in Section 2.4.4.3, the four post- alveolar fricatives can be used in free allophonic alternations, occurring in largely the same positions. One observes a similar phenomenon in Central Swedish (Section 2.4.4.1): on the one hand, [ʂ] occurs in complementary dis- tribution with [ɧ] ([ɧ] initial; [ʂ] medial or final), on the other, it can alternate with [ɧ] in initial position.
2.4.4.5. Potential Phonemic Contrasts The conclusions drawn in the previous two sub-sections suggest that the frica- tives [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] are allophones of a single phoneme: a post-alveolar fricative. They alternate freely in some words, occurring in complementary positions in others. Nevertheless, evidence exists for a potential phonemic contrast in initial position between [ʂ] on the one hand and [ɕ, ɧ, χ] on the other, when comparing words with or without free allophonic alternation (see Table 2.9). In the left column, the post-alveolar fricatives occur in complementary positions: e.g., in chàla, the subsequent back-open vowel requires the ini- tial consonant to be [χ]. Compare this to the right column, where in scháro/ sháro, [χ] alternates with [ʂ]. What one observes here is a potential phonemic 40 chapter 2
Table 2.9 Phonemic semi-contrasts: near-minimal word pairs without (left column) vs. with (right column) free allophonic alternation of the post-alveolar fricative. Pronunciation is based on LL’s recordings; hypothesized alternative pronunciations are marked .
Initial [χ] or [ɧ] (no alternation) Alternating initial consonant chàla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to hug’ scháro, sháro [ˈχɑːrʊ], ‘sabre, scythe’ [ˈʂɑːrʊ] tjálo [ˈtɕɑːlʊ], ‘full, fed’ [ˈɕɑːlʊ]? tjáro [ˈɕɑːrʊ], ‘plate, bowl, [ˈtɕɑːrʊ]? container’ chèla [ˈɧe:la] ‘to pet’ schéro, chéro, [ˈɧeːrʊ], ‘head’ shéro [ˈʂeːrʊ] schôrnan,̀ [ˈɧuːrnan] ‘barn’ tjôra,̀ tjòra [ˈɕuːra], ‘to steal’ schòrnan [ˈtɕuːra]?
semi-contrast: potential, because there are no real minimal pairs available.16 The significant thing is that [χ] and [ʂ] can occur in equivalent, word-initial position in a stressed syllable, followed by the same vowel. Such equivalence implies a phonemic quality such that, in principle, there could be a word like *shàla [ˈʂɑːla], which would form a perfect minimal pair with chàla; it just does not happen to exist. It is a semi-contrast because it only applies to one of two—or more—pro- nunciation alternatives of one of the involved words. However, if a speaker has the option of two pronunciation variants—as in *shàla [ˈʂɑːla]/ *schàla [ˈχɑːla]—where one happens to be a homophone of another word (chàla), then she could choose the other, to distinguish the words. This is all highly hypothetical; in practice, there are hardly any minimal pairs and so hardly ever a need to choose the more distinctive pronunciation. The important thing, again, is that [ʂ] and [χ] can occur in the same position in different words, which means that e.g., chàla and *shàla could be distinguished. Table 2.9 suggests that a similar conclusion can be drawn for [ʂ] and [ɧ]: consider chèla on the one hand and schéro/chéro/shéro on the other. The evi- dence discussed so far suggests a potential phonemic contrast between /ʂ/ and
16 Schàla/shàlla—found in the lexicon—does not constitute a minimal pair with chàla, since chàla and schàla are homophones: [ˈχɑːla]. the sounds of a mixed language 41 a palatal17/velar/uvular fricative phoneme, which we propose to represent by the velar fricative /ɧ/: [ɧ] represents the place of articulation between [ɕ] and [χ] and occurs in most vowel contexts (see Section 2.4.4.4). The phoneme /ɧ/ thus has the main allophones [ɧ], [ɕ], and [χ]. However, the situation with [ɕ] is more complex. Tables 2.8 and 2.9 list a number of words spelled with initial
17 We can tentatively include [ɕ] in this phoneme, since we know that [ɕ] occurs in a com- plementary distribution with [χ,ɧ]: see Section 2.4.4.4. 18 This conclusion is further supported by the word shàddra ‘to vomit’ which LL likewise pronounces with either [ɕ] or [tɕ] (Table 2.8). 42 chapter 2
In summary, we lack conclusive evidence for assigning [ɕ] a phonematic status, although several examples from our data suggest one. Our tentative conclusions are that only /ɧ/ vs. /ʂ/ represents a potential phonematic con- trast; /ɧ/ has the main allophones [ɕ, ɧ, χ]; [ɕ] can occur as an allophone of /ɧ/, /ʂ/, and /tɕ/.
2.4.5. Stops and Aspiration The Swedish Romani system of stops comprises the same three places of artic- ulation as the Swedish system: bilabial, dental, and velar. It contains two pecu- liarities concerning aspiration. First, we postulate a triplet of stops in Swedish Romani for each place of articulation: voiced (e.g., /b/), voiceless (e.g., /p/ with main allophones [p] and [pʰ]), and voiceless aspirated (e.g., /pʰ/). Swedish has only a two-fold distinction: voiced (e.g., /b/) and voiceless (e.g., /p/); see Section 2.4.5.1. Second, one finds evidence for a voiced aspirated /ɡʰ/ (Section 2.4.5.2).
2.4.5.1. Voiceless Unaspirated vs. Voiceless Aspirated In languages such as Swedish and English, the so-called voiced/voiceless distinction (e.g., /b/ vs. /p/)—also sometimes referred to as lenis/fortis— is phonetically a matter of both voicing and aspiration. The same holds for Swedish Romani. In all three languages, lenis stops can be realized either voiced or voiceless (or, at least, partly de-voiced) and are typically unaspirated; while fortis stops typically can not be voiced but may be either aspirated or unaspirated (tenuis). The main allophones regularly occur in different posi- tions. They are exemplified by the bilabial stops in Table 2.10. In their proposal for a Swedish Romani writing system, Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) distinguish the three types of stops mentioned above: i.e., voiced
Table 2.10 Main allophones of lenis /b/ and fortis /p/ in Swedish Romani, Swedish, and—for comparison—English. The same positional allophone types exist for /t,d / and /k,ɡ/. The table is not intended to be exhaustive regarding possible positions.
Position Realization Swedish Romani Swedish English
Word-initial /p/ [pʰ] pèkkra ‘1. to roast, fry, park ‘park’ park 2. to bake’ /sp/-cluster [p] spèkkra ‘to play an spark ‘kick’ spark instrument, play cards’ Word-initial /b/ [b̥] bèkkra, bèkkna bark ‘bark [tree]’ bark ‘to sell’ Inter-vocalic /b/ [b] gìbba, jìbba ‘to sing’ snöboll ‘snowball’ snowball
Table 2.11 Examples of
Table 2.12 VOT measurements for /k/ and /kʰ/. Mean VOT and standard deviation are in milliseconds. Results from a Levene’s test (F-Test) suggest that one can assume equal variances; results from an independent samples t-test confirm that the /k/ and /kʰ/ samples represent distinct populations. Mean VOT Std. dev. N F p t df p /k/ 62.3 13.9 129 1.218 .272 (n.s.) –4.71 143 <.001 (***) /kʰ/ 79.3 11.2 16 forms such as ràno-kher. The resulting sample contains 16 tokens of /kʰ/ and 129 of /k/. Table 2.12 shows the results of the measurements, along with a t-test com- parison of the /kʰ/ and /k/ samples. The /kʰ/ tokens have a longer VOT than the /k/ tokens by on average 17 ms.; the difference is small but statistically (highly) significant. The results are astonishing, considering VOT values reported for other lan- guages. Eastern Armenian and Thai are two languages that likewise distinguish three degrees of VOT.19 For these languages, Lisker and Abramson (1964) report VOT values for /k/ and /kʰ/ of around 25–30 ms. and 100 ms. respectively. These languages exhibit only one degree of aspiration, as VOT values less than around 30 ms. can be regarded as tenuis for /k/; the languages thus con- trast unaspirated (tenuis) /k/ with aspirated /kʰ/. Cho and Ladefoged (1999) report similar differences in Apache (31 vs. 80 ms.), Gaelic (28 vs. 73 ms.), Jalapa Mazatec (23 vs. 80 ms.), Khonoma Angami (20 vs. 91 ms.), and Tlingit (28 vs. 128 ms.). Meanwhile, they report mildly vs. strongly aspirated velar stops of 44 vs. 84 ms. for Hupa and 45 vs. 154 ms. for Navajo. Lisker and Abramson (1964) report mean VOTs for Korean of 19 ms. for /k/ (tenuis), 126 ms. for /kʰ/ (strong aspiration), and 47 ms. for an intermediate category (mild aspiration). In Swedish Romani, initial-position /k/ and /kʰ/ are both clearly aspirated, and their mean VOT values are markedly close (Table 2.12) compared to the other languages just mentioned. The aspiration of Swedish Romani /k/ is mild 19 We have not included voiced stops in our measurements; these would have negative VOT values. 46 chapter 2 to moderate, the aspiration of /kʰ/ moderate.20 We are unaware of any lan- guage with a VOT distinction as fine as the one found here for Swedish Romani: at least, not within the impressionistic category of aspirated.21 Cho and Ladefoged (1999) actually report a three-way VOT distinction of 31 ms. vs. 60 ms. vs. 80 ms. in Apache, with two of the values equivalent to the ones found here for Swedish Romani. However, the 60 ms. value refers to a glot- talized /k′/; for the /k′/ vs. /kʰ/ contrast, VOT is not the only distinctive feature, if it is distinctive at all. One must consider the possibility of phonetic features other than VOT being implicated in the Swedish Romani aspirated/unaspirated contrast. Indeed, the alternative spelling of phral as prahl (Table 2.11) suggests that the aspira- tion can move to another segment—possibly realized as a variation in voice quality—in a manner similar to that observed for the voiced aspirated stop (Section 2.4.5.2). In most of the recordings—including those of phral/prahl— one has difficulty identifying deviant voice qualities. Occasionally though, one can hear (and see) in the acoustic signal a deviation from the modal voice towards a more breathy one. This is probably clearest in the instance (Figure 2.1) where LL contrasts two pronunciation variants. In summary, acoustic and impressionistic study of the recordings reveal traces of a phonetic distinction between the initially aspirated stops /p,t,k/ and /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/. The distinction is a fine one and probably not fully realized in all of the recorded instances. The aspiration is probably realized by a phonetic feature bundle consisting of a longer VOT or a breathy voice quality (or both) following—not necessarily immediately—the stop release. 2.4.5.2. Voiced Aspirated [ɡʰ] For the velar place of articulation only, Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) include a further stop in their inventory of Swedish Romani consonants: a voiced aspirated [ɡʰ], spelled 20 Lisker and Abramson (1964) report a mean of 80 ms. for the VOT of word-initial /k/ in English, which can be understood as moderately aspirated. 21 Languages (e.g., Korean) may exhibit quite fine VOT distinctions for tenuis vs. mildly aspi- rated stops. the sounds of a mixed language 47 Figure 2.1 Wave form diagrams (upper panel) and spectrograms (lower panel) of puv and its variant phuv, spoken contrastively by speaker LL. VOT is 70 ms. in both cases; the dotted line marks the section of breathy voice during the vowel in phuv. most often towards the end of a word, even in disyllabic words. Its degree of realization is highly variable, as we will show. In the recordings with LL, we count approximately22 16 tokens of words, spoken in isolation, containing 22 In a few cases, it is unclear whether LL intended to pronounce the 2.5. Word-level Prosody 2.5.1. Lexical Stress As with Swedish, one syllable in every Swedish Romani simplex word receives primary stress (cf. Bruce 2012, Zonneveld et al. 1999 for data on West and North Germanic languages). Stress in Swedish is a distinctive feature: i.e., one finds (a small number of) minimal pairs that differ phonologically only in placement of stress. A typical example is formel /ˈfɔrmɛl/ ‘formula’ vs. formell /fɔrˈmɛlː/ ‘formal’. No such minimal pairs seem to exist in Swedish Romani. Some words have pronunciation variants that differ in stress placement: e.g., manusch ‘people (humans), people (ethnicity)’ can be pronounced either [ˈmɑːnʊɧ] or [maˈnʊɧː], among other possibilities.23 Nevertheless, lexical stress is by no means free: indeed, conceptually it is the same as in Swedish. LL can easily determine the stressed syllable of a word and when a given stress pattern is inadequate, as well as distinguish between stress variants like [ˈmɑːnʊɧ] and [maˈnʊɧ].24 Despite the lack of minimal pairs, one concludes that lexical stress is as phonemically important in Swedish Romani as in Swedish. By default, stress in di- or trisyllabic words typically falls on the first syllable, which is also the default placement in Swedish—at least for disyllabic words.25 See Table 2.13, which lists examples of di- and trisyllabic nouns and verbs in Swedish Romani. The table contains a number of important exceptions to the usual rule. Stress can fall on the second syllable: e.g., in disyllabic nouns such as kerál, manúsch, or maskán—note that these words have variants with initial stress— and trisyllabic nouns such as molvína. Verbs with a Swedish prefix are often stressed, like the comparable Swedish words, on the second syllable, as in för- móllvra and fursté. Certain verbs with no prefix can also be stressed on the sec- ond syllable: e.g., LL’s production of ragústa—note that the stress in this word varies. Finally, verbs ending in –era can be stressed on the penultima. Compound forms26 in Swedish Romani as in Swedish typically have one pri- mary and one secondary stress. The two stresses fall in the same syllables as in the corresponding simplex words. In Swedish, the first element of the compound form usually receives the primary stress: e.g., ˈläroˌbok ‘textbook’, baˈnanˌkaka ‘banana cake’, or biblioˈteksˌkort ‘library card’; among the rare exceptions 23 For further pronunciation variants of this word, see Table 2.16. 24 Such variants are found in some, but by no means all, words. 25 Exceptions are common, sometimes resulting in stress minimal pairs as noted above. 26 We are only concerned here with compound forms composed of two elements. 50 chapter 2 Table 2.13 Stress placement in di- and trisyllabic words of Swedish Romani. (For several of these words, further pronunciation alternatives exist.) Nouns (two syllables) Verbs (two syllables) ástro ‘star’ mòlla ‘to cost, be worth’ khére, khère, khèri ‘home, at home’ pàcha, pàscha ‘to lay, lie, put, hang’ kerál, kèral ‘cheese’ te avél27 ‘to be, become’ manúsch, mànusch ‘people (humans), fursté ‘to understand’ people (ethnicity)’ maskán, màska ‘cat’ Nouns (three syllables) Verbs (three or more syllables) bánnika ‘pancake’ ànnera ‘to get, fetch’ khéngari, khángari, ‘church’ molvariséra ‘to tin’ kángari molvína ‘tin’ förmóllvra ‘to tin’ kastrílja ‘saucepan’ ràgusta, ragústa ‘to do magic, tell fortunes’ where primary stress falls on the second element is ˌglasmästeˈri ‘glass fac- tory’. The same pattern is common in Swedish Romani but not as dominant: i.e., primary stress frequently falls on the second element. In particular, many compound forms allow alternatives, where morphological alternation is accompanied by alternative placement of the primary stress: e.g., bàro- beddo/baroske-béddo ‘gentleman, master, nobleman, person of high station’; rùbb-kambana/ ruppeske-kambána ‘silver watch’; schèro-dukk/scheroske-dúkk ‘headache’. We have not studied the phonetic correlates of stress in Swedish Romani sys- tematically. We think it unlikely that the phenomenon differs in any important ways from the Swedish one, which is roughly comparable to the one in English. In both Swedish and English, lexical stress is, on the one hand, an abstract feature independent of any phonetic manifestation: Speakers know which syl- lable is the stressed one, even if the word is not uttered. That said, stress is typi- cally assumed to have phonetic correlates such as an increased duration and 27 Frozen form, cf. Section 2.8. the sounds of a mixed language 51 heightened intensity, as well as certain spectral characteristics. The possible contribution of distinctive pitch has given rise to some conceptual confusions. Our own conception of lexical stress is identical to the one offered in such con- temporary text books on prosodic phonology as Gussenhoven (2004) or Ladd (2008). We can summarize it as follows. The stressed syllable functions as an anchor for pitch accents: whenever a word is accented, a salient pitch excursion is produced and aligned with the stressed syllable. Pitch plays a key role in the perceived salience of the accented stressed syllable in a way it does not in unaccented stressed syllables. Therefore, pitch is typically considered a relevant phonetic feature of accent, not of stress. Such an account is primarily aimed at languages such as English and German, but also valid for Swedish and Swedish Romani, where pitch accents play a somewhat different role. Although all Germanic languages have sen- tence accents: i.e., pitch accents at the utterance level;28 Swedish and Swedish Romani also have lexical pitch accents , such that a primary stressed syllable is generally associated with a certain pitch accent (Section 2.5.3). De-accentuation also occurs. Stress is typically audible in unaccented as in accented words, due to the phonetic features mentioned above (duration, intensity, spectral parameters). In particular, longer duration of stressed syllables relates to the phenomenon of quantity. 2.5.2. Quantity Swedish has a complementary quantity distinction related to lexical stress (Elert 1964; Bruce 2012) that is also present in Swedish Romani. A stressed syl- lable is always heavy. It contains either a long vowel plus an optional short consonant or cluster: V:(C); or a short vowel plus a long consonant or cluster: VC:(C). In both Swedish and Swedish Romani, the primary phonetic correlate of the phonological quantity distinction is the relation between vowel and con- sonant duration. A difference in vowel quality between short and long vowels can typically be observed, too (see Section 2.3 and tables 2.1, 2.2). One crucial difference between Swedish and Swedish Romani: in Swedish Romani, quan- tity is not bound exclusively to lexical stress, meaning that non-stressed syl- lables can also be heavy—notably, words ending in the suffix -epa. LL and KTD pronounce these words differently, but both do so such that a non-stressed vowel—either the first or the second vowel in –epa—is pronounced long. For example, LL pronounces bèkknepa ‘trade, selling, merchandise, market, fair’ [ˈbɛkːnepɑː], KTD [ˈbɛkːneːpa]. 28 We will not offer any treatment of these in this book. 52 chapter 2 Figure 2.2 Semitone F0 tracks aligned with corresponding speech signals for an Accent I/II Swedish Romani near-minimal pair spoken by LL: lánglo ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’. The words are time-aligned at the stressed-vowel onset (dashed vertical line); two solid vertical lines mark the stressed-vowel offset. 2.5.3. Lexical Pitch Accents Swedish Romani has adopted the Swedish binary lexical pitch-accent con- trast. In Swedish, each prosodic word—essentially, a content word with adja- cent function words—is assigned a tonal pattern: either Accent I or Accent II (Section 2.5.3.1). The acoustic difference between Accent I and Accent II is a matter of fundamental frequency (F0). Figure 2.2 displays F0 tracks for a Swedish Romani near-minimal pair, spoken by LL: lánglo29 ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’. A phonological description of the lexical pitch accent distinction is offered briefly in Section 2.5.3.2. 2.5.3.1. Assignment of Pitch Accents Lexical pitch accent is a distinctive feature in Swedish phonology. It can e.g., distinguish between such words as Accent I regel ‘rule’ and Accent II regel ‘bolt’. That said, distinctiveness is not the primary function of pitch accent. Swedish has only about 350 minimal pairs (Elert 1972). In many cases, one member of the pair is relatively unusual. In many more cases, pitch accent is only distinc- tive in inflected forms such as anden (Accent I definite singular of and: ‘the duck’) vs. anden (Accent II definite singular of ande: ‘the spirit’). 29 Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) mark Accent I with an acute accent on the vowel of the stressed syllable, Accent II with a grave accent. We adopt the same convention. the sounds of a mixed language 53 Swedish lexical pitch accent is largely determined by the morphological and phonological structure of a word. One finds a comprehensive description of the rules for pitch-accent assignment in Swedish in Gårding (1977), summa- rized in Figure 2.3. As the figure implies, the primary function of lexical pitch accent in Swedish relates to morphology. Several researchers (e.g., Malmberg 1959; Elert 1970) have proposed that Accent II has a primarily connective function that aids the listener in processing morphological structure: in particular, an Accent II pat- tern on the stressed syllable indicates that at least one further syllable will fol- low within the same word. This hypothesis has received support from a recent neurolinguistic study (Roll et al. 2010) on the interaction in disyllabic words between pitch pattern in the stressed syllable and a suffix. To a great extent, Scandoromani follows the Scandinavian pattern, even though the origins of its derivational morphemes are completely different (cf. Swedish: Figure 2.3).30 • Monosyllabic words always are Accent I: e.g., kasht ‘wood, firewood, tree’. This includes the definite singular form: káshten. • Words ending in -a, -an, -are, -ing, -i(g) are Accent II, including definite sin- gular form. • Words ending in -o, -i, -li, -us, -um, -alo, -ano, -aro can be either Accent I or Accent II, depending on form and speaker. • Plurals ending in -ar, -or normally are Accent II. They are sometimes Accent I when they occur together with Accent I words in singular form. • Plurals ending in -er are normally Accent I. They occur together with words ending in -i, which normally are Accent I. • All verb forms are normally Accent II, with the exception of verbs beginning with för-, which have the stress on the second syllable through all conjuga- tions: e.g., förmóllvra; and a few other verbs like molvariséra ‘to tin’ and mòs- tula ‘must, have to’. • Compound forms normally are Accent II and place the principal stress on the first element, secondary stress on the second, independent of the stress patterns of the individual elements: e.g., bèddo-kher ‘mansion, manor’, formed from béddo ‘gentleman, master, nobleman, man of high stature, per- son in authority; person from the authorities’ and kher ‘farm, estate, homestead’. 30 The following overview is based on Iversen (1944) and Johansson (1977). 54 chapter 2 Figure 2.3 Rules of pitch-accent assignment in Swedish ( from Gårding 1977). These very general rules have numerous exceptions, not all of which can be explained as simple dialectal/familylectal variation: e.g., the near-minimal pair hèrta ‘stove’ and hérma ‘grey’. 2.5.3.2. Phonological Description of Lexical Pitch Accent According to the Lund Model of Swedish prosody (Bruce 1977; Bruce & Gårding 1978), the lexical pitch accent is generally realized as a tonal fall, represented in the model as HL: i.e., a combination of a H(igh) and L(ow) tone. The distinction between accents I and II is a matter of timing or the alignment of tonal gesture with segmental string. HL is aligned early in Accent I and late in Accent II. This relative contrast holds for all tonal dialects of Swedish spoken in Sweden,31 even though the absolute timing differs between dialects. The HL gesture often appears as a fall in F0, as is clearly visible in Figure 2.2: early F0 fall in Accent I, late F0 fall in Accent II. Gårding (1977) proposed a typology of dialects comprising five prosodic Swedish dialect types. Pitch accent is typically realized as shown in Figure 2.4, which shows stylized pitch contours for a number of disyllabic words. 31 Finland Swedish has lost the lexical pitch accent distinction. the sounds of a mixed language 55 Figure 2.4 Stylized pitch contours for disyllabic words in the five prosodic Swedish dialect types; Akut = Accent I; Grav = Accent II ( from Bruce 2010; after Gårding and Lindblad 1973, based on data from Meyer 1937). Our informant LL comes from near Lidköping in west Sweden—where, accord- ing to Gårding’s typology, dialect Type 2B is spoken. Comparison with Figure 2.2 suggests that LL realizes his pitch accents in Swedish Romani as he would in his Swedish dialect, even though this might not be obvious at first sight.32 Dialect 2B seems to distinguish accents I from II in terms of a low (Accent I) vs. high (Accent II) stressed syllable, not in terms an early vs. late fall (Figure 2.4). The schematic course in Figure 2.4 corresponds well with the course of the perceived pitch in LL’s speech: i.e., the initial Accent I fall in F0 (Figure 2.2) is not perceived as such. According to the Lund Model, the H in this dialect falls on the stressed syllable in Accent II; while the L falls on the stressed syllable in Accent I—where the H is realized before the stress, and hence missing in the citation form in Figure 2.2. 2.6. Patterns of Allophonic Variation The abundance of internal variation is typical of Scandoromani. Often (see also Section 2.1.2) the register of one speaker includes knowledge of several 32 According to Segerup (personal communication), the F0 course shown in Figure 2.2 is very close to the expected F0 course for a corresponding word in the Gothenburg dialect of Swedish: also Type 2B; see e.g., Segerup (2005). 56 chapter 2 variants—familylects or dialects—depending on family and geography. The most typical feature of all—often mentioned by speakers as important for distinguishing the familylectal and dialectal origin of other speakers—is allo- phonic variation within the series of fricatives and affricates (Section 2.4.4). In considering word variants, one quickly notices a phonetic variation that includes both vowels and consonants and is connected to variation in deri- vational morphology. Tables 2.14 and 2.15 offer some examples. Together, the tables show that—although the overall picture is complex—free allophonic variation follows certain rules; at least, it seems to divide into recognizable series. In most of the examples shown, this variation affects either a vowel or a consonant (or cluster of consonants). In a few cases though, the two types of variation co-occur. In addition, prosodic alternation—both involving lexical stress (Section 2.5.1) and lexical pitch accent (Section 2.5.3)—can co-occur with segmental alternation. Table 2.16 shows an example of such a complex case. 2.7. Phonological Complexity We believe that the Swedish Romani system is somewhat more phonologically complex than the Swedish one. By ‘phonological complexity’, we intend first and foremost the number of phonemes (cf. Bakker 2009; Klein 2009). Syllable structure may also be relevant, but we have not considered it here. In Section 2.1.2, we argued that the distinctive phones in Swedish Romani, including the free allophones, should be the focus of attention, not the pho- neme inventory. In this section, however, we focus mainly on phonemes, on the grounds that statements of phonological complexity are typically based strictly on phonemes (see e.g., Maddieson 1984, 2008a, 2008b; Bakker 2009; Klein 2009). Our claim about phonological complexity is clearly supported by the data on Swedish Romani vowels, consonants, and word-prosodic characteristics presented so far in this chapter (sections 2.3–2.5). Based on these sections, Table 2.17 lists numbers of vowel and consonant phonemes for Swedish and Swedish Romani. For Swedish Romani, we include all distinctive phones with potential phonemic status, as discussed earlier. Maddieson distinguishes three degrees of complexity with respect to number of vowels (2008b): small (<5), average (5–6), and large (>7); five with respect to number of consonants (2008a): small (6–14), moderately small (15– 18), average (19–25), moderately large (26–33), and large (>33); and three with respect to total number of phonemes (1984): simple (< 20 phonemes), typical the sounds of a mixed language 57 Table 2.14 Examples of vocalic alternation. Pronunciation variations are represented by spelling according to Table I. Variation Example in Swedish Romani a ~ o gaja, goja ʻwoman’ o ~ u dòmra, dùmra ʻto sleep’; dosch, dusch ʻbreast’, hònka, hùnka ʻto be’ y ~ o ~ u dy, do, duj ʻtwo’ i ~ e jìkkum, jèkkum ʻone’ y ~ u jýkklo, júkklo ʻ(male) dog’ e ~ ä ~ i kerál, kärál, királ ʻcheese’ e ~ a mèkksta, màkksa ʻto cost; raj, rej ʻgentleman, distinguished gentleman’ y ~ i mỳnscha, mìnsha ʻvulva, cunnus’ y ~ ö tjýllrano, tjöldranó ʻcold’ o ~ ö romano-bókko, -bökkó ʻwhip’ y ~ u schýnslo, schúnslo ʻear’; tỳa, thùja ʻto smoke’; ùshli, ỳshli ʻowing s.b., in debt’ ö ~ a mörklí , màrkli ʻcookies, rusks’ e ~ ea léddik, léaddik ʻbox’ o ~ ô schòrnan, schôrnań ʻbarn’ e ~ ē sénslo, sēnslo ʻthen, late, later’ oi ~ o schoìschoi, chòcha ʻhare’ (20–37), and complex (> 37). On this scale, both Swedish and Swedish Romani have large vowel inventories; the consonant inventory of Swedish is moder- ately small, that of Swedish Romani average; the overall phoneme inventory of Swedish is ‘typical’, that of Swedish Romani ‘complex’. One could argue for a more cautious estimation of Swedish Romani pho- nological complexity, given that a couple of phonemes occur only sparsely. An extreme example is /øː/, found in only one word in Lindell and Thorbjörnsson- Djerf (2008): böló ‘bull’, borrowed from dialectal Swedish böl. Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf mark four further vowels of Swedish Romani—five in total—as marginal. Should these sounds be included when calculating pho- nological complexity? Should they be included in a phonological—or allo- phonic—description of Swedish Romani at all? In a study of several Pidgins, Bakker (2009) includes marginal speech sounds in his presentation of phoneme inventories but excludes them when calculating phonological complexity. 58 chapter 2 Table 2.15 Examples of consonantal alternation: individual phonemes or groups. Pronunciation variations are represented by spelling according to table I. For examples of alternation with fricatives and affricates, see tables 2.5 and 2.6. Variation Examples in Swedish Romani zero ~ j, l gùrma, gùrmja ʻbarn, cow-shed’; ràmsa, ràmsla ʻdress’; rìnta, rìntla ʻchest’ r ~ l rèkkra, rèkkla ʻhold, reach out/give [a hand], keep’, pàrkra, pàrkla ʻ1. to thank, 2. bow’ k ~ g krúmmik, grúmmik ʻcow’ fj ~ fl gròffla, gròffja ʻ(boiling) pot’ stj ~ sht lístjo, líshto ʻface’ ntl ~ nt ~ ttr slìntla, slìnta, slìttra ʻsled, sleigh, sledge’ lt ~ nt smèltana, smìltana, smä̀ntjana ʻ1. cream, 2. soured cream’ chv ~ rf góchvalo, gòrfalo ʻintelligent’ ch ~ chk pùcha, pùchka ʻto ask’ gh ~ sh ghíldo, shíldo ʻparty’ geminated ~ simple pèrnissa, pèrnisa ʻpillow, cushion’; préde, prédde ʻthrough, between’; schàla, shàlla ʻto kiss, butter up, suck up to, brown nose’ metathesis níjal, nílja ʻsummer’; nìtja, nèjta ʻ1. field, tilled field, 2. grounds, 3. meadow’; snàdjare, snàjdare ʻtailor’ Table 2.16 Co-occurrence of vocalic, consonantal, and prosodic alternation: the seven alternatives produced by LL of mànusch/manúsch/manísh/mànuch/mànish ‘people (humans), people (ethnicity)’. * marks pronunciations not offered as a spelling alternative in Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Lexical pitch accent (not transcribed) varies as a secondary feature: initial-stress pronunciations are Accent II, final-stress Accent I. Initial stress Final stress /ʊ/ [ˈmɑːnʊʂ]* [ˈmɑːnʊɧ] [ˈmɑːnʊχ] [maˈnʊʂː]* [maˈnʊɧː] /ɪ/ [ˈmɑːnɪʂ] [maˈnɪʂː] the sounds of a mixed language 59 Table 2.17 Phonological complexity in Swedish and Swedish Romani by number of vowels, consonants, and total phonemes. Labels are according to Maddieson (1984, 2008a, 2008b). We count only potential phonemes and exclude free allophones. *Alternative count excluding sparsely occurring phonemes (see text for details). Language Vowel inventory Consonant inventory Phoneme inventory Swedish 17 (large) 18 (moderately small) (17+18=) 35 (typical) Swedish 18 (large) 23 (average) (18+23=) 41 (complex) Romani Swedish 13* (large) 23* (average) (13+23=) 36* (typical) Romani Table 2.17 includes a more cautious alternative count for Swedish Romani that disregards marginal phonemes, per Bakker. It counts only 13 vowel phonemes, not 18.33 The table shows that, even when counting only 13 vowels for Swedish Romani, its vowel system still qualifies as ‘large’. Its overall phoneme count now qualifies as ‘typical’—in line with Swedish—rather than ‘complex’. More importantly, it still has a higher overall phoneme count than Swedish, due to its large consonant inventory. We tentatively conclude that Swedish Romani has a more complex phoneme inventory than Swedish when considering either both vowels and consonants or consonants alone. In addition, the Swedish Romani prosodic system seems slightly more com- plex than the Swedish one. The two languages share basically the same word- prosodic features: lexical stress, quantity, and lexical pitch accent. However, phonologically long sounds are restricted to stressed syllables in Swedish; while, in Swedish Romani, a long vowel can—in exceptional cases—occur in an unstressed syllable (see Section 2.5.2). Finally, the conspicuous occurrence of free allophonic variation at all levels of phonology (see Section 2.6) is a striking feature of Swedish Romani: one that is regarded as important by its speakers and clearly increases the complexity of the overall sound system. This allows us to broaden our preliminary conclusion 33 It is difficult to determine which phonemes should count as marginal: some occur sparsely in the data, but this may be due to the small size of the lexicon. Here, we simply exclude those five vowels marked by Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) as marginal. 60 chapter 2 above: both the (narrower) phoneme inventory and the (broader) inventory of distinctive phones are more complex in Swedish Romani than in Swedish. 2.8. Historical Background The phonetic system underlying Scandoromani is most likely reflective of Sinte Romani. Sinte Romani distinguishes vowel length: probably an influence from German (see Table 2.18). As the table reveals, Swedish Romani is richer in phonemes. The question remaining to be answered is, in what respect does this system represent an innovation in Romani and not just an allophonic adaption of Romani to the Swedish system? This could be achieved by checking the etymologies of indi- vidual lexemes containing vowels not occurring in Romani proper, but since the variation in Romani proper is very large at lexical level, this is a very com- plicated task. However, a few things can be noticed. The /ɛː/ and /ɛ/ phonemes are essentially allophonic: most lexemes involv- ing /ɛː/ or /ɛ/ have a variant with /eː/ or [e]. That variant is generally dialec- tal/familylectal: e.g., beng/bäng ‘devil, Satan’, bäro/béró ‘boat’. Other examples represent loan words—either from German/Rotwelsch: e.g., bäffa s.: ‘vulva’, from Rotwelsch Beff ‘vulva’ ←German Befze ‘lip’; or from Scandinavian: e.g., bätè ‘piece, song’, from Sw.Dial. bete, bite ‘piece’. Note that the source lexemes do not necessarily involve /ɛː/ or /ɛ/. The /œ/ phoneme is likewise essentially allophonic, being a dialectal/ familylectal variant of /ɔ/: e.g., roj, röj ‘spoon’, Romani řoj; /ʊ/: e.g., suj, soj, söj ‘needle, sewing needle’, Romani suv; or /ʏ/: e.g., býskri, böskrí ‘Jewess’, etymol- ogy uncertain. In some forms, no variant seems to occur: e.g., pördat̀ ‘tuberco- losis’; derived from Romani phurdel ‘to blow’; or bökk, bökkt ‘money’, probably from Romani baxt ‘happiness, luck’, though note the lexeme bákko ‘luck, good fortune; vessel, spittoon’. As in most Romani dialects, the Swedish Romani consonantal system is more complex than its vowel system. This complexity is further increased by Table 2.18 Vowels in Sinte (derived from Matras 2002, 62). i i: u u: e e: ɘ o o: a a: the sounds of a mixed language 61 Table 2.19 The Sinte Romani consonantal system (derived from Matras 2002, 57). p t k c č ph th kh b d g dž m n f x s š h v z ž ʀ l (r) j the addition of Swedish phonemes. One finds rich allophonic variation within the Scandoromani system—mostly within particular groups of allophones, which correspond to phonemes of Romani proper (Table 2.19). The implication is that Romani phonemes can have different expressions in Swedish Romani, a situation that is further complicated by the rich allophonic variation. In par- ticular, the fricatives and affricates are extremely complex (see Table 2.20). Swedish Romani preserves the three aspirated stops /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/ from Romani (cf. the Sinte data in Table 2.19). They are found in high-frequency words and normally have a non-aspirated variant. As shown above, the dis- tinction between the non-aspirated and the aspirated stops is, phonetically, a very fine one (Section 2.4.5.1). Examples include phúri, phúria, púri ‘(sweet) old woman’, Romani phuro ‘old’; phuv, puj ‘earth, ground, floor’, Romani phuv; themm, temm ‘land, district, parts, region’, Romani them ‘country’, ‘area’; thỳja, tỳa ‘to smoke’, Romani thuv ‘smoke’/ thuvarel ‘to smoke’; kham ‘sun, sunshine’, Romani kham ‘sun’; kher ‘estate, homestead’, Romani kher; and mákhi ‘fly’, Romani makh. Sometimes the aspiration is moving: e.g., phral, pral, prahl ‘brother’, Romani phral, see also Figure 2.1. The aspirated voiced stop /ɡʰ/ is an innovation on Romani. It is only found in a few words of Swedish Romani, which derive from several alternatives in Romani: e.g., a non-aspirated, voiced stop /ɡ/ in the case of ghav ‘village’, Romani gav; an affricate in the case of ghàna ‘people, humans, villagers (non- traveller)’, Romani džene. Table 2.20 clearly shows that the phonemic/allophonic variation among fricatives and affricates described in detail in sections 2.4.3 and 2.4.4 has no direct historical explanation. It is almost completely secondary, re-structured according to the intertwining described in Chapter 1. 62 chapter 2 Table 2.20 The main correspondences between Romani/Swedish Romani consonants and attested internal Swedish Romani variation. Swedish Romani phonemes and allophones are represented by IPA according to Table 2.4. Romani Variation in Example in Swedish Romani [Romani] Swedish Romani š [ɕ] [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] bàscha, bàcha, bàsha ‘1. to bark, yell, argue, be difficult, be stupid; 2. epithet’ [bašel] [tɕ] tjéllano ‘cold’ [šilelo] č [ɕ] [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] [tɕ] pùscha, pùcha, pùsha, pùttja ʻto ask’ [phučel] círklo, schírklo ʻbird’ [čirklo] x [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] lóchano, lóshano, láchano, láschano, láshano ‘glad, happy, also: in love’ [loxano: Kaale] s [s] [ɧ] krasch ʻgrass’ [šleifkras ʻknotgrass’] c [tɕ] faláttjer ʻmittens, gloves’ [forlocin] č [tɕ] tjòra ʻto steal’ [čorel] čh [tɕ] tjúri ʻknife’ [čuri, čhuri] k [k] [tɕ] kíndo, tjíndo ʻwet’ [kindo] t [t] [tɕ] mútter, múttjer ʻurine’ [mutar] dž [j] júkklo, jýkklo ʻ(male) dog’ [džuklo] The Scandoromani system of lexical stress and pitch accent raises interest- ing issues. As we have shown in Section 2.5.1, lexical stress is adapted—as is quantity—to the Scandinavian system of initial stress but with exceptions. These exceptions are of several types: 1) Frozen forms: e.g., the frozen infinitive te avél ‘to be’. 2) Culture-specific terms: e.g., maskán ‘cat’, manísh ‘people (humans), peo- ple (ethnicity)’. These have variants with initial stress: màska, mànusch. 3) Derivational morphemes: e.g., -al, -eal as in uschál ‘shadow’, kerál ‘cheese’. 4) Secondary adaptations from Scandinavian. Some words are adapted secondarily to Swedish or Norwegian formations or to individual words with non-initial stress (i.e., loanwords): e.g., verbs with initial fur- (Swedish för-, Norwegian for- as in fursté ‘understand’, förmóllvra ‘to tin’) or words like kastrílja ‘saucepan’, Swedish kastrúll. the sounds of a mixed language 63 Stress patterns 1–3 are remnants of Early Romani, still preserved in a few archaic dialects (Matras 2002, 62f.). The origin of the Scandoromani pitch accent system is a highly complex issue. The Scandinavian pitch accents have their origin in pre-North Germanic structures and in the effects of syncope and epenthesis; for various theories, see Gårding (1977), Bruce (2012), Riad (1992). No such historical explanation can be given for Scandoromani. As noted, the adaptation of the pitch accent system is completely secondary and understood to relate to structural similari- ties between the languages. Most parts of the Scandoromani pitch accent system relate clearly to pho- nemic structure: in particular to derivational morphology. A given structure or derivational morpheme automatically follows a certain pitch accent (see Section 2.5.3). Within this basic system, however, one finds considerable dia- lectal/familylectal variation that is generally consistent: i.e., speakers tend to use the same pitch accents with the same morpheme, with a few exceptions such that, for some derivational morphemes, one speaker has one set of pat- terns, another speaker another set of patterns. Based on the interviews with LL and KTD, we conclude that alternative pitch accent patterns for a word—a frequent phenomenon—may not be part of a speaker’s conscious register in the way that allophonic or phonemic variation forms, as well as varying lexical stress patterns, are. Chapters 3 provides an overview of the pitch accent patterns of various ver- bal, adjectival, and nominal morphemes. chapter 3 The Interdependence of Adaptation, Derivation, and Inflection in a Mixed Morphology1 3.1. General Remarks The morphology of a mixed language like Scandoromani presents a great chal- lenge: the formation of new words, the adaptation and camouflaging of loan words, and the adaptation of the lexicon to Scandinavian inflectional mor- phology and prosody prove intricate and unpredictable. Nevertheless, patterns can be discerned; the issue becomes the extent to which the patterns reflect one or the other component language, previous con- tact languages, or the co-territorial language’s dialects. The influence from Low German is prominent in the morphology, as in the lexicon. A few elements are inherited from Romani proper, though their usage has changed. The system is fully adapted to contemporary Scandinavian, at the same time it bears traces of past (e.g., archaic forms of Scandinavian) and dialectal influences. The inflectional, derivational, and adaptational morphology systems are highly interrelated, with layers of adaptation, borrowing, and autonomous development (see Section 3.4). The underlying structure is roughly equivalent to other inflected European dialects such as Sinte or Romungro. Though they are not labeled ‘mixed’, these latter dialects show similar patterns of morphological and grammatical bor- rowing (see Elšik 2007 for Hungarian Romungro). Their verbs and their nouns systematically distinguish inherited from borrowed in the inflection (Matras 2002, 72f., 117f.). By contrast, in keeping with the general Scandinavian pattern, Scandoromani makes no distinction in inflection between inherited and borrowed. Instead, it relies on Scandinavian inflection. Because the Scandinavian languages them- selves also retain remnants of an older inflectional system—best preserved in dialects—the outcome of inflectional system is particularly intricate. 1 The primary sources on morphology, stress, and pitch accent for this chapter are Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), Iversen (1944), and Johansson (1977), see Appendix I, Vocabulary. Unless otherwise noted, the source for European Romani is the ROMLEX database. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004266445_�04 the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 65 Although Scandoromani inflectional morphology generally follows the Scandinavian model, one finds exceptions (see sections 3.2–3.3). In general, its inflection is adapted to local dialects rather than the standard language. Normally, our informants (LL, KTD) offer two variants: one following the dia- lectal form, the other the standard language (see Appendix I, Vocabulary). The adaptation of the Scandinavian inflectional morphemes to the derivational morphemes of Romani and the adaptation to Scandinavian prosodic pat- terns—such as stress and pitch accent—are particularly intriguing. Selection of inflectional morpheme appears to be connected to the shape of the deriva- tional morpheme, corresponding to, but not copying, Scandinavian (standard and dialectal) patterns. 3.2. Nominal Morphology 3.2.1. Basic Principles A number of noun categories from inflected Romani factor into Scandoromani derivation and inflection: i.e., gender (masculine/feminine), animacy (animate/ inanimate), and thematic status (thematic/athematic) (Matras 2002, 72f.). The masculine/feminine distinction has survived, with the addition of a neuter category from Scandinavian (Section 3.2.1.1). The animacy distinction has not, at least in the form it takes in Romani, where inanimate nouns have identical forms in nominative and oblique. That said, it has played a role in the formation of the new neuter category by re-interpreting—not merely copy- ing—the Scandinavian category. Its retention might also be seen in the use of adjectives (Section 3.2.1.2). Thematic status continues to play a role as well, but it has been adapted to the Scandinavian system (Section 3.2.1.3). 3.2.1.1. Gender The gender system is a mix between Romani and Scandinavian. Per Scandinavian, non-neuter is distinguished from neuter; per Romani, masculine is distinguished from feminine. Scandoromani therefore has a system in which it is relevant to distinguish four genders, non-neuter, neuter, and masculine/ feminine. The masculine/feminine distinction is valid in Scandoromani only for sexus: beings with male or female gender. In the Scandinavian languages, this is normally indicated lexically: e.g., man (‘man’) vs. kvinna (‘woman’) (Holmes & Hincliffe 2008, 7). Scandoromani retains Romani lexical derivation along with lexemes borrowed later than the split from Romani: e.g., byskro (‘male jew’) byskri (‘female jew’) (see 3.2.2.1 for gender distincion). Many lexemes are 66 chapter 3 inherited as masculines and feminines directly from Romani: e.g., gurmni (‘cow’), compare Sinte Romani grumni. Gender is sometimes—though not very systematically and also with a lim- ited number of adjectives, according to our informants (see also Johansson 1977, 21)—reflected in adjectives in attributive position: e.g., romano tjavo (‘Roma boy’) vs. romani tjej (‘Roma girl’). As in Romani, many feminine nouns end in -i (Matras 2002, 82–3): e.g., bushni (‘goat’), dakkri (‘mother’). Most of these are inherited directly from Romani. Scandoromani has another feminine form ending in -a, based on earlier (Romani) -i forms. It is reflected in a number of frequently used words: e.g., gaja, gadja (‘woman’, Romani gadži ‘peasant woman’), deja (‘mother’, Romani dai), juvlia (‘woman’, Romani džuwli), rashia (‘female priest’, feminine alter- native to Romani rašaj ‘priest’), sabōria (‘princess’, origin unknown), trakksa (‘midwife’, origin unknown). The -a form originates in a merger between the European Romani -a form, used for loan words (Matras 2002, 83), and the Scandinavian -a feminine (reflecting earlier *-ōn-stems , see Wessén 1955, 81f.). Inflection of the Scandoromani feminine forms ending in -a is different from the Scandinavian languages, where they use a plural ending -or not found in Scandoromani (see 3.2.2.1). As said, the neuter category2 is an innovation adapted from Scandinavian. Systematic comparison between Swedish Romani (based on data from Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008) and Swedish (see Appendix I, Vocabulary) shows that use of neuter vs. non-neuter vacillates. Clearly, the choice of neuter vs. non-neuter is not a word-by-word calque from Swedish, even though, some- times, this is apparently the case: e.g., rukk, -et/-anet (‘tree’, Swedish träd, -et). In many other cases, the Scandoromani lexeme has two or more translations: one neuter in Swedish, the other(s) not: e.g., littran, -et (Swedish skjul, -et ‘shed’, bod, -en ‘storehouse’, or säng, -en ‘bed’). Other times, the corresponding Swedish word is non-neuter. Looking at the Scandoromani words that are inflected as neuter reveals a number of tendencies. Some have equivalents in Swedish, others not. • Nouns ending in -epā (cf. Romani -ipe(n)). According to our Swedish sources (see Appendix I, Vocabulary), nearly all of these words are neuter. Exceptions include merepā (‘slaughter’) (LDj, Joh), and grekkepā (‘sin’, (LDj, Joh). Note that, according to Iversen (1944), they are all non-neuter. The -epā morpheme creates abstract nouns (see below). It corresponds to the Swedish 2 The neuter only appears in the inflection: definite singular: -t and zero plural. The indefinite article has only one form: jekh (Swedish en, ett, Norwegian en, ei/en, et). the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 67 morpheme -ande/-ende, which creates present participles and abstract nouns and is neuter (Holmes & Hincliffe 2008, 6 f.). • Foods, and other substances: e.g., jaro, -t (‘egg’, Swedish ägg, -et), kill, -et (‘butter’, Swedish smör, -et), jiven, jivanet (‘snow’, Swedish snö, -n). Many— but not all—of the corresponding Swedish terms are also neuter. • Body parts: e.g., babb, -et (‘beard’, Swedish skägg, -et) or mol-boris (‘hoof’, Swedish hov, -en). Many—but not all—of the corresponding Swedish terms are also neuter. • Other neuters. Several neuter forms cannot be explained in any of the above ways. The corresponding Swedish terms are non-neuter. Examples include uschal, -et (‘shadow’, Swedish skugga, -n) or tjokkla, -net (‘skirt’, Swedish kjol, -en). 3.2.1.2 Animacy Animacy has several implications for inflected Romani. Most obvious is the inflection of nouns. Animate nouns use the oblique case marking for direct objects; inanimate nouns use the unmarked nominative. The two catego- ries differ in pronominal reference: animate nouns require pronouns, while demonstratives are used for inanimate nouns (Matras 2002, 72–73). The limits of animacy vary between dialects and are often unclear (for descriptions, see Holzinger 1993, Matras 2002). Kin terms are most likely to be marked animate, followed by non-kin or non-Roma humans, domestic animals, and lower ani- mals such as fish or worms. Based on our informants, Swedish Romani only marks animacy with the choice of adjectives for ‘small’: tikkno (animate) vs. kutti (inanimate). As in Sinte (Holzinger 1993, 30–31), the animate/inanimate boundary is vague, with a large grey area for which usage vacillates (Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Choice of adjective for ‘small’ in predicative position in Swedish Romani (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008, 28). tikkno [animate] tikkno or kutti kutti [inanimate] mosch (‘man’) tjermo (‘worm’) barr (‘stone’) dadeske (‘dad’, ‘grandfather’) sapp (‘snake’) drom (‘road’) tjej (‘girl’) mattjo (‘fish’) nukko (‘kid’) morokka (‘frog’) graj (‘horse’) vasht (‘hand’) jukklo (‘dog’) bakkro (‘sheep’) 68 chapter 3 3.2.1.3 Thematic Status Two inflectional systems can be distinguished in inflected Romani: thematic (pre-European) vs. athematic (European). As Table 3.2 shows, these vary both in final vowel or consonant and in inflection (nominative vs. oblique). This corresponds to the Layer I paradigm, which forms the basis for the Layer II affixes (Table 3.4). The athematic (European) system, which is retained in Kale—e.g., foros ~ fori (‘town’), posta ~ posti (‘pocket’)—has merged in Sinte Romani with the thematic system (Holzinger 1993, 24ff.). Romani lexemes of the European type in -is, -us, or -os end, in Sinte Romani, with -i, -u, or -o (Table 3.3). By contrast, the endings -os and -is—(but not -us)—are very productive in Kale, occuring frequently with loan words from Swedish: e.g., bekkos (‘river’, ←Swedish bäck), bittos (‘piece’, ←Swedish bit), abboris (‘perch’, ←Swedish abborre). Meanwhile in Scandoromani, -os is unproductive: e.g., krestos (‘cross’) and klistos (‘cossack’), which are uniflected; -is occurs with only a handful of loan words: e.g., saffis (‘soap’)—or inherited European words: e.g., krajlis (‘queen’), and -us likewise occurs only with a few borrowed words: e.g., dustus (‘beggar’), krekkus (‘worm’). The development of the Romani athematic feminine form ending in -a (Table 3.2) is particularly interesting. In Sinte Romani, it is used for German loan words of neuter or feminine gender (Holzinger 1993, 29); while in Scandoromani, it has taken over a number of genuine Romani feminines, besides adding a couple of new formations (Section 3.2.1.1). Class Thematic Example Nom.sg. Obl.sg. Nom.pl. Obl.pl. Masc. in consonant kher (‘house’) - -es -a -en Masc. in -ipen čačipen (‘truth’) - -as -a -en Masc. in -o šero (‘head’) -o -es -e -en Masc. in -i pani (‘hand’) -i -jes -ja -jen Fem. in consonant džuv (‘louse’) - -a -a -en Fem. in -i piri (‘pot’) -i -ja -ja -jen Even if the Romani inflectional system is completely lost in Scandoromani, traces remain in the new inflectional system of both the gender and thematic systems (Section 3.2.2). The new system—even though it uses Scandanavian endings—does not rely strictly on Scandanavian rules: Romani structures still play a role. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 69 Table 3.2 Early Romani declension classes (Matras 2002). Athematic Masc in -i(s) sapunis (soap) -is -is -ja -en Masc. in -u(s) papus (grandfather) -us -us -i -en Masc. in -o(s) foros (town) -os -os -i -en Fem. in -a cipa (skin) -a -a ? -en Table 3.3 Sinte Romani declension classes (Holzinger 1993, Matras 2002). Class Example Nom.sg. Obl.sg. Nom.pl. Obl.pl. Masc. in rom (‘man’) rom rom-es rom-a rom-en consonant Masc. in -ipen tarnepen (‘child’) tarnepen tarnep-as tarnep-a tarnep-en Masc. in -o čavo (‘boy’) čavo čav-es čav-e čav-en Masc. in -i grai (‘horse’) grai grai-a grai-a Fem. in brol (‘pear’) brol brol brol-ia brol-ien consonant Fem. in -i xali (‘non-Gypsy’) xali xali-a xali-a xali-en Fem. in -a sona (‘sun’) sona sona son-e son-en Table 3.4 Layer II affixes in Sinte and Kale Romani (Matras 2010, Holzinger 1993, Thesleff 1901). Early Romani Sinte Kale Genitive -k(er)-/-g(er)- -ko Dative -ke/-ge -ke -ke Locative -te/-de -te -te Instrumental -sa/(-ha)/-ca -ha -ha Ablative -tar/-dar -ter -ta 70 chapter 3 3.2.2. Nominal Inflection3 3.2.2.1. Inflection of Nouns Scandoromani inflection follows Scandinavian, which means that nouns occur in four forms: indefinite singular, definite singular, indefinite plural, and defi- nite plural. The definite article is post-positioned and distinguished by gender and number: e.g., Swedish ett träd (‘a tree’), träd-et (‘the tree’). The gender of nouns is distinguished by several distinctive qualities (Section 3.2.1.2). Two qualities are of primary importance to the definite singular form: what the gender is, and whether the lexical root has a vocalic or consonantal ending. • Masculine forms, feminine forms, and non-neuter forms are inflected with def.sg. -n, as in standard Swedish or Norwegian. • Neuter forms are inflected with def.sg. -t, as in standard Swedish or Norwegian. • Feminine forms and non-neuter forms ending in -i are inflected either with def.sg. -n or -a: e.g., rakkli (‘girl’), rakkli-a (‘the girl’). The ending -a occurs in Swedish dialectal feminines: e.g., Halland ko (‘cow’), ko-a (‘the cow’), sol (‘sun’), sol-a (‘the sun’) (Pamp 1978, 44f.); as well as in Norwegian: both Bokmål and Nynorsk (Strandskogen & Strandskogen 1986, 81f.; Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997, 160). No Scandinavian feminine forms end with -i. The Swedish Romani system for plural forms can be summarized as follows: • Masculine, non-neuter, and neuter root nouns, along with masculine or non-neuter forms ending in -o, are inflected in plural with -a(r) or -s. • Feminine forms ending in -i or -a (the -a is lost before the ending) are inflected in plural with the ending -er. • Words ending in -are or -an have no plural ending. Overall, the declension of the various endings can be summarized as follows (see also Table 3.5): • Ending in -a (non-neuter): ◯◯ -a, -a(n), -er, -erna: e.g., furkla, -an, furkler, -na (‘fork’) ◯◯ -a, -a(n), -r, -rna: e.g., schopa, -(n), -r, -r(n)a (‘gate’) 3 Information about inflection is taken from Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), Johansson (1977) and Iversen (1944, 238–239). Note that Iversen’s treatment is very brief. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 71 Table 3.5 Sample athematic (European) Romani words in Sinte, Kale, and Scandoromani. Romani Sinte Kale Scandoromani foros ( ‘city’) foro fooros foro papus (‘grandfather’) papu – – sapunis (‘soap’) sapuni sapunis sapunja • Ending in -i (non-neuter, feminine): ◯◯ -i, -in/-ia, -er, -erna, ◯◯ -i, -in/-ia, -ier, -ierna, e.g., rakkli, -an, -er, -erna (‘girl (non-Traveller)’) • Ending in -o (mostly non-neuter): ◯◯ -o, -on, -oar, -oarna: e.g., buro, -n, -ar, -arna (‘peasant’, ‘non-Roma’) ◯◯ -o, -on, -os, -os: e.g., bullo, -n, -s, -s (‘bear’) • Ending in -epā (neuter): ◯◯ -epā, - epāt, - epā(n), -epāna, e.g., dukkepa, -t, -, -na (‘sickness’) • Ending in -an (mostly neuter): ◯◯ -an, -anet, -an, -an(en)a: e.g., littran, -et, -, -(ern)a (‘shed’) ◯◯ -an, -an, -an, -(en)a ◯◯ -an, -anen, -ans, -ans: only starsman, -en, -s, -s (‘bear’) • Ending in -ik (mostly non-neuter) ◯◯ -ik, -iken, -ikar/-iker, -ikarna/-ikerna • Ending in -is (mostly non-neuter) ◯◯ -is, -isen, -isar/-iser, -isar(n)a/-iser(n)a • Ending in -ing (mostly non-neuter) ◯◯ -ing, -ingen, -ingar, -ingarna • Ending in -os ◯◯ Mostly uninflected; very few instances: e.g., krestos, - (‘cross’) Very little information is available for Norwegian Romani (see Table 3.7). The question is: how does the Scandoromani system relate to Romani proper and to Scandinavian? Might one find remnants of influences from other languages, such as Low or High German? Consider the inflectional systems of Standard Swedish and Bokmål/Nynorsk (see tables 3.8, 3.9). Most Swedish and Norwegian (singular and plural) endings occur in Scandoromani, with the exception of the Swedish plural -or: the historical feminine ending. Given the tables above, and considering both older and 72 chapter 3 Table 3.6 Declension variants, plural, Swedish Romani. Indef.pl. Def.pl. Types Other information -a(r) -a(r)na root nouns masculine forms, neuter forms, -o (with variants) non-neuter forms -us -is -ing -ik -i -ert -er -er(n)a/-e(r)na root nouns feminine forms, non-neuter forms -i -a (-Ø before ending) -is -ing4 -ik -r -rna/-ra -a few examples; mixed gender -epā -o -Ø -a/-na/-ena-/ana -are neuter forms, masculine forms root nouns ending in –are -an -er -epā5 -s -s -o masculine forms, non-neuter -i dialectal forms of Scandoromani, the Scandoromani declension system appears an interesting mixture: • The tendency to inflect masculine forms with the plural ending -ar and fem- inine forms with plural ending -er has no correspondence in standard Swedish or standard Norwegian (Bokmål) but is found in Nynorsk (Table 3.9). 4 Variant with plural ending -ar: kàlsing (‘shoe’). 5 Variant with plural ending -n. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 73 Table 3.7 Nominal inflectional variants, Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944, 239). Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl. Masc. bakro bakro-(e)n bakro-ar bakro-ane Masc. kålliva kålliva-(e)n kålliva-r kålliva-ne Fem. busjni busjni-a busjni-ar busjni-ane Fem. gaja gaja gaj-er gaj-ane Neutr. bærsj bærsj-e bærsj bærsj-a Neutr. kjurodine kjurodine kjurodin-er kjurodin-a • The definite singular ending for feminine forms -a (rakklia) corresponds to the feminine definite singular in some Swedish dialects (see 3.2.1.2), as well as Nynorsk and Bokmål (besides the ending -en). • The zero inflection for the indefinite plural of neuter forms corresponds to the zero inflection of neuter forms in Swedish and Norwegian. • Words ending in -are and -ing behave as Swedish and Norwegian words end- ing in -are and -ing, even though the origins of the morphemes differ. The Scandoromani plural ending -s, found with masculine and non-neuter forms, most likely does not derive from the Swedish plural ending -s, used with very recent English loan words (along with the -ar ending). More likely, its origin is to be found with the Low German plural forms ending in -s: e.g., de Broor ~ der Bröörs (‘brother’), dat Fenster ~ de Fensters (‘window’) (Lindow et al. 1998, 150). 3.2.2.2. Inflection of Adjectives The inflection of adjectives mainly follows the Scandinavian pattern in making a three-fold distinction: non-neuter / neuter / plural. A few adjectives ending in -o are also inflected for masculine ~ feminine. The informants, KTD and LL, both stress that the masculine ~ feminine inflection is maintained. That said, both rarely use the feminine form in speech and mainly with words such as gaja (‘woman’). Iversen (1945, 241) calls the usage ‘entirely [a] fossil’. A number of adjectives are uninflected: e.g., sôló (‘alone’), bàbbi (‘bearded’). In both Swedish and Norwegian, adjectives behave differently depending if they are indefinite or definite, in attributive position or in predicative posi- tion (Holmes & Hincliffe 2003, 58ff.; Strandskogen & Strandskogen 1986, 70ff.). The typical Swedish pattern is shown in Table 3.11. It is more or less copied in Scandoromani. 74 chapter 3 Table 3.8 Nominal inflectional types in Swedish (Holmes & Hincliffe 1994, 12ff.) Declension Plural ending Types Indef.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl. -or nouns ending in -a flicka flickor flickorna (non-neuter) nouns ending in toffel tofflor tofflorna -el,-er monosyllabic, ros rosor rosorna ending in consonant -ar monosyllabic, hund hundar hundarna (non-neuter) ending in consonant monosyllabic, sjö sjöar sjöarna ending in vowel nouns ending in -e, pojke pojkar pojkarna -el, -en, -er, -dom, dotter döttrar döttrarna -ing, -lek, -is -er monosyllabic, park parker parkerna (neuter and ending in and änder änderna non-neuter) consonant loan words with geni genier genierna second-syllable stress -r monosyllabic, ko kor korna (non-neuter) ending in vowel nouns ending in -e, bastu bastur basturna -u, -o -n nouns ending in hjärta hjärtan hjärtana (neuter) vowel nouns in –ande meddelande meddelanden meddelandena zero monosyllabic barn barn barn-en/-a (neuter) zero nouns in –are jägare jägare jägarna (non-neuters) nouns in –um faktum faktum faktumen -s recent English loan reporter reporters/ words reportrar the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 75 Table 3.9 Nominal inflectional types in Bokmål and Nynorsk (Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997, 160). Bokmål Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl. Masc. dag dag-en dag-er dag-ene Fem. dør dør-a/-en dør-er dør-ene Neutr. år år-et år år-a/-ene brev brev-et brev/-er brev-a/-ene Nynorsk Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl. Masc. dag dag-en dag-ar dag-ane Fem. dør dør-a dør-er dør-ene Neutr. år år-et år år-a Table 3.10 Adjective inflectional types in Swedish Romani (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008). Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Example -o -i -(o)t -(o)a romano, romani, romanot, romanoa (‘good’) -i(g) - -i(g)t -i(g)a bengi, bengit, bengia (‘devilish’) -C - -Ct -Ca lakk, lakkt, lakka (‘angry’) -a - -t -zero herma, hermat, herma (‘grey’) Exceptions exist: basically, simplifications from Scandinavian. First, Scandinavian adjectives are expected also to be inflected in predicative posi- tion: e.g., ett stort barn (‘a big child’), barnet är stort (‘the child is big’). This rule is often disregarded in Scandoromani and the default form used instead. The default form also is often used in inflection of definite forms: e.g., dova kalo tjirklon (‘the black bird’). 76 chapter 3 Table 3.11 Adjective inflectional types in Swedish. Indefinite Definite Sg. non-neuter en ung flicka den ung-a flickan (‘a young girl’) (‘the young girl’) Pl. non-neuter ung-a flickor de ung-a flickorna (‘young girls’) (‘the young girls’) Sg. neuter ett stort barn det stor-a barnet (‘a big child’) (‘the big child’) Pl. neuter stor-a barn de stor-a barnen (‘big children’) (‘the big children’) 3.2.3. Derivational and Loan Word Adaptational Morphology 3.2.3.1. Introduction The Scandoromani morphology of derivations and loan-word adaptatations is among the most intriguing aspects of the language. The derivational morphol- ogy for the Romani part of the vocabulary is quite straightforward, differing but little from such other inflected dialects as Kale or Sinte. The adaptation to Scandinavian inflectional morphology is of more interest (see the previ- ous chapter). Meanwhile, the morphology for loan word adaptations is highly complex; it can best be described in terms of chronological layers, depending on the source of the borrowing. One can trace the change from an ‘ordinary’ to a mixed language, with introduction of mechanisms for adapting old and creating new lexical material (Section 3.2.4). The morphology of derivations and loan-word adaptations plays a further role in the adaptation of Romani to the Scandinavian system of stress and pitch accent. Even though one finds individual as well as dialectal and family- lectal variation in the distribution of stress and pitch accent, the relationship between stress and pitch accent on the one hand and derivational morphology on the other is relatively straightforward. In the next section, we offer an over- view of individual derivational and adaptational morphemes with respect to origins, usage, and stress and pitch accent patterns.6 6 Our sources for stress and pitch accent are Iversen (1944 = Iv), Johansson (1977 = Joh), Lenny Lindell (LL), and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (KTD). the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 77 3.2.3.2. Derivational and Adaptational Morphemes, Nouns -o. This is the most common morpheme, derived from the -o masculine forms in Romani (Matras 2003, 83) and the Old Indo-Aryan -a stems. As in Romani, words ending in -o are mostly masculine, though they can be non-neuter or neuter as well (see Section 3.2.1.2). Affiliated morphemes also ending in -o include -(a)lo and -(a)no; their function is usually to form adjectives from nouns or to adapt adjective loans (see Section 3.2.3.3). A few related nouns could be interpreted as nominalized adjectives. This morpheme can be deriva- tional; but most words ending in -o have correspondences in other Romani dia- lects and so are not Scandoromani innovations. One finds several examples of -o in adaptation of loan words: e.g., anglo (‘[fish]-hook’ German Angel ‘hook’; for the formation, see Section 3.4.3) or bölo (‘bull’ Sw.Dial. böl ‘bull’). The pronunciation of words ending in -o varies. Iversen (1944, 235) gives most of them Accent I, with a handful of exceptions marked by Accent II; Johansson (1977, 25) comes to the opposite conclusion. LL and KTD show a marked difference in usage: LL is inclined towards a more Accent I pronuncia- tion, while KTD’s usage is relatively evenly distributed between Accents I and II. Apparently, as with words ending in -epā, one has a variation that is dependent on dialect or familylect. -a. Words ending in -a include variations ending in -ja: e.g., nutta, nuttja (‘sweater’); and -la: e.g., furka, furkla (‘fork’). For the most part, the morpheme originates in the adaptation of feminine loan words (Matras 2003, 83). Most are recent loan words from Middle Low German, High German, or dialectal Swedish, with a few older loan words (e.g., teijsa, tajsa ‘tomorrow, morning’ Greek tachiá). These words are more common in Swedish than Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944, 244). Most are non-neuter, with a few exceptions that are neuter: e.g., serga, serga-t (‘tent’). One finds also a few pre-European femi- nines forms, which have carried over into Scandoromani. For the most part, pronunciation is Accent II (Iv, LL, KTD): e.g., rèkkla (‘coat’). Sometimes, variant forms with Accent I are possible (LL, KTD): e.g., néjta, nèjta. -an. This morpheme, found in just a few words such as pokktan (ʽfine linen’), is not very productive outside Scandoromani (Iversen 1944, 245). It is probably a variant of -a, noting that several lexemes ending in -an have a variant ending in -a. Most examples are recent borrowings: e.g., shefflan (‘cupboard’ Middle Low German scheffer ‘organiser’), schornan (‘barn’ Middle Low German schūne ‘barn’) or maskán (‘cat’ Romani mačka Serbo-Croatian mačka). Once again, pronunciation is mostly Accent II. Maskán (‘cat’) is an excep- tion: it preserves the final-syllable stress from Romani. -are/-arle/-ar/-ari/-ri. This morpheme forms agent nouns (nomina agen- tis): e.g., bemblare (‘five-coin’, from the secret language Månsing bembel ‘five’), 78 chapter 3 tjorare (‘thief’ ←tjora ‘steal’). It is a remnant of Romani -ar-, itself originally bor- rowed from Rumanian or Slavic -ar-, which served the same function. It is used on both inherited words and loan words and can form nomina agentis from verbs as well as nouns (Matras 2002, 76). In Scandoromani, it has merged in function, inflection, and stress/pitch accent with the corresponding Swedish morpheme -are, Norwegian -er. In Swedish Romani, it takes the form -are or -arle; in Norwegian Romani -ar (Iversen 1944, 246). In a few cases, it takes the form -ari or -ri: e.g., spékkari, spékkri (‘store’, ‘shop’ ← Middle Low German spiker ‘warehouse’). Pronunciation and inflection follow the Scandinavian pattern of accent II: e.g., bèmblare. -epā/-pā (Swedish)/ -ipa (Norwegian). This morpheme forms abstract nouns. It is inherited from Romani -ipen/-iben, itself a very productive inher- ited morpheme (Skt. -itavya-). As in Romani proper, it can be derived from both verbs: e.g., bollepā (‘christening’ bolla ‘to christen’), as well as adjectives: dukkepā (‘disease’ dukk ‘sick’). Pronounciation differs between all sources. Both LL and KTD use Accent II, but their pronunciation differs e.g., between the second and third syllable of bòllepa: bòllē'pa vs. bòllepā'. Iversen (1944) reports Accent I: e.g., rákklipa (‘talk’); Johansson (1977) Accent II: e.g., kùrepa' (‘fight’). All available sources are internally consistent and allow no variants. -i, -li. This morpheme is used for feminine forms, most of which derive from Romani proper. It originates with the genuine feminine ending in Romani (Matras 2002, 83). With few exceptions, pronounciation is Accent I in all sources. -ik, -ika, -ikla, -rik, -rika. This morpheme, together with several related vari- ants, is more productive in Swedish than Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944, 250). It is used mostly for adaptation of loan words: e.g., balldrik (‘boiling pot, coffeepot’ ←Middle Low German balge, ballige ‘bowl for milk’), blummrika (‘flower’ ←German Blume ‘flower’). It occurs in other Romani dialects such as Kale and Romungro, but it is not very productive there. Although it is mostly used with loan words, one finds exceptions: e.g., Romani hanik, xaning (‘well’, ‘spring’ Sanskrit khani- ‘mine’, ‘cave’. It may be a variant of the -in morpheme. Pronunciation is consistently Accent I. -in. This morpheme occurs only in a few words, most of which are inher- ited from Romani: e.g., kurmin (‘porridge’), skamin (‘chair’). It originates in the Greek-derived Romani morpheme -in, which occurs with loan words and as a substitute for other inherited endings: e.g., patrin (‘leaf’ Skt. pattra- ‘wing of a bird’, ‘feather’, Matras 2002, 76). Pronunciation is consistently Accent I. -ing/-bing/-ving. The morpheme -ing and its variants has no counterpart in Romani proper: it is a Scandoromani innovation with multiple origins: the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 79 • Words ending in -in in Romani: e.g., voddring (‘wagon’, ‘caravan’ Sinte Romani vordin). • Derivations of words employing other morphemes in Romani: e.g., kabing, kaben (‘food’ Sinte Romani xaben). • Recent borrowings: e.g., bissling (‘tooth’, either from German beissen ‘bite’ or dialectal Swedish bisse ‘small tooth’). Iversen writes (1944, 250) that the morpheme is “hall-marked by the Ro. speak- ers as a foreign word-element which belongs only to Rotw. and Månsing”. This is not completely true; at least, not for the Swedish variant, where several inherited Romani words have the -ing ending. Pronunciation is precisely per the corresponding Swedish and Norwegian forms, with Accent II: e.g., bìssling. -is, -ish, -es. This morpheme is not very frequent. It is mostly found with recent loan words: e.g., montis (‘moon’, ‘month’ ←German Montag ‘monday’), tjokkis (‘chin’ ←English cheek); though it also occurs with earlier loan words: e.g., guris, gurish (‘small coin’ ←Romani guršo ←Check groš). It has no counter- part in Romani. Its origins are uncertain. Pronunciation is Accent I: e.g., gúris. -us. This morpheme is likewise infrequent and mostly used with recent loan words: e.g., bankus (‘bench’ ←German Bank). It has no counterpart in Romani proper. Unlike -is, pronunciation can be either accents I or II: e.g., dùstus (‘loafer’), bánkus. -um, -om, -nom, -onum, -onom. The very few examples are all recent loan words: e.g., arknum, akronum (‘letter’, most likely from Swedish ark ‘sheet of paper’), alonum (‘alone’ ← English alone). -ra. Again, the very few examples are all recent loan words: e.g., plattra (‘newspaper’ ← German Blatt), schinra (‘sun’ ← Middle High German schīn ‘light’). Pronunciation is Accent II. -si. Only one example exists: páttjasi, pàttersi (‘altar’ ← pattja ‘to believe’). -vani, -vina. This occurs in two recent loan words: sellváni (‘herring’ ← Swedish sill), tjellváni (‘basement’ ← Swedish källare). Stress is with Accent I on the second syllable. -rinja, -rinla, -ringla. Only one example exists: kastrínja, kàstrinla, kàstringla (‘cooking vessel’ ← Swedish kastrull). -ert. Only a few examples exist: e.g., slíngert (‘snake’ Swedish slingra ‘to wind’, ‘to twine’), snàjdert (‘tailor’ ← snajdare). -skiro, -prasko. The few examples reflect the genitive-derived morphemes in Romani: e.g., rateskero (‘leech’ ← rati ‘blood’: Matras 2002, 77). They derive from both verbs and nouns: e.g., dummaskíro (‘waistcoat’ ← dummo ‘back’). Some are also found in other dialects: e.g., boscheprásko (‘musician’). 80 chapter 3 Table 3.12 Verb inflection in Swedish Romani. Infinitive Present Past Supine Prs.ptc. Imperative bescha bescha(r) bescha(de) bescha(t) beschande bescha (‘to sit’) sa sa(r) sadde satt saande sa (‘to laugh’) -er. This morpheme reflects a Swedish plural ending that has been made singu- lar: e.g., liller (‘letter’), molder (‘tin’). 3.3. Verb Morphology 3.3.1. Background The verb morphology of inflected Romani is highly complex, with markings for different persons and a complicated system of tense, mood, and aspect that varies between dialects (Matras 2002, 117ff.). All of this is lost in Scandoromani. That said, parts of the derivational and loan-word-adapting morphology have survived into Scandoromani. Scandoromani has developed a morphology of its own for adopting loan words, which serves to camouflage them. 3.3.2. Inflectional Morphology Scandoromani has only one type of verbal inflection, corresponding to the so-called ‘weak’ inflection of Swedish and Norwegian. It is slightly different in Swedish vs. Norwegian Romani, arising from differences in the co-territorial languages (Tables 3.12 and 3.13). Swedish Romani speakers, at least, tend to use two forms with inflection type I: one for fluent speech that is same in all forms except (the highly unusual) present participle and one “standardized form” for writing. Iversen (1944) notes only the spoken form. This holds only for type bescha (Table 3.12). Type sa (Table 3.12) is mostly used for one-syllable verbs and verbs with final stress: e.g., fursté (‘to understand’)—makes no such dis- tinction; in this case, Iversen (1944) notes all the various forms. Swedish Romani verb inflection is both simple and straightforward: one finds very few exceptions.7 7 Information from LL. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 81 Table 3.13 Verbal inflection in Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944). Infinitive Present Past Supine Prs.ptc. Imperative asja asjar asja asja asjanes asja (‘to be’) ka kar kadde kadd kaanes ka (‘to eat’) • A remnant of the Romani 3rd singular present ending -el—also used for marking infinitives—remains, in the form of te avel (‘to be’), used only in fixed formulas: e.g., te avel barvalo (‘to be rich’). • Traces of person concord are found in the verb rakkra/rakkla: ◯◯ 1st 2nd singular: mander/diro rakkrar. ◯◯ 3rd Singular plural: lo/li/lester rakklar. 3.3.3. Derivational Morphology As with the nominal derivational morphology, verb derivational morphology can be described in terms of layers. Some morphemes are used to derive verbs from nouns; others are used to adapt or camouflage loan words. The list of verb derivational morphemes is shorter than the corresponding list for nouns. -a, (-la, -ra, -ja). This morpheme corresponds to the Swedish infinitive end- ing and is used to derive all verb forms. The base is either a Romani verb root: e.g., kamm-a (‘to want’ Romani kam-el); or a Romani noun: e.g., kangl-a (‘to comb’ Romani kangl-i ‘comb’). Very often the -a is preceded by an -l, -r or -j or allows variants with one or both. -ra, -ddra. This is used to derive verbs from both verbs and nouns and to adapt or camouflage loan words: e.g., hilpra (‘to help’ ← Middle Low German helpen: 3rd-person singular hilpet; or bjuddra ‘to invite’ ← Swedish bjuda). -fara, -ula. This is used to camouflage very recent loan words:8 e.g., hellsfara (‘to greet’ ← Swedish hälsa; or hilpfara ‘to help’ ← Middle Low German helpen: 3rd-person singular hilpet), mostula (‘must’ ← Swedish måste). As with the nominal morphology, one finds differences in word formation depending on the loan word. We discuss this in more detail in Section 3.4. 8 For examples from Scandinavian and Middle Low German, see 3.4.3.2. 82 chapter 3 3.4. The Emergence of a Mixed Morphology 3.4.1. Development of a New Morphology: Innovation and Structural Memory Inflectional and derivational morphology is central to reconstructing the pro- cess of transformation from an inflectional to a mixed language (Section 1.3.1). The process is certainly not just a mechanical one whereby the inflectional morphosyntax is derived from the grammaticizing language and the lexicon and derivational morphology from the lexicalizing language. This is part of it, of course; but the final product is intertwined in the truest sense, with both component languages constantly playing a role. Consider the basic, inherently lexical qualities of animacy and gender (Section 3.2.1). It seems that the European Romani distinction between ani- mate and inanimate, masculine and feminine is retained, in significantly altered form, in Scandoromani. In some ways, the new system is structurally more complex than either Romani or Scandinavian; it shows autonomy even as it preserves archaic and dialectal patterns of Scandinavian. The categories animacy and gender are not preserved in the form they have in Romani. They can best be understood as playing a background role in the autonomous for- mation of the new system in Scandoromani. Thematic status of inflectional Romani (Section 3.2.1.4) carries over into the new system, organizing the inflection according to word finals: vocalic, conso- nantal, etc. (see Table 3.6). The masculine/feminine distinction of Romani carries over in various ways, using a Scandinavian system as a matrix. One has the dialectal/archaic femi- nine form for words ending in -i, which are mostly—though not exclusively— feminine in inflectional Romani. Then, one has the creation of a feminine ending -a taken from Scandinavian and attached to archaic Romani feminine lexemes (Section 3.2.1.2). The animacy/inanimacy distinction carries over to the new neuter form, which exercises a certain autonomy from both component languages. One might postulate something like a structural memory from inflectional Romani, which could explain the survival and adaptation of gender, animacy, and thematic status (see Figure 3.1). Next, consider the secondary adaptation in form, inflection, and stress/ pitch accent of lexemes with derivational morphemes—originating in Romani but with a clear resemblance to such Scandinavian morphemes as -ing and -are (Section 3.2.3.2), showing how Scandinavian derivational morphology has played its role in the formation of the new system. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 83 ROMANI: General patterns (gender, animacy, thematic status) Structural memory Derivational morphology Inectional morphology SCANDINAVIAN: SCANDOROMANI General patterns (gender, thematic status) Derivational morphology Inectional morphology Figure 3.1 The mixing process in Scandoromani morphology. 3.4.2. Strategies for Adaptation of Loan Words Adaptation of loan words is important in all Romani dialects. It generally serves two functions: adapting the borrowed word to the inflectional system at the same time as camouflaging the borrowed lexeme. The first of these no longer plays any role in Scandoromani, which has abandoned the inflectional system of Romani. However, the second is highly active: recent borrowings are shaped by all manner of morphological creativity (Section 3.4.3). By investigating the vocabulary that goes beyond the core shared by all Romani dialects—i.e., that which has been borrowed after the split from the Romani continuum (see the discussion in Section 1.3.2)—one discerns a number of significant tendencies. One finds a greater amount of camouflaging and other lexical manipulation in loan words from Low German, Swedish, and Norwegian—including both standard language and dialects—than from Finnish, Russian, or High German (Table 3.14 and Section 3.4.3). The highest level of morphological creativity occurs among the Scandinavian borrowings (Section 3.4.3.4). The most plausible explanation is that the Russian, Finnish, and High German borrowings are earlier and reflect a pre-mixed-language state, not dif- fering significantly from other Romani dialects. This is further supported by those morphemes occurring only in borrowings from Scandinavian and Low German (see the lists in sections 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.3, and 3.3.3), which are sometimes 84 chapter 3 Table 3.14 Loan words from Russian, Finnish, and High German, with no camouflaging or other lexical manipulation. Lexeme Meaning Source bèda star Russian zvezdá ‘star’ bélka squirrel Russian bélka ‘squirrel’ skríppika, skrī pká violin Russian skrípka ‘violin’ lístjo,líshto face Russian litsó ‘face, persons’ mórshta,mòshta coffee Finnish musta ‘black’ nùtta sweater Finnish nuttu ‘cardigan’ vant, vànta wall German Wand ‘wall’ pùffra gun German Puffer ‘gun, rifle’ themselves borrowings: e.g., -fara. This change in strategy presumably reflects the transformation into a mixed language, in which lexical manipulation and morphological creativity become more active, though not as active as in in- group lexicons, as discussed in Section 1.2.2. 3.4.3. Attributes of a Mixed Morphology: Lexical Manipulation, Heavy Morphology, and the Anti-Zipfian Effect As the earlier discussion suggests, one finds clear indication of a change in strategy for loan-word adaptation, depending on source language. Recent loan words from Low German and, in particular, Scandinavian are often camouflaged or otherwise manipulated to a higher degree. In the following sub-sections, we discuss the creative processes involved. Section 3.4.3.3 dis- cusses lexical manipulation, Section 3.4.3.4 compounding, Section 3.4.3.5 iconicity, and 3.4.3.7 a distinctive feature of Scandoromani morphology: the anti-zipfian effect. Creative morphological processes are rare in language. They are normally restricted to in-group lexicons, slang or the like (Baldi & Dawar 2000, cf. Section 1.2.2). Though some of these word formations in Scandoromani are viewed as rodi ‘bad Romani’ most are not: words like stársman (‘bear’) are understood as belonging to the core vocabulary of the language. The requirements of deri- vational and adaptational morphology in a mixed language as Scandoromani are different from a non-mixed’ language, serving the purpose of creating a distinction from the co-territorial language. the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 85 3.4.3.1. Structure of the Base The section addresses the borrowed lexical root before the attachment of the camouflaging/adaptational morpheme. Three variants occur, depending partly on the number of syllables (one, two, three, or more) in the borrowed root. These are preservation of the original form, clipping, and syncope. a. Preservation of the Original Form Preservation of the lexical root’s original form occurs in several otherwise manipulated formations, though it is less common than clipping or syncope. Several reasons suggest themselves for keeping the original root form. Probably the most common is that the original root is monosyllabic: easily kept and extended with either a morpheme (Section 3.4.3.2) or another root (Section 3.4.3.4: Compounding). One finds several examples, both from Low German and Scandinavian: e.g., bánk|us (‘bench’ ← German Bank), gròsh|an (‘grass’ ← German Gras), kòrb|a (‘basket’ ← German Korb), dỳsht|a, dỳst|a (‘mite’, ‘any- thing’ ← dialectal Swedish dust ‘mite’, ‘crumb’), árk|nom (‘letter’ ← Swedish ark ‘sheet of paper’), bṑ|farm|a (‘shop’, ‘store’ ← Swedish bo ‘live’ + English farm). Disyllabic roots may also be kept, though often they are manipulated lexi- cally, either by infixation, sporadic phonetic change, prosodic change, or ordi- nary morphological extension: e.g., kammóra, kammóro, kàmmora (‘chamber’ ← German Kammer), làffja, làffa (‘barn’ ← Old Swedish or Elfdalian dialectal Swedish laþa ‘barn’; Swedish lada). b. Clipping Clipping of the borrowed root is by far the most common variant. It trans- forms a disyllabic or multisyllabic lexeme into a monosyllabic base to then be extended by an adapting morpheme: e.g., báll|drik (‘boiling pot’, ‘coffee pot’ ← Middle Low German balge, ballige ‘container [for milk]’), blúmm|rika (‘flower’ ← German Blume), shèff|lan (‘cupboard’ ← Middle Low German schef- fer ‘fixer’, ‘provider’; Swedish skafferi ‘larder’, from the same source), lédd|ik, léadd|ik (‘box’ ← Middle Low German lade ‘box’, ‘chest’), mónt|is (‘Monday’, ‘month’ ← German Montag ‘Monday’, Monat ‘month’), tjel|váni, tjèl|vina (‘base- ment’ ← Swedish källare). c. Syncope Syncope works similarly to clipping: it transforms a disyllabic lexical root into a monosyllabic base, which is then extended by an adapting or camou- flaging morpheme. As with clipping, most examples come from German or Scandinavian: e.g., lìttr|an (‘shed’, ‘shop’; ‘bed’ ← Swedish lider ‘shed’), tàffl|a, tàffl|an (‘table’ ← Middle Low German tafele). 86 chapter 3 3.4.3.2. Types of Morphemes Used Morphemes of two types are used in creative formations. Either they occur in Romani proper where they are used for the same purpose: adapting loan words; or they are Scandoromani innovations, in which case, their origins are, in most cases, obscure. Morphemes in the first set include -os, -is, -us, -es, and -a (Matras 2002, 82f.). Two morphemes that occur only sporadically in Romani dialects are -ik and -in. Note that the derivational morphemes -o, -lo, -i, -li, and -are may also be used for creative adaptation of loan words. The remaining morphemes can be distinguished into two sub-types: unconventional mor- phemes and full-word morphemes. a. Unconventional Morphemes We include here long, complex morphemes (Baldi & Dawar 2000, 967f.) and those with no counterpart in Romani. These morphemes are either extended variants of older morphemes: e.g., -nom, -onum, -onom (from -um), -ika, -ikla, -rik, -rika (from -ik), -ing, -bing, -ving (from -in), -an (from -a); or they are true Scandoromani innovations: e.g., -vani, -vina, -ert, -ula (used for verbs). All have uncertain origins. b. Full-Word Morphemes One finds only one obvious full-word morpheme: the verb-adapting mor- pheme -fara, borrowed from Swedish fara (‘to go’). 3.4.3.3. Lexical Manipulation To the creative formations mentioned above, a few other formations can be added (see also Section 1.2.2)—though they are less common. a. Prosodic Manipulation Here, the prosodic structure of a borrowed lexeme or compound is changed to make it incomprehensible: e.g., stársman, stàrman (‘bear’ ← dialectal Swedish starsk man ‘strong man’; one finds also the metaphorical expression bulloske dad ‘the father of the bear’ = ‘strong man’). b. Sporadic Phonetic Substitution These are cases in which a sporadic change is made in the phonetic value of a loan-word phoneme, to camouflage the lexeme’s origin. In some cases, alter- native explanations—e.g., dialectal/familylectal variation of the lexeme—are possible. The difference is not always clear. Several clear examples are avail- able, however: e.g., pùnt|a (‘purse’ ← Swedish pung ‘purse’, ‘bag’), pòrg|a (‘gate’ ← Swedish port), rèkk|la (‘coat’ ← Swedish rock, Middle Low German rok), the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 87 tjókk|is (‘jaw’, ‘chin’ ← Swedish käke ‘jaw’, Middle Low German kake, keke ‘chin’), middacken (‘dinner’ ← Swedish middag-en ‘the dinner’). c. Sporadic Consonant Insertion Sporadic consonant insertion occurs in Scandoromani: e.g., sèn|-j-la (‘horse collar’, ‘harness’, ‘reins’ ← Middle Low German sēne ‘sinew of a bow’). 3.4.3.4. Compounding Compounding is highly productive in Scandoromani. The principles for it have been adapted from Scandinavian compounding including patterns of stress/ pitch accent. A great number of compound words exist in Scandoromani, many of them loan translations of Scandinavian compounds: e.g., dromeske- patrín (‘road sign’ ← Swedish vägskylt). Others are innovations—often meta- phorical interpretations: e.g., sàster-tjirklo (‘airplane’; literally, ‘iron bird’). A few compounds have one borrowed and one non-borrowed member: e.g., kill-gås (‘sandwich’ ← Swedish smörgås, Swedish smör ‘butter’ substituted by Romani kill ‘butter’, plus Swedish gås ‘goose’). If the first member of a compound is derived from a verb, it might be 1) the infinitive form: e.g., dràbbra-hispa (‘missionary house’); 2) the inflected present, which is never used in speech: e.g., dràbbrar-hispa (also ‘missionary house’); or 3) the old Romani genitive morpheme -eske: e.g., drabbreske-hìspa.9 If the first member is derived from an adjective, the default or masculine form is used: e.g., dùkkalo-voddro (‘ambulance’; literally, ‘sick-car’). If the first member is derived from a noun, it might be that 1) the default form is used: e.g., gùllo-tjaro (‘sugar bowl’); 2) the Romani genitive ending -eske is used: e.g., grejeske-bál (‘horsehair’); or 3) the word final is changed as in -a > -e: e.g., fòssike-minka (‘pocket watch’ fòssikja ‘pocket’) or -an > -a: e.g., gròsa-kakklare (‘lawnmower’ gròsan ‘grass’). These compounds are mostly synchronically transparent: i.e., the meaning of the members is clear, without manipulation or other adaptation. Of course, one finds a few exceptions, often loans, mostly from Scandinavian. In more complicated cases, parts might be inherited, others adapted; prosodic manipu- lation can be involved: e.g., ìllusman (‘blackguard’, ‘scoundrel’ ← ìllus- dialec- tal Swedish ill- ‘evil’, ‘angry’ + adapting morpheme -us + Swedish man ‘man’), ìlsmatig, ìlsmarig (‘deceitful’, ‘devilish’ ← dialectal Swedish illmarig ‘deceitful’ with sporadic insertion of -s-), mār-pinà (‘halter’; ‘[facial] knife scar’ ← dialectal Swedish marr ‘mare’ + Swedish pinne ‘stick’, transformed to Swedish pina ‘pain’, ‘torment’). 9 Note that the stress is on the second member of the compound. 88 chapter 3 3.4.3.5. Iconicity Iconicity implies for language a motivated connection between form and function.10 Two implications of the term concern us here: onomatopoeia and sound symbolism on the one hand, folk etymology on the other. Apparently Romani is iconic to a much lesser degree than e.g., any of the Germanic languages, especially when it comes to onomatopoeia and sound symbolism. Though much of the lexical material might sound iconic to the ears of a Scandinavian speaker, most lexemes have an etymological explana- tion tracing back to Indo-Aryan, or else they are borrowings from Iranian, Armenian, or Greek. Few words are either onomatopoetic or sound symbolic. Folk etymological change is more common, especially for words with creative morphology. a. Onomatopoeia and Sound Symbolism As noted, onomatopoeia and sound symbolism are not common in Scandoromani. Onomatopoeia is normally found with bird names and other animals with a distinct call. Most of these lexemes in Scandoromani derive from Romani proper and should not be regarded as renewed iconic forms: e.g., kakkaráska (‘bird’, ‘eagle’, ‘magpie’ Romani kakaráška ‘magpie’, borrowed from Greek karakáxa), kàkkni (‘hen’ Romani kaxni ‘hen’, ‘cock’, borrowed from Iranian or Indian; see Wolf 1987, 110). All of the Germanic languages, including Swedish, English, German, Icelandic, etc., are highly productive in expanding sound-symbolic clusters. This is not the case in Scandoromani. Only a few cases of clear sound symbol- ism can be found in the vocabulary (Appendix I): e.g., gnarka (‘play’), glinter (‘glass’). One would normally expect iconicity to be more common where lexi- cal manipulation—e.g., an in-group lexicon—is found (Mous 2003, 222; see also below). b. Folk Etymology De Cuypere (2008, 210) defines folk etymology such that it ‘crucially involves the replacement of an allegedly opaque form by means of a more transparent form-meaning pair and is thus motivated by language internal iconicity’. Folk etymology in a mixed language like Scandoromani is particularly intricate and expresses itself through a number of variants. 1. An inherited Romani lexeme changes form via a folk etymological con- nection to a Scandinavian lexeme: e.g., smeltàna, smèltana, smältarè 10 For a summary, see (De Cuypere 2008, 91ff.). the interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection 89 (‘cream’ ← Romani šmentana Rumanian, in accordance with Swedish smälta ‘to melt’). 2. An inherited Romani lexeme changes meaning via a folk etymological connection to a Scandinavian lexeme: e.g., mátto (‘tired’, ‘drunk’ ← Romani mato ‘drunk’, in accordance with Swedish matt ‘faint’, ‘weak’). 3. A borrowed lexeme adapts its form in accordance with another—possi- bly borrowed—lexeme of similar but not identical meaning: e.g., kas- trínja (‘box’, ‘chest’ ← Middle Low German kast ‘container’, ‘box’; in accordance with kastrílja ‘cooking vessel’, ‘cauldron’ Swedish kastrúll). 4. A borrowed lexeme adapts its form in accordance with a Scandinavian lexeme of similar but not identical meaning: e.g., bálldrik (‘cooking ves- sel’, ‘coffee pot’ ← Middle Low German balge, ballige ‘container [for milk]’, in accordance with Swedish tàllrik [some dialects tállrik] ‘plate’). 3.4.3.6. Mixing of Principles It is frequently relatively easy to detect the linguistic source of a borrowing, whether from German, Scandinavian, English, or elsewhere. Often, though, one finds no perfect match, making it difficult to conclude whether the source is an unattested dialectal form or a Scandoromani manipulation. In several cases, the creative morphological principles we have discussed cooperate on a single lexical root, producing a mixture of e.g., clipping, sporadic insertion, and morpheme adaptation: schò-r-n|an (‘barn’ ← Middle Low German schūne). 3.4.3.7. Anti-Zipfian Effect The so-called Zipfian effect provides a well-established, well-motivated corre- lation between linguistic quantity and meaning, according to which the most frequent words in a language tend to be particularly short. In Scandoromani, one generally finds a reverse effect for several but not all of these words (Tables 3.14, 3.15): frequently used lexemes that are short in Swedish or Norwegian, or European Romani, are disyllabic and complex in Scandoromani. The effect is particularly noticeable for pronouns and verbs (Table 3.15). Since Scandoromani generally follows Scandinavian syntax (Chapter 4), one would normally expect a pattern similar to Swedish and Norwegian. The anti-Zipfian effect naturally affects sentence prosody,11 since common words must be pronounced and articulated. The problem in speech that this creates is normally solved by deletion of the copula or obligatory place-holder subject, as discussed in Chapter 4. 11 We have not addressed Scandoromani sentence prosody here; generally, though, it fol- lows the Scandinavian pattern. 90 chapter 3 Table 3.15 Most frequent Swedish word forms in printed text, with their corresponding Scandoromani forms (Allén 1970). Swedish Scandoromani och ta (‘and’) i an/ dre/ drio (‘in’) att te (‘to’) en jekh (‘one’) som somtis/ tjakkes (‘if’) det dolle (‘it’) är ashar/ honkar (‘is’) av aftis/ afters/ atscher (‘of’) den dolle/ kava (‘it’) på pre/ prej (‘on’) för angla(l)/ anglad (‘for’) med ninna (‘with’) Table 3.16 Personal pronouns + copula in Romani and Swedish. Romani Swedish Scando-romani (Kelderaš) me sim jag är mander honkar/ashar (‘I am’) tu san du är diro honkar/ashar (‘you are’) vov si han är lo/lester honkar/ashar (‘he is’) voj si hon är li/listkri(s) honkar/ashar (’she is’) den är kava/dova honkar/ashar (‘it is’) ame sam vi är vorsnos honkar/ashar (‘we are’) tume san ni är ersnus honkar/ashar (‘you are’) von si de är dolle honkar/ashar (‘they are’) chapter 4 Outline of a Syntax Broadly speaking, Scandoromani syntax patterns follow Scandinavian pat- terns. One finds speech—fully comprehensible and grammatically correct Scandoromani—in which word order, constructions, syntactic patterns, etc., are fully equivalent to the matrix language: word by word and beyond, to the level of verbal and nominal compounding. See Example (4a) for a sentence in Scandoromani and corresponding sentence in Swedish, illustrating the basic principles of syntax in Scandoromani. (4a) Penn-a to dillo-n te lo av-ar andre Säg till stackar-n att han gå-r in say-IMP to wretch-DEF that he go-PRS in (‘Tell the poor guy to come in.’) The nature of the interview environment creates an unavoidable diffi- culty. When a native speaker of Scandoromani—who is, naturally, fluent in Swedish—is asked, in Swedish: ‘what is the corresponding construction in Scandoromani?’, the first construction he produces (LL, KTD) is normally completely corresponding to Swedish syntax. The same pattern occurs fre- quently—though not consistently!—in writing. On the other hand, when a speaker is asked1 e.g., to refer to a situation or describe what is happening in pictures (see further 4.5), he will frequently deviate from Swedish syntax. Sections 4.1–4.3 will examine a few of these deviations. Section 4.4 will exam- ine patterns of code-mixing. 4.1. Use of Unmarked Verbal Form When transcribing or otherwise listening to Scandoromani recordings, one of the most striking features of the language is its use of the unmarked verbal form in -a on nearly all occasions. As we discussed earlier (Section 3.3), Scandoro- mani has primarily one inflection type for verbs, corresponding to the Scandina- vian weak conjugation Type I (Holmes & Hincliffe 2003, 216f.). This is typically 1 We base this on our experience mainly with LL. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004266445_�05 92 chapter 4 produced in Scandoromani as infinitive -a, present tense -(a)r, preterit -(a)de, supine -(a)t, past participle -(a)d, present participle -ande. These forms, which are readily produced in interviews discussing verb inflection, are almost never used in everyday speech or writing.2 The supine and past participle forms are infrequent: main clause constructions with straight word order and construc- tions without auxiliaries and subordinate clauses are normally preferred. An unmarked form, ending in -a, is applied in nearly all circumstances. Context determines interpretation of the form as infinitive, present tense, or preterite. Throughout this volume, we have glossed the unmarked form as INF, referring to the formal marking; but we have normally translated it either as present tense or preterit (see e.g., Example 4b). 4.2. Subject Place-Holder Omission The most important deviation from Swedish syntax lies in the possibility to omit the place-holder subject, obligatory in Swedish,3 a rule connected to the Swedish fixed word order (Hultman 2003, 299f.; Holmes & Hincliffe 2003, 436f.). Its primary application in Scandoromani is to 3rd person singular and plural, though it applies as well to the 1st singular form4 of the personal/demonstra- tive pronoun (Table 4.1) and to such impersonal constructions as Swedish det, Scandoromani dolle. Along with verb place-holder deletion (Section 4.3), this phenomenon is likely connected to the anti-Zipfian effect described in Section 3.4.3.8. The combination of a two-syllable pronoun: e.g., mander (‘I’) or dolle (‘it’); with a two-syllable copula or an auxiliary: e.g., honkar (‘is’) or kammar (‘has’); results in, with a sentence prosody pattern similar to Swedish, difficul- ties with the pronounciation in rapid speech. Consequently, the place-holder subject or the copula—but never the place-holder auxiliary—is deleted. The phenomenon happens more frequently with intransitive than transitive verbs. With zero-transitive verbs (see Example 4c), it is almost obligatory. (4b) Frog story Pre tejsa-n ja lo oppri at morning-DEF go.INF he up 2 The monosyllabic verbs are normally an exception; see Section 3.3. 3 As well as the object. 4 Second-person usage seems to be rare. outline of a syntax 93 å jykklo-n vesh-ar pre leshter-s and dog-DEF sit-PRS at he-GEN dumo ta jur-a pre jikh tjar back and look-INF at one bowl (“at morning he rises and the dog sits at his back and looks at a bowl”) (4c) brish-a avri rain-INF outside (‘it rains outside’) Whenever a placeholder can be omitted, nothing prevents it from being pres- ent. Again, a complete correspondence to Swedish is always grammatical. 4.3. Verbal Place-Holder Omission As the previous chapter described, the place-holder copula—likewise obliga- tory in Swedish—can, in Scandoromani, be omitted. The result is copula- less verb phrases. Our recordings with LL, consisting of narratives as well as descriptions of pictures, picture series and events, contain several examples of this. The Swedish copula är, pronounced [e:], corresponds to Scandoromani ashar or honkar: e.g., Example (4e). (4e) Frog story Motjilla! penn-a tjavo-n to jykklo-n Be silent! say-INF boy-DEF to dog-DEF de honk-a nått preal dova rukk it be-INF something behind this tree (“Silent! says the boy to the dog. There is something behind this tree.”) (4f) Frog story Dova jikh tjirklo å nukko-n that one bird and child-DEF bliddr-ar trasch å per-a tili fann rukk-anet become-PRS afraid and fall-INF down from tree-DEF (“They, a bird and the child, become afraid and fall down from the tree.”) 94 chapter 4 Table 4.1 The Swedish Romani pronominal system. Personal pronoun Singular Plural Person Subject Object Genitive (r./n.) Subject Object Genitive 1. mànde mànde míro/míros vórsnos vórsnos vórsnos mànder míro mànders vórsnus vórsnos vórsnos màndrom màndroms vòrsnus vórsnos vórsnos 2. díro díro díro/díros érsnos érsnos érsnos érsnus érsnus érsnus 3sg.m. lo léster lésters/los léngro léngro léngros 3sg.f. li líster lísters/lis léngro léngro léngros lìstkri lìstkris lìstkris 3sg.n. dòlle dòlle dòlles dòlle dòlle dòlles Demonstrative pronoun (“here”)-deixis 3sg.m./f./n. kàva kàva kavas kàva kàva kàvas kàvva kàvva kàvvas kàvva kàvva kàvvas Demonstrative pronoun (“there”)-deixis 3sg.m./f./n. dòva dòva dòvas dòva dòva dòvas 4.4. Relative Pronoun Deletion The same rules of omission are valid for relative pronouns. They do not apply to subordinating or co-ordinating conjunctions: e.g., ta (‘to’), so (‘so’), palla (‘if’); for which the constructions are normally similar to Swedish.5 The relative pronoun is uninflected and takes the form tjakke, tjakkes, or tjakkesa. It generally corresponds to Swedish som, e.g., Example (4g). 5 For examples, see (Lindell & Djerf 2008, 42ff.). outline of a syntax 95 (4g) Frog story Jykklo-n kamm-ar li-tt mala tjakkes dog-DEF have-PRS take-SUP friend who bliddr-ar butt lakk-a pre geting-ar-na, become-PRS very angry-PL with wasp-PL-DEF så han nasch-ar an vesch-en. so he run-PRS to forest-DEF (“the dog gets a friend who becomes very angry with the wasps, so he runs to the forest”) In several cases, the relative pronoun is omitted; see Example (4h). (4h) dikk palla belka pracht-ar siggro look at squirrel run-PRS quick oppre to schumba upwards to hill (“look at the squirrel (who) runs quickly up the hill”) 4.5. Patterns of Code-Mixing in Free, Narrative and Written Speech As mentioned before (1.3.1) Scandoromani follows the expected mixture pat- tern of a bilingual mixed language: the grammaticiser matrix language pro- vides word order, grammatical morphology, TAM and infinitive marking and sentence syntax, the lexifier language provides the basic lexicon of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns. In the recordings made available to us, code-switching/mixing is of several types and occurs on both content and system morphemes (Myers-Scotton 2002). Code-switching in Scandoromani takes the abstract frame of Scandoromani as the composite Matrix language (Myers-Scotton 2002, 247) and code-switches by means of inserting Swedish lexemes. There are various scenarios in which code-switching occurs: 1. When the speaker does not recall the Scandoromani lexeme (cf. 4i). Sometimes, the Swedish word is repeated in Scandoromani. 96 chapter 4 2. In quicker (basically free) speech, mainly in subjunctions and conjunc- tions, demonstratives and personal pronouns (4j). Also here, repeating the lexeme with the Scandoromani form is frequent. In the speech of LL, the phrase å . . . ta ‘and’ (first in Swedish, then in Scandoromani) is fre- quently used. However, the opposite also occurs (4j). There is a clear tendency to produce more code-switched forms under stress (e.g., talking about sensitive topics), uncertainty of how to interpret the inter- view situation (don’t understand elicitations) or having difficulties in finding Scandoromani lexemes. (4i) Frog story Å jykklo-n ste-r glann pre And dog-DEF stand-PRS before at rukk-en ta basch-a pre geting-ar-na. tree-DEF and bark-INF at wasp-PL-DEF (‘and the dog stands below the tree and barks at the wasps’) (4j) Story about a fight, LL rakkli-a . . . garia tjakke basch-a pre miro . . . mander woman-DEF woman who yield-INF at me I te att Lenny fysh-er tji that that Lenny ought to-PRS not dabb-as an me drabbe-kher-en fight-PASS at with school-DEF 4.6. Samples of Speech 4.6.1. Frog Story (narrative after picture series by Lenny Lindell, recorded 2007) Å nukko . . . tjavo-n . . . rakklo-n . . . basch-ar avri and kid boy-DEF boy-DEF yield-PRS out savi-t to saro-a. Jykklo-n per-ar preal something-ADV to all-PL. dog-DEF fall-PRS through outline of a syntax 97 varing-en tili pre pu-anet. Tjavo-n ja-r window-DEF down to ground-DEF. boy-DEF go-PRS tili after . . . glan-eske jykklo-n å le-r down after before-POSS dog-DEF and take-PRS an sero-s vasht-ar. Sennslo ja-r an in REFL-GEN hand-PL. Then go-PRS in to vesch-en å basch-ar avri pre to forest-DEF and yield-PRS out at tjirrklo-an-a, jukklo ta tjavo-n. bird-PL-DEF dog and boy-DEF. Sennslo ja-r tjavo-n tili pre tjang-er-na Then go-PRS boy-DEF down on knee-PL-DEF. å basch-ar tili pre pu-anet. Jykklo-n and cry-PRS down into ground-DEF. Dog-DEF ste-r å dikk-a oppre pre jikk stand-PRS and look-INF up to one rukk pre bi-n-a. Sennslo ja-r opp tree on bee-PL-DEF. Then go-PRS up jikk kreshtus å dikk-a på tjavo-n one creature and look-INF at boy-DEF å tjakke bliddr-a trasch. Å jykklo-n and who become-INF afraid. And dog-DEF ste-r glann pre rukk-en ta basch-a stand-PRS before at tree-DEF and bark-INF pre geting-ar-na. Geting-ar-na bliddr-ar lakk-a at wasp-PL-DEF wasp-PL-DEF become-PRS angry-PL å nukko-n kamm-ar ja-tt oppri pre and kid-DEF have-PRS go-SUP up to 98 chapter 4 rukk-an å dikk-ar pre li an tree-DEF and look-PRS at he/she in rukk-anet. Dova jikk tjirrklo å nukko-n tree-DEF. There one bird and kid-DEF bliddr-ar trasch å per-a tili fann become-PRS afraid and fall-INF down from rukk-anet. Jykklo-n kamm-ar li-tt mala tree-DEF. Dog-DEF have-PRS take-SUP friend tjakkes bliddr-ar butt lakka pre geting-ar-na, who become-PRS very angry at wasp-PL-DEF, så han nasch-ar an vesch-en. so he run-PRS to forest-DEF. And the kid . . . boy yields out something to everyone. The dog falls through the window down to the ground. The boy goes down after, before the dog and takes in his hand. Then he goes in to the forest and yields out at the birds, the dog and the boy. Then the boy goes down on his knees and cries down to the ground. The dog stands and looks up at one tree on the bees. Then a creature comes up and looks at the boy, who becomes afraid. And the dog stands before the tree and barks at the wasps. The wasps become angry and the kid has went up to a tree and looks at him/her in the tree. There a bird and the kid become afraid and fall down from the tree. The dog has become a friend who becomes very angry at the wasps, so he runs to the forest. 4.6.2. Story About a Fight (free speech, recorded with Lenny Lindell, 2008) An dives a mander khere ta rakkr-a to on day PART I home and say-INF to miro deja palla jikh tjakk tjakke honk-a an my mother about one thing that be-INF at drabbeske-kher-en karna buro-rakklo-ar kar-a mander school-DEF when buro-boy-PL call-INF I outline of a syntax 99 gla tattare ta basch-a kerj-a la for tattare and yield-INF be naughty-INF PART to mander gla mander bliddr-a butt lakk. to I about I be-INF very angry. Honka jiddro å jidder palla dova rakklo-ar-na tjakke be fight and quarrel when DEM boy-PL-DEF who basch-a pre mander. Dova honk-a tji lattjo-t. yield-INF at me DEM be-INF not fun-ADV Bliddr-a dabbepa. Fysh-te ja andri to be-INF fight have to-PST go.INF away to rakkli-a . . . garia tjakke basch-a pre miro . . . mander woman-DEF woman who yield-INF at me I te att Lenny fysh-er tji that that Lenny ought to-PRS not dabb-as an me drabbe-kher-en fight-PASS at with school-DEF tav-a miro deja å basch-a phone-INF my mother and yield-INF å kerr-a se to. and do-INF REFL to One day I (came) home and I told my mother about something that was at school when the buro-boys called med tattare and yielded and were naughty with me and I was very angry. (There) was a fight and quarrel when these boys yielded at me and it was not funny. (There) was a fight. (They) had to go to the woman . . . woman who yielded at me . . . I that Lenny is not allowed to fight at school (and they) called my mother and yielded and made themselves to (= ridiculed themselves). chapter 5 Conclusion: Support for an Autonomous Model The main focus of the current study has been phonology, lexical stress/pitch accent and derivational/adaptional morphology. Other areas of interest have been gender, animacy, thematic status, allophonic variation and patters and variation of code-mixing and syntax. Several patterns of Scandoromani, both in phonology, morphology and syn- tax indicate a great deal of autonomy from the matrix language, in which all speakers are native speakers. In one respect Scandoromani is different from some other mixed languages: of the two component languages, Scandinavian and Romani, only Scandinavian (the matrix/grammaticising language) is fully known to the speakers. Inflected Romani is not known to most of the speakers. Accordingly, we have a bilingual situation among the Scandoromani, today as well as historically, with Scandinavian (including various dialects) and the autonomous Scandoromani language. Remnants of Romani proper, e.g., in the phonology (see 2.4–2.5) and the morphology (see 3.2, 3.4.1) are highly likely to features that have emerged during the process of creation of the language and which have then been preserved in the language over the centuries. The current study has several implications for the study on emergence of mixed languages, also in general. Contra Thomasson and Kaufman (1988) and Thomasson (1995), Bakker (2003, 136ff.) argues that language intertwining is not a continuous process of code-switching/code-mixing nor a process of extreme lexical/ grammatical borrowing or re-lexification (see also Muysken 2000, 266f.). On his model, intertwined languages come about within a short period of time—which does not, however, prevent further linguistic interac- tion with the co-territorial language. Early data from Scandoromani (Section 1.2.2),1 indicate an early switch towards a Scandinavian-adapted inflectional system, making it likely that the general structure of the language and the basic patterns of mixing did, indeed, come about within a limited period of time. What is highly questionable is whether the language’s autonomous development—the phonological innova- tions, the innovation and restructuring in the nominal and verbal morphologi- cal system, and the development of independent syntactic patterns—emerged within any similarly short period, then left the language unchanged for several hundred years. A variety of evidence speaks against this: 1 Like early data from Angloromani (cf. Bakker 2003). © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004266445_�06 conclusion 101 • The abundant variation between dialects and familylects found within the morphology, the phonological stress/pitch accent patterns (cf. Chapter 2), and the syntax (cf. Chapter 4). • The re-structuring and subsequent extension of Romani-like patterns found both in the phonology: e.g., breakdown of the fricative/affricate series and secondary re-establishment, invention of the /ɡh/ phoneme; and in the morphology: e.g., secondary re-establishment of the animacy criterion in the gender system (cf. Chapter 3). • The complex adaptations in the Scandinavian stress/pitch accent system (cf. Chapter 2). An open question is how and why Romani-like patterns have survived outside the lexicon and what this indicates. Did knowledge of ‘proper’ Romani disap- pear within one generation, or was knowledge partly retained within certain groups? Did Romani and Scandoromani exist side by side with each other and the co-territorial Scandinavian languages, influencing each other and so creat- ing complex patterns of intertwining? Or are all remnants of ‘proper’ Romani the result of the birth of Scandoromani over one or two generations, reminis- cent of a creolization? The previous chapters have delved into Scandoromani’s phonology (Chapter 2), derivational and inflectional morphology (Chapter 3), and syn- tax (Chapter 4). I wish to summarize a few key features here, indicative of an autonomous development: • In the phonological system, the preservation of Romani phonemes such as the aspirated stops /ph/ /th/ /kh/ and the creation of a non-Romani aspirated stop /ɡh/ (2.4.5). • The occurrence of the phoneme /aː/ (2.3), not present in Swedish or Norwegian (2.3), and with no basis in Romani phonology. • The secondary re-establishment of phonemic variation within the series of fricatives and affricates (2.4.3–2.4.4). • The creation of a noun inflectional system taking into account such factors as gender, animacy, and thematic status, as a complex mixture of Romani and Scandinavian (Section 3.2). • The preservation of dialectal and archaic forms and structures of the matrix language; co-occurrence of dialectal and standard forms of the matrix lan- guage (3.2). • The stress/pitch accent system, which bears traces of Romani stress as well as showing complex adaptation to Scandinavian patterns, with a high 102 chapter 5 degree of innovation in using pitch accent to distinguish dialectal variants (2.5). • The occurrence, from a Scandinavian perspective, of such non-grammatical syntactic patterns as copula deletion and place-holder subject deletion (4.2–4.3). Taken together, these structures clearly point in the direction of a high degree of autonomy of the language in relation to the matrix language, from which Scandoromani has taken over most of its grammar. Appendix I Vocabulary This appendix brings together the lexical sources of Scandoromani (Swedish and Norwegian), which can be regarded as reliable: they have been collected by native speakers accompanied by a scholar (see list below). However, there are a number of discrepancies in ortography between the sources, as well as a huge variation in form and meaning for individual lexical items. Furthermore, the sources differ as to how much additional information (inflection, usage, stress, pitch accent) that they give for lexical entries. For this reason, it has been an almost impossible task to harmonize and create consistency in the vocabulary. The policy has been as follows: the ortography of the sources has been kept at all occasions. For items that occur in several sources, only LDj is given in the head, followed by information about occurencies in other sources (see abbreviation of sources below). If there is a slight variation in form/meaning (e.g., slight allophonic variation, minor semantic differentiation), this variation is listed towards the end of the entry (before the etymological proposals). Accordingly, items are organized as follows: 1) lexeme, with variation and inflec- tion (LDj), 2) sources, 3) information about word class, 4) translation (first in Swedish/ Norwegian exactly as in sources, then in English), 5) examples (if available), most taken from LDj, 6) variants in other sources, and 7) etymologies. All these subparts, as well as Swedish/Norwegian and English translations, are separated by a semicolon (;). Not all words have etymologies: as for variants and derived forms, there is a reference to the entry with etymology. In other cases, no etymology is given: this indicates that no satisfactory etymology has been found. Sources (Abbreviations) Etz = Etzler, Allan 1944. Zigenarna och deras avkomlingar i Sverige. Historia och språk. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell. Iv = Iversen, Ragwald 1944. The Romany Language in Norway. Oslo: Jacob Dybwad. Joh = Johansson, Roger 1977. Svensk Rommani. Med etymologiska och gramma- tiska kommentarer av Gösta Bergman och Erik Ljungberg samt förord av Adam Heymowski. Uppsala: Gustav Adolfs Akademien. KIH = Unpublished material on Norwegian Romani, compiled by Kåre-Ivan Holm and Knut Kristiansen 1992–1995. Published with the permission of Universitetet i Oslo, Historisk-filosofisk fakultet. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/97899004266452_��7 104 appendix i LDj = Lindell, Lenny & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf, Kenth 2008. Ordbok över svensk romani. Resandefolkets språk och sånger. Stockholm: Podium. Rib = Ribsskog, Øyvin 1945. Rommani I and II in: Hemmelige språk og tegn: tater- språk, tivolifolkenes språk, forbryterspråk, gateguttspråk, bankespråk, tegn, vinkel- og punktskrift. Oslo: Tanum. Primary Sources for Romani Forms and Etymologies Boretzky, Norbert & Birgit Igla 1994. Wörterbuch Romani-Deutsch-English für den südosteuropeischen Raum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Kluge, Friedrich 1960. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Lübben, August 1888. Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch. Leipzig: Diedrich Soltau. Rietz, Johan Ernst 1962. Svenskt Dialektlexikon. Ordbok öfver svenska allmogespråket. Lund: Gleerups. ROMLEX. http://romani.uni-graz.at/romlex/ Turner, Ralph Lilley 1962. A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. London: Oxford University Press. Vassmer, Max 1953. Russisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Wolf, Siegmund 1987. Grosses Wörterbuch der Zigeunersprache. Hamburg: Helmut Buske. Wolf, Siegmund 1985. Deutsche Gaunersprache. Wörterbuch des Rotwelschen. Hamburg: Helmut Buske. N.B.: ˊ and ˋ in the source Rib denote spelling variants (close/open) of vowels. appendix i 105 A ábbo, àbbo; LDj; conj; men; but; ábri, àbri; àvri; LDj; adv; bort, borta; away; adöý; Iv; adv; der, dit; there, dither; afføye; Rib; s; låve; barn; áftis, áfters; LDj, Etz; prep; av; of, off; honkar aftis horta romano narta (he) is of genuine Traveller blood; agno; KIH; adj; ondt, slemt; evil, bad; àgra -(de), -t; LDj; v; börja; start, begin; agra kaj! begin here!; Romani agor beginning, end, from Skt. agra- tip; agrus; KIH; s; jord; earth, field; agsi; KIH; num; åtte, 8; eight; agta; KIH; num; en, 1; one; akeì; Rib, Iv; adv; her, hit; here, hither; Iv akeí, akaí, kei; ákkter; LDj; prep/adv; efter, bakom; after, behind; cf. akno; Romani akate, akatar from here, this way; ákno; LDj; adv; medan, samtidigt; while, at the same time, simultaneously; ava akno tjakkes mander (he) arrived at the same time I did; Romani akana now; from a + Skt. kṣana- moment; ákrus; Iv; s, m; åker; field; áli, àli, vàli, -t/-(n), -na, -na; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; fönster (glas), flaske; window, window- pane, bottle; Rib ali, -an, glass; Romani valin glass, bottle, window glass, mirror, from Greek gualí glass; ali-blavert; KIH, Iv; s; gardin; curtain; Iv blávert; àli-dikkar; Iv; s, m; lit. glass-seer; speil; lit. glass-seer; mirror; aliske-hìspa, -n; LDj; s, r; glashus, växthus; glasshouse, greenhouse; aliske-jàkker, àli-jakker, vàli-jakkar, -na; LDj, Iv; s, pl; glasögon; glasses, spectacles; Iv àli-jakkar, aliar, dikkar-aliar, dikkar-jakkar, dikkerar; aliske-tàfflan, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; glasbord; glass table; alliantum; KIH; s; guld; gold; allmessa; Etz; s; allmosa; alms, donation; alṓnum, alònum uninfl; LDj, Iv, Etz; adj; ensam, allena; alone; ste tji doj alonum, ava! Don’t stand there by yourself, come!; Iv alṓnum (adv) aleine, bare; alone, only; from English alone alone; alte-sárot; Iv; pron; alt sammen, det hele; all (of it), the whole thing; Rib altisàros, altsàrarot, altsàros, altsàrus, altsàrarus; altsammen; all of it, everything, altsàrhos; alt sånt, likedan; all such, the same; KIH alltsåsarot alltsammen; all of it, every- thing; manipulation of Swedish alltsamman, Norwegian altsamman all of it, and Scandoromani saro whole; 106 appendix i an; LDj; prep; i; in; an miro hispa in my house; Romani ande in, within, during; andré, ándre, àndre, àndri; adv; in, inne; in, into, inside; ja tji andre! gå inte in! bescha andre kabenet dre bova take out the food in the oven; Romani andre into, inside; andreál; LDj; adv/adj; invändigt/inåtvänd, avig; internal, inward, turned inside out; nuttan honkar andreal the sweater is inside out; Romani andral from inside, inside; àndri-gad; Iv; s, m; underskjorte, egl. inner-skjorte; undershirt, lit. inner shirt; andri-klissa; Rib; adj; inne-låst, inne-stengt; locked in, shut in; àndri-pagripa; Iv, Rib, KIH; s; inbrott, egl. inbryting; burglary, lit. breaking in; Rib andri-paggri; àndri-påsitta; Iv, Rib, KIH; s, m; innerlomme; inner pocket; anglál, àngla, ànglad; LDj; prep/adv; för, före, först, framför; for, before, first, in front of; ja angla mande to boforma, tjavoarna honkar doj nikklosch ta tjinnar butt attjer dinglarn! Go to the store before me, the boys are down there buying lots from the shopkeeper!; Romani anglal in front of, before, from Skt. agrataḥ; ángleske; uninfl; adj/adv; först, första; first, the first; ánglo, ànglo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; metkrok; fish hook; Romani anglo fishing rod, (fish hook), from Gm. Angel(haken) fishing rod, (fish hook); ànner, ànnera, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hämta; get, fetch; Romani anel fetch, bring, bring sth. about, from Skt. ā-naya- fetch, bring; anom, anong; Rib; s; år; year; Ànte; Iv; proper name; Andreas, Anders; Andrew; ànten; LDj; adv; antingen; either; from Dan./Norw. anten, enten either; ánumen, -a; Etz; s; tidningen; the newspaper; apri; Rib; prep; opp, oppe, oppå; up (direction), up (location), on top of; arkelaus; KIH; adj; poor, wretched; poor, wretched; Iv; adj; 1. røpelig, ussel, 2. fattig; 1. weak, frail, miserable, 2. poor; Rib arkelus; árknom, akrṓnum, àrkonom, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, r; brev; letter; from Sw., MLG ark sheet of paper; arnum; Etz; s; år; year; aro, -ar; Etz; s; ägg; egg; cf. jaro; arro; KIH; s; mel; flour; àsha, àscha, àcha -(de), -t; LDj, KIH, Rib; v; vara, gå, komma; be, go, come; asha attjer horta romani narta be of a deep Romani family, ashar dova savrige tjakk, tjakke diro kamma? Are those the same wares, that you had? ashade diros nav Sonny? Was your name sonny?; KIH atjar, atja ojemend rocksto; være ond; be evil; Rib asja være, gå, komme; be, go, come; Romani ačhel dwell, live, be; áshi, àshi; LDj; interj; javisst; certainly; àshter, asjter; Etz; adv; efter, av; after, of; Romani akatar from here, this way, Skt. átra here, there; ástro, àstro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; stjärna; star; from Greek ástron star; appendix i 107 atri; Rib; etter; after; attis; Etz; subj; att; to, that; áttjer, àtsher, àtscher; LDj; prep/adv; av, utav; of; attjer horta romani narta of genuine Traveller blood; attri-piro; Rib; s; bak-bein; hind leg; attri-pri; Rib; adv; etter-på; after, behind; attro-pri; Rib; adv; attpå, ekstra; in addition, extra; attrus; Rib; adv; bak, etter; behind, after; aúr, àu, àur; LDj; conj; och; and; ava; Rib; v; gå; go, walk; àva, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; komma; come; ava kaj! kom hit! karna avar diro khere? när kommer du hem? nii avar diro khere karna dolle bliddrar tamlot! Now you come home when it gets dark!; KIH hava komme; hava kej kom hit; come here; Romani avel come, become, from Skt. āpaya- achieve, get; avàver; Rib; num; andre; second; ave; Rib; num; en; one; avon; Rib; adj; missunnelig; grudging, envious; avri; Rib; adv; ut; out; avri; Rib; adv; oppå; on top of; àvri, àvre; LDj, Etz; adv/prep; ut, ute, utanför, utav; out, outside, outside of, out of, by; ashar kej avre, dikkar diro tji mander? (I) am out here, don’t you see me?; Romani avrín out, outside; avriál, andreál; LDj; adv/adj; utvändigt, utåtvänd; external, outward, out-turned; Romani avrí out, outside; àvri-gad; Iv; s, m; overskjorte, egl. ytterskjorte; over shirt, pull over sports jacket; àvri-isar; Iv; s, pl; frakk, kåpe egl. ytterklær; tails, dress coat lit. outer clothes; àvri-jackar, -na; LDj; s, pl; glasögon; glasses, spectacles; àvri-ledd; LDj; adj; uttagen; picked out; avri-mula; Rib; adj; ut-dødd; extinct; avri-råva; Rib; adj; forgrått; has been crying their eyes out (lit. out-cried); avriske-dàbbad, àvri-dabbad; LDj; adj; utslagen; knocked out; avriske-dìkkad, àvri-dikkad; LDj; adj; uttittad; stared at, ogled; avriske-thémm, àvri-themm, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; utlandet; abroad, foreign countries; avriske-thèmmare, àvri-themmare, -n, -, def -themmarna; LDj; s, m; utlänning; foreigner; avvæstra; KIH; v; kle av; undress; åckra; Etz; v; åka; go (somewhere, in or on something); åcktis; Etz; conj; och; and; åli; Etz; adj; gammal; old; åmstro, åmters, åmtis; Etz; prep; om; if; 108 appendix i ångfara; Etz; v; ångra; regret; åtri; Etz; prep; åt; to, at; änsjnus, änters, äntis; Etz; adv; än; yet; B babb, pabb; Iv; s, m; potet; potato; babb, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Rib; s, n; skägg; beard; from Romanian barbă beard; bàbberske-bal; Iv; s, n; skjegghår; (hair from the) whisker(s); bàbberske-rakkar; Iv; s, m; barber, egl. skjegg-steller; hairdresser, lit. beard-trimmer; bàbbi uninfl; LDj; adj; skäggig; bearded; babbis; Rib; s; bly, tinn; lead, tin; bàbbra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; raka; shave; babbreske-tjúro, bàrrvar-tjuro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; rakkniv; razor; bækning; KIH; s; salg; sale, selling; bænga; KIH; v; banne, sverge; curse, swear; bagg LDj; uninfl; adj; motspänstig, bångstyrig (om häst); insubordinate, unruly or dis- obediant (about a horse); tjinna nani dova grashno, lo ashar bagg don’t buy that stallion, he is too disobediant!; from Gm. Bock bad horse, bocken refuse to move of horse; bàhi uninfl; LDj; s r; lycka; good fortune, happiness; butt bahi miro dad! good fortune, my father!; Romani bacht luck, good fortune, from Persian baxt happiness; bakalo; KIH; adj; varm, het; warm, hot; bákko, bàkko, -n; LDj; Etz; s, r; tur, lycka; kärl, spottkopp; luck, good fortune; vessel, spittoon; savo bakko diro kammar an dives, miro mala what luck you have today, my friend; Romani bacht luck, good fortune, from Persian baxt happiness; bákkro, -n/-t, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH, Iv; s, r/n; får, geiter; sheep, goat; KIH backroar får, geiter; sheep, goat; Iv békron, bækron; Romani bakri sheep, from Skt., Hindi bakrī goat; bakkus; Rib; s; bakke; tray; bakåmtiś ; Etz; adv; bakom; behind; bal, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; hår; hair; so schukkranoa jakker ta bal diro kammar what beau- tiful eyes and hair you have, kakkla balet pre mander, deja klipp cut my hair, mother; Romani bal hair, from Skt. vāla- hair; bálgo, -n; LDj; s, r; mage; stomach; kammar dukk dre miro balgo my stomach hurts; balie; Rib; adv; tilbake; back; baljen; Etz; s, def; magen, buken; belly, stomach; bálldrik, -en; LDj; s, r; kittel, kaffepanna; boiling pot, coffeepot; from MLG balge, bal- lige bowl (for milk); appendix i 109 ballert; Rib; s; kjel; boiling-pot, kettle; bállvas, ballvás, -et; LDj, Rib; s, n; fläsk, fett; pork, fat; Iv bàlibas, bàlovas; Romani balo- vas bacon, from Romani balo pig, boar and *vas from Skt. vasā- marrow, fat, grease; bálo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gris; pig; Romani balo pig, boar, from Skt. bāla- young, stupid; balo-akti; Rib; adj; grisete; pig-like; bàlo-låddipa; Iv; s, m; grisehus; piggery; bàlo-piro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; grisfot; pig’s foot; baloske-mój, bàlo-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gristryne; pig snout; baloske-schèro, bàlo-schero, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj; s, r; grishuvud; pig’s head; bandra; KIH; v; binde; bind; bane; KIH; s; kake; bisquit; banglo; Rib; s; fange, slave; prisoner, slave; bangno; Etz; adj; halt; lame; bángro; Iv; s, m; pinne, stikke; peg, stick; bángro, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, m; fånge; prisoner; Romani phandel bind, bond, enchain, lock, lock someone up, from Skt. bandh- bind, bond; bánko, bánkos, bankus; Iv; s, m; benk, stol; chair; KIH banko, bankos; bánkus, bànkus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; soffa; sofa, couch; bescha tji ersnos dre banku- sen, doj fysher tjavoarna suta an ratti! don’t sit on the sofa, the boys are sleeping there tonight!; from Gm. Bank bench; bánnek, bánnik, bánnika; Iv; s, f; kake; cake; bannia; Rib; s; hår; hair; bannik; Rib; s; brød; bread; bánnika, bánneka, bànnika, bànneka, bànnikla, -(n), pl bànniker, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; pannkaka; pancake; bánnik-pikkari; Iv; s, n; bakeri, egl. kake-steikeri; baker’s shop, lit. cake-grillroom; bànsa, -(n), pl banser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ladugård; barn; bescha voddron dre bansan preall rattia park the car in the barn over night; from Gm. Banse barn; bar, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gärdesgård, staket; hurdle, fence; Romani bar garden, fence, hurdle, hurdling, from Skt. vāṭa- fence; barn; Rib; s; gjerde (egtl. steingjerde); fence (stone wall); baro, -ar; Etz; s; stor sedel, sedel på 100 el. 1000 kronor; large note, 100 or 1000 Kronor bill; báro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; 1. stor, hög, 2. svaer, brei; 1. big, large, tall, high, 2. heavy, wide; so baro diros jykklo honkar! your dog is so big! vorsnos kammar jekh baro stedo we have a large cottage; Romani baro big, large, from Skt. vaḍra- big, large; bàro-beddo; Iv; s, m; biskop; bishop; bàro-beddo, baroske-béddo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; fin karl, herreman, högt uppsatt person; gentleman, master, nobleman, person of high station; 110 appendix i bàro-bero; Iv; s, m; dampbåt, egl. storbåt; steamer, lit. large boat; baro-drummen; KIH; s; kongeveien; the king’s road; bàro-fåron; Iv; s, place name; Oslo, lit. Stor-byen; Oslo, lit. the big town; baro-gaja; KIH; s; dronningen; (the) queen; bàro-kaare, baroske-kàare, -n, -, def pl -kaarna; LDj; s, m; storätare; glutton; baro-kalsingar; Rib; s, pl; sjøstøvler; sea boots; baro-kàr; Rib; s; stor-eter; glutton; bàro-kårko; Iv; s, m; jul, egl. stor-helg; Christmas, lit. great holiday; baro-ker; Etz; s; herrgård; mansion; manor; bàro-kokkare, baroske-kòkkare, -n, -, def pl -kokkarna; LDj; s, m; storljugare; arrant liar; baro-kúrrko, baroske-kúrrko, bàro-korrko, -n, -a, -ana; LDj; s, r; helgdag; holy day; holiday; butt laschanopa an dives pre baro-kurrkoske dives great joy on this Easter holiday; bàro-lil; Iv; s, m; hundredeseddel, egl. stor-seddel; hundred kroner bill, lit. great-bill; bàro-lill, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj; s, r; tusenlapp; thousand-kronor bill; baro-merist; KIH; s; offiser; officer, non-commissioned officer; Bàro-pani; Iv; name; Glomma, lit. Stor-elv(a); proper name Glomma, lit. (the) great river; baro-quantinge; KIH; s; kongen; (the) king; baro-quanting-gaja; KIH; s; frue; madame; bàro-rakklare, -n, -, -rakklarna; LDj; s, m; storpratare; big talker; bàro-rasjo; Iv; s, m; prost, biskop; dean, bishop; baro-rej; Etz; s; storman, hög, fin herre; great man, man of high stature; baros-kräon; Etz; s, def; kungen; the king; barot barot; KIH; adv, expr; uvanlig stort; unusually big; bàro-tjorare, -n, -, pl -tjorarna; LDj, Etz; s, m; stortjuv; big thief; masterthief; Etz barotjårare; barr; Iv; s, m; ort; elevenpence; barr, bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sten, ber; rock, stone, mountain; tjyvvra tji barr tjavo don’t throw rock, boy!; Romani bar rock, wall; barreske-hìspa, bàrr-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; stenhus; stone house; an dova barreske-hispa boddrar vavre romanoa other Travellers live in this stone house; barrvalò-gavo; Rib; s; rik-mann; rich man; barsj; Rib; s; år; year; bartri; Rib; adv; borte; gone, away; bàrva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; raka; shave; bárvalo, bàrvalo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; rik, förmögen; rich, wealthy; mander ashar barvalo an truppo ta sia, kammar jekh baro narta I am rich in my body and soul, (I) have a big family; Romani barvalo rich from Skt. balavat- powerful; appendix i 111 bàrvalo-manus; Iv; s, m; rikfolk; the rich; bàrvalopa uninfl; LDj, Iv; s, r; rikedom, förmögenhet; fortune, wealth; barvla; Etz; s; skägg; beard; basch, bash, -et; LDj; s, n; skäll; scolding; beng, so basch mander ledde avri garian! damn, that lady gave me a scolding!; bàscha, bàcha, bàsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, KIH; v, s; 1. skälla, skrika, gräla, krangle, være dum, 2. skellsord; 1. bark, yell, argue, be difficult, be stupid, 2. epithet; jukkloarna bashar butt avri, avar ghana? the dogs are barking a lot, is someone coming?; Romani bašel play (an instrument), make music, sound, shout, howl, bark, cackle, from Skt. vāśya- roar, sing; bàschi-mosch, baschiske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; gårdsmusikant; itinerant/ wandering musician; basht, bashjt, bacht, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; år; year; miro jykklo ashar okto basht, tjakke mander ledde, karna mander asha enja basht my dog that I got when I was nine years old, is eight years old, ashar butt basht snelo? was that many years ago?; Iv bærsj, bærs; Romani berš, from Skt. varsa-; bàsja; Iv; v; 1. spille (instrument, kort) 2; play (instrument, cards); basjdalò; Rib; adj; streng; stern, strict; Iv básjtalo; basjdonò; Rib, Iv; adj; streng, morsk; harsh, fierce, severe, bold; básjiba; Iv; s, m; musikkinstrument; musical instrument; básjipa; Iv; s, m; skjelling, kjekling; scolding, squabble(s); basjlon; Rib; s; get; goat basjtalò; Rib; adj, v; strict, stern; bàsjtano; Iv; adj; falsk, upålitelig; false, untrustworthy; baskro; KIH; s; ledare, domare; ruler, judge; báskro; Iv; s, m; 1. herre, 2. slåsskjempe; 1. master, 2. bully, fighter; básno; Iv; s, m; hane; cock, rooster; bástalo, bàstalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; illmarig, knipslug; crafty, cunning; devel, moschen man- der tjinna voddron avri asha bastalo dre bekknepa gud the man we bought the car from was a crafty businessman; likely from Romani baštardo rogue, cad, scamp, rap- scallion, scoundrel bastard, dwarf; bataljàre; Rib; s; smed; smith; batra; Etz; v; skälla (på ngn); scold, tell off; bavo; KIH; interj; helvetes, jävliga; damn; båkkipa,́ bokkipa; Iv; s, m; sult; hunger; bånniká ; Iv; s, m; høyvåndel; great wisp of hay; båbbi; Etz; s; ugn; oven; båjaskiro; Etz; s; istadig häst; restive horse; båk, båkk; KIH; adj; hungrig; hungry; 112 appendix i båkon; KIH; s; bok, lommebok; book, wallet; bålla; Rib; s; dop; christening; bånnika; KIH; s; hötjuga; hayfork; båtra; KIH, Iv; s; meddelande; matter, message, errand; Iv båtrá ; bäckatriner; Etz; s, pl; ankor; ducks; bäckaträckare; Etz; s, pl; ankor; ducks; bädda,̀ -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Rib; s, r; kopp, kjele; cup, bowl; bädda; KIH; s; sovested; place to sleep; bädda; KIH; s; embetsmann; state official; bäffa,̀ -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse; bäffa; Etz; s; vulva; vulva; from Rotwelsch Beff vulva, from German Befze lip; bäsat, bäsjat; KIH; adj; vært; worth; bäshar-mosch,̀ bèshar-mosch, -en; LDj; s, m; spelman, musiker, gatumusikant; fiddler, musician, street musician; bäte,̀ -n, -n, -na; LDj; s, r; bit, visa; piece, song; from Sw.Dial. bete, bite piece; bèda, -n; LDj; s, r; stjärna; star; probably from Slavic, cf. Ru. zvezdá star; béddo; Iv; s, m; politimann; fengselfunksionær; policeman; prison guard; béddo, béddano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fin, förnäm; distinguished, noble; béddo, bädo,́ bèddo, bäddo,̀ -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; fin karl, herreman, högt uppsatt person, myndighetsperson av något slag; gentleman, master, nobleman, man of high stature, person in authority; person from the authorities; KIH bäddor; bèddo-hispa; Iv; s, m; politistasjon; police-station; bèddo-kher, bäddo-kher,̀ beddoske-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; herrgård; mansion, manor; bèddo-lil; Iv; s, m; politi-pass; passport of police; bèddo-manusch, bäddo-manusch,̀ beddoske-mánusch, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; herrskap(sfolk); gentleman(‘s family); bèddo-mosch, bäddo-mosch,̀ beddoske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; fin karl, herre(man); gentleman, master, nobleman; def pl myndigheterna; the authorities; beddo-penndri; Rib; s; politi-hus; police headquarters, police station; bèddo-rani, bäddo-rani,̀ beddeske-ráni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; fin dam, herrskaps- fru; woman of high stature, lady; beddoske-ròmni, bèddo-romni, bäddo-romni,̀ bädo-romni,̀ -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; fin dam, herrskapsfru; woman of high station, lady; bedeske-bár, bèda-bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; diamant; diamond; bedor; KIH; s; sivil herre; civilian gentleman; beffa; Rib; s; kjønnsorgan (det kv.); genitals (female); bèjla, bäjla,̀ -(de), -t; LDj; v; fria; propose; Sw.Dial. bejla propose; bekk, -et; LDj, Etz s, n; stycke, bit; piece, part; appendix i 113 bèkka, bäkka,̀ -(n), pl bekker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; 1. bit, stycke (äv. musik), 2. kaka; 1. part, piece (also music), 2. bisquit; békker, pl bèkkrar; bélka, pl bèlker; LDj; s, r; ekorre; squirrel; dikk palla belka prachtar siggro oppre to chumb! look at the squirrel running quickly to the hill!; from Slav, Ru. bélka squirrel; bèkkna, bäkkna,̀ bìkkna, bèkkra, bäkkra,̀ -(de), -t; LDj; v; sälja; sell; Romani bikinel sell, from Skt. vi-krīṇā-; bèkknare, bìkknare, bäkknare,̀ bèkkrarle, bäkkrarle,̀ bìkkrarle, -n, -, def pl bèkknarna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; försäljare, (gårdfari)handlare; salesman, (itinerant) pedlar; miro dad honkar bekknare, lo bekknar minker ta vavert tjakk my father is a salesman, he sells clocks and other wares; Iv bèknar; bèkknepa, bäkknepa,̀ bìkknepa, bèkkrepa, bäkkrepa,̀ bìkkrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; handel, försäljning, handelsvaror, marknad; trade, selling, merchandise, market; fair; trissa butt ninna romanoa pre bekknepat (I) met many Travellers at the market; bekko; KIH; s; tottenslager; weapon; béknipa; Iv; s, m; butikk, krambu; shop, stall; beknús; Etz; v, imp; bekänn; admit; bekron, bækron; Iv; s, m; sau; sheep; bella; KIH, Rib; v; gjøe; bark; from Gm. bellen bark; bello; KIH; s; øret; penny; maybe Romani (Sinte) bema, bemo coin; bèlsing, bälsing,̀ -en; LDj; s, r; mage, magsäck; stomach; mander kammar dukk an bel- singen my stomach hurts; beltusse; Rib; s; belte; belt; bèlven, bälven,́ bälvel,̀ bärvel,̀ -, -, -a; bèlving, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; kväll, afton; evening; Iv bèlvel; Romani bijavel, belvel evening, from Skt. vikāla- evening; bèmlare, bämlare,̀ -n, -, bèmlarna; LDj; s, r; femma (mynt); five-krona (coin); beng; Rib; s; gullstempel (falskt); hallmark (false); beng, bäng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; djävul, satan, fan; devil, Satan; Romani beng devil, gendarme, from Skt. vyāṅga- deformed, monstrous; béngali, bèngali, bängali,̀ -a, -a, -erna; LDj; s, f; tokig kvinna; madwoman; béngalo, bèngalo, bängalo,̀ -n; LDj; s, m; tokig man; madman; béngalo, bängalo,̀ -i, -a; LDj, Rib, KIH; adj; 1. djävlig, tokig, galen, 2. ugudelig; 1. devilish, crazy, mad, 2. ungodly; bengaloa moschar crazy men; Rib bennalò, KIH bængalo; bengalò-hir; Rib; s; galning, dumrian; madman, fool; bèngalo-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; mentalsjukhus; mental hospital; bengalò-penndri; Rib; s; galehus; madhouse; bengen; Rib; s; telefon, telegraf; telephone, telegraph; 114 appendix i bengens-makt; Rib; s; spøkeri; haunting; béngerste, bä´ngerste, béngerske, bèngerske uninfl; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s; helvete, hel- vetet (i vissa uttryck); hell, Hell (in certain expressions); asha malanoa nii nukkoar palla ersnos nani voltrar tradra to bengerste be nice now children, lest you want to go to Hell; Iv bèngelske; KIH bængerske; bèngi, bängi,̀ -t, -a; beng; LDj; adj; djävlig; devilishly, damned; bengit tero nii, I need to go to the bathroom really bad (lit. I am damned neccessary); bengkus; Rib; s; benk; bench; bennling; Rib; s; kjede; chain; béro, bäro,́ béri, -n, -s/-ar, -s/-arna; bèring, -en; LDj; s, r; båt; boat; Romani bero ship, barge, boat; bero-penndri; Rib; s; båthus; boathouse; beroske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; båtvagn; boat trailer; berrvalo; Rib; adj; fet, rik; fat, rich; berubba; Rib; adj; belagt (gull- eller sølvbel.); plated (gold or silver plated); berv; Rib; s; dag; day; bèscha, bèsha, bècha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. sitta, 2. sätta, 3. ställa, lägga, 4. sitta inne; 1. sit, 2. seat (oneself), 3. put, 4. doing time (in prison); Romani bešel sit, seat oneself, be located, live; bèsha, bàscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela (ett instrument); play (a musical instrument); Romani bašel play (an instrument), make music, sound, shout, howl, bark, cackle; from Skt vāśyate roar, sing; besja; Rib; v; bli, stå, stille, vær; stay, stand, stop, be; bèsja; Iv; v; 1. sitte, sette, 2. stå 3. være; 1. sit, set, 2. stand 3. be; besjar; Rib; v; er; is, are; bèsjar; Iv; s, m; bestyrer, egl. en som står (for), forstander; manager, lit. one who stands (in charge of); bia, bya; Etz; s; tia (sedel); ten Kronor bill; bíbbli, bìbbli, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; änka; widow; Romani bibi aunt (infre- quently:) mother, grandmother; bìddra -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vänta, stanna, vila; wait, stop, rest; KIH bidra; bìkka, bíkkan; Iv; s, m; bete; morsel; bikknaren; Rib; s, def; butikken; the store; binåm; Rib; prep; i, inne, in; in, inside, into; bìsha, bìscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skicka; send; Romani bičhalel send, dispatch, from Skt. abhi-ajya- being sent to; bisjlinger; Rib; s, pl; beter, småstykker; bits, small pieces; bìssling, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tand (smeksamt till barn); tooth (fondly to children); from MHG bīzen bite; bisslinger; Rib; s, pl; beter, småbeter; bits, small bits; appendix i 115 bì-stokk, -en, -s/-ar, -s/-arna; LDj; s, r; stövel; boot; tjinna bi-stokks to mande dre spe- kkaria buy boots for me at the store; bìstra, -(de) -t; LDj, Etz; v; glömma, skicka, sända; forget, send; bistra tji mander glöm inte mig; Romani bistarel forget, from Skt. vi-smar-; bìtta, bíttan; Iv; s, m; bit, bete; morsel, bit; biváll, bivál, -t, -a; LDj; adj/adv; rå, okokt, ostekt; raw, unboiled, unfried, uncooked; pekkra masset buttider ashar bivall! fry the meat longer, it’s not cooked through!; Romani bivant raw, verdant, humid; bívano, bívalo -t, -a; LDj; adj; rå; raw, uncooked; bja; Etz; s; stor bjudning, kalas; big party, feast; bjav, -et, -, -ena; bjavani -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1. bröllop, dop, 2. gravøl, 3. gilde; 1. wedding, christening, 2. funeral feast, 3. feast; Iv bjav m bryllup, gravøl, gilde; wedding, funeral feast, feast; Romani biab wedding; bjàva, -de, -t; LDj, Etz; v; gifta sig; get married; Etz bjavas gifta sig; marry; bjàvdepa, bjàvepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; bröllop, dop; wedding, baptism; Etz bjav; bjùddra, -(de), -t; v; bjuda; treat; From Sw. bjuda treat; bjùsha, bjùssa, bjùcha, bùttja -(de) -t; LDj; v; heta; be called; be named; Romani bučhol be called, be named, to call oneself; blàvar-påtissa; Iv; s, m; lommeveske med lås for kvinner, egl. hengelomme; ladies pocket pouch with lock, lit. hanging pocket; bláddrika, bléddrika, blàddrika, blèddrika, bläddrika,̀ -(n), pl bladdriker, -(n)a; blàt- tran, -; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; tidning; newspaper; ster palla jekh mulepa dre bladdrika there’s an article about a murder in the newspaper; Rib blattan; from Gm. Blatt, MLG blat leaf, paper, Sw. bläddra turn over pages; blaksnan; Rib; s; laken; sheets; blakstran; Rib; s; laken, teppe, tørkle; sheets, carpet, kerchief; blankus; Rib; s; blekk, tinn; sheet metal, tin; blankus-plattan; Rib; s; tinn-fat; tin plate (dish); blànn-monsing, -en; LDj; s, r; luffarspråk; secret language among Traveller people and pedlars, borrowing words from Romani; blánshen uninfl; LDj; s; den ljushårige (öknamn); the fair-haired one (epithet); blava; Rib; v; bli, sitte, stå, være; become, sit, stand, be; blàva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hänga; hang; Romani (um)blavel hang, from Skt. ava-lambh- hang down; blava, -e; Rib; v; snakke; talk; blàvad; LDj; pst ptc; hängd; hung; mander dikka pre dikkeske-leddik karna jekh mosch bliddra blavad dre jekh rukk I saw a man get hung from a tree on TV; blávano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; blå, gällen, halvsur (om mjölk); blue, on the turn (about milk); KIH blavadot blått; Romani blauto, blavato blue; blavanter; KIH, Iv; s; forkle; apron; Iv blàvantyr; 116 appendix i blavantí; Iv; s, f; laken; sheet; blejd, bläjd, -en; LDj; s, r; 25-öring; 25 cent coint; blénker, blänker,̀ -(n); LDj; s, pl; glasögon; glasses; spectacles; blìddra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bli; become; kava bliddrar tjattjot lattjot this will be very good, bliddra tji dukkalo ninna don’t get sick now, bliddra uschlig to become responsible (for something); from Sw- bli become; blingka; Rib; s; klokke; watch, clock; blinkus; Rib; s; speil; mirror; blìsja; Iv; v; regne; rain; blissa; Rib; v; blåse; blow (wind); blúmmrika, -(n), pl blùmmriker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; blomma; flower; from Gm. Blume flower; blytran, blyttan; KIH; s; bly; lead; blåmann; Rib; s; kniv; knife; bläddria,́ -(n), pl bläddrier,̀ -(n)a; bláddrika; LDj; s, r; tidning; newspaper; blänkert, blänkis; Etz; s; tenn; tin; bóbber, bòbber, -(n)a; LDj, Rib; s, pl; bönor; beans; Romani bobo bean, broad bean, from Romanian bob, Slav. bob bean; bòddra, bṑddra, -(de), -t, bodra; LDj; Etz; v; bo; live (in a house or area); From Sw. bo live; bṑfarma, bofárma, bofórma, -(n), pl bṑfarmer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; handelsbod, butik; shop, store; most likely a combination of Sw. bo live and Eng. farm farm, farm-house, from MLat. firmāre contract for; bòggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bädda; make a (the) bed, put to bed, tuck in; boggra boggron karna phrala avar make the bed when brother comes, boggra teli nukkoarna an vod- dron tuck the kids into the carriage. bóggro, bòggro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; säng; bed; boïvot; KIH; adj; rå; raw; bokk; Iv; s, m; sult; hunger; bòkka, -de, -t; LDj; v; hungra, svälta; hunger, starve; bokka tji, ka! don’t starve, eat!; Romani bokh hunger; bòkka, -n, -na; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; bok; book; Etz båcko, KIH bocko; Romani bucho book, from MLG bôk book; bókkalo, búkkalo -t, -a; LDj, KIH; båcka; adj; hungrig; hungry; so bokkalo mander asha an dives, pattja mander saste ka oppri jekh helko balo I was so hungry today, I thought I would eat a whole pig; KIH bokalo, båkalo. bòlla, -de, -t; LDj; v; döpa; christen, baptise; Romani bolel baptise, christen, dive, submerge; appendix i 117 bòllepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Iv; s, n; dop; christening, baptism; savo dives asha bollepat? what day was the baptism?; bolleske-dìves uninfl; LDj; s; julafton, döparedagen; Christmas Eve; boltus, båntus; KIH; s; lödpenna; soldering iron; bolvína, bulvína -(n), pl bolviner, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kudde, dyna, bolster; pillow, cushion, soft mattress; probably from Sw. bolster feather bed; bomma; Etz; v; röka; smoke; bómmali, bòmmali, mómmali, -(a)n, -s, -s; LDj, Etz; s, r; lampa; lamp; Romani momeli wax, candle; bóngi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fel, falsk; wrong, false, counterfeit; Romani bango bended, crooked, halt, limping; unfair; bòngi-rigg, bongeske-rígg; uninfl; LDj; vänster; left; tradra to bongi rigg! drive to the left!; Romani bango bended, crooked, halt, limping, unfair; bori; KIH; s; dun, dyna; down feather, cushion; bórtri; LDj; adv; bort, borta; away, off; bòscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela; play; Romani bašel play (an instrument), make music, sound, shout, howl, bark, cackle; bòschepa, bèshipa, -t; LDj; s, n; musik; music; spekkra boschepa play music; boscheprásko, boscheskíro, boscheske-skíro, -n, -ar, -ar(n)a; bòschare, -n, -, def pl bòscharna; s, m; spelman, musiker; musician; boschepraskon tjakke ster doj nikli honkar miro dadeske-phral, lo spekkrar schukkart! the musician over there is my uncle, he plays beautifully!; bòtta, -(n), pl bòtter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bit, stycke (äv. musik); bit, piece (also music); le jekh botta to mande take a piece for me; probably Sw.Dial. baita bite; bòttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bita; bite; bottra ta tjingra tji dre barr! don’t bite and cut into a stone!; bōv, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; 1. kakelugn, spis, 2. ovn; 1. stove, tiled stove, 2. oven; KIH bau, bov; Iv bau, bov; Romani bov oven, baking oven, from Armenian; bøien; KIH; s; kakelovn; tiled stove; bøitus; KIH; s; høsten; Autumn; bökk, bökkt uninfl; LDj; s, coll; pengar; money; jinna tji bökk, ashar obahi don’t count your money, it brings bad luck; Romani baxt luck, good fortune; bölo,́ -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; tjur; bull; Romani bullo bullock, castrated bull; börjfara; KIH; v; begynne; begin; Sw. börja begin; bøyto; KIH; adj; fet, tykk; fat, thick; bràsa, bràsja; Iv, Rib, KIH; v, adj; 1. fryse, 2. kaldt; 1. be cold, freeze, 2. cold; bràsha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; frysa; freeze; be cold; penta budan, mander brashar an mul! close the door, I’m freezing to death!; 118 appendix i bráshano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; kall, kylig; cold, chilly; braatfælling; KIH; s; forbryter; criminal; Etz bråttfälling otrevlig person, lymmel; rude person, scoundrel; brala, -er; Rib; s; bukse, -r; pants; bralene; KIH, Etz; s, pl, def; buksene; the pants; brangsdò; Rib II; adj; fin; nice; bránshno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; mager; skinny; meager; garian honka branshno kar liskris tji? the woman is skinny, don’t you think?; brasano; KIH; adj; frossen; cold, freezing; bráshli, bràshli, -t, -a; bràshil uninfl; LDj; adj; kall, kylig; cold, chilly; bráshno, -t, -a, bránshno; LDj; adj; mager; skinny; brasja; Rib; adj; islagt; frozen over; breftan; KIH; s; brev; letter; briál, -et/-en, vriál; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, n/r; gröt; porridge; Etz brialt, briam, briant, Iv brián, briánt, KIH bria, briant; from MLG brī porridge; brillor; KIH; s, pl; briller; spectacles; brìsha, vrìsha -(de), -t; DjL, Etz; v; regna; rain; Romani bršind rain (s); brìshepa, -t; DjL, Etz; s, n; regn; rain; bróchno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; högfärdig, fisförnäm; conceited, pretentious; broforma; Rib; s, def; brua; bridge; brol; Rib; s; flesk; pork; bròla, pròla, bròlla, -(n), pl bròler, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; potatis; potato; Etz brål, KIH (pl) broggler; Romani ambrol pear, from Persian amrūd; brom; Rib; s; kopper, metall; copper, metal; brom; Iv; s, m; damp; steam; bromo; KIH; adj; fast, brisk; firm; bruform; KIH; s; bru; bridge; brùkfara, brùkerra, brùkkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; bruka, använda; use to/to usually + inf, use; brukerrar diro ava hikk? brukar du komma hit?; do you usually come here? from Sw./Norw. bruka/bruke use to; brùsja; Iv; v; regne; rain; brùsja; Iv, KIH; s, m; regn; rain; KIH bruscha; brutla, brutra; KIH, Rib; v; bruke; use; Rib: brukla, bruktala; from Sw./Norw. bruka/ bruke use, use to; brùtra; Iv; s, m; bru; bridge; from Norw. bru bridge. bråsjnò ; Iv; adj; bra; good; bråka; KIH; v; skravle, oppdage; tell (on sb.), reveal; bråkbindare; KIH; s; foræder, angiver; traitor, informer; bråsjno; Rib II; adj; brå; sudden, impatient, quick-tempered; bùganto; Iv, Rib; adj; sta (om hest); jibbing (of horse); Rib bugantò; appendix i 119 bùte-gaer; Iv; s, pl; folk, egl. mange menn; people, lit. many men; bútiba; Iv; s, m; mengde; multitude; bùda, bùnta, dỳnta -(n), pl bùder, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, r; dörr; door; Etz budda, budàr, -en, Rib burdan, burdarn døra; the door (def sg); Iv búdar, budár; KIH buda; budan dør, port; door, gate; bygda, dunta døren, porten; the door, the gate; budar; Rib; s; butikk; shop; buddra; Rib; s; bu (butikk); shop; budingen; KIH; s, def; förstugan; the (entrance) hall; budingsa; Rib; s; butikk; shop; budna; KIH; v; spinne; spin; budom; Rib; adv; ute; outside; bùdra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; beställa; order; bùdra, bòdra; Iv, KIH; v; bo; live (reside); bùdran; Iv; s, m; befaling, bud; order, command(ment); budåm; Rib; adv; ut; out; buforma; Rib; s; butikk; shop; bul, -et, -ena; LDj, Rib; s, n; ända, bakdel; bottom, behind; Rib bule; bùla, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; bul; v; ha samlag, have intercourse; Rib bùja; KIH buja, byja; bule; Rib; s; holet (endetarmen); anus (rectum); bùlepa, -t, -(n), -na; bul; LDj; s, n; samlag; intercourse; bùl-hekk, bùl-hakk, -et, -en, -ena; LDj; s, n; horhus, bordell; whorehouse, brothel; bùl-kev, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; anus; anus; Romani bul anus, from Skt. buli- vulva, anus; búlo, búllo, -n, -s/-ar, -s/-na; LDj; s, r; björn; bear; from German Bulle bull; buni; Rib; adj; fin, frisk, glad, snill, stolt; nice, healthy, happy, kind, proud; buni-ril; Rib; adj; overlegen, viktig; superior, conceited, important; búno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; 1. stolt, fin, vacker, 2. kry, 3. glad; 1. proud, fine, beautiful, 2. healthy, 3. glad; Romani (Sinte) bojno proud; bùnopa, -t; LDj; s, n; stolthet; pride; bunoril; KIH; adj; selfish, lofty, superior; selfish, lofty, superior; búro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; bonde, icke-resande; farmer, non-Traveller; tji lo honkar nani romano, lo honkar buro no, he is not of the Romani people, he is a non-Trav- eller, dova buron honkar jekh malano gavo that non-Traveller is a good guy, mander kammar mengrat helko dives an dova buros kher I’ve been working all day in this farmers house; from MLG bûr farmer; buro-béng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; bonddjävel; damn redneck (insult); buro- beng ja nikkli fann mander! get away from me you damn redneck!; KIH burobæng bondeklods; redneck; buro-bengel; Rib; s; bonde-galning; farmer-lunatic; 120 appendix i bùro-gaja, -a(n), -er, -erna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, f; bondkvinna; farm woman; Rib buro-gaije, Iv bùro-gaï; bùro-gavo, bùro-gao, -n -ar, -arna, bùro-gae, -n; LDj; s, m; bonde; farmer; bùro-ghana, -t; s, coll; bondfolk; farm people; bùro-ghav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; bondby, liten by; farming village, small village; bùro-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; s, r; bondgård; farm; Iv bùro-kjer; buro-kjei; KIH; s; bondepike; farmer daughter; buro-måsj; Rib; s; bondekar; farmer man; buro-nakke; Rib; s; bonde-satan; farmer-devil; bùro-rakkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; bondflicka, icke-resande flicka; farm girl, non- traveller girl; bùro-rakklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; bondpojke; farm boy; buro-rátt, -en; LDj; s, r; bondblod; farmers blood; buro-råmni; Etz; s; bondkvinna; farmer woman; burra; KIH; s; buser; boogers; búshni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, f/ r; get; goat; Romani buzni goat, from Persian buz goat; bùshni-jimm, bushniske-jímm, -et, -, -ena; s, n; getskinn; goatskin; bùsjni-gavo; Iv; s, m; geitebukk, egl. geitemann; he-goat, lit. goat-man; bùsjni-keral; Iv, Rib; s, m; geitost; goat cheese; Rib busjni-királ; butare; KIH; adj, comp; bedre; better; butepa; Etz; s; arbete; work; butt; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; adv, adj; 1. mer, mycket, fler, 2. vell, bra; 1. more, a lot, more (in numbers), 2. well, good; ka butt ninna kaben eat a lot of food, ka tji buttider don’t eat more, avar buttare ninna manusch tjakke voltrar ka (there are) more people coming, that want to eat; Iv but, butt, búto 1. adj, mye; much, 2. adv, ofte; often; bùte, bùtri pl mange; many; KIH butt mye, vell, bra; much, well, good; Romani but much, many, often, from Skt bahutva- abundance; bùtta, bùta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; arbeta; work; Romani buti work, business, from Skt vṛtti- way of living; bùttider; LDj; adv; mer, fler; more, more (in numbers); Romani but much, many, often; bùttja, bùscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; heta; be called, be named; Romani bučhol be called, be named, to call oneself; butum; KIH; adv; ava butum komme ut; come out; bylling; KIH; s; politimann; policeman; býskri, böskri,́ byskri, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, f; judinna; Jewess; býskro, bỳskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; jude; Jew; maybe from Rotwelsch Brudel Jew; appendix i 121 C chàla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; krama; hug; Romani čalavel touch, move, hit, beat, have intercourse; chàli, -t, -a; LDj; adj; döv, dövstum; deaf, deaf-mute; chèkla, chèklar uninfl; cheklano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lösaktig, halvklädd; loose (immoral), half dressed, shabbily dressed; chekla tji glan puranot manusch! don’t be so shabbily dressed in front of the elderly!; chèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klappa; pet; chòcha, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; hare; hare; Romani šošoj hare, from Skt. śaśa-; cikk, -et; LDj; s, n; kind; cheek; likely from Eng. cheek jaw, jawbone; címpi, -t; LDj; s, n; kålrot; Swedish turnip; maybe related to Ru. shchi cabbage soup; círklo, schírklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna; LDj; s, r; fågel; bird; Romani čiriklo bird, from Skt. caṭaka- bird; D dabb, -et; LDj; KIH; s, n; 1. stryk, slag, 2. straff; 1. beating, blow, 2. punishment; Romani dab beat, blow, wound, snap, from Skt. dabh- hurt, wound; dàbba, -(de), -t; LDj; v; slå; hit; dabbas tji tjavoar don’t fight boys! dabba to sappen! hit the snake!; dabbar; KIH; s; ekstra juridisiel avstraffelse; additional judicial penalty; dàbbar; Iv; s, m; hammer, egl. slåer; hammer, lit. hitter; dàbbepa, dàbbrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; slagsmål, stryk; brawl, beating; Rib dabbipà, KIH dabbeba; dabbeprásko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, m; slagskämpe; fighter; Iv dàbbasbaskro; dad, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, m; far; father; Rib dad, Iv dádo, KIH darn; Romani dad father; dadeske-dád, -en; LDj; s, m; farfar; grandfather (on father’s side); dadeske-phrál, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; farbror; uncle (on father’s side); dákkri, dàkkri, -n/-a, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, f; mor; mother; Etz dakri, Iv dagri, KIH dakria; Romani daj mother; dand, danj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; tand; tooth; Iv pl dánder, dàndra, tàn- dra, KIH pl dannar; Romani dand tooth, from Skt danta-; dànderske-dukk; Iv; s, m; tannverk; toothache; dandra; KIH; v; sende; send; dàndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; 1. bita, 2. dre, laste; 1. bite, 2. find fault with, blame; Romani dandalel bite; dandra; KIH; s; dann; tooth; 122 appendix i dandra; KIH; v; legge, sette; lay, put; dàndre; Iv; s, f; sag; saw; dandrikere; KIH; v; reparere, foryngre tenna på en hest slik at den ser yngre ut; fix, mend, fix the teeth of a horse to make it look younger; dándripa; Iv, Rib; s, m; kjekling, trette, munnhoggeri, ogs. skrål; squabble, quarrel, also clamour; danik; Iv, KIH; s; Danske; Dane; dànje-dukk, danjeske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; tandvärk, eg. tandont; tooth ache, lit. tooth pain; devel, so danje-dukk mander kammar! Heavens, what a tooth-ache I have!; dank, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; hammare; hammer; KIH dankus; Romani dab beat, blow, wound, snap; danka; KIH; s; øks; axe; dànka -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; 1. hamra, 2. hugge; 1. hammer, 2. hew; danka kaj ninna dan- ken daden! hammer right here, dad!; Dánniken uninfl; LDj; namn; Norge, gränsen till Norge, även Danmark; Norway, the border to Norway, also Denmark; dánnikus; Iv; s, m; nordmann; Norwegian; dar, darr uninfl; LDj; adj; rädd; afraid; Romani dar fear, anxiety, horror, from Skt. dar- fear. dàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skrämma; frighten; Romani daral be afraid; dáro, -n; LDj, Iv; s, r; hals, strupen; neck, throat; miro kammar dukk dre miro daro, hashta mander miro develske dad! my throat hurts, help me heavenly father!; Iv dar; darra; KIH; v; skjelve; tremble, shiver; dárrano, dàrano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; 1. farlig, 2. rädd; 1. dangerous, 2. afraid, fearful; dova mosch, honkar tji darano, lo honkar jekh malano mala to mander that man isn’t dangerous, he is a good friend of mine, darranoa ghana farligt folk, tji miro jukklo honkar tji darano no, my dog isn’t dangerous, gola nani attjer beng, ashar daranot don’t call Satans name, it is dangerous; Romani dar fear, anxiety, horror, darano dangerous, dreadful, horrible; darvani; KIH; adj; tvilsom, uviss; in doubt, uncertain; davra; KIH; v; lese; read; dàvra-rankano; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. lese-herre; teacher, lit. reading-master; davripa; KIH; s; lesning; reading; dåcka; Etz; v; bedraga, kvacksalva; deceive/cheat, quack (in the sense of selling with fraudulant claims); dåckepa; Etz; s; kvacksalveri; quackery (having to do with quack); dåk; KIH; adj; syk; ill; dåkalo-bäddor; KIH; s; sykehus vaktmester; hospital superintendent; dåkalo-hisp-barobäddor; KIH; s; doktor; doctor; dåms(j)nus; Etz; pron; de, dem; they, them; appendix i 123 dåsjto; Etz; adj; lång (om tid); long (about time); dåstano; KIH; adv; altid; always; däkaskiro barobäddor; KIH; s; høy offiser; high-ranked officer; de; Iv; v; give; give; dèan, dèlan, den; Iv; v; angi (til politiet); report (to the police); déro, dèro, díro, dìro; Iv; pron; du, deg; dere; 2nd pers sg you (thou, thee); 2nd pers pl you (ye); déros, dèros, déros, dìros; Iv; poss pron; din; your(s) (thy, thine); dèja, däja,̀ -n pl dèjer, -na, dej; däj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Rib; s, f; mor; mom, mother; Romani daj mother, cf. Hi. dāī nurse; dèjall, dàjall, -i, pl déjer, -na; déjali, däjali,̀ -a; dèja; LDj; s, f; moder; mother; dèkaprasko, dekkaprásko, dekkaskíro, däkkaskíro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; soldat; soldier; KIH däkaskiro, dåckaskiro; dèkkan, däkkan,́ dèkan, -, pl dèkker, -na, däkkja,̀ -(n), pl däkkjer,̀ -(n)a; LDj; s, r; sabel; sabre; dabba ninna dekkan ta tjuro hit with a sabre and dagger; from Gm. Degen knife, dagger; deklujm; KIH; s; halstørkle; bandana; dèlla, dèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ge; give; Romani del give, from Skt dadāti; dèndra, dìndra, dìnra; Iv, KIH; v; tjene; 1. serve, 2. earn (money); dendrar; KIH, Iv; s; dreng; servant, farm hand; Iv dìndrar; dèndrerske-kjei; Iv; s, f; tjenestejente; servant-maid; dèndrerske-raklo; Iv; s, m; tjenestegutt; man-servant; dènkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tänka, tycka; think, think (opinion); Romani (Sinte) denkrel think, from Gm. denken think; denu; KIH; pron; du; (2 sg) you; denus; KIH; pron; deg; (2 sg obl) you; dersno, dǽrsno; Iv; pron; de; they; deru; KIH; pron; de; they; KIH eru; derus; KIH; poss pron; deres; their(s); KIH erus; Devél, -(e)n, Dévlo, -n; LDj, Rib; s, m; 1. Gud, 2. himmel; 1. God, 2 sky; Devel hilpra mander bliddra mukkalo ta pattja God help me be free and begin to believe; Romani devel God, heaven, from Skt. devatā- deity, divinity; devélske, devlósken; LDj; adj, def sg; gudomlige, himmelske; divine, heavenly; Develske-bòkkan, Dèvel-bokkan uninfl; LDj; s, def sg; Bibeln; the Bible; ster butt schukkart an Develske-bokkan (there) is much beauty written in the Bible; Develske-Dád, Devéleske-Dad uninfl; LDj; Himmelske Fader; Heavenly Father; dévlon uninfl; LDj; s, def sg; himlen; Heaven; dìves-loviar; Iv; s, pl; dagløn, eg. dagpenger; daily wage, lit. day’s money; dìves-palar-díves; Iv; adv; daglig, egl. dag etter dag; daily, lit. day after day; dick; Etz; adv; där; there; 124 appendix i dicker; KIH; adj; hafvande; pregnant; from Gm. Dicker fat person; dickopa; Etz; syn; sight; dìkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; v; se, skåda, titta; see, view, look; dikk pre dova! look at that! dikka kaj! see here!; Rib dikk; KIH dekka; Romani dikhel see, look, view, from Skt. dṛś- see; díkkan; Iv; s, m; spjeld; air damper; dìkkar-ali; Iv; s, f; speil, egl. se-glass; mirror, lit. see-glass (looking-glass); dìkkar-aliar; Iv; s, pl; briller, egl. se-glass; spectacles, lit. see-glasses; dìkkar-jakkar; Iv; s, pl; briller, egl. se-øyer; spectacles, lit. see-eyes; dìkkepa, dèkkepa, dèkepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, n; syn; sight, view, perspective; an rattia sunna mander palla miro jibben ta dolle ledde mander jekh vavre dikkepa palla pre jiben last night I had a dream about my life, and I got a new perspective on life; dìkkerar; Iv; s, pl; briller; spectacles; dikkeske-léddik, -en, -, -erna; LDj; s, r; TV; TV, television set; díkklo, dýkklo, -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, n; 1. huvudduk, sjal, näsduk, 2. bind; 1. headscarf, scarf, handkerchief, 2. bandage; Iv díklo, tíklo, KIH declo klede, duk; cloth, dikklå(k)k halsduk, lommetørkle; headscarf, hankerchief; Romani diklo cloth, neckerchief, headscarf, bandana; díkklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, r; bordsduk; tablecloth; dikklon diro tjinna honka fedig bordsduken du köpte var fin; Romani (Sinte) diklo, dikhlo bandana, kerchief, scarf, cloth, from MLG doec, Gm. Tuch cloth, tablecloth; dikkoprásko, dikkopráskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; spegel; mirror; dilisjader; KIH; s, pl; sko (av alle slag); shoes (of all kinds); díllo (1), -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; stackare; poor fellow; díllo (2), -t, -a; LDj; adj; stackars; poor (unfortunate); Romani dilo, dinelo dumb, stupid, crazy, mad, from Skt. dīna- weak; dínalo, dínlo, -a; LDj; adj; tokig, efterbliven; mad, crazy, retarded; dova bullo honkar dinalo, rakka diro! that bear is mad, watch out!; Romani dinelo dumb, stupid, crazy, mad; dindripa; Rib; s; tjeneste; service; dingali; Etz; tokig kvinna; mad woman; díngalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; tokig; mad, crazy; dingalohispa; Etz; s; dårhus, sinnessjukavdelning; madhouse, mental ward; díngel; Iv; adj; dum, tosket; stupid, foolish; dingel; KIH; adj; gal, tilbakestående; crazy, retarded; díngel uninfl; LDj; s; småhandel; small deals, small merchandise; from Gm. Ding(s) things, small things; dìngelske-tjakk uninfl; LDj; s; handelsvaror; merchandise; dìngla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; handla; buy, shop; from MLG dingen negotiate; appendix i 125 dìnglare, -n, -, -na; LDj; s, m; handlare, beteckning på resande; merchant, name for Travellers; ja teli to spekkarian ta tjinna maro to mander attjer dinglaren go to the store and buy me bread from the merchant; dings; KIH; s. pl; ting; thing(s); Iv dings, dìngse; from Gm. Ding thing; dings, -ar, -ane; KIH, Iv; s; mynt; coin; Iv dìngse; dingsar; Etz; s, pl; galoscher; galoshes; díngstro, -t, -n; LDj; adj; tung; heavy; dìnkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tänka; think; dinkra tji pre dolle! dont’ think about that!; from Gm. denken think; dínnus; Iv; pers pron; du; you (thou); dìnra, tìndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; tjäna; earn (money); dinra diro butt an dives? did you earn a lot today?; Romani (Sinte) dinrel earn, from Gm. dienen serve; dinreske-rákkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; piga, tjänsteflicka; maid, servant girl; dinreske-rákklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, m; dräng; farm hand; dínster uninfl, dìnstrepa, -t; LDj; s; förtjänst; profit; kerra diro butt an dinster? did you make a large profit?; díro; LDj; pers pron; du, dig; you; so kammar diro kerrat an dives? I have you done today? avar diro? are you coming? prinjar mander diro? do I know you?; díros; LDj; poss pron; din, ditt, dina; your, yours; fysher mander lindra diros tabbrik? may I borrow your lighter? trissa diros dad dre vago dives (I) met your father yesterday; dissjan, -et; Etz; s; bord; table; dìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; känna igen; recognise; most likely a variant derived from dikka see; diverslo; KIH; adv; daglig, hver dag; daily, every day; divirsen, divisen; KIH; livstid, uten slutt; life (sentence), without end; divis; KIH; s; adv; morgendagen, i morgen; tomorrow; dìvus, díves, dìves, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; dag; day; an dives avar liskris khere he is coming home today, lattjo dives, lattjo divus good day, dre dives today; KIH devis, Etz divis, KIH divers, -en; Romani dives day; dòa, dòva; Iv; dem pron; den, det; it, that; dóbbo, dòbo uninfl; LDj; s, m; dalkarl, dalmas; man from Dalarna (Dalecarlia); dobo-mósch, dòbo-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; dalkarl, dalmas; man from Dalarna (Dalecarlia); Dobo-thém, Dòbo-themmen uninfl; LDj; namn; Dalarna; Dalecarlia; dóchalo uninfl; adj; skyldig, ansvarig; guilty, responsible; diro honkar dochalo! nobba tji! you are responsible! don’t deny it!; Romani doš mistake, affliction, deficit, damage, guilt; došalo sinful, guilty, deficient, from Skt. doṣa- fault; doj; LDj, Etz; adv; där, dit; there, dither/over there; ja andri doj! go in there! jadde doj (he) went dither/over there; Etz duj, KIH doj; Romani (Sinte) doj there, over there; 126 appendix i dòkka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ge; give; dòlle; LDj, Etz, Rib; dem pron, empty subject, adv, pers pron; 1. (dem pron) den där, det här, dessa, 2. (empty subject) det, 3. (adv) då, 4. han; 1. (dem pron) that, this, these, 2. (empty subject) it, 3. (adv) then, 4. he; dommen; KIH; s, def; (veka livet), siden på ett menneske; side of a person; dommripà; Rib; s; sövn; sleep; dòmra, dùmra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; v; sova; sleep; lattjo rattia, domra lattjot good night, sleep well; Iv dorma, KIH dorma sove; sleep; from Rotw. dormen sleep, from French dormir; dómrano, dúmrano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; sömnig, trött; sleepy, tired; tugalo dives mander honkar domrano (it was a) long day today, I’m tired; dòmre-lakk, dùmro-lakk, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; adj; sömnig, trött; sleepy, tired; Etz dummerlack, KIH dommerlatt; dómripa; Iv; s, m; søvn; sleep; dóri, -n/-a, -er, -erna; dóro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. snöre, band, 2. tau; 1. string, ribbon, 2. rope; Romani dori ribbon, cord, string, rope, band; from Skt davara-; dórjer, dóljer, dòrjer, dòljer, -(n)a; LDj; Etz, Iv; s, pl; tömmar; reins; dårjar, dörjer, Iv dòriar; Romani dori ribbon, cord, string, rope, band; dormalo; KIH; adj; søvnig, dorsk; sleepy, drowsy; dormar; KIH; s; sover; latsekk; sleeper; lazybones; dormus; KIH; s; søvnen; (the) sleep; dosch, dusch, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; bröst; breast; dòscha, dùscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; mjölka, dia; milk, suckle; duscha gurmnin milk the cow; Romani dušel milk, from Skt. duhya- being milked; dòshta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; räcka, vara tillräckligt, vara nog; suffice, be enough; Romani dosta enough, from Skt. dosta; dóshto uninfl; Etz; adj; otålig, arg; impatient, angry; doshto diro honkar! you’re so impatient!; dosjta, dǻsjta; Iv; adv; nok; enough; dòtta; LDj, Etz; adv; borta, där borta; away, over there; Etz dåttar; dòva; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; dem pron; 1. de där, dem där, dessa, 2. den der, den, det, dette; 1. those, these, 2. that one there, that one, it, this; Etz doa; dòvas; LDj; gen, dem pron, poss pron; (gen av dova) 1. (dem pron) dennes etc., 2. (poss pron) hans, hennes, dess, deras; (gen of dova) 1. (dem pron) his etc., 2. (poss pron) his, her, their; dömfará ; Iv; v; dømme; sentence; dømfara; KIH; v; döma; judge; döy; Iv; adv; der; (sj.) her; there; (rarely) here; appendix i 127 drabb, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; medicin, knark; medicine, drugs; Romani drab herb, root, medicine, poison, tobacco, from Skt dravya- substance, medicine; drabbeske-mèrare, dràbb-merare, -n, -, def pl -merarna; LDj; s, m; djurläkare, veter- inär; animal doctor, veterinarian; dràbbeske-måkti, dràbberske-måkti; Iv; s, f; medisinveske; medicine box; drabbeske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; medicinvagn; medicine cart; drabb-kabisar; KIH; s, pl; piller; pills; dràbbla, -n, pl drabbler, -na; drábbli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; drabbrik, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; bok, tidskrift; book, magazine; ster palla dova an kava drabbla they write about it in this book; KIH drablia; dràbblare, dràbbrare -n, -, pl drabblarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; läsare (religiös); lärare; reader (religious); teacher; Iv dàvrar, dràbrar, dràblar m lerer, egl. leser; teacher, lit. reader; Romani drabel read, pray, adjure, perform magic, tell someones fortune, drabrar, drablar, davrar teacher; drabble-bädda; Etz; s; läsebok; textbook (lit. reading book); dràbbra, dràbbla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; läsa; read; Etz dabbra, KIH drabla; Romani drab- arel read, pray, adjure, perform magic, tell someones fortune; drábbrano, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; lärare, lärd man, läskarl; teacher, educated man; drabbrano-músch; LDj; s, m; läskarl, lärare; reader (of the Bible), teacher; drabbrepa, dabbrepa; Etz, KIH; s; läsning; reading; KIH drableba; drabbreske-hìspa, dràbbrar-hispa, dràbblar-hispa, dràbbla-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; missionshus, skola, frikyrka; missionary house (simple build- ing for missionary meetings), school, free church; Etz drabblehisp skola; school; Iv dàvra-hispa skola; school; drábbrika, -(n), pl drabbriker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; tidning; newspaper; dràbb-tjaro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r; medicinburk, pillerburk; medicine jar, pill jar; drabelina; KIH; s; bok; book; drablopa; KIH; s; lesning, skriving; reading, writing; dràbrar, dràblar, dàvrar; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. leser; teacher, lit. reader; dràbrar-lilar; Iv, KIH; s, pl; avis, egl. lesepapirer; newspaper, lit. reading papers; dràbrask-libri, dràbraske-libri; Iv; s, f; bok, egl. lese-bok; bok til å lese i, brukt som mot- setning til lovieske-libri (pengebok, lommebok); book, lit. reading-book, generally used in contrast to lovieske-libri (pocket-book); dragdéra; Etz; v; draga; pull; from Sw./Norw. draga pull; dragla; KIH; v; dra; carry, pull; Sw./Norw. draga pull; dragna; KIH; v; sage; saw; dragni; KIH; s; kontursåg; jigsaw, saw; dragruta; KIH; s; såg; saw; 128 appendix i dragrute; KIH; s; fil; file; dre; Etz, KIH; adv; in, inne; in, inside; dre, drío; LDj; prep; i; in; dre miro voddro daden ashar drabbrikan the newspaper is in my car, father; drèja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dra; pull; voddron nastar nani dreja sass kava mengret! the car can’t take pulling all of this junk!; drigra; KIH; v; carry, pull, bring; carry, pull, bring; drìssa, dríssan; Iv; s, m; møte; meeting; drom, dromm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; 1. väg, 2. gate; 1. road, 2. street; kutti dromar småvägar, lattjo drom pleasant travels, good road tradra pre dromen travel on the road; Romani drom street, path, road, from Greek drómos road; dromeske-patrín, -en, pl patríner, -na; LDj; s, r; vägskylt; road sign; drómit; LDj; adv; tungt, långt; heavy, far; drómmen uninfl; LDj, KIH; s, def sg; vägen; the road; KIH drummen; dråppiná ; Iv; s, m; dråpe; drop; dråvint, dråvont; KIH; adv; quickly, heavily, sadly, hardly; dùbba, -n, pl dùbber, -na; LDj; s, r; trumma; drum; dabba pre dubban beat the drum; Romani toba, duba drum, from Romanian tobă; dubbling; KIH; s; speil; mirror; duckalopa; Etz; s; sjukhus; hospital; dudd, dud, -a/-et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ljus, lyse; light; Jesus honkar duda dre jibben, sik- kra dromen gla manuschet angla ghav ta dre themm Jesus is the light of life, light- ing the way for the people in the towns and country; Romani dud light, from Skt. dyuti- lightness; dukk, dukkt uninfl; LDj, Rib; adj/adv; 1. ont, 2. syk; 1. ache, pain, 2. ill; kammar diro dukk an tjanget miro phral? do you have a pain in your knee, my brother? Romani dukh pain (s), dukhado (adj) painful, achy, ill, from Skt. duḥkha- pain, misfortune; dúkkalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv, KIH; adj; sjuk; ill; lattjot te asha sasto nani dukkalo (it is) good to be healthy (and) not sick; Iv dókkalo, KIH dåkalo; dukkalò-fakkar; Rib; s; syke-arbeider (lege); doctor; dukkalò-gaije; Rib; s; sykekone; nurse; dùkkalo-kjer; Iv; s, m; sjukhus; hospital; dukkalò-penndri; Rib; s; sykehus; hospital; dùkkalo-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; ambulans; ambulance; dùkkepa, -t, -, -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; sjukdom; illness; Rib dukkipàn, Iv dúkkipa, KIH dykkeba; dummaskíro, demmoskíro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; väst; vest, waistcoat; Iv dúmmakro, dùmmasjero, KIH domaskiro, dommaskiro, dummesker; Romani (Sinte) dummo blouse; dummeske-léddika, dùmmo-leddika, -n; LDj; s, r; ryggsäck; backpack; appendix i 129 dúmmo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; rygg; back; Iv dúrmo, dúma; Romani dumo back, shoulder, axle; dùmmo-dukk, dummeske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; ryggvärk; back ache; dumstro; Etz; adj; dum; stupid; duno; KIH; adj; 1. len, smal, 2. tunn; 1. lean, skinny, 2. thin; Iv ogs. mager; also meager; dur, dùro, dùri; Iv; adj; lang; long; durali; KIH; s; bowl, tub; bowl, tub; dúri, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj/adv, adv; 1. (adj/adv) lång (om avstånd, tid), 2. (adv) långt, länge; långsamt, 3. dryg; 1. (adj/adv) long (about distance, time), 2. (adv) far, for a long time; slowly, 3. substantial; Iv dùri lang, dryg; long, substantial; Romani dur far, long, distant, from Skt. dūra-; dùri-drom; LDj; s expr; lång väg; long road; dùroment; LDj; adv; långsamt; slowly; tradra tji duroment, siggra diro! don’t drive so slowly, hurry up!; dusa; KIH; v; knuse, sønderslå; break, destroy; dùstus, -(e)n, -, -na; LDj; s, m; tiggare, luffare, uteliggare; beggar, hobo, homeless person; dústus, dúshtus, dùstus, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; mjöl; flour; from Sw.Dial., Norw. dust flour, dust, or English dust; Etz dustes, KIH duftus; dy, do, duj; LDj; num; två; two; Romani duj two, from Skt. dvā; dỳ-kjettanes; Iv; adj; dobbelt, egl. to sammen; double, lit. two together; dỳnkra, -(de), -t; v; tycka, tänka; think (opinion); dynkrar diro dova honkar fediga? do you think these are nice? dynkrar palla diro I like you (lit. I think about you); Romani (Sinte) denkrel, denkarel think, from Gm. denken think; dỳnta, dỳntja, -(n), pl dỳnter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; dörr; door; dỳshta, dỳsta uninfl; s; dugg, något; (not) a damn thing, anything; mander kerar tji jekh dyshta I’m not doing a damn thing/ I’m not doing anything; from Sw.Dial. dust crumb, bit, scramp; dyk-hispa; KIH; s; sykehuset; hospital; dykkalo; KIH; adj; sykelig; sick; dý-lokk, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-era; LDj; s, r; tvåkrona; two-crown (coin); E edit; KIH; adv; morgen (i morgen); tomorrow; éfta, èfta; LDj, Iv; num; sju; seven; Iv héfta; Romani efta seven; éhe; LDj, KIH; interj; ja; ja visst; yes; certainly; KIH ee ja, jasså, ja; indeed! is that so?; ekh; LDj; num; ett; one; élko; LDj; pron; båda, bådas; both, belonging to both; emmer; KIH; s; salg; sale; 130 appendix i emo; KIH; s; ryggen; (the) back; emra; KIH; v; selge, borthandle; sell; èmrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; billigt pris; cheap price; emrepa pre tafflanet deja tjinna (it is) a cheap price on the table mother bought; énja; Iv; num; 1. ni, 2. tjue; 1. nine, 2. twenty; énsaro uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; ensam; alone; from Swe ensam alone; ènsates uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; ensam; alone; from Swe ensam alone; enslo; Etz; num; en; one; enso; Etz; adj, adv; ensam; alone; éntro; LDj; adv; in; in, inside; ja entro gå in; érsnos, érsnus; LDj, Etz; pers pron, poss pron; 1. (pers pron) ni, er, 2. (poss pron) er, ert, era (även artigt för du, dig); 1. (pers pron 2pl) you, 2. (poss pron 2pl) your, yours (also politely for 2sg you); 1. Devel jar ninna ersnos God goes with you (pl), ersnos avar senslo? are you (pl) coming later?, 2. savo narta avar ersnos romni fann? which family does your wife come from?; Ést-themm uninfl; LDj; name; Estland; Estonia; ettnåss; Etz; num; ett; one; ettstott; Etz; num; ett; one; F fackare; Etz; s; arbetare; worker; fàkka, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; arbeta; work; fakkat an dives? (have you) worked today?; Romani (Sinte) fakerel use up; fàkkepa, -t; LDj; s, n; arbete, jobb; work, job; faláttjer fàlattjer, fláttjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, pl; vantar, handskar; mittens, gloves; Etz förlåttjer, KIH falatjer; Romani (Sinte) forlocin glove; fallman; Rib; s; brua; the bridge; falma; KIH; s; bru; bridge; fann; LDj; prep/adv; från; from; fant, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; luffare, usling, stackare; hobo, wretch, unfortunate individual; KIH fante; farníssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förtenna; tin (the act of coating something with tin); fass; Iv; adv; stille; silent; fårrus; KIH; s; vott; mitten; fælsingen; KIH; s, def sg; berget; mountain; fändrik; KIH; s; ost; cheese; fänta; Etz; (med nek. förord) ingenting, inte ett dugg; (with neg. word) nothing, not one bit; appendix i 131 færníssa; Iv; v; ønske, ville, ha lyst til; wish, want to, like to; fässare; Etz; s; rackare, nattman; animal gelder; fède, fèdi, fèdig, fèddi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; god, snäll, vänlig, bra; good, kind, friendly, nice; Romani feder better, from Skt. bhadra- happy; féder, fédder; LDj; adv; bättre; better; fèdiske-dad, fèdeske-dad, féde-dad, -en, fèdeske-dad; LDj; s, m; snäll far; kind father; fèdiske-dej, fédi-dej, -a; LDj; s, f; snäll mor; kind mother; miro fediske-deja! my kind mother!; fej uninfl; LDj; s; lungsot, KOL, astma; tuberculosis, COPD, asthma; fenom, fenum; KIH; s; strå; straw; fernissa; KIH; v; ønske; wish; fílasni, fílasjni; Etz; s; herrgård; manor, mansion; fímpus; LDj; num; fem; five; from Gm. fünf, OHG funf, finf five; Fìntiko-them uninfl; LDj; name; Finland; Finland; flàsha, flàsa, -(n), pl flàsher, -(n)a; LDj; s; gnet, ägg från lus; nit, louse eggs; flàsing, -en; LDj; s, r; havre; oats; flàtan uninfl; LDj; s, r, def sg; ansiktet; the face; from Sw. Dial. fles, fleta face; flàttan, -et, pl flàttan/flàttas, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; ansikte; face; florus; KIH; s; våren; Spring; flùssa, flùsa, -(n), pl flùsser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; flod, å, bäck; river, creek, stream; from Gm. Fluss river; flöde; Etz; s; grädde; cream; fobik; Etz; adj; tokig; crazy; fokta, foktan; KIH; s; fogde; bailiff; fòrael uninfl; LDj; s; byte; game(hunting); fordivers; KIH; adv; igår; yesterday; fòro, fóro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; stad; city, town; mander boddrar dre foron I live in the city; Etz forum, KIH faarun; Romani foro city, town, market, from Gr. foros city; fòro-ghana, -t; LDj; s, coll; stadsbor; citizens, city people; fòro-manusch, -et; LDj; s, coll; stadsbor; citizens, city people; fòrsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; byta (på ärligt sätt); trade (in an honest way); forum-barobäddor; KIH; s; borgermester; mayor; KIH forumens bäddor byens vakt- mester; the city caretaker; forusa; Iv, Etz, Rib; s; vante, hanske; mitten, glove; Etz förresa, Rib fårrusa; fossike-mìnka, -(n), pl -minker, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; fickur; pocket watch; fòssikja, fòssika -(n), pl fòssikjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ficka; pocket; Romani poski pocket, from Skt. prasiti band; fottra; Etz; s, coll; hö, klöver, foder; hay, clover, fodder, feed; from Gm. Futter forage, feed stuff; 132 appendix i förbittes; Etz; prep; förbi; past, by; förmóllvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; förtenna; tin; Etz förmållra, Iv formållrá ; förståddra; Etz; v; förstå; understand; framters; Etz; adv; fram; forward; fransjar; KIH; s; sotare; chimney sweeper; frèkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fråga; question; frekkra moschen doj ask that man; from Sw.Dial. freka ask; frémlo; Iv; s, m; adj; 1. (s) fremmend, 2. (adj) fremmend; 1. (s) stranger, 2. (adj) strange; frémslo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; främmande; visiting (people, guests), foreign; avade frems- lot an dives strangers came today, dova manuschet dikkas fremsloa avri those people look foreign; from Sw. främmande foreign; Frø̀ydi-fåro; Iv; name; Fredrikstad; Fredrikstad; fröja; Etz; v; stjäla; steal; Frøýdi; Iv; name; Fredrik; Frederic; fùlar-gaje; Iv; s, f; lortkjerring; dirty woman; fùl-måkti; Iv; s, f; medisin-dåse, egl. lort-dåse; medicine-box, lit. dirt-box; fùsla; Iv; s, m; bør; burden; ful, -et; LDj; s, n; skit, smuts, skräp, avföring, smörja, strunt; shit/crap, dirt, trash, excre- ment, grease, rubbish (in the sense of truthfulness); diro tjinnar sassaro butt ninna ful! you always buy a bunch of crap!; Romani khul dirt, excrements, dung, rubbish, from Skt. gūtha-; ful, fúlano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH, Etz, Iv; adj; skitig, smutsig; dirty, foul, soiled; helstara tji pre kava ghana dre vashterna, dolle honkar savo fulanoa! don’t shake these people’s hands, they’re dirty!; KIH fulano møkete, styg, stygt; dirty, soiled, ugly, dangerous, mean; Etz fulo, Iv fùlano skitten, ogs. ussel, elendig; dirty, also wretched, miserable; fùla, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v, s; skita, smutsa (ner); defecate, soil, to make dirty; fula tji teli kaj! don’t make it dirty here! dova fular mander dre! I don’t give a shit! (lit. I shit in that); fuldrani; KIH; s; vindmølle; mill, windmill; ful-fakkar; Rib; s; skit-arbeider; bad worker (lit. shit worker); fulínna; Iv; s, m; lortkjerring; dirty woman; ful-kàr; Rib; s; skitt-spiser; shit eater; fulkev; Etz; s; smutshål; dirt hole; fulna; KIH; v; skitne, tilsøle; dirty, soil; ful-nav; Rib; s; skitt-navn; shit name; fulot; KIH; adj; stygt; ugly, dangerous, mean; fùl-penneri, -t, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, n; wc, toalett, dass; WC, toilet, loo; funka; KIH; v; nøle; hesitate, waver; fùrka, fùrkla, -n, pl furkler, -na; LDj; s, r; gaffel; fork; from MLG forke, vorke fork; fùrrters, förrterś ; Etz; adv; före, i förväg; before, in advance; appendix i 133 fùrsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; byta, ömsa; change, shed; fursté, -dde, -tt; LDj, Etz; v; förstå; understand; mander furster sas diro pennar I under- stand everything you’re saying, furster diro so mander pennar nii karna mander rak- krar romani? do you understand what I’m saying when I speak Romani?; from Gm. verstehen understand; fùsla, -(de), -t; v; byta; trade; fusla grejer byta hästar; fysha, fùshja, fùssa, fỳssa, fỳsa, fusa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. få, 2. ska (temporal/modal auxiliary); 1. be allowed to, may, 2. will (temporal/modal auxiliary); 1. puscha to tja- von ta lo fysher tjinna miro voddro palla lo kammar lover tell the Traveller boy that he may buy my car if he has money, fysher mander lindra kutti ninna lover, mander prejsar topalo may I borrow some money, I will pay you back; G ga; KIH; s; distrikt; district; gárden uninfl; LDj; s, r; nattlinne, särk; night dress; night gown; Romani gad shirt, from Skt. gātrikā- belt; gadd; Iv; s, f; tann; tooth; gadd, gad, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; skjorta; shirt; KIH gad, gard; shirt, linen fabric, linen clothes, linen bedclothes, tablecloths etc; Romani gad shirt, from Skt. gātrikā- belt; gádja, gájia, gája, gója, gária, gárija, -(n), pl gàdjer, -(n)a; gáii, gáje, -n, -(e)r, -erna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, f; kvinna, fru, fruntimmer; woman, wife, womenfolk; Etz gaja, Iv gàji, geiè, KIH gaja; Romani gadži farmer’s wife, peasant woman, woman, womanfolk; gae; Etz; s; man, karl; man, fellow; gàer; Iv; s, pl; folk, mennesker; people, men; gamra; KIH; v; gjemme, skjule; hide, cover; gào; Iv; s, m; (gift) mann; (married) man; gapstock; KIH; adj; skje, sleiv; spoon, ladle; gàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; gömma; hide; Romani garavel hide, conceal, from Skt. *gaḍḍ-, cf. Hi. gārnā press, suppress; garad; KIH; adj (pst ptc); gjemt; hidden; gasjtano; KIH; adj; vanskelig; difficult, surly; gaskanit; KIH; adv; stort; great; gáskanit; Iv; adj, n., adv; forståelig, greitt; intelligible (-bly), plain(ly); gasse, gatse; KIH; s; man; man; gásskano -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; klok; wise; Romani godźalo intelligent, smart, Romani godi brain, soul, mind, sense, from Skt. gorda- brain; 134 appendix i gastus; Etz, Rib; s; havre, korn; oats, barley; gatta; KIH; v; holde; hold; gauve; Iv; s; ægtemand; husband; gav; Iv; s, n; bygd, prestegjeld, distrikt; rural parts, parish, district; gávo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, m; man, karl, äkta man, husbonde; man, fellow, hus- band, master; savoa gavoar rakklar lo palla? which man is he talking about? puscha lester palla lo kanslar gavon ask him if he knows the fellow; KIH gauve; Romani gadžo farmer, land owner, man, human; gårdacken; Etz; adv; (i)går; yesterday; from Swedish gårdagen yesterday; gårfåjin, gåfåjin; Etz; adv; (i) går; yesterday; gårrno; Etz; s; ål; eel; gåsjvaro, gåssvaro; Etz; adj; klok, förståndig; wise, intelligent, sensible; gåssvárepa; Etz; s; klokhet, förstånd; wisdom, sense; géddo, -n, -, -na; LDj; s, r; spöke; ghost; devel, mander pattjade te mander jura jekh geddo an ratti Heavens, I thought I saw a ghost last night!; ger; Iv; s, m; sag; saw; ger; Iv, Rib; adj; sår; sore; Romani ger scabies, mange, from Skt gara- a disease; ghàna, -t; LDj; s, coll; folk, människor, bybor (icke resande); people, humans, villagers (non-traveller); sosti baschar ghanat palla vorsnos? why do all people talk bad about us?; probably variant of ghav; ghav, gav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; by; village; Romani gav village, from Skt grāma-; ghàv-dromm, gàv-dromm, gàv-drom, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; byväg, grusväg; village road, gravel road; jar tji tradra siggrot pre dova kuttia ghav-drommar you can’t drive so fast on these gravel roads; ghíldo, shíldo, -t, -, -n; LDj; s, n; fest, party; Romani gili song, from Skt. gīti-; gìbba, jìbba, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sjunga; sing; Romani gilabel to sing, Romani gili song, from Skt. gīti-; gif; KIH; s; sed; corn, seed; gìja, jìa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sjunga; sing; gija jekh gijepa gla mander tjeja sing a song for me, girl, moschen gijar lattjot! the man sings very well!; Romani gilabel to sing, Romani gili song, from Skt. gīti-; gìjare, jìare, -n, -, def pl gijarna; LDj; s, m; sångare; singer; gìjepa, -t/-n, pl gìepar/gìer, -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; sång, sjungande; song, singing; ginnepa; Etz; s; räkning; calculation, arithmetics; giv; Etz; s, coll; säd, spec. råg; corn, esp. rye; gja; KIH; v; nyte alterets sakramente; enjoy the Holy Sacrament; gja-drabla; KIH; v; gaa til konfirmation; go to confirmation studies; gjal; Etz; prep, adv; för, före; for, before; gjeddo; KIH; s; gud; god; gjenikken; KIH; s, def; fanden; the deuce, the devil; gjenniksmath; KIH; s; sjelm, djevel; scoundrel, deuce; appendix i 135 gjennikstad; KIH; s; helvete; hell; gjukni; KIH; s; suppe, velling; soup, baby formula; gla; LDj; prep/adv; före, framför, för; before, in front of, for; gladrum-jakka; KIH; s, pl; briller; spectacles; gladrummen; KIH; s, def; vinduet; window; glana; Etz; s; öppen plats, fönster, ansikte; open area, window, face; glaneske-sárgan, -et; LDj; s, n; förtält (till husvagn); awning (for a caravan); glann, glan, gláneske; LDj, KIH; prep/adv; före, fram; before, onward, (prep) up to; KIH glan først; first; Romani glan in front of, before; glarom, glarum; Etz; s; fönster, glas; window, glass; from MLG glār glass; glasónom; Etz; s; glas; glass; from Sw glas glass; glassjalo; Etz; adj; glad; happy; glassjalot; Etz; adv; roligt; funny; glinder; Etz; s; spegel; mirror; Romani glenderí mirror; from Romanian oglindă; glinter; Etz; s; glas, fönster; glass, window; glisa; Etz; s; lampa; lamp; glising; Etz; s; nyckel; key; gloris; KIH; s; kam; comb; glössjano; Etz; adj; glad; glad, happy; gnagfara; Etz; v; gnaga; gnaw; from Sw gnaga gnaw; gnarka; Etz; v; spela; play; gnav; KIH; s; skurk, lømmel, tyv; villain, scoundrel, thief; góchvalo, góchvardo, gòrfalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; intelligent; intelligent; beng savo gorfalo tekkno tjavo diro kammar miro phral, diro fysher honka butt buno preall lester! damn, what a smart little kid you have my brother, you must be very proud of him!; Romani godźalo wise, smart, reasonable, judicious, scholarly, Romani godi brain, soul, mind, sense, from Skt. gorda- brain; goj, göj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; korv; hot dog, sausage; Iv göyè ; Romani goi sausage; gòj-bekka, göj-bekkà , -(n), -bekker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; korvbit; piece of sausage; gol, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, r; efterlysning, larm (då en fånge har rymt); notification of an missing person; alarm (for an escaped prisoner); Romani godli noise, sound, shout- ing, roar, from Skt. ghoṣa-; gòla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; skrika, ropa, väsnas, gråta; scream, yell, make noise, cry; Iv gåla, KIH gola, golar, gåla gåla opri fortelle, snakke om, forklike; tell, talk about, let slip; golare; Etz; s; klockare; parish clerk and organist; góno, gòning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; säck, täcke; sack, quilt, duvet; goningarna honkar tji perdoa ninna maro the sacks aren’t filled with bread, kerra jekh goning gla nukkoarna an voddrish, dolle honkar tjyldranot kaj make (=put) a cover in the bead for the kids, it’s cold here; KIH goning; Romani gono sack, from Skt. goṇi-; 136 appendix i gordíni, gordínni uninfl; LDj; s, n; åska; thunder; ashar tjakk ninna brishepa ta dova avar gordinni akaj pre saroe tjer there is so much rain and it is going to thunder across the whole sky; Romani grumos thunder, from Slovakian hrom; gorrlot; KIH; adj; søt; sweet; gøie; KIH; s, pl; poteter; potatoes; græle; KIH; v; skjelle, pukke; bellow, scold, destroy; græna; KIH; v; jøre, ri; grævling; KIH; s; barn; child; gragla; KIH; v; sludre, sladre; chat, gossip, tell on someone; gráshni, gràshni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; märr, sto; mare; grashnia mekkstar dy tover the mare costs two thousand; ashar grashnin sasto? is the mare healthy?; gráshno, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; hingst; stallion; grasni, grassni; KIH; s; hoppe, merr; mare; gråla; KIH; v; tordne; boom, rumble, thunder; gråmsing; Etz; s; barn; child; gråpa; Etz; s; gryta; boiling pot; grägg, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fuling, lymmel, ligist, huligan; rough neck, scoun- drel, thug, hooligan; penna to gräggen te stila siro tell that rough neck to calm down; Romani grecho sin, vice, burden, imperfection, aberration, misfortune; gräja; KIH; s; sto, merr; mare; gräjanglo; Etz; s; selkrok; harness hook; grei-batàlje; Rib; s; heste-sko; horseshoe; greìerske-dindrar, greìeske-dindrar; Iv; s, m; stallkar, egl. hestetjener; groom, lit. horse-servant; greìerske-dukkalofakkar, greìeske-dukkalofakkar; Iv; s, m; dyrlæge, egl. hestedoktor; veterinary surgeon, lit. horse-doctor; greìerske-låddipa, greìeske-låddipa; Iv; s, m; stall, egl. hestehus; stable, lit. horse-house; greìerske-mengar, greìeske-mengar; Iv; s, m; dyrlæge, egl. hestedoktor; veterinary sur- geon, lit. horse-doctor; greìerske-tyrak, greìeske-tyrak; Iv; s, m; hestesko; horse-shoe; greieske-kjingripà; Rib; s; heste-skjæring; horse gelding; greieske-parra; Rib; v; hestebytte; trade horses; grei-pori; Rib; s; heste-hale; horse tail; grej, graj, gräj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; häst; horse; Etz gräjónom, KIH gräj, gräjji, græ; Romani grast, grai horse, from Armenian grast; grejeske-bál, grèj-bal, -et; LDj; s, n; tagel; horsehair; grejeske-bèkknare, grèj-bekknare, -n, -, def pl -bekknarna; LDj; s, m; hästhandlare; horse-dealer; glan an tjiron dingla romanoa butt ninna grej ta asha grejeske-bekknare a long time ago, Travellers traded a lot with horses, and were horse traders; grejeske-pàrrare, grèj-parrare, -n, -, def pl -parrarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; hästhandlare, eg. hästbytar; horse-dealer, lit. horse-barterer; Iv greìe(r)ske-parrar; appendix i 137 grejeske-pàrrepa, grèj-parrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; hästhandel, eg. hästbyte; horse dealing, lit. horse trading; grejeske-pór, grèj-por, -et; LDj; s, n; tagel; horsehair; grejeske-sérgan, -et; LDj; s, n; hästtäcke; horse blanket; grejeske-tjìngrare, grèj-tjingrare, -n, -, def pl -tjingrarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; valackare, häst- kastrerare (tidigare vanligt yrke bland resande); horse gelder/castrator (previously common occupation among travellers); grejeske-tjingrarns mengrepa honka tji lat- tjot, dikka mander the gelders’ work was nothing fun, I saw; Iv grèie(r)ske-kjingrar; grékkalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; syndig; sinful; grèkkepa, grìkkepa, -n/-t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r/n; synd; sin; Etz grickopa, gräckopa, Iv grík- kipa; Romani grecho sin, vice, burden, imperfection, aberration, misfortune; grékko; Iv; s, m; synd; sin; grékko, grécho, -n/-t; LDj, Etz; s, r/n; kreatur; cattle, animal; grékko, gríkko, -t; LDj; adj; synd; (a) shame, (lit. a sin); grékkus, gräkkuś , gríkkus uninfl; LDj; s; synd; sin; Romani grecho sin, vice, burden, imperfection, aberration, misfortune; from Pol grzech; gricka, gräcka; Etz; v; synda; sin; grìkka; Iv; v; synde; sin; gríkkalo; Iv; adj; syndig; sinful (wrong); grikko; Iv; s; synder; sinner; gròffla, gròffja, -(n), pl gròffler, -na; LDj, Etz; s; gryta; (boiling) pot; svakko dives fysher mander ja avri ninna grofflan ta anner broller every day I go out with the pot and get potatoes; from MLG grope, gropen, grapen cauldron; gromsing; KIH; s; barn; child; gròsa-kakklare, -n; LDj; s, r; gräsklippare; lawnmower, lit. grass cutter; gròsa-scharo, groseske-scháro, -n; LDj; s, r; gräsklippare; lawnmower, lit. grass cutter; gròshan, gròsan, -et; LDj, KIH; s, n; gräs; grass; KIH gråsa; from Gm. Gras grass; gróshno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; 1. tjock, stor, grov, 2. arg, 3. mett; 1. fat, big, coarse, 2. angry, 3. satisfied/full (from eating); Etz gråsjno, Iv gråsnó , gårsjnó ; Romani (Sinte) grozno thick, fat, from Romanian gras; grønningen; KIH; s; sommeren; summer; grúmnin, gúrmin uninfl; LDj; s, r; åska; thunder, lightning; jurra nikli preall veshan pre gurmin look there over the forest at the thunder/lightning; Romani grumos thun- der, from Slov. hrom; gùlo; Iv; s, n; sukker; sugar; gùlo-kalot; Iv; s, m; sirup, egl. (noe) søtsvart; syrup, lit. (smth.) sweet-black; gùni-hispa; Iv; s, m; sommerfjøs, egl. lite kuhus, kustue; small shed for cows, used only in summer, lit. small cow-house, cow-cot; gùni-ker, gùni-kjer; Iv; s, m; fjøs, in Norw. lit. ku-gard; shed, cow-house; gùni-låddipa; Iv; s, m; fjøs, egl. kubygning; cow-shed, lit. cow-building; gula; KIH; v; kärlek; love; 138 appendix i gùllepa, -t, gullopa, gulipà; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; socker; sugar; Romani gudlo sweet, sugar, gúllo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; söt; 1. sweet, 2. cute, pretty; kava morstat ashar gla gullot this coffee is too sweet, diro honkar gullo you are cute; Romani gudlo, guglo sweet, sugar, from Skt. guḍa- melasses; gùllo-tjaro, gulliske-tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r/n; sockerskål; sugar bowl; gullotój, gùllotoj uninfl; LDj; s, coll; karameller, godis, sötsaker; hard candies, candy, sweets; gullotúdd, gùllotudd, -en/-a; LDj; s, coll; sötmjölk; fresh milk, whole milk; gullovár, gùllovar uninfl; LDj, Etz; s, coll; karameller, godis, sötsaker; hard candies, candy, sweets; guma; KIH; s; rygge, ryggrad; back, backbone; gunnis; KIH; adv; hvor; 1. where, 2. how (degree); gurg; Iv; s, m; oxe; ox; gúris, gúrish, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; öre; cent (coin), fig. penny, farthing; ghanat kamma tji jekh guris the people dind’t have a cent; KIH guress, guris, guriss, gurrisch; Romani guršo cent, penny, groschen (coin), from MLG grosse groschen; gurma; KIH; v; breke seg, kaste opp; vomit, throw up; gùrmi-kjei, gùrmiske-kjei; Iv; s, f; budeie, egl. ku-jente; dairy-maid, lit. cow-girl; gurminer; KIH; s pl; grain; grain; gurmipirat; Etz; adj; kobent; knock-kneed; gùrmja, gùrma, -(n), pl gùrmjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ladugård; barn, cow-shed; gúrmni, gúrmi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, f; ko; cow; KIH gurmeijar; Romani gurumni, guruvni cow, cattle, Romani guruv cow, from Skt garūpa- shaped like a cow; gúshtro, -n, -ar, -arna; gústri, -n, -, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; ring; ring; Romani gusterin, angustri ring, from Pers. anguštar; gusjni; Rib; s; kalv; calf; gùstring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; ring; ring; KIH gustring örhänge; earring; gústro, -t, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, n; 1. finger, 2. ring; 1. finger, 2. ring; mander kammar pansch gustroar I have five fingers; Romani (Sinte) gušto finger, toe; gutto; KIH; pron interr; hvem; who; gvogta; KIH; num; to (2); two; gvottra; KIH; v; bære, dra; carry, pull; H hàja, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; förstå; understand; haja diro sass mander penna palla men- grepat do you understand everything I said about the job? hajar tji (I) don’t under- appendix i 139 stand; KIH heia; Romani hajel, haćardel understand, comprehend, perceive, realize, feel, assume, from Skt. ākhyāta- explained; hakk, hak, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ställe, hus; place, house; in different contexts: ka-hak matservering; cafeteria; bengalo-hak tokställe, dårhus; mental ward; Hallónken, Hàllonken uninfl, name; LDj; Halland; Halland; ehe, vorsnos ava fann Hallonken dre rattia yes, we came from Halland last night; hangra; Etz; v; tigga, bedja; beg; hánji, hànning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; brunn; well; Romani hanik well, spring, font, from Skt khana- digging, Kashmiri khan hole, breach in a river bank; hannalé; Etz; s; kvast; broom; hansjnus, hansnus; Etz; pers pron, poss pron; han, honom, hans; he, him, his; hàrga; LDj, Etz; adv; länge; (for) long, (any) longer; Romani (Sinte) harga long; hargat; Etz; adv; fort; fast; hark; KIH; s; fil; file; hàrta, härtlà , -n, pl harter, -(n)a; hartan uninfl; LDj, KIH; s, r; spis, ugn; stove, oven; rakka diro gla hartan honkar tatto watch out or the stove, (it) is warm; KIH härtan kakeloven, kokeoven, skorstein; tiled stove, cooking oven, chimney; from MLG hert cooker, hearth; hàshta, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; hjälpa; help; KIH asta, hasta; maybe Romani (Sinte) hacel search, find; háshtalo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; hjälpsam; helpful; KIH hastalo; hàsjta; Iv; v; 1. veie, 2. ta feil, 3. hjelpe; 1. weigh, 2. err, mistake, be mistaken, 3. help; hàsjta; Iv; adv; hvorfor; why; hásjtar; Iv; s, m; vekt; weight; hasjtipà; Rib; s; vekt; weight; hásjtipa; Iv, Rib; s, m; hjelp; help; hástipa; Iv; s, m; mark (1/4 kilo); half-a-pound; hatfara; Etz; v; hata; hate; from Sw. hata hate; haútus; Iv; s, m; ava i hautus komme i hug; ava i hautus bear in mind; hågstri; Etz; adv; håg (i uttr. komma i håg); recall (in expr. bear in mind); from Sw. håg mind; hållfara; Etz; v; hålla; hållfara ninna hålla med; hold; hållfara ninna agree, lit. hold with; from Sw. hålla hold; hårsno; Etz; adj; hård; hard, harsh; from Sw. hård hard; hårsnopa; Etz; s; hårdhet; hardness, harshness; hårt; Etz; adj; mycket; a lot; håta; KIH; v; knipe, bortta, berøve; snatch, take away; häkto; Etz; s; luffare, taskspelare (icke resande); hobo, conjurer (non-traveller); hämfaras; Etz; v; hämnas; take revenge; from Sw. hämnas take revenge; häring; Etz, KIH; a; strömming, sill; herring; from Gm. Hering herring; 140 appendix i hærdepa; Iv; s, m; mark (dvs. 1/4 kilo); old unit of weight = 1/4 kilogram, about half-a-pound; heìa; Iv; v; 1. høre, 2. forstå (kunne); 1. hear, 2. understand (know); heia-bamsus; KIH; s; björn; bear; heiipa; KIH, Iv; s; 1. sense, 2. forstand; 1. sense, 2. intellect; Iv heíipa; hélko, hälkó ; LDj, Etz, Iv; pron; hela, båda, alla; whole, both, all helkot everything; Etz helke, helsko, helskro, Iv hélko, hílko (adj, pron); Romani (Sinte) hako every, cf. also Sw./Norw. hel all; hèllsfara, hèllstradra, -(de), -t; v; hälsa; greet, say hello; from Sw. hälsa salute; Hélmen; Iv; name; Vilhelm; William; hensjnus; Etz; pers pron; henne; her; héril, häriĺ , -en, -ar, -arna; hérli, -n, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; ärta; pea; Iv hìril, KIH herrile; Romani (Sinte) rihel pea, bean; hérma, härmá , -t, -; LDj adj; grå; grey; nuttan mander tjinna to tjeja honka herma the shirt I bought for the girl was grey; hèrta, härtà , -n; LDj, Etz; s, r; spis; stove; Romani härta cooking stove, fireside; from MLG hert cooker, hearth; hikk, hekk; LDj; adv; hit; hither; hìkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vänta, hålla, stanna; wait, hold, stop; hikkra pre mander! wait for me! hikkrar ta biddra pre dejja, tjavo! stop and wait for mother, boy!; probably from Sw.Dial. hia prevent, stop; hìlpfara, hjälpfara, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hjälpa; help; from MLG helpen, 3sg hilpet help, also Swedish hjälpa help; hìlpra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, KIH; v; hjälpa; help; Etz hälpra, KIH hämpra; hìlprano; Iv; adj; hjelpsom; helpful; hilprepa; Etz; s; hjälp, hjälpsamhet; help, helpfulness; hílpripa; Iv; s, m; hjelp; help; hir, hia; KIH; s; impious body; hírsakk uninfl; LDj; s; råtta; rat; hìspa, -n, pl hìsper, -na; hisp, -an, -er/-a, erna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. hus, 2. lite hus, stue; 1. house, 2. small house, cot; Iv híspa, KIH hisp, hispa; from Ru. izba small house; hìspa-gaje; Iv; s, f; plasskjerring, husmannskone; cottar’s wife, cottager’s wife; hìspa-gavo; Iv; s, m; husmann; cottager; hìsp-voddro, hispeske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; husbil; caravanette, dormobile small caravan, trailer; hòffser, hùffser, -(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, pl; 1. byxor, 2. underbukse; 1. pants, 2. drawers; Iv håfsá , KIH hoffsar, håffsor; maybe from MLG hufte hip; hoj; KIH; s pl; tømmer; reins; hom; Etz; s; hem; home; appendix i 141 hònka, hùnka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara; be; honkar diros narta khere? is your family home? hòno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; mager; skinny; hónom; Iv; s, m; (heste)hov; (horse’s) hoof; honsjnus, honsnus; Etz; pers pron; hon, henne; she, her; from Sw./Norw. hon she; hòrta, -t, -; hórto, -t, -a; LDj, Iv, KIH; adj; bra, fin, riktig, äkta; good, nice, real, authen- tic; Iv horta, hårta genuine, sterling, valuable; KIH horta kind, beautiful, mild- mannered, patient; Romani orto right, fair, straight, good, brave, from Gr. orthós straight; horta-lil; KIH; s; godt (ekte) pass; good (authentic) passport; hortalo; KIH; adj; rask, flink; healthy, strong, capable, efficient; hòrtepa, -t; LDj; s, n; sanning, rätt; truth, right; kokka tji penna hortepa gla mander! don’t lie, tell me the truth!; Romani orthó right, fair, straight, good, brave; hòvvra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hugga; hack, chop, cut; hovvra teli dova rukkerna! chop down that tree! hovvra tji lester, rakka lo! don’t cut him, watch out or him!; from MLG houuen, howen, hoggen hack, chop; hóvvri, hòvvri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; yxa; axe; KIH hoffro; höffer; KIH; s, pl; lår; thighs; from Sw. höft, Norw. hoffe hip; höftara; Etz; v; behöva; need; from Sw. behöva need; høyquanting; KIH; s; stiftamtmann, en høy embedsmann; prefect, a high official; hùbba, -n, pl hùbbor, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; mössa; cap; from MHG hūbe headgear; hultrum; Etz; s; ved; firewood; hùnka, hònka, hòlkla, -(n), pl hùnker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; flaska; bottle; from Sw.Dial. hålk something hollow, cup, cup for liquor; husare, hyvare; KIH; s; onanist; masturbator; hvervel; KIH; s; kiste, skrin; chest, case, box; hvittus; KIH; s; vinteren; winter; from Sw./Norw. vinter winter, cf. ONor. vetr; I ifánn, ìfann; LDj; prep/adv; ifrån; from; nascha lo ifann diro? did he get away from you? lillet ava ifann miro phral the letter is from my brother; ihópri, anhópri, drehópri, ànhopri, drèhopri; LDj; adv; ihop, tillsammans; together; suta ihopri consolidate, tji ihopri not together; from Sw. ihop together; il; Iv; s, f; fil; file; from Norw./Sw. fil file; ìllusmann, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; lymmel, drummel; cad, rascal, scoundrel; cf. ilsmat; ìlsmat uninfl; LDj; s; drummel, illmarig, jäkel; scoundrel, blackguardly, (skilled) devil; savo ilsmat pre dingla what a crafty businessman (lit. what a devil at business); from Sw.Dial., combinations with ill-, iller evil, mean, angry, illmarig underhanded, sly; 142 appendix i ìlsmatig, ìlsmarig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; falsk, jäklig; deceitful, devilish; cf. ilsmat; ima; KIH; v; tenke, tro; think; Ímmus; Iv; name; Emma; Emma; ínto; LDj; adj/adv; intill, nära; beside, close; ja into mander, miro kamli! come beside me, my dear!; from Sw. intill intill, cf. to; ìsa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klä; dress; cf. ising; ìsar, -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, pl; kläder; clothes; Rib ising, KIH hisar; cf. ising; ising; Etz; s; klänning; dress; Romani idja clothes, suit, from Gr. éndyma; ìsing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kostym; suit; cf. ising; isler; Etz; s; filt; blanket; J ja, -dde, -tt; Rib, KIH, LDj; v; gå; go, walk; KIH gja, Iv jàbin-gaje barselkvinne; woman in childbed; Romani dšal go, travel, from Skt. yā-; jàer; Iv; s, pl; spiker; (spike) nails; jànga; Iv, Rib; v; vekke; våkne; wake (someone), wake up, tr. and itr; Rib jangna; Romani džanglo intelligent, famous; jàr-sigg; Iv; s, m; fart, egl. går-fort; speed, lit. goes-fast; jáipa, jàipa; Iv; s, m; gående, gang; goings, going; jàare, -n, -, def pl jàarna; LDj; s, m; luffare, vandrare; hobo, wanderer; jaben; Iv; s; gaaen, gang; goings, going; cf. ja; jagg, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. eld, 2. fyrstikk; 1. fire, 2. (safety) match; Romani jag fire, from Skt. agni-; jàggars-kero; Iv; s, m; bryggerhus, eldhus; laundry, wash-house; jàgge-bero; Iv; s, m; dampbåt, egl. ild-båt; steamboat, lit. fire-boat; jàggerske-dingse; Iv; s, f; fyrstikk, lit. eld-greie; match, lit. fire-gear; jàggerske-måkti, jàggerske-måkting; Iv; s, f/m; fyrstikk-eske; match-box; jaggeske-vóddro, jàgg-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; brandbil; fire truck; jàggra, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; elda, tända; burn, light; KIH jagra; jaggrepa; Etz; s; eldning; firing, wood firing, lighting of fires; jagralo; KIH; adj; varm, het; warm, hot; jágro; Iv; s, m; fyrstikk, egl. brenner; (safety) match, lit. (a) burner; jàgs-bar; Iv; s, m; fyrkolj egl. ild-stein; steam-coals, lit. fire-stone; jàing, -en; LDj; s, r; gång (om häst); gait (about a horse); jakk; Iv; s, m; øre (mynten); pl jakkar småpenger; small change; jakk, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; öga; eye; KIH jakane, jakor, jakorne; Romani jakh eye, from Skt. akṣi-; jàkkane; Iv; s, def pl; ansiktet; the face; appendix i 143 jàna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; veta, känna till, förstå; know, know of, understand; janar diro, mander kanslar krajon you know, I know the king; Romani dšanel know, know of, from Skt. jñā-, jānāti; jàngna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; väcka; wake up (trans.); Romani džungavel wake (up), awake, be awake, from Skt. jāgṛ-; jángno, jagno, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; vaken; awake; lattjo teijsa, honkar diro jangno? good morning, are you awake?; járo, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj; s, n; ägg; egg; Romani jaro (Sinte), anřo egg, (also) tes- ticle, from Skt. āṇḍa-; jänget; KIH; s; gangjærn; hinge; je; LDj; num/indef art; en, ett; a, an; Romani jekh one, someone, a, an, from Skt. eka one; jeckjackad; Etz; adj; enögd; one-eyed; jeckmussad; Etz; adj; enarmad; one-armed; jecksaro; Etz; adj; ensam; alone; jeckspan; Etz; s; inbrott; housebreaking, burglary; jekh, jekh, jikk; LDj, KIH; num/indef art; en, ett; one; KIH gikk, jek; cf. je; jekk-bàrolill, -et/-en; LDj, Etz; s, n/r; stor sedel, hundra- eller tusenlapp; big bill, hun- dred- or thousand kronor bill; jekk-jakk; Rib; adj; en-öyet; one-eyed; jèkkum, jìkkum, jékhum; LDj; num/indef art; en, ett; a, an; cf. je; jèkkum-lokke, -n, pl -lokkar/-lokker, -na/-a; LDj; s, r; enkrona; one-krona (coin); jèla, jälà , jèrla, järlà , järdà , -(de), -t; LDj; v; bli skyldig, köpa på krita; owe, buy on tick/credit; jellm, -an; Rib; s; fjell, fjeld; mountain jellmeske-gav; Rib; s; fjell-bygd, fjeld district; mountain village, mountain district; jellmeske-kèr; Rib; s; fjell-gård, fjeld farm; mountain farm; jelm, jelme; KIH, Iv; s; mountain, fjeld; mountain, fell; Iv jélma; jèlme-bamsus; Iv; s, m; bjørn, egl. fjellbamse; bear, lit. mountain bear; jèlme-hispa; Iv; s, m; seter, egl. fjellstue; summer outfarm, lit. mountain cot(tage); jèlmeske-gav; Iv; s, n; fjellbygd; mountain district; jelänk; Etz; s; remtyg på sele; strap on harness; jènga, jängà , -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; gifta sig; get married; from Romanian, zhenit’ marry; jengd; KIH; adj (pst ptc); gift (med noen); married; jèngepa, jängepà , -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; bröllop, giftermål; wedding, marriage; Etz jäng- depa, Iv jéngnopa; jénglo, jängló , -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; gift; married; Etz jängdo, Iv jéngno; jìda, jìdda; Iv; v; 1. lekke, 2. leve; 1. leak, 2. live; cf. jiddra; jìla, jìba, jìa; Iv, KIH; v; synge; sing; KIH jøiga; jìlipa; Iv; s, m; sang; song; jíbipa; Iv; s, m; sang; song; 144 appendix i jíbben, jíven, jiben uninfl; LDj, Etz; s, r, def sg; livet; (the) life; Romani (Sinte) džiben life; jibing; Etz; s; hals; neck, throat; jíddan; Iv; s, n; liv; life; jìddra, jìdra, jida, jidda, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; leva, göra oväsen; live, make noise; Romani dživel live, from Skt. jīv- live; jìddrepa, -t, -(n), -na; s, n; LDj; Iv; oväsen; noise; kerrar tji savo jiddrepa miro nukkoar! don’t much such noise, my children!; jíddro, jído, jidro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; livlig, levande; lively, alive; jíkk-enja-divesar; Iv; num, s; 3 veker, egl. en-tjue-dager; 3 weeks, lit. one-twenty-days; jili; Etz; s; sång, visa; song; jilier; Etz; s, pl; ådror; veins; jimm, -et, -, -ena; jímmer uninfl; LDj; s, n; skinn, hud; skin, hide; probably Romani cipa skin, from Gr. skípa; jimmeske-bánkus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; skinnsoffa; leather couch; jimmeske-hòffser, jìmm-hoffser, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; skinnbyxor; leather pants; jimmeske-nùtta, jìmmer-nutta, jìmm-nutta, -(n), pl -nutter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; skinnjacka; leather jacket; jingna; Rib; v; forynge; rejuvenate; jinn, ginn, -et; LDj; s, n; nummer; number; Romani gin numeral, number, from Skt. gaṇa- multitude; jìnna, gìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; räkna; count; jinna to trin! count to three! jinna loverna honkar obahi to count money is bad luck; Iv jèna, jìna; cf. jinn; jiv; Etz; s, coll; säd, spec. havre; grain, esp. oats; jiv; Etz; s, coll; snö; snow; jiv; Iv; s, n; korn, særlig brukt om bygg; grain, esp. used of barley; jìva, jìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; snöa; snow; Iv jìba, jìbba, jìva; Romani jib snow (noun), from Skt. hima- cold, frost, snow; jíven, jìven, def sg jìvanet, jìvet; LDj, Iv; s, n; snö; snow; Iv jib, jibb, jiv, jev; cf. jìva; jivenskebädder; Etz; s, pl; havreneker; oat sheaves; jivreske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; snögubbe; snowman; jomla; KIH, Iv; s; gud; God; Iv jómlia; jomla; KIH; adj; helig; holy; jòna, -t; LDj; s, n; brännvin; moonshine; Jónkus; Iv; name; Johan; John; jor, jår; Etz; s; lie; scythe; jucklott; Etz; adj; ont, elakt; evil, mean; júji, jùji, -n/-a; LDj, KIH; s, f; flicka (ej ännu kvinna); girl (not yet a woman); KIH juja; cf. jujo; appendix i 145 jújo, jùjono, jùjolo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; ren; clean; jujoa plakter rena lakan, tovva diros vashter savi dova honkar jujoloa! wash your hands so they’re clean!; Romani šužo clear, clean, empty, from Skt. śucya- is purified, burns; jukkelpi; KIH; s; politi; police; jukklope; KIH; s; politi, rådstue, rett; police station, town hall, court; jùra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; se, kika, titta, glo; see, peek, look, stare; jura kaj deja! look here, mother! so maskan nast jura pre tjirklon! the cat is really staring at the bird!; jùstring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ring, fingerring; ring, ring on finger; cf. gushtro; júva, -(n), pl jùver, -(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; lus; louse; Iv ju lus, ogs. generelt om insekt; louse, also of insect in general; KIH jua, juva; Romani džuw louse, bug, from Skt. yūkā- louse; júvano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lusig; lousy, infested with lice; juvar, juver; Etz; s, coll; löss; lice; júvlia, -(n), pl júvlier, -na; LDj; s, f; kvinna, flicka; woman, girl; Romani džuvli woman, from Skt yuvati- young woman; jýkkli, júkkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; hynda; bitch; female dog; Romani džukli bitch, female dog; cf. jykklo; jýkklo, júkklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; hund (hanhund); (male) dog; Romani džukel dog, from Skt. jukuṭa- dog; K ka, -(d)de, -tt; LDj, Rib; v; äta; eat; Romani xal eat, from Skt. khād- eat, bite; kàben-låddipa; Iv; s, m; stabbur, egl. mathus; store-house on pillars, lit. food-house; kàben-ry; Iv; s, m; bordkniv; table-knife; kàare, -n, -, def pl kàarna; LDj; s, m; ätare; eater; kabalo; KIH; adj; mettet; full (from eating); kàben, -; kàbing, kàving, -en; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; mat; food; dejas kaben ashar tjattjot lattjot mother’s food is really good; Etz kabin, KIH kab, kabeln, kapjen; Romani xabe food; kaben-kjuro; Rib; s; mat-kniv; table knife; kabenske-díkklo, -n; LDj, Rib; s, r; matduk (bars som ett förkläde där man lade mat när man var ute och tiggde); food cloth (worn as an apron in which you put food when out begging); kabenske-tàfflan, -et/-taffla, -, def pl -tàfflerna; LDj; s, n; middagsbord; dinner table; kabuset, kabbuset; Etz; s, def; ansiktet; face; kacknir; KIH; s, pl; fjærfe; fugler (av alle slag); fowl; birds (of all kinds); cf. kakkni; kagsi; KIH; num; ni (9); nine; 146 appendix i kà-hak, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; matställe, matservering; place that serves food, cafeteria; kaj, kej; LDj, KIH; adv; här, hit; here, over here; Romani kai here; kak, kákel; Iv; s, m; onkel; uncle; Romani kak, from Hi. kākā uncle, father; kakk; subj; om; if; jfr. pàlla; kakkaráska, kàkkeraska, -(n), pl kakkarásker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; skata, stor fågel, örn, falk, rovfågel; magpie, big bird, eagle, falcon, bird of prey; KIH patteráska; Romani kakaraška magpie, from Gr. karakáxa; kàkkaven uninfl; LDj, Iv; s; kittel, panna, hink; cauldron, pot, bucket; Iv kakavé, kakáve, kàkkave kettle; coffee-pot; Romani kakavi cauldron, from Gr. kakkabē; kakken; KIH; s; axel; shoulder; Kákken; Iv; name; Aksel; Axel; kàkkla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klippa; cut (with scissors); kakkla tji an mul lillet! don’t cut the letter!; kàkkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; sax; scissors; Iv kákli, KIH kakni; Romani kat scissors, from Skt. karttrī-; kákklo, -n/-t; LDj; s, r/n; smuts, skräp, avföring, skit; dirt, garbage, excrements, shit; from Gm. kacken to dirt, take a shit; kákklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; smutsig; dirty; kàkkni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a/-na; LDj; s, f; höna; hen; Romani khajni, Sinte kaxni hen, chicken; kakkni-gålipà; Rib; s; höne-gal; fowl crowing, fowl call; kakkniske-khér, kàkkni-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönshus; hen house; kakkniske-mój, kàkkni-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönsnäbb; hen’s beak; kakkniske-píro, kàkkni-piro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönsfot, hönsben; hen’s foot, hen’s leg; kákkno, -n, -ar,-arna; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock, rooster; cf. kakkni; Kàkni-fåron; Iv; namn; Hønefoss, egl. høne-byen; Hønefoss, lit. the hen-town; kàkni-gavo; Iv; s, m; hane, egl. hønemann; cock, lit. hen-man; kaks; Etz; num; två; two; from Månsing kaks, from Finnish kaksi; kala; KIH; s; botn; behind, bottom; kalker; KIH; s; trädgård; garden; kálo uninfl; LDj; namn; namn på finska resande(romer); name for Finnish Travellers (Romani); mander trissade schtar lallaroa kalo fann Fintiko-them I met four Finnish Travellers from Finland; kalo, karlo; KIH; adj; svart, mørk; black, dark; kálo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. svart, 2. blind; 1. black, 2. blind; Iv kálo black, also (with the younger generation) blind; Romani kalo black, from Skt. kāla- black, time; kàlo-dukk, -t, -a; LDj; adj; svartsjuk; jealous; Kalosiro; Etz; namn; Svartsjö (tvångsarbetsanstalten där); Svartsjö (lit. Black Lake, referring to an institution for forced labour in that community); appendix i 147 kaloske-bár, kàlo-bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; onyxsten; onyx stone; kalot; Etz; s, coll; bly; lead; ka lî̀ , kàllie, -t, -(n)/-er, -na/-r(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, n; stuga, ställe; cottage, place (where you live); dova honkar an siros kali they are in their cottage; KIH käll yard; maybe from Gm./ MLG keller basement; kàloar; Iv; s, pl; kol, egl. (de) svarte; coal, lit. (the) black ones; kàlo-bar; Iv; s, m; kol, egl. svart-stein; coal, lit. black-stone; kàlo-bero; Iv; s, m; dampskip; steamship; kálot; Iv; s, m; sirup (egl. noe svart); syrup (lit. smth. black); kàlot-mass; Iv; s, n; spekekjøtt, egl. svart kjøtt; dried mutton, lit. black meat; kalsa; KIH; v; hestsko; shoe (horse); kàlsing, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-erna; LDj, KIH; s, r; sko; shoe; KIH kalsing boot, kalsingane boots; from Gr. khaltsa shoe, sock; kalsingdoroar; Etz; s, pl; kängsnören; bootlaces; kalsíng-fakkare, kàlsing-fakkare, -n, -e, def pl -fakkarna; LDj, KIH; s, m; skomakare; shoemaker; KIH kalsinfakare, kalsingfakare; kalsing-mäggrare; Etz; s; skomakare; shoemaker; Káltus; Iv; name; Karl; Charles; kalvónom; Etz; s; kalv; calf; from Sw. kalv calf; kànisa, kànnisa, kaníssa; Iv; v; gjerne ville, ha lyst til; want to, like to; cf. kamma; kambána, karbána, kàmbana, kàrbana, kàrbanja, -(n), pl kambáner, -(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; klocka, väggklocka; watch, clock, wall clock; puscha so kambanan ashar! ask what the time is!; Iv kambáne (f), KIH kabana pocket watch; Romani (Sinte) kambana watch, clock, bell, from Gr. kámpana clock, bell; kambàn-fakkar; Rib, KIH; s; klokke-arbeider (urmaker); watch-worker, clock-worker (watchmaker, clockmaker); KIH kambanefakker; kambàn-verranì; Rib; s; klokke-kjede; watch chain; kamïna; KIH; s; lykt; lantern, lamp; from Gr. kamínos oven; kàmla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; älska; love; cf. kamma; kàmlepa, -t; LDj; s, n; kärlek; love; kamleske-bár, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kärlekssten; love stone; kàmli; LDj; sg f; kära, käre, älskade; dear, beloved; honkar diro miros kamli? are you my dear?; kámlo; Iv; adj; himmelsk; heavenly; kámlo, kámmelo; Iv; s, m; himmel; sky, heaven; kámlo, -t, -a, f kàmli; LDj; adj; kär, älskad; dear, loved; Romani kamelo dear, loved, lovely, in love, likeable, nice, polite, compliant; kàmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha; have; kammat lattjot have it well (good bye), kammar diro lover? do you have money?; Romani kamel want, crave, like, wish, love, (also) owe, from Skt. kāma- love; 148 appendix i kamma-de-lákjot; Iv; expr; farvel, adjø, egl. ha det godt!; used as a parting salutation; farewell, goodbye, lit. have it well!; kammelòn; Rib; s; himmel; sky, heaven; kámmeloske; Iv; adj; himmelsk; heavenly; kammíssa, kammísha, kàmmissa, kàmmisha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja; want; KIH kanisa; cf. kamma; kammóra, kammóro, kàmmora uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; rum, kammare; room, chamber; ja to diro kammora! go to your room!; Etz kamúrra; from Gm. Kammer chamber, little room; kampus; KIH; s; bær, stein; berry, pit, stone seed; kandelom; KIH, Iv; s; ljus, eld; light, fire; Iv kandélom bål; bonfire, may also be used of the sun; from MLG kandeler candle stick; kanderina; KIH; s; kirke; church; kandra; KIH; s; stank, vond lukt; stench, bad smell; kàndra, kànja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; lukta, osa; smell, smell bad; Etz kanda; Romani khandel stink, smell, Romani khand (s) smell, stench, from Skt. gandha-; kanfara; KIH, Iv; v; kunna; 1. know; be knowledgeable in, 2. be able to; from Sw./Norw. kan know (inflected form); kángari, khéngari, -n/-a/-an, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; kyrka; church; Iv kangarí, kàngari, kànnali, kànnari (f), kanaria, KIH kangrï, kankaria, kanaria; Romani khangiri church, from Pers. kongere tower; kangari-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kyrkogård; churchyard; kàngla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; kamma; comb; Iv kàngra; Romani kangli comb, from Skt. kaṅkata-; kàngling, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; kam; comb; KIH kangli; cf. kangla; kanise, konissa, kåssnis, kåssnise; KIH, Iv; s; korg; basket; Iv kårnísse; kánjipa; Iv; s, m; lukt; smell; kannjipà; Rib; s; lukting; smelling; kánno; Iv; s, m; klokker; parish clerk; kánno, -n; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock, rooster; kànsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; känna; feel; probably from Sw. känsla feeling; kao; KIH; s; främming; stranger; kapjeba; KIH; s, def; bordet; the table; kàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kalla, kalla samman; call, summon; ghana karar vorsnos gla tat- tare people call us tattare; Romani (a)kharel call, scream, call someone something, be called, from Skt. garh- complain; karadil; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; pistol, revolver; gun, revolver; Rib karjadil, Iv karadíl, karjodíl; kardíni, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; pistol, revolver; pistol, revolver; karipà; Rib; s; kalling; call; cf. kara; karja; KIH; v; ladda (weapon), knipa; load (weapon), pinch; appendix i 149 kàrna; LDj; adv; när; when; Romani kar near, by, to; káro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; penis; penis; KIH karon; Romani kar penis, from Skt. *kāṭa- stick, penis; karpo; KIH; s; kroppen, legeme; body, organism; karting; Rib; s; brev; letter; cf. kartli; kártli, kárti, kàrtali, kàrtli, kàrti, -a/-t, -/-er, -na/-erna; kárto, kàrto, -t, -s, -s; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r/n; 1. kort, spelkort, körkort, 2. biljett; 1. card, playing card, driver’s license, 2. ticket; Etz karti, -ar kort, porträtt, biljett; card, portrait, ticket; Iv kært (n) kort (brev-, spille-); card (post-, playing-); KIH kartingar; Romani (Sinte) karta playing card, card, chart, map, ticket, from Gm. Karte; kartli, kartling; Etz; s; kortlek; deck of cards; karva; KIH; s; lampa; lamp; kas; Etz; s; lus, löss; louse, lice; kasfakker; KIH; s; snekker, tømmermann; carpenter, woodworker; kasht, -en; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, r; ved, träd; wood; firewood, tree; kava rukk bliddrar fedig kasht this tree will make good firewood; Rib kasjt kjepp, stokk; cane, log; KIH kas, kascht, kast, khast; Romani kašt tree, wood, stem, stick, log, from Skt. kāṣṭha- piece of wood; kàshta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hosta; cough; kashta tji miro an lishto! don’t cough in my face!; Romani xasal cough, from Skt. kās- cough; kasing; Etz; s; ost; cheese; kàsjtakjero; Iv; s, m; bydgevekter; parish beadle; kàsjta-krajo; Iv; s, m; bygdevekter, egl. stokke-konge; parish beadle, lit. cudgel king; kásjtar; Iv; s, m; hoste; cough; cf. kashta; kàsjteske-kjerar, kásjeske-kjerar; Iv; s, m; snekker, tømmermann, egl. tre-arbeider; joiner, carpenter, lit. wood-worker; kàsjtesse-dandrar; Iv; s, m; krybbebiter, egl. tre-biter; crib-biter, lit. wood-biter; kàsjt-ger; Iv; s, m; sag, egl. ved-sag; saw, lit. wood-saw; kasjtlittra; Etz; s; vedskjul; woodshed; kasjtpiro; Etz; s; träben; wooden leg; kasjtvantra; Etz; s; vedskjul; woodshed; kaskdivers; KIH; adv; middagen; noon; kass, kach, -et; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, n; 1. hö, 2. halm; 1. hay, 2. straw; tjinna kass dre kherarna! buy hay at the farms!; Iv kas, kass, kasj, KIH kass; Romani khas hay, from Skt. ghāsa- food, pasture grass; kàss-goning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hösäck; hay sack; kassplákta; Etz; s; hölakan, höskynke (skynke avsett att bära hö i); hay sheet, hay cloth (clot for carrying hay in); kassvasjt; Etz; s; hötapp (egl. höhand); wisp of hay (lit. hay hand); kaston; Etz; s; konung; king; 150 appendix i Kàstona-foro, Kralìlleske-foro uninfl; LDj, Etz; name; Stockholm (kungliga staden); Stockholm (lit. the Royal City); kastrílja, -n; LDj; s, r; kastrull; saucepan; kastrínja, kàstrinja, kàstrinla, kàstringla, -(n), pl kastrínjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; kista, dragkista, byrå, låda; chest, chest of drawers, box; Etz kasjtrina, kas- jtrínja, Iv kastrína, kàstrine, KIH kastrïnna; from MLG kast (kass, kaste) container, receptable; kàttja, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; brinna, bränna; burn; kattja pre kava puranoa hispan nanit te kamma burn this old house, (it’s) not worth anything; KIH katja; Romani (Sinte) xačel burn, glow, from Gr. kataskeuazo; kàttjali, -t; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, n; brännvin, hembränt; schnaps, moonshine; Rib kasjt- jalì, Iv kakjalí, kákjali, kàkjali, KIH kakjervil, katjali, katkjali; kattler; Etz; s, pl; kort; cards; kàva, kàvva; LDj, Rib; dem pron, pers pron; 1. (dem pron) den (här), det (här), denne, denna, detta; de (här), dessa, 2. (pers pron, mindre vanligt) han, honom, hon, henne, den, det; de, dem, 3. maken, samme; 1. (dem pron) this, this (man), these, 2. (pers pron, less common) he, him, she, her, it, them, 3. match, the same (kind); Romani (a)kava this (dem pron); kávo; Iv; adj, s, m; fremmend; strange, stranger; kåckepaskro; Etz; s; lögnare; liar; kåkkabaskro,̀ kåkkarbaskro,̀ kåkkarbáskro, kåkkibaskrò ; Iv; s, m; løgnhals; fibster; kåkkarò ; Iv; adj; løgnaktig, upålitelig; lying, unreliable; kåkkibá ; Iv; s, m; løgn; lie; kålo; KIH, Rib; S; bröst; breast; kårrko; Rib; adj, s; hellig, hœytid (sœndag); holy, holiday (Sunday); kåstis; KIH; s; kläder, kostym; clothing, suit; kåta, kåto; Etz; s; stuga, ställe; cottage, place; kåtró ; Iv; pron; själv; self; kåvar̀ ; Iv; s, pl; (små)penger; (small) coins; kåven; Etz; s, def; kammaren; the chamber; kändà , -(de), -t; LDj; v; plocka; pick; kända diro butt ninna muroar dre vago dives? did you pick many berries the day before yesterday?; kärjel; Etz; s; lymmel, illmaring; scoundrel, sly person; kæve; KIH; s; snurre, tukthus; penitentiary; kævmors; KIH; s; tukthuslem; someone admitted into a penitentiary; kèria-dukken; Iv; s, m, def; kjønns-sjukdom; venereal disease; kèria-gavon; Iv; s, m, def; fanden, egl. styggemannen; the deuce, lit. the ugly man; kèria-mosjn; Iv; s, m, def; fanden, egl. styggemannen; the deuce, lit. the ugly man; kèria-varo; Iv; s, m; havremjøl, egl. stygt, vondt mjøl; oatmeal, lit. ill-looking, bad flour; appendix i 151 kéria, kérja, kírja; Iv, KIH; adj; stygg, vond, dårlig; ugly, ill, bad; KIH kerria ondt, ille; bad, hostile, unpleasant; kei fann; Rib; adv; her-fra; from here; kei palla; Rib; adv; her-etter; hereafter; kei teli; Rib; adv; her-ned; down here; kell; KIH; s; mel; meal, flour; kèlla, kèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dansa; dance; Romani khel play, dance; kèllepa, kèlepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; dans; dance; Etz källipa, Iv kélipa, kéllipa; Kèllodikko-them uninfl; name; Ryssland; Russia; kerál, kärál, királ, kèral, kill, kild, -en, -/ar, -en/-arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; ost; cheese; kill ta cheese and bread, suta pre keral pre killgåsen Natalia! put some cheese on the sandwich, Natalia!; Etz kírali, Iv kjirál, KIH kïrall; Romani khil butter, oil, fat, lard, from Skt. kṣīra- milk, thickened milk; kerdat; KIH; adj (sup); kokt, stekt; boiled, fried; kere; KIH; adv; hjem; home; atja kere be at home; keri, kiri; Etz; adj; ful; ugly; kèri-jaggra; Rib; s; heime-brent; moonshine; kèripà; Rib; s; heimsted, heimen; homestead, home; kérno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; rutten; rotten; kernoa muron kammar paschat dre vesha gla jekh langsno tija rotten berries, (that) have lain in the forest a long time; Romani kerno rotten; keropa(r); Etz; s; gård, hem; farmyard, home; kèrra, kèra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; 1. göra, 2. arbeide, 3. lage, 4. trolle; 1. do, make, 2. work, 3. prepare, 4. charm (=conjure); dikk so lo kerra siro to gla garia look at him trying to impress the woman (lit. doing himself for the woman), kammar diro kerrat dova khere? did you make this at home? lattjot kerrat! well done!; Iv kjèra, kjèrra, kèra gjøre, arbeide, lage, ogs. trolle; do, make, work, prepare, also charm (=conjure); KIH kjera do, fix, perform tricks, kera pre åpne, gjøre opp; open, make a deal; Romani kerel do, make, from Skt. kṛ-; kes; KIH; s; ost; cheese; kess; KIH; s; ande, Helige Anden; spirit, Holy Spirit; kéttane, ketta nes̀̂ , kèttanes, kéttalo, kättaló ; LDj, Etz; adv; ihop, tillsammans, i sälls- kap; together, in (eachother’s) company; mander voltrar diro bliddrar kettanes ninna mande I want you to be together with me, kettanes soraloa ta bunoa together (we are) strong and proud; kev, käv, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; hål; hole; Iv kev n hol, åpning, også brukt overført om tukthus; hole, aperture, also used metaphorically as a house of correction; Romani xev hole, window, cave, cavity, asshole, vagina, prison, from Skt. kheya- ditch; 152 appendix i kham, -en; LDj; s, r; sol, solsken; sun, sunshine; Romani kham sun, from Skt. gharma- heat; kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; gård; farm; estate, homestead (on the countryside); dova khern bekkna Lindgren to Rosengren Lindgren sold that farm to Rosengren; Iv kjer, ker, KIH kjær; Romani kher house, from Skt. gṛha-; khére, khère, khèri; LDj; adv; hem, hemma; home, at home; kheriske-jàggra, khèri-jaggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hembränna; home-distill; kheriske-jàggring, khèri-jaggring, -en; LDj; s, r; hembränning; home-distilling; kíno; Iv; adj; trøtt, matt; tired, faint; Romani khino tired, from Skt. khinna- tired; kia; KIH; adj; våt; wet; cf. kindo; kibb; Etz; s; skål; bowl; kill, -et; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, n; smör; butter; Etz kil, Iv kil, kjil, KIH kiil; Romani khil but- ter, oil, fat, lard, from Skt. kṣīra- thickened milk; kìll-gås, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; smörgås; sandwich; Etz kilgås; kílo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. käpp, 2. staur; 1. cane, 2. pole; Romani kilo pole, cane, cudgel, peg, from Skt kīla- stake, peg, tumour; kìltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny; kíndo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; våt, blöt; wet; Iv kínto; Romani kingo wet, from Skt. timita-; kìngla, krìngla, -(n), pl kìngler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kvarn; mill; maybe from Gm. Kringel ring; kìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; köpa; buy; KIH tjina; Romani kinel buy, from Skt. krīnāti; kìnnepa, -t, -, -na; LDj, KIH; s, n; marknad, försäljningsplats; market, sales location; honkar but ninna romani-manusch pre kava kinnepat there are a lot of Romani peo- ple at this market; KIH kinnep; cf. kinna; kinnipà; Rib; s; kjöp; purchase; kintan; Etz; s; menstruation; menstruation; kíppa, -n, -, -na; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. spann, hink, 2. bøtte; 1. bucket, 2. pail; Iv kìbba, kìbbi (m), kjíbban, kíppan, kjíppan, KIH kipp så; vat; from MLG kipe, Gm. Kiepe a great, long carrying basket; kippo; Etz; s; skål, mugg; bowl, mug; cf. kippa; kir uninfl; kíro, -n, -s/-ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; myra; ant; Romani kir ant, from Skt. kīṭa- bug; kìrja, kèrja, kèrjia, kärjà , -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vara ful, elak, dålig, usel; be ugly, mean, bad (in a dishonest way), wretched; dolle honka kirjat kerrat attjer lester that was badly done of him, kerja ghana mean people; Romani kerno lazy, decomposed, rot- ten, brittle, slow; kìrjing, kèrjing, kärjing̀ , -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fuling, elaking; rascal, nasty person; cf. kirja; kirkloske-hìspa, -n, pl -hisper, -na; LDj; s, r; fågelholk; bird house; kis; Etz; s; man; man; appendix i 153 kìsing, kìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; börs, portmonnä; purse; Romani kisi purse, moneybag, from Pers. kīsa; kísko, kírklo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; god, bra, fin; good, nice; KIH kjesko god, snill, skjønn, blid, godmodig; good, kind, mild-mannered, patient, friendly; Romani čisto clean, probably from Slavic; kisko-dìves, kiska-dìves; LDj; interj; goddag!; Hello! (lit. good day); kjynna; Iv; v; høre; hear; kjærvar-bau; Iv; s, m; grue, peis, egl. koke-ovn; fireplace, hearth, lit. cooking oven; kjàveske-vådro; Iv; s, m; barneseng; cot (bed for child); kjàvo-davripa, kjávo-davripa; Iv; s, m; barnedåp, egl. barne-lesing, i.e., lesing over bar- net; infant baptism, lit. child-reading, i.e., reading over the child; kjàvo-dukkalo, kjávo-dukkalo; Iv; adj; barnsjuk (om kvinne som skal føde); having pains of childbirth, labor, lit. child-ill; kjàvo-kjavoar, kjávo-kjavoar; Iv; s, m, pl; barnebarn; grandchildren; kjàvoske-dakri; Iv; s, f; jordmor, egl. barne-mor; midwife, lit. child-mother; kjàvoske-drablar; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. barne-leser; teacher, lit. child-reader; kjàvoske-isar; Iv; s, pl; barneklær; childrens clothes; kjaarkaner; KIH; s; tyv; thief; kjadda; Rib; v; spy; vomit; kjæka; KIH; v; søke, lete; search; kjækla; KIH; num; sju; seven; kjærver; KIH; s; kok; boiling; kjákjipa; Iv; s, m; rett, domstol; right, court of justice; kjákjo; Iv; adj; sann, viss; true, certain; kjal; Iv; s, n; sladring, angiveri; tattle-telling, report of a crime; kjámlo; Iv, Joh; s, m; skrå, buss, egl. tugge; quid (of tobacco), chaw, lit. chew; Joh tjàmmlo, -n, -ar, -arna; kjar; Rib; s; kyt, ros, skryt, sleik; praise, boast; kjara; KIH, Iv; v; skryta, prisa; boast, praise; Iv sjàra; Romani (a)šarel to boast, from Skt. uc-car- shout; kjaripà; Rib; s; kyting, rosing, skryting, sleiking; praising, boasting; kjasjipàn; Rib; s; domstolen, retten, sannheten; the court of justice, the truth; kjasjot; Rib; adv; sant; true; kjatsa; KIH; v; regne; rain; kjàvo-låkki; Iv; s, f; barsel; confinement (childbed); kjåggar; KIH; s; ost; cheese; kjår; Rib; s; stjel, tjuv; theft, thief; kjåralo; KIH; adj; tyvaktig; thievish; kjåralo-gavo; Iv; s, m; fattigforstander; relief officer; 154 appendix i kjåtan; KIH; s; kedja; chain; kjèrar; Iv; s, m; arbeider; håntverker; worker; artisan; kjèrar-låddipa; Iv; s, m; verksted, egl. arbeider- eller håndverker-hus; workshop, lit. workers or artisans house; kjèrerske-gaje; Iv; s, f; bondekone, egl. gardkone; peasant woman, lit. farm-wife; kjèrerske-gavo; Iv; s, m; bonde (på en større gård, i mots. til småbruker eller husmann), egl. gardmann; farmer (on a good-sized farm, in contradistinction to small farmer or crofter), lit. farm-man; kjèri, kèri; Iv; adv; 1. heim, 2. heime; 1. home, 2. at home; kjèri-kil; Iv; s, n; bondesmør (i motsetning til meierismør og margarin), egl. heimesmør; farm butter (made by farmers) in contradistinction to creamery butter (made in a factory) and margarine, lit. home-butter; kjèr-jagra; Iv; s, m; heimebrent; moonshine, home distilled spirits; kéripa; Iv; s, m; arbeid, ogs. trolldom; work, also witchcraft; kjeì-kjavo; Iv; s, m; datter, egl. jentebarn, jentunge; daughter, lit. girl-child, little girl; kjerklo-pòri; Rib; s, pl; fugle-fjaer; bird feather; kjerveba; KIH; s; skorstein, ildsted; chimney, fireplace, hearth; kjervia; KIH; s; gryte; (boiling) pot; kjéttan, kjåtań ; Iv; s, m; (ur) kjede; (watch) chain; kjèttanes, kèttanes; Iv; adv; sammen, i lag; together, jointly; kjínger; Iv, Rib; s; risp, arr; slit, scar, cicatrice; kjingripà; Rib; s; skjaering; cutting; kjíngripa; Iv; s, m; arr; scar, cicatrice; kjinn; KIH; s; kjøp; purchase; kjomalott; KIH; adv; kallt; cold; kjòna; Iv; v; barbere, egl. ta skjegget bort; shave, lit. take away the beard; Romani čhor beard; kjongker; Rib; s; spyttklyse; wad of spit; kjónker; Iv; s, n; spytt; saliva; cf. tjonkra; kjon-kjuro; Rib; s; barber-kniv; razor; kjøiter; KIH; s; skilling; old Scandinavian monetary unit, coin, money; kjøivo; KIH; s; buken, magen; belly, stomach; kjøtta; KIH; v; stå; stand; kjùro-bar; Iv; s, m; slipestein; bryne, egl. knivstein; grindstone; whetstone, lit. knifestone; kjùkja; Iv; v; patte; suck; kjùla; KIH, Iv; v; koste; sweep, brush; kjulma, kjumra, kjylma; KIH; v; freeze, be cold; freeze, be cold; kjumm; Iv; s, m; kyss; kiss; kjùmmalot; Iv; s, n; frost; frost; appendix i 155 kjyllalò; Rib; adj, s; kald (kulde); cold (adj), cold (n); kjyrer; KIH; spl; kvinnobröst; female breasts. klàva, klàve; Iv; s, m; kammers; closet; klajdari, kläjdare; KIH; s; onanist; masturbator; klappfara; Etz; v; klappa; pet, stroke; klénsko, klènsko, klèvsko, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; träsko; (wooden) clog; probably from MLG, Gm. *Kleinschuh “little shoe”, MLG klen small. kli, -dde, -att; LDj, Iv; v; rida; ride; Iv klìdda; klíben; Iv; s, m; ridning; riding; klìare, -n, -, def pl kliarna; LDj; s, m; ryttare; rider; Romani inki(j)av climb (the horse e.g.), inchlistipé riding, ride (nouns), klisni riding horse; klieske-gréj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ridhäst; saddle horse; klina; KIH; v; vaske; clean, wash; from Engl. clean clean; klìsa, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; låsa, stänga; lock, close; klisa diro voddron? did you lock the car? klisa tjattjot tjavo karna diro jar avri lock it properly when you leave, boy; Iv klìssa, KIH klisa låsa, låsa upp; lock, unlock; cf. klissing; klisaskiro; KIH; s; fangevokter; warder; klíssan; Iv; s, m; lås; lock; klìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. nyckel, lås, 2. dørvrider; 1. key, lock, 2. door-handle; Etz klising, Iv klìsi, klìsin, klìssing, klèssing also door-handle, KIH klising, klysing nøkkel, dirk; key, passkey, picklock; Romani klidi key, lock, from Gr. kleidí; klístos uninfl; LDj; s; kosack; cossack; klìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny; klistro; Etz; s; polis; policeman; klorus; KIH; s; kamm; comb; from Sw./Norw. klo claw; klys-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, f; vulva; vulva; klämmà , -(n), pl klämmer, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; tång; pliers, tongs; Iv klèmsa; maybe from Gm. Klam chain; klämm; Etz; s, coll; mat; food; klämma; Etz; v; äta; eat; from Rotw. klemmen eat; knæ̀rke; Iv; s, f; musikkinstrument; musical instrument; knarka; KIH; v; leka; play; probably onomatopoetic; knarka, knærka; KIH; s; musik; music; kne; Etz; v, s; 1. (v) cacare, smutsa, lorta (ner 2. (s) lort, smörja;); 1. defecate, foul, make dirty, 2. dirt, grime; knetra; KIH; s; kne; knee; from Sw. knä Norw. kne knee; knotta, knottan; KIH; s; knut; knot; kodd, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; pung, testiklar, äv. i överförd bemärkelse som smeknamn; scrotum, testicles, also as nickname; from Norw. kodd testicles; 156 appendix i kokk, kòkkepa, -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; lögn; lie; KIH kokkar, kokkeba, kåk, kåkk usan- het, løgnfalskhet; dishonesty, tendency to lie; cf. kokka; kòkka, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; ljuga; lie; KIH kokka lure; lie, trick, fool; Romani xoxavel lie, deny, from Skt. khakkh- laugh; kòkkalo-tavring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; låtsas-resande, en som utger sig för att vara resande utan att vara det; pretend-Traveller, one who claims to be traveller without being it; kokkano; KIH; adj; løgnaktig, usanferdig; prone to lying, dishonest; kokkanolill; KIH; s; falskt pass; forged passport; kòkkare, -n, -, def pl kòkkarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; lögnare; liar; Iv kåkkar̀ ; kókkaro; LDj, KIH; adv, pron; 1. (adv) ensam, 2. (pron) själv; 1. (adv) alone, 2. (pron) by oneself, by myself; KIH kockaro; Romani korkořo alone, from Skt. ekkala-; kókko, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock, rooster; from Gm. Gockel rooster; kòlleva, -n/-a, -(e)r, -rna/-(e)ra; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. strumpa, 2. underbukser; 1. sock, 2. draw- ers; Iv kållivà (m), kålloar̀ strømpe(r); stocking(s), also drawers; Romani (Sinte) kolo dress, piece of clothing; kómmoni uninfl; LDj; pron; något; something; komula; KIH; adj; helig; holy; konn uninfl; LDj; pron; vem; who; Romani kon who, from Skt. ka-; kóper, kópra, kòpra uninfl; LDj; adj; billigt pris; cheap price; from MLG kopen buy, kop buy, price; koppina; KIH; s; kopp; cup; from Sw./No. kopp cup; kòppra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta; cost; cf. koper; kóralo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; blind; blind; kamlepat ashar koralo love is blind; Romani kořo blind, from Pers. kōr; kórba, -t/-n, pl kórber/-s, -na/-s; LDj; s, n/r; korg; basket; Romani (Sinte) korba basket, from Gm. Korb basket; korbeske-mósch; LDj; s, m; korgmakare; basket-maker; kóri, kóro, kòri, kòro, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; kruka, hink, spann; jar, bucket; Romani khoro jar, cup, can, bottle, vat, bucket, from Skt. ghaṭa- pot; kórtja, kòrtja, kòrta, -(n), pl kòrter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; torp, ställe; crofters holding, cottage, homestead, place (where you live); kòscha, kòsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; svära; curse, swear (also with the meaning to prom- ise); diro fysher tji koscha! you may not swear! koscha pre’t! swear on it! (promise!); Iv kårsà ; Romani (a)kušel scold, quarrel, from Skt. ākruś- cry out, scold; kòschepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; förbannelse; curse; Iv kårsipá ; kòsta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; borsta; brush; kòsting, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; borste; brush; kòtta, -n, -; LDj, Etz; s, r; stycke, bit; bit, piece; jekh kotta ninna mass a piece of meat; Etz kåtto, kåttro; Romani kotor piece, bit, chunk, rag, from Arm. kotor; appendix i 157 kóttjik, póttjik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; knapp; button; Etz kåttlåck; Romani kočak button, from Arm. kočak button; kova, kòva, -n; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, coll; 1. saker, varor, gods, 2. tøy; 1. things, merchandise, goods, 2. cloth; Romani kova thing, merchandise, goods, stuff, business, from kova dem pron; kova; Etz, Iv; s; 1. fängelse, 2. arrest, cell; 1. prison, 2. arrest, cell; Iv kòva, kåvà ; kråssuś , krossus; Iv; s, m; kors; cross; kràli; Iv; s, f; dronning; queen; krágo; Iv; s, m; lensmann; bailiff; krafsa; KIH, Iv; s; lampa; lamp; Iv kràfse; kràfse-gaï; Iv; s, f; jordmor, egl. lampemor; midwife, lit. lamp-mother; krájlis, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, f; drottning; queen; Etz krajia; Romani kraljica queen, princess; krájo, krájlo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, Joh, KIH; s, m; 1. kung, 2. lensmann, bygdevek- ter; 1. king, 2. bailiff, parish beadle; krajon honkar baro ta gasskano the king is great and wise; Etz kräjon, Iv krájo, Joh kràjjo, krájjo, KIH kralo(n), krago, krajo country police sergeant, king; Romani kraljo king, ruler, prince, from Serbcr. kralj; kràjoske-dikklo, kràjo-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; flagga; flag; krakofarare; KIH; s; dagdriver; loafer; krakus; KIH; s; kråka; crow; from Norw. kråke crow; krans; KIH; s; riksort; county; krasa; Etz; v; äta; eat; krasch, -et; LDj; s, n; gräs; grass; from Gm. Gras grass; krekus, krekkus; KIH; s; myra, mask; ant, worm; cf. kreshtus; kréshtus, pl krèsha, krésher; LDj; s; kreatur; cattle, livestock; kammar diro kresha te bekkna? do you have cattle for sale?; probably from a form present in Eng. creature, from Lat. creates creature; krèstes-drom, kärèstes-drom, kärèste-drom; LDj; s, r; korsväg, vägkorsning; cross- roads, intersection, junction; kréstos, käréstos, -; LDj; s, r; kors, krucifix; cross, crucifix; KIH krossus, kårssus; from MLG crūse cross; kri; KIH; v; fortære, ete; consume, eat; krìla, krìlla, -(n), pl krìler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kvarn; mill; maybe from Slavic, cf. Ru. krylo wing (of a bird or building); krilla; Rib; v; male; mill; krùmm-grej, kòmm-gräj, -en, -ar, -arma; LDj; s, r; oxe; ox; krúmmik, grúmmik, grúmnik, -a, -er, -e(r)na; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; ko; cow; Etz kromma, krumma, KIH krumma; kråmni; cf. grumni; krylis; Etz; s, coll; ull; wool; kråmm; KIH; s; (en type) straff; (a type of) punishment; 158 appendix i kräjerske rania; Etz; s, def; drottningen; the queen; kastanjebrol; KIH; s; pærer; pears; kúro; Iv; adj; blind, ogs. (hos de yngre) svart; blind, also (with the younger generation) black; kùbba, -n, -; LDj, Etz; s, r; hatt; hat; Etz kúban; kulma; KIH; num; tre (3); three; kulters; Etz; adv; omkull; (fall) down, (fall) over; kunja; KIH; s; alen; length measuring unit, ell; kúrko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; söndag, helgdag; Sunday, holiday; Romani kurko sun- day, week, from Gr. kuriakḗ; kurko-dìvus, kùrko-divus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; söndag, helgdag, påskafton; Sunday, holiday, Easter Eve; Rib kårrko-divis; kúrmin, -/ -a; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, r; gryn, korn; groats, peeled grain; Rib kurrmi, Iv gur- míner (pl) gryn; peeled grain; KIH kurrming; Romani kukin grain, stye, bullet, from Gr. kouk(k)í; kùrmi-sâni, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; grynvälling; gruel made from groats; kúro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; föl; foal; kurom; KIH; s; båthus; boat house; kurr, kur, -et; LDj; s, n; stryk; beating; kùrra, kùra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; slå; beat, strike, fight; Iv kòrra, kårrà , KIH kura piske, slå, gi stryk, pryle; lash, strike, beat up, flog; kuras uforlikes; fight, disagree; Romani kurel beat, fight, from Skt. kuṭṭaya- crush, grind; kùrrare, kùrare -n, -, def pl kùrrarna; LDj; s, m; slagskämpe; fighter; kùrrepa, kùrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; slagsmål; (free) fight, brawl; Etz kuropa, Rib kurripà, Iv kórripa, kúrripa, KIH kuriba pryl, hogg; beating, stab, punch; kurre-prásko, kurre-páskro, kùrre-paskro -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Rib, KIH; s, r; slag- skämpe, boxare; fighter, boxer; KIH korrabaskro, Etz kuropaskro, Rib kurra-baskro; kùrr-mängare, kùr-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mengarna; LDj; s, m; boxare; boxer; kùrrning, kùrning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; stryk, slagsmål; beating, brawl; KIH kurning; kusch, kush, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. dyr, 2. dyr; 1. expensive 2. dear; kusch kava leddikan asha! this bag is so expensive! dova kalsingerna asha kuscha, tjinna tji dova those shoes were expensive, don’t buy them; Iv kusj, kúsjo; Romani kuč expensive, pre- cious, rare; kùsha, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; flå; skin, flay; Romani kuš skin, flay, peel, pluck, drag; kústno, -a -t; LDj; adj; dyr; expensive; tjakket honka kustno the wares were expensive; kutta; KIH; num; seks (6); six; kútti,-t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; liten (om icke-levande varelser); small (about inanimate objects); kutti drom small road; KIH kuti litt, mindre; little, less, smaller; Romani (Sinte) kuti little, some, low, short; appendix i 159 Kùtti-them, -en; LDj; s, r; Småland; Småland (Smolandia, province); kvanna; Etz; s; kvarn; mill; L Lái; Iv; namn; Nikolai; Nicholas; labbelàlla; Rib, Iv; s; myssmör, prim; whey-butter, whey; Iv labelàlla, babelàlla; Lábben; Iv; name; Harald; Harold; lackekurjis; Etz; s; arsenik; arsenic; lacksint; Etz; adj; argsint; irascible, ill-tempered; lacksinthet; Etz; s; argsinthet; irascibleness, ill-temperedness; làffja, làffa, -(n), pl làffer, -(n)a; LDj; s, n; lada; barn; probably from a form of Sw. lada barn, Old Sw. laþa, the fricative is kept only in Dalecarlian dialects; laggra; Etz; v; laga; mend; from Swedish laga mend; laj uninfl; LDj; s; in expr. kera laj avri göra narr av; make a fool of, ridicule; kera tji laj attjer puranot manusch don’t make fun of old people; Romani ladž shame, shame- facedness, dishonour, contumeliousness, from Skt. lajjā-; làja, -(de), -t; pass ladjas, lajvas; LDj, Etz; v; skämma ut, skämmas; embarrass, be embarrassed; so mander lajas I’m so embarrassed, sosti laja vri vorsnos? why embar- rass us like that?; Romani ladžal be ashamed, from Skt. lajj-; lájano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; skamsen; embarrassing; lajavrí, lájverdi, làjverdi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; skamsen, skamlig; ashamed, shameful; lákjipa; Iv; s, m; funn; find; làkjo-kjinnipa, lákjo-kjinnipa; Iv; (used as an) adj; billig, egl. godt-kjøp; cheap, lit. good purchase; làkjo-varo, lákjo-varo; Iv; s, m; hvetemel, egl. god-mel; wheat-flour, lit. good flour; lakk, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; ond, arg, elak; evil, angry, mean; sosti ashar diro lakk? why are you angry?; KIH lakk, lak ille, dårlig, usell; unhealthy, bad, wretched; làkka; Iv; v; lodde (metall); solder; lakkedùkk; Rib; s; kjönnssyke (egl. skamsyke); veneral disease patients (lit. shame dis- ease patients); lakkedùkkipà; Rib; s; kjönnssykdom; veneral disease; lákko-kher, làu-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, n; ladugård; barn; Etz la-ker; lákkravis, lákkvaris; Iv; s, m; bly; lead; lakoaskus; Etz; s, coll; bly; lead; lall, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m; 1. finne, 2. same, lapp; 1. Finn, 2. Sami, Lapp; boddra lallen doj? bor finnen där?; lallalò; Rib; adj; (snakker) finsk, lappisk; (speaks) Finnish, Lappish; lallaro ̂́ shka; LDj; s, f; finska; Finnish woman; 160 appendix i lállaro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; finne; Finn; dova mosch honkar lallaro that man is a Finn; Romani lalořo mute, dumb, from Pkt. lalla- stuttering; lallaróska; Etz; s; finska, finsk kvinna; Finnish woman; Lállaro-themm, Lállaro-them uninfl; LDj, Iv; name; Finland äv. Finnmarken; Finland, also Finnmark; Iv Làllaro-temmen, Làlla-temmen, Làllar-temmen, Làllerske- temmen, Làlleske-temmen; lallo; Rib; s; finne, lapp; Finn, Laplander; lángalo, lánglo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; halt, långsam, ledsam; lame, limping, slow, sad; devel savi miro grej honkar langalo! heavens my horse is lame!; làngla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; halta; limp; Etz langa; Romani langal to limp, halt, from Skt. laṅg- to limp, halt; Langstokeren; Etz; name; Långholmen; Långholmen; lángstro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lång; long (also of distance); Romani (Sinte) lang, lengsto long, from Gm. lang long; lant, -en, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; 1. kortlek, 2. papper, handlingar; 1. deck of cards, 2. papers, legal documents; lanter; Etz; s; betyg, tidning; certificate, report, newspaper; làttja, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; hitta; find; lattja diro klisingen? did you find the keys? ehe mander lattjade klisningarna kaj! yes, I found the keys here!; Iv làkja; Romani (Sinte) hačel find, keep, pick up; láttjo àvridikk uninfl; LDj; s; expr. bra utsikt; expr. nice view; lattjo bèlven, lattjo bèlving; LDj; interj; god kväll; good evening; lattjo dìves; LDj; interj; god dag; hello (lit. good day); lattjo rátti, lattjo ráttia; LDj; interj; god natt; good night; lattjo tèijsha; LDj; interj; god morgon; good morning; lattjo tjávo; LDj; uttr; bra kille; nice guy, good guy; láttjo, láscho, lácho, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. god, fin, bra, 2. snill dugende; 1. good, nice, fine, 2. good-natured, sufficient; Iv lákjo, látjo; Romani lačho good, nice, gracious, kind, capable, friendly, cheerful, from Skt. lakṣita- marked; Laùka; Iv; namn; Laura; Laura; Laúkus; Iv; namn; Laurits; Lawrence; laúso; Iv; s, m; lite hus, stue; small house, cottage; lav, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ord; word; mander kammar bistrat lavet! I have forgotten that word! dolle kammar diro miro lav pre! you have my word on that!; Romani lafi word, speech, names, from Serbcr.; lavra; Etz; v; ro; row; lavre; Rib; s; åre; oar; làvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; ro (en båt); row (a boat); låddà ; Iv; v; losjere, bo; lodge, live; låddipá ; Iv; s, m; hus, ogs. losji; house, also lodging; appendix i 161 låddipà-penndri; Rib; s; losji-hus; lodging house; Lådo-fåroǹ ; Iv; name; Røros; Røros; låkki; Rib; adj; ful, lur, innmari, opplagt; sly, cunning, difficult, mischievous, disposed, obvious; låkkí ; Iv; s, f; barsel; confinement (childbed); Lålo-fåroǹ ; Iv; name; Røros, egl. Rødbyen; Røros, lit. the red town; lånfara; Etz; v; låna; borrow; långfaro; Etz; adj; lång; long; långgast; Etz; s, coll; havre; oats; långstó , lángsto; Iv; adj; lang, ogs. høg; long, also high; lårrà ; Iv; v; røve, plyndre; rob, plunder; låvrà ; Iv; adj; forlovet; engaged to be married; låvrepa; Etz; s; löfte; promise; läckar; Etz; s, pl; gnetter; nits (louse egg); längtfara; Etz; v; längta; long (for); lättra; Etz; s; säng; bed; le, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; 1. ta, ta på sig, 2. gripa, 3. få; 1. take, put on, 2. arrest, 3. get; Romani lel take, from Skt. labhate seize; le káj, lella káj; LDj; expr; ta här; take (from) here; léddik, léaddik, läddiḱ , -an; LDj; s, r; låda; box; from MLG lade box, chest; léddika, léaddika, läddiká , -(n), pl léddiker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; väska, resväska; bag, luggage; Etz låddika; lèdra, lètra, lædra; Iv; v; lære; learn; from Sw. lära, Norw. lære learn; lédra, létra, lædra, lædran; Iv; s, m; lærdom; learning; lei; Iv; s; narr; kjera lei gjøre narr, drive gjøn; fool; make fun of, pulling someone’s leg; leìa; Iv; v; 1. helbrede, kurere, 2. narre, bedrage; 1. heal, cure, 2. dupe, defraud; cf. laja; leianò; Rib, Iv; adj; skamfull, undselig; ashamed, embarrassed; leìar; Iv; s, m; bedrager; impostor; leíipa; Iv; s, m; bedrageri, juks; fraud, cheating; leípa; Iv; s, m; brød, ogs. lefse; (loaf of) bread, also esp. of (flat) bannock; lekfara; Etz; v; leka; play; lekk; Iv; s, m; flass i håret; dandruff; lékkan; Iv; s, m; ledd (i kroppen); joint (in the body); léngro; LDj; pron; de, deras, dem; they, theirs, them; rakkar diro lengros rakkrepa? do you speak their language? dikka pre lengro look at them; Romani lengo poss pron 3pl; lesht uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; sist; last; Romani lešto last, from Gm. letzt; léshti, -n, -; LDj; s, r; slida (på kniv); sheath (for knife); léster, léshter; LDj, Etz; pron; honom; him; Etz lister; Romani lesko poss pron 3sg m; lésti, lèsting; Iv; s, m; knivskaft; knife-haft; 162 appendix i létra, lítran; Iv; s, m; lær; leather; lètta, léttan; Iv; s, m; led(d); link; li; LDj; pron; hon; she; Romani li pron 3sg f; lìbbria, lìbbri, lìbbra, -n, pl lìbbrier, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; plånbok, bok; wallet, book; Etz libri, libria, libra; Romani (Sinte) libro book, from Romance, cf. It. libbra; líbri, lébri; Iv; s, f; 1. bok, 2. lommebok, tegnebok; 1. book, 2. pocket-book, wallet; cf. libbria; lìla; Iv; s, m; tikrone-seddel; ten-krone bill; lìlje; Iv; s, f; vise, sang; ditty, tune, song; lill, -et, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, n; brev, betyg, sedel, handlingar av olika slag; letter, certifi- cate, report, documents of different kinds; Romani lil paper, letter, document, book, from Skt. likhita, to likh- write; líller, lìller, -et, -, -era; LDj; s, n; betyg, handling, papper; certificate, report, paper; sikk- ra drabbeske-moschen lillera! show the teacher your grades! kammar diro lill pre vod- dron palla diro tjakkes bekkna dova? do you have the papers for the car in case you want to sell it?; lìll-kher, lilliske-khér, -et/-(e)n; LDj; s, n; post; mail; linder; Etz; s, coll; papper; papers; lìndra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; låna; borrow; lindra diro butt ninna lover pre loveske-khern? did you borrow a lot of money from the bank?; from Gm. lihen, MHG līhen borrow; lìndrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; lån; loan; líster, lìstkri, lìskri; LDj; pron; henne; her; lístjo, líshto, -t, -r, -na; LDj; s, n; ansikte; face; dikka mander an listjo! look ak my face! (look me in the eyes); from Slavic, cf. Ru. litsó face, person; lìttran, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz; s, n; skjul, bod, äv. säng; shed, storehouse, also bed; from Sw. lider shed; Etz littra; lo; LDj, Etz, Iv; pron; han, honom, hon, henne; he, him, she, her; lo nashtar rakkrar butt ninna romani he speaks a lot of Romani; Romani lo pron 3sg m; lóchano, lóshano, lóshalo, láchano, láschano, láshano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; glad, lycklig, äv. kär; glad, happy, also: in love; mander honkar lachano te pre dromen tradra I am glad to be travelling on this road, laschano an lister (he is) in love with her; Romani lošanel be happy, (Kale) loxano happy, Romani loš joy, from Skt. roca- light; lòchanopa, làschanopa, làshanopa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; glädje; joy; Iv låsjipá (m); lòchanopa, làschanopa, làshanopa, -t; LDj; s, n; glädje; joy; lodd, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1. husrum, nattlogi, 2. hus; 1. housing, night quarters, 2. house; Romani lodepen bivouac, overnight accommodation, hostel, lodging, har- bourage, lodel to camp, from Skt. lagya- join; lòddepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; husrum, nattlogi, lägerplats; housing, night quarters, camp site; kaj bliddrar jekh fedi loddepa this will be a fine camp site; cf. lodd; appendix i 163 lòddni, -t; LDj; s, n; husrum; housing; lokk, -en, -ar, -arna; lòkke, -n, pl lòkkar/lòkker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; krona; krona (coin); cf. lokki; lokki, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lätt; easy; Romani lokho easy, minor, slow, from Skt. laghu- light; lòkko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; polis, länsman, kronofogde; police, head of the county constabulary, head of enforcement district; lokkon honkar lakk pre tjoron the police- man is angry at the thief; lòkko-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polisstation, länsmansgård; police station, estate of the head of the county constabulary; lo ̂́llo, lólo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; röd; red; Iv lålló , låló , lånó ; Romani lolo red, from Skt. lohita-; lo ̂́ llodji, pl -er; LDj; s; blomma; flower; lóndrano, lòndrano, lóndro, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; salt; salted, salty; londri sellvani salt herring; Iv låndrò ; lonn, lond, -et; s, n; salt; salt; Romani lon salt, from Skt. lavana-; lònna, lòndra, -(de) -t; LDj, Etz; v; salta; salt; sprinkle with salt; Etz lånda; lósto, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; kätte, svinstia; pen, pigpen, pigsty; kaj dikkas vri tjakke jekh losto it looks like a pigsty in here; lovalejt; Etz; s; luffare; hobo; l o v́ ̂ a , -; LDj; s; peng, slant; coin; kammar diro jekh lova to nukkon? do you have a coin for the child?; Romani love money, from Skt. loha- metal, copper; lo ́̂ver, l o ́ ̂ v e , lo ̂́vier, lo ́̂viar, -na; LDj, Rib; s, pl; pengar; money; sikkra tji loviarna! don’t show your money! butt ninna lover a lot of money; Romani lovo coin, (in pl): money; lóverske-ponta, lòverske-ponta; Iv; s, m; pengepung; purse; lôveske-kárto, -t; lôveske-kártli, -t/-a; lôve-kártli, -t/-a; lôve-kárto, -t; lôviske-kárto, -t; lôviske-kártli, -t/-a; lôvi-kártli, -t/-a; LDj; s, n/r; bankomatkort; ATM card; lôveske-khér, lo vi-kher,̂̀ -en; LDj; s, r; bank; bank; lôveske-líll, -et, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; räkning; invoice; lôveske-prím, -, -s, -s; LDj; s; pengapung, börs; money pouch, purse; lovie-libbri; Rib Iv; s; pengebok; wallet; Iv lòvieske-libri; lovien; Etz; s, def; slanten, pengen; the coin; lòvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; lova; promise; lúbbni-manish, -et; LDj; s, n; horaktiga människor, horfolk; whore-like people, lit. whore-people; lubbnipà; Rib; s; horeri; whoring; lubniparo; Etz; s; man, som är begiven på kvinnor; man who is (a little too) keen on women; lubnitjinn; Etz; s; horemärke; knivärr i ansiktet, som en man (eller kvinna) fått, därför att han (hon) varit otrogen; whore mark, facial knife scar that a man (or woman) was given for infidelity; 164 appendix i Ludívis, Lúdo, Lúkken; Iv; name; Ludvig; Lewis; lùdra; Iv; v; lodde (metall); solder; lull; Iv; s, m; skurv; scurf, exfoliation, dandruff; lùllalo; Iv; adj; skurvet; scurfy, flaky (skin); lùmma, -n; LDj; s, n; glödlampa; light bulb; Romani lumina, lumja light, from Romance, cf. Lat. lūmen, OFr. lum light, Romanian lumina; lúmni, lúbbni, lùbba, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, f; hora, gatflicka; whore, street girl; Rib blubbe; Iv núbli, lúgni (f) skjøke; strumpet; Romani lubni prostitute, from Skt. lubhya- be desirous; lunsa; Etz; v; höra; hear; lùnta, lùnte; Iv; s, m, f; klut, fille, ogs. bind; rag, tatter, also bandage; lùppra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lova; promise; from Gm. *lub, MHG erluoben promise; luttra; Etz; v; ljuga; lie; lytara; Etz; v; lyda; obey; M ma, mo uninfl; LDj; neg part; inte!; not!; Romani ma (neg part) not (before imperative); mackepa; Etz; s; smörjning (emot eng. sjukan); anointing (against rickets); màgra, màggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förstöra, bryta, ha sönder; destroy, break, cause to break; cf. pagra; maj, -en; Etz; s; kvinna; woman; mákhi, -n, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; fluga; fly; devel, lengro makhi! heavens, these flies!; Romani makh fly, from Skt. makṣikā-; màkja-ral; Iv; s, m; fiskekrok; fish-hook; màkjo-ranja, màkjo-rela; Iv; s, m; fiskestang; fishing rod; màkjoske-bero; Iv; s, m; fiskerbåt; fishing boat; màkjo-tav; Iv; s, m; fiskesnøre; fishing line; makka; Rib; s; smör; butter; màkka, màkkla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; smörja; rub in (with oil); Romani makhel to smear, grease, from Skt. mrakṣ- smear; makkipà; Rib; s; smurning; grease, ski wax; màkkling, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tavla; painting; cf. makka; makúrja; Etz; s; gift, förgiftning; poison, poisoning; mal; Iv; s, m; venn, kamerat; friend, comrade; mala; Etz; adj; snäll, god, gott, väl; kind, good, well; ma lấ , mála uninfl; LDj; s; vän, vän med, sams; friend, friends with, on good terms; Kevin honkar miro mala Kevin is my friend, honka mala, tjavoar tji omala! be friends boys, appendix i 165 not enemies!; Romani mal companion, associate, fellow, friend, from Pers., cf. Pasht. mal; ma lanố , málano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; vänlig, snäll; friendly, kind; mànder, mànde; LDj, Iv; pers pron; jag, mig; I, me; Iv mánder; Romani me pers pron 1sg; loc sg mande; mànders; LDj, Iv; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; cf. mander; màndrom; LDj; pers pron; jag; I; cf. mander; màndroms; LDj; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; cf. mander; mànga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. tigga, be, 2. be (om bön); 1. beg, ask for, 2. pray; Romani mangel beg, ask for, claim, demand, desire, from Skt. mārg- seek, wish for; màngare, -n, -, def pl màngarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; tiggare; beggar; honkar grekkot pala man- gare tjakke nanit kammar it’s a shame about the beggar that has nothing; Iv màngar; cf. manga; màngar-kher, -et; LDj; s, n; socialen; social services, any welfare office; mangars-kaben; Rib; s; tigge-mat; begged food; mangars-rakklo; Rib; s; tiggergutt; beggar boy; màngaske-stamlo; Iv; s, m; alter, egl. bedeskammel; altar, lit. praying-stool; mángen; uninfl; LDj; ja pre mangen go around begging; mangfara; Etz; v; bedja; beg; mangipà; Rib, Iv; s; tigging; begging; Iv mángipa; mánser, mànser, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; människor, folk; humans, people; ashar butt ninna manser dre foron (there) are many people in the city; cf. manusch; mànshli, mànskli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; kvinna, fruntimmer; woman, female; mánsklo, mànsklo, mànshlo, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m; man, karl; man, fellow; cf. manusch; mànsni-håfsa; Iv; s, m; underbukse for kvinner; women’s drawers; mànusch, manúsch, manísh, mànuch, mànish, -et/-ut; LDj, Etz; s, pl; människor, folk; people (humans), people (ethnicity); romani-manusch, ste oppri ta honka bunoa ta soraloa gla honka attjer jekh savot schukkranot manusch! ladja tji! Romani people, stand up and be strong and proud of being (part) of such a beautiful people! Dont be ashamed!; Etz mansj, manysj, Iv mánus; Romani manuš human, man, from Skt. mānuṣa- human being; manusj; Rib; s; mann, menneske; man, human; manusjni; Rib, Iv; s; kvinne; woman; Iv manúsjni, mànusjni; maro ̂̀ kka, márrokka, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; padda, groda; toad, frog; from Skt. maṇḍūka- frog; mara; Rib; v, s; skreppe; boast, knapsack, kitbag; màra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; slakta; butcher; Iv marra; Romani marel kill, murder, butcher, beat, thresh, from Skt. māraya- kill; 166 appendix i marare; Etz; s; slaktare; butcher; marepa, merepa(r); Etz; s; slakt; slaughter; Márken; Iv; name; Marie; Mary; márkli, màrkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; brödkaka, småbröd, skorpa; round loaf (bread), biscuit, rusk; Romani marikli cake; marmo; KIH; s; själ, ande; soul, spirit; máro, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj, Iv; s, n; bröd; bread, loaf of bread; Romani manřo bread, from Skt. maṇḍa- froth from boiled rice; màro-bekk, -(n), pl -bekker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; brödbit; piece of bread; marobåtta; Etz; s; brödbit; piece of bread; màro-fakkar; Iv; s, m; baker, egl. brød-maker; baker, lit. bread-maker; marohispa; Etz; s; brödstuga, sommarstuga; bakehouse, summer cottage; maro-kjuro; Rib; s; bröd-kniv; bread knife; màro-nejtja, -(n), pl -nejtjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; brödsmula; bread crumb; Etz maronejta; màr-pina, -(n), pl -piner, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. grimma till häst, 2. knivärr ( i ansiktet); 1. halter (for horses), 2. knife scar (in face); Iv màr-pine (f), màr-pinja, màr-prima; from Sw. Dial. marr mare, and pinne stick, or pina pain; màseske-göye; Iv; s, f; kjøttpølse; sausage; màsja; Iv; v; fryse; freeze, be cold; masja-pani; Rib; s; fiske-vatn; fishing waters (fishing lake); masja-sani; Rib; s; fiske-suppe; fish soup; maskán, -; màska, màskra, -(n), pl màsker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; katt; cat; Etz masjka, Rib (pl) masknar, Iv másjkan, máska, máskan, máskar; Romani mačka cat, from Serbcr. mačka; másker, màsker, màskral, màskra, màskran; LDj; prep/adv; mellan; between; Romani maškar between, in the middle of, amongst, from Skt. madhya- middle; mass, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; kött; meat; Romani mas meat, from Skt. māṃsa-; màss-bekk, -et; LDj; s, n; köttbit; piece of meat; masseske-mérkler, màss-merkler, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; köttbullar; meatballs; màss-nejtla, -(n), pl nejtler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; köttbit; piece of meat; màss-sani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; köttsoppa; meat soup, meat broth; tjerva mass-sani make (boil) meat soup; Rib massiske-sani, Iv màseske-sani; matter; Etz; s; moder; mother; matti; Etz; s, märr; mare; màttja, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv; v; fiska, meta; fish, angle; Rib masja, Iv màkja; cf. mattjo; màttjare, -n, -, def pl màttjarna; LDj; s, m; fiskare; fisherman; mattjaskiro; Etz; s; stadsfiskal; public prosecutor; mattjeske-rànja, -t, -; -raj, -et; LDj; s, n; fiskespö; fishing rod; máttjo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; fisk; fish; savo baro mattjo diro ledde oppri! what a big fish you reeled up! Iv mákjo; Romani mačho fish, from Skt. matsya-; appendix i 167 mattjoläddika; Etz; s; fisklåda; tackle box; mátto, mótto, -a; LDj; adj; trött, utmattad, slutkörd, berusad; tired, exhausted, run down, intoxicated; miro grej honkar butt matto an dives my horse is tired today, honkar voddron matto? jar dova tji? is the car run down? doesn’t it work?; Romani mato intoxicated, drunk, boozy, from Skt. matta- delighted, intoxicated; måddra; Etz; v; må; feel; måggi, målga; KIH; s; väderkvarn; wind-mill; måll; Etz; adj; värd, worth; mållano; Rib; adj; kostbar; valuable, expensive; målske; Etz; s; smeknamn i bet. bra, hygglig pojke; nickname meaning good, decent boy; målvaris; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; tenn; tin; Rib mållvaris, Iv målboriś , mållaviś ; måndacken, måndackon; Etz; s, def; månen; the moon; månónomen; Etz; s, def; månen; the moon; månsing̀ ; Iv; s, m; Gaunersprache; beggars’ language; månter; Etz; s; månad; month; måntfössingar; Etz; s, pl; vantar; mittens; mårrondacken; Etz; s; morgon; morning; mårtì ; Iv; s, f; hud, skinn; hide, skin; måsjtatjärvare; Etz; s; kaffekokare; coffee maker; måsker; Etz; s; landsfiskal; district police superintendent (and public prosecutor); måskro-lil̀ ; Iv; s, m; politipass; passport of police; måstastädo; Etz; s; café; café, coffee house; måstfara; Etz; v; måste; must; måttin; Etz; s; (djur)hud; animal hide, pelt; mängi; Etz; adj; lumpig, trasig; ragged, torn, tattered; mèrske-diklo; Iv; s, m; halstørkle; bandanda, neckerchief; méripa; Iv; s, m; drap; murder; mérist; Iv; s, m; 1. en militær (både om menig og officer), 2. statsfunksjonær (av alle slag); 1. a military man (both of common soldier and officer), 2. state official (of all kinds); mèkka, mìkka; Iv; v; smøre; smear; mékkipa, míkkipa; Iv; s, m; smurning, ogs. fettstoff i det hele, i sjøbygdene på Vestlandet dessuten brukt om tjære og bek; grease, also fats in general, in the western sea-dis- tricts also used of tar and pitch; mèkksta, màkksa, màkkstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta; cost; from MLG maken do; mélano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; smutsig, skitig, lortig; dirty, soiled, gritty; Romani melalo dirty; cf. melo; mélo, -n; LDj; s, r; penis; penis; Romani mel dirt, dust, from Skt. mala- dirt; mélon uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; underlivet, penis; genitals, penis; 168 appendix i men, -, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s; hals; throat; Iv mern (m); Romani men neck, throat, from Skt. manyā- neck; meneske-díkklo, mèn-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; halsduk; scarf; mèngar, mènjar; Iv; s, m; doktor; doctor; mèngare, -n, -, def pl mèngarna; LDj; s, m; lumpsamlare, beteckning på resande; rag- man, term for Travellers; mènge; Iv; s, f; bind; bandage; ménger, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; trasor, lump, skrot; rags, scrap metal, junk; mengeske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; skrotvagn, skrotbil, lastbil; truck, scrap car, scrap wagon, junk wagon; mèngnar; Rib; s; lege; doctor; mèngra, mènga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; arbeta; work; mengra nani an mul tjavo! don’t work yourself to death, boy!; from Rotw. Meng tinker; mèngrare, mängarè , -n, -, def pl mèngarna; LDj; s, m; arbetare; worker; mèngrar-manuch, mängar-manish̀ , -et; LDj; s, n; arbetare, eg. arbetsfolk; workers (lit. working people); mèngrepa, mèngepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s, n; arbete; job; mèra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. slakta, 2. drepe; 1. butcher, 2. kill; Romani marel beat, kill, from Skt. māraya-; mèrare, märarlè , -n, -, def pl merarna; LDj, Etz; s, m; slaktare; butcher; Etz märare; mèrepa, mèrrepa, märepà , -n; LDj; s, r; slakt; slaughter; cf. mera; mererí, märerí, -(e)t, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, n; slakthus, slakteributik; butcher’s; mèrja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse; mès-kil; Iv; s, n; mys(e)smør; whey butter; mía, mìlja uninfl; LDj, Rib, Iv; s; mil; Swedish mile (10 km); honkar durit to manders kher, desch-u-trin milja it’s a long way home to me, 13 miles (130 km); Rib mian, Iv mìja, míljan; Romani mija thousand, mile, from Gr. mília mile; miák, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. ond, arg, elak, 2. vond, smertefull; 1. evil, angry, mean, 2. bad, painful; honka tji miak, honka malano! don’t be so mean, be nice!; Iv míak, míjek; Romani midžax evil, bad, wrong, mean, form Skt. mithyā invertedly, wrongly; middacken; Etz; s, def; middagen; the dinner; miepa, miepar; Etz, Iv; s; 1. otur, olycka, ont, 2. noe vondt, leitt; 1. bad luck, misfortune, harm, 2. something bad, awkward; Iv míjipa (m) noe vondt, leitt; something bad, awkward; cf. miak; mikkolì; Rib; s; symaskin; sewing machine; mìldra; Iv; v; dele; divide; mìnka, -n, pl mìnker, -na; LDj; s, r; klocka, armklocka; clock, watch; miraskiron; Etz; s; morgon, dager; morning, dawn; míro; LDj, Etz; poss/pers pron; min, mig, jag; mine, me, I; Romani miro, pron 1sg; míros; LDj; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; Iv míros, mìros, méros, mèros; appendix i 169 mirum; Etz; pers pron; jag, mig; I, me; mislo, misnoss; Etz; pers pron; jag, mig, min; I, me, mine; místjo, mýshto; LDj; interj, adj; 1. okej, javisst, korrekt, 2. klok, slug, förståndig; 1. okay, sure, correct, 2. wise, cunning, sensible; Romani mišto good, usable, useful, appro- priate, from Skt. miṣṭa- sweet; mjöltravare; Etz; s; föraktfull benämning på landstrykare av annat blod och äv. fattiga stamfränder, som saknade häst och vagn el. bil och gick med dragkärra el. påse i byarna; contemptious name for vagabonds of other blood and poor travellers with- out a horse and carriage or car, who walked the communities with a pulled cart or a bag; mjúkra; Iv; adj; mjuk; limber, soft; moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; mun; mouth; mander kammar dukk an mojen my mouth hurts, penta mojen! shut your mouth!; Romani mui mouth, face, from Skt. mukha- mouth, face; mokka; Rib; v; låne; borrow; moktel; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; boks, dåse, eske; tin, box; Rib mokti, Iv mòktel, måktí , måkting̀ ; mòl-boris, -et -ar -arna; LDj; s, n; hov; hoof; mólder, mòlder, def sg móldret; LDj; s, n; tenn; tin; cf. molina; moldring; Etz; s; bly, tenn; lead, tin; molína, molìna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förtenna; tin; Romani molivi tin, lead, from Gr. molúbi; molinare; Etz; s; förtennare; tinner; moll, -en; LDj; s, r; vin; wine; Romani mol wine, form Skt. madhu- sweet; mòlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta, vara värd; cost, be worth; so pattjar diro lengros minka molla? how much do you think their clock/watch is worth?; Romani mol (be) worth, from Skt. maulya- being at the root, price; mòllepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Iv; s, n; pris; price; Iv mållipá ; molva ̂́ ris, molvaríst, mollivaríst, -en, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m; förtennare; tinner; cf. molina; molvaríssa, molvariséra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; förtenna; tin; miro dejeske-dad molvarissa butt my grandfather tinned often; Iv malvarísa; molvína, -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; tenn; tin; Etz mulvina, målvina; mómali, -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; ljus, lyse; light, light (on bike or car); mómmali, mámmoli, múmmali, -a, -er, -en; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1. stearinljus, lampa, 2. talglys, vokslys, 3. fyrstikk; 1. candle, lamp, 2. tallow-candle, wax-candle, 3. (safety) match; Romani mom wax, candle wax, (new, but uncommon:) candle; momeli candle, light, from Arm. momelēn of wax; mòmmali-pani, -t; LDj; s, n; lampvätska, fotogen, bensin; lamp oil, kerosene, petrol; móntis, mòntis, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; måndag, månad, menstruation; Monday, month, menstruation; an dives honkar montis it is Monday today, kammar diro mon- tis? are you menstruating?; from Gm. Montag Monday; 170 appendix i mórchti, -n; LDj; s, r; hud, skinn; hide, skin; Romani morćhi leather, skin, fur, bantling, from Arm. morth; morføy; KIH, Etz, Iv; s; morgon; morning; Etz mårfåjin, Iv mårfeì , mårføỳ , mårføyr̀ (tidlig) morgen; (early) morning; mórshta, mòshta, mósta, mòrsta, mórsta, múshta, mùshta, músta, -t; LDj, Etz, KIH, Rib; s, n; kaffe; coffee; bescha pre morshta to ghana karna dova avar put some coffee on for the people when they come; KIH monschta, monsta, Etz måsjta, måsta, Rib mosjta; from Fi. musta black; mòrshta-beda, -bedda, mùsta-bädda, -(n), pl -bèder, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kaffekopp; coffee cup; Etz mosjtabädda, musjtabädda, måsjtabädda; mòrshta-pannika, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kaffepanna; coffeepot; Etz måsjtapannelika; mosch, much, mush, mosh, moch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, m; 1. man, karl, 2. gubbe, ungkar (enkemann); 1. man, fellow, 2. old man, bachelor (widower); Iv mors, moss, mosj; Romani murš man, fellow; mosjeske-håfsa; Iv; s, m; underbukse (for menn); drawers (for men); mosjn-kåkkaro; Iv; s, m; vaktmester; forstander, sjef, egl. mannen sjøl; caretaker; war- den, manager, lit. the man himself; mosjta-paggra; Rib; kaffe-brekker; coffee mill; mosjta-rampa; Rib; s; kaffe-grut; coffee grounds; mòskro, -n, -r, -na; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, m; 1. polis, 2. länsman, 3. landsfiskal; 1. policeman, 2. bailiff, head of the county constabulary, 3. district police superintendent (and public prosecutor); Romani moskêro mayor, policeman, constable, (uncommonly) priest; mòskro-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car; mossa, mussa; Etz; v; kyssa; kiss; cf. moj; mòsta-målga, mòsjta-målga, mòsta-måggi, mòsjta-måggi; Iv; s, m; kaffekvern; coffee-grinder; mòstula; LDj; v; måste; must, have to; from Sw. måste have to; motjíll, matjíll; LDj, Etz; interj; låt bli! var tyst!; leave that alone! (stop!), be quiet!; Etz ma tjill; motjílla, motjílla; LDj; interj; tyst! ta det lugnt!; quiet!, take it easy!; móttjo, -n; mòffti, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; ask, dosa; box; Etz mufti, måfti, måkti; möligan; Etz; s; kvarn; mill; mörklí , màrkli; LDj; s, pl; kakor, småkakor, skorpor; cookies, rusks; markli ta morshta ashar lattjot cookies and coffee are good; mötfara; Etz; v; möta; meet; múkhalo, múkkalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj, s; fri, frihet; free, freedom; lattjot te diro honkar mukhalo an jiben! great that you have a free life!; cf. mukka; appendix i 171 mukk uninfl; LDj; adj; fri; free; cf. mukka mùkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; 1. bli fri, 2. släppa, 3. sluta, 4. slippa, 5. låne (til); 1. become free, 2. let go, release, 3. stop, 4. escape, not need (to), be spared (from), 5. lend; Romani mukel set free, free someone, let (go), leave, from Skt. muc- release; mùkkepa, -n; LDj; s, r; frihet; freedom; pre dromen honkar dolle mukkepa there is free- dom on the road; cf. mukka; mul; Etz, Rib; adv; 1. i uttr. i mul ihjäl, 2. död; 1. in expr. i mul to death, 2. dead; cf. mulo; mula nî́ , -n, -, -na; LDj; s, r; spöke; ghost; ashar diro trach gla mulani? are you scared of ghosts?; mùla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. dö, 2. döda, förstöra; 1. die, 2. kill, destroy; 1. mengrar tji savo butt diro mular! don’t work so much, you’ll die!; 2. mula tji dova tikknoa kirorna, dova honkar mala! don’t kill the small ants, they’re nice!; cf. mulo; mùlepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; 1. mord, 2. döden; 1. murder, 2. death; 1. an vago dives honka jekh mulepa an foron there was a murder in town yesterday; 2. rakkra tji palla mulepa don’t talk about death; Etz mulopa, Rib mulipà; cf. mulo; mulipà-gål; Rib; s; døds-skrik; death cry; múlo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; död; dead; KIH mulan; Romani mulo dead person, ghost, from Skt. mṛta- dead; múlo-kher, muloske-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kyrkogård; cemetary, burial ground, churchyard; mùltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; växla; change; cf. molla; mulvinare, målvinare; Etz; s; förtennare; tinner; múro, mùrro, -t, pl -r/-ar/mùrron, -arna/-a/-en; LDj, Iv; s, n; bär, lingon; berry, lingon- berry; Iv mùrel, mùril, mùring (m), pl mùrnar, mùrvar; Romani mura berry, from- Romanian mură; mùsching, mùssing, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; arm, ärm; arm, sleeve; Rib mussi; cf. muscho; múscho, músso, múschi, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; arm, ärm; arm, sleeve; Iv músjlo; Romani musi arm, hand, from Skt. muṣṭi- clenched hand, fist; múskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; kalv; calf; Etz muskarón; Romani muskari (Buffaloo) calf, from Gr. moskhádi; mùskro-mass, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; kalvkött; veal; Iv múskro-mas; mussar; Etz; s, pl; kyssar; kisses; mùssin; Iv; s, pl; muskler; muscles; mùsta-bobber, mòrshta-bobber, -na; LDj; s, pl; kaffebönor; coffee beans; mutjíl, måtjíl, måtjill, måtjilla; Etz; interj; låt bli!; don’t!, stop!, leave that alone!; mútter, múttjer, def sg múttret; LDj; s, n; urin; urine; Romani muter urine, from Skt. mūtra-; mùtter-tero, -a; LDj; adj; kissnödig; in need to pee; 172 appendix i mùttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta vatten, pissa; take a leak, pee; mynscha, mìnsha, -(n), pl mynscher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, f; vulva, cunnus; vulva, cun- nus; Romani mindž cunnus; Etz minsj, Iv mìnsje; mynsche-skre, mìnshe-skre, -n; LDj; s, r; könssjukdom; veneral disease; N nāchà , nāshà , -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. springa, 2. fly, rymma; 1. run, 2. escape, run away; Romani našel run, hurry, escape, run away, from Skt. naś-ya- run away; nācharè , nāsharè , -n, -, def pl nāscharnà ; LDj, Iv; s, r; rymmare; runaway, fugitive; Iv nàsjar; nācheń , nāsheń uninfl; LDj; s, def; in expr. pre nachen on the run; lo asha pre nachen helko tatto-tia he was on the run all summer; na nî́ , na nit̂́ ; LDj; adv; inte ingenting; not, nothing; mander janar nanit pala dova I don’t know anything about it, ja nani avri! don’t go out!; Romani nane is not, no; naben; Rib; interj; nei; no; nacka; Etz; s; nål; needle; nackdycklo; Etz; s; näsduk; handkerchief; nadd; KIH; s; favus, skurv (hudsjukdom); favus, scurf (skin ailment); nadda; KIH, Iv; v; 1. scratch, 2. klore; 1. scratch, 2. claw; Iv nàdda; naj, -en, -, def pl najerna; LDj; s, r; nagel, tå; nail, toe; kakkla najerna cut your nails; KIH negus; Romani naj fingernail, toenail, finger, from Skt. nakha- nail; nakk, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; snus; snus; cf. nakkus; nàkka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; snusa; to use snus; cf. nakk; nàkkepa, -t; LDj, Rib; s, n; snus; snus; Rib nàkkipà; cf. nakk; nàkkus, nákk, -en, -ar, -arna; násika, -n, pl násiker, -na; LDJ, Etz, Rib; s, r; näsa; nose; Etz nasik, snasiken (def sg), Rib nàk; Romani nakh nose, beak, trunk, from Skt. *nakka- nose; náklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; naken, fattig; naked, poor; isa diro, diro honkar naklo! put some clothes on, you’re naked! Romani nango naked, bare, bald, from Skt. nagna- naked; namen; Etz; interj, adv; nej, inte; no, not; cf. Sw. nämen no, but; nànda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bada; bathe; Romani najarel to bathe, from Skt. snā- to bathe; nandeske-hòffser; LDj; s, pl; badbyxor; swimming trunks; na nề ; LDj; adv; inget; nothing, no; Romani nane is not, no; nane, nani; Etz; interj, adv; nej, inte; no, not; cf. nane; na ni,̂́ na nit̂́ ; adv; not, nothing; nangni; Etz; adj; naken, fattig; naked, poor; nángno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; 1. naken, oklädd, 2. fattig, 3. mager; 1. naked, undressed, 2. poor, 3. meager; Romani nango naked, bare, bald; nangnohispa; Etz; s; fattighus; poorhouse; appendix i 173 nàngno-kher, -n; LDj; s, r; socialen, fattighus; social services, poorhouse; nangnot manusch fysher ja to nangno-khern poor people go to social services; nángsto, -t, -a; LDj; adj; naken, bar; naked, bare; cf. nangno; nàrta, nàta, -(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; släkt, familj, stam; family, lineage; attjer horta narta of true/pure lineage, miro narta honkar baro my family is big; Romani narodo people, from Skt. nara- man, pl people, alt. Serbcr. narod people; nárvalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. fattig, 2. dårlig, skrøpelig, ussel; 1. poor, 2. bad, frail, lousy; ghana honkar narvaloa, dova kammar tji voddro the people are poor, they have no car; Romani nasvalo, nasul poor, miserable, meager; Iv nàrvalo, nàrvano; nàschta, nàshta, nàchta, nàsta, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v, aux; 1. (v) orka, klara, 2. (aux) ska, kan; 1. (v) muster, manage, 2. (auxiliary) will, can; Iv nàsjta, nàsjla; nasja; Etz; v; springa, skynda, rymma; run, hurry, escape; cf. nacha; nasjapri; Rib; uttr; gå løs på; go for (attack); nasjen; Etz; s; in expr. pre nasjen on the run; cf. nacha; nasjipan; Rib; s, def; flukten; the escape, the getaway; nasjta; Etz; v; hjälpa; help; nàsjta; Iv; v; måtte; have to, must; násvalo, nàsvalo; Iv; adj; sjuk; sick, ill; cf. narvalo; nater, pl natar; Etz; s; släkting; relative; nàti; Iv; adj; gjerrig, knipen; greedy, stingy; nav, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; namn; name; Romani nav name, from Skt. nāman- name; navlo; KIH; adj; oskyldig, naiv, godtrogen; innocent, naive; Romani (Sinte) narvalo, narbalo foolish, stupid, from Gm. Narr fool; nåntis; Etz; pron; någon; somebody, anybody; nåsjlo, nåsjalo; Etz, Rib; adj; 1. dålig, 2. beskjeden, nedtrykt, sørgmodig; 1. bad, 2. unas- suming, oppressed, melancholy; cf. narvalo; nåsjalò , nåsjaló ; Iv; adj; ille til mote, lei (for); sad, depressed, sorry for (something); cf. narvalo; nägglo; Etz; s; igelkott; hedgehog; närsto; Etz; adv; nära; near; nèvo-rub; Iv; s, n, m; nysølv; German silver, nickel silver; nèvo-tudd; Iv; s, f; nysilt mjølk, egl. nymjølk; unskimmed milk, lit. new-milk; négus; Iv; s, m; negl; nail (on the body); cf. naj; neita; KIH, Iv; v; gifta sig; marry; néjta, níta, nèjta, nèjtja, näjtjà , -(n), pl nèjter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; smula, bit; crumb, bit; dova dokka tji mander jekh nejta gla mengrepat to mander they didn’t give me so much as crumb for my work, nejtan the garden plot; nèkkra, näkkrà -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny; from Sw. neka deny; nèrride, nèrrider, närrider̀ ; LDj; adv; nära, vid, närmare; close, by, closer; nérvalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; nervsjuk, nervös; neurotic, nervous; cf. narvalo, also influenced by Sw. nervsjuk neurotic; 174 appendix i névo, névro, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; 1. ny, 2. fersk; 1. new, 2. fresh; tjinna diro dova nevoa voddro? did you buy the new car? lattjot nevot basht! happy New Year!; Romani nevo new, from Skt. nava- new; nèvo-basht, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; nyår; New Year; Iv nèvo-bærsj; niga; Etz; adv; nära; near, close to; níi; LDj; adv; nu; now; cf. ninna; níjal, nílja, -en, -er -erna; LDj; s, r; sommar; summer; Romani milaj summer, from Skt. nidāgha- heat; níkli, níklia, níklos; LDj; adv; borta, ner, nere; off, away, down; likely from Romani nikjovel to go out, from Skt. *niṣkal- come out; nìkli-besja; Iv; v; bortsette (særlig barn på en gård); put out to lodge and board (esp. children on a farm); nìkli-leia; Iv; adj (pst ptc); bortskjemt; indulged, spoiled; nìnna; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; prep, adv, conj; 1. (prep, adv) med, 2. (conj) men, 3. (adv) hit, här, 4. (adv) nu, 5. (prep, adv) till, 6. da, 7. straks; 1. (prep, adv) with, 2. (conj) but 3. (adv) here, 4. (adv) now, 5. (prep, adv) to, 6. then, 7. soon; 1. tjingra ninna tjuro! cut with the knife!, 2. mander ster andre ninna miro phral ster avri ta biddrar pre mander I’m standing inside, but my brother is outside waiting for me; Romani (Sinte) nina also, na now, well, from Gr. nun now; nìtja, nìta, nèjta, -a(n), pl nìtjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; 1. fält, åker, 2. mark, 3. äng; 1. field, tilled field, 2. grounds, 3. meadow; Etz nita, nitan; nòbba, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; neka; deny; Etz noba; from Rotw. nobis nothing; Nor-temmen; Iv; name; Nordland; Nordland; nøkka; KIH, Rib; ta; take; nubli; KIH; s; hora, prostituerad; whore, prostitute; cf. lubbni; núkko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; barn, unge; child, kid; nukkon golar gla li kammar tji tudd the child is screaming because she’s not getting any milk; Etz nycko; from Fi. nuke doll; nukkoske-kàben, -; LDj; s, r; barnmat; baby food; nùtta, nùttja, -(n), pl nùtter, -(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; tröja, kofta; sweater, cardigan; from Fi. nuttu sweater, cardigan; nutters, nuttis; Etz; adv; nu; now; from Sw. nu now; O o bahi,̂̀ o bakk̂̀ ; LDj; uninfl; s; otur; bad luck; o bahitalo,̂̀ -t, -a; LDj; adj; olycklig.; miserable, unlucky; ókto, òkto, òkhto, òhto; LDj, Rib; num; åtta; eight; Rib åkta; Romani oxto eight, from Gr. oktṓ; appendix i 175 ongslo; Etz; adj; ung; young; from Sw. ung young; o lattjano,̂̀ o loschano,̂̀ -t, -a; LDj; adj; olycklig; miserable; o lattjo,̂̀ o lascho,̂̀ -t, -a; LDj; adj; otrevlig; unpleasant, unfriendly; òppre; LDj; adv; upp, uppe; up(ward), up; from Sw. upp up; oppreál; LDj; prep/adv; utanpå, uppepå; outside, up on; óppri, óppre, òppri, òppre, ùppri uninfl; LDj, KIH, Iv, Etz, Rib; 1. (adv) upp, uppe, 2. (vpart) upp 3. (adj) åpen; 1. (adv) up, 2. (vpart) up, 3. (adj) open; cf. oppre; òppri-ledd; LDj; pst ptc; upptagen, uppdragen; busy, pulled up; òppri-nakkad; LDj; adj; uppnäst; snobby; mander honkar oppri-nakkad I am snobby; oválsje; Etz; s; satan, den lede (äv. bildl. jäkel e.d.); satan, the Evil One (also fig. devil or the likes); o mâla,̂̀ o mālầ LDj, Rib; s/adj uninfl; ovän, osams, i vissa uttr.; enemy (lit. un-friend), at odds with, in some expr.; onka; Rib; v/pron; er, denne; is, this; o pattjano,̂̀ o pattjalo,̀̂ -t, -a; LDj; adj; misstrogen, otrogen; mistrustful, unfaithful; o pekkrad̂̀ ; LDj; pst ptc; ostekt, ej genomstekt; uncooked, under-cooked; o ushli,̂̀ -t, -a; LDj; adj; oskyldig; innocent; öfters; Etz; prep; över; over; ösjter; Etz; prep; över; over; P pabb, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Etz; s, n; äpple; apple; Etz pl pabbar; Romani phabaj apple, from Skt. phala- fruit; pabbe; Rib, Iv; s; potet; potato; Iv pabb, babb; cf. pabb; pabbeske-mörklí , -n; LDj; s, r; äpplekaka; apple cake; pàcha; LDj; adv; bredvid; beside; cf. paschi; pàcha, pàscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lägga, ligga, sätta, hänga; lay, lie, put, hang; Romani pašljol lie, from paš; pagger; Rib; adj; sunt; broken; cf. pagra; paggri; Rib; s; brekking, bryting; shattering, breaking; pàggring, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; 1. fängelse, häkte, 2. förstöring, inbrott; 1. jail, custody, 2. destruction, housebreaking, burglary; cf. pagra; pàgo-mors; Iv; s, m; en som har vært på slaveriet; one who has been to a federal prison; págo, pággo; Iv, Etz; s, m; fengsel; prison; Etz def sg paggen; cf. pagra; pàgra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH, Etz; v; 1. förstöra, fördärva, 2. bøye, 3. veksle (penger); 1. destroy, wreck, 2. bend, 3. change (money); tjavon pagra valit the boy broke the window; Romani phagarel break, destroy, crack, from Skt. bhajya- destroy; pagritjingrad; Etz; adj; sönderskuren; cut apart; 176 appendix i págro, pággro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; förstörd, krossad; destroyed, crushed; Romani phago broken; pajk, -en, -ar, -arna; pájko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; 1. lapp, same, 2. lapp, bit, stycke; 1. lapp, Sami, 2. patch, bit, piece; from Fi. paik piece, patch; Pàjko-them, Pajkoske-thém uninfl; LDj; namn; Lappland; Lapland; pàkkra, pàrkra, pàrkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; 1. tacka, 2. bukke; 1. thank, 2. bow; KIH pærka; Romani parikerel thank, from Skt. prati-kar- give back; pàkkrepa uninfl; LDj; s; tack; thanks, thank you; pakkrepa gla sas mander ledde attjer ersnos miros romanoa mala! thank you for everything I got from you, my Travelling friends! cf. pakkra; pákksno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; tjock; fat; Etz paksno, pakso; Romani pako mature, grown up, Skt. pakva- cooked, mature; pal; Iv; s, n; brett; tray; pal, pale, pali, palo; Etz; adv; igen, tillbaka, till slut; again, back, eventually; cf. pala; pàla; Iv; adv, prep; 1. igjen (med verb som lukke, stenge), 2. etter; 1. to(with verbs such as shut, close and the like), 2. after; Romani pala behind, after, for, from Skt. pare later; pàlal; Iv; adv; bak; behind; cf. pala; pàlal-piro; Iv; s, m; bakfot; hind foot; pàle; Iv; prep, adv; 1. (prep, adv) bak, 2. (adv) tilbake, igjen; 1. (prep, adv) behind, 2. (adv) back; cf. pala; pàli, páli; Iv; adv; tilbake; back; pàlla; Iv; v; strikke; knit; pàlla, pálo, pa lế , páli; LDj, Etz; adv, subj, prep; 1. (adv) kvar, 2. (subj) om, ifall, 3. (prep) om, mot, 4. palo i förbindelse med tô tillbaka, 5. efter, 6. genom; 1. (adv) left, 2. (subj) if, in case, 3. (prep) if, toward, 4. palo in connection with tô back, 5. after, 6. through; 1. ste palo kaj remain behind (here), kammar diro palo loverna? do you have any money left?, 2. palla diro voltrar if you want to, 3. puscha palla loddni! Ask about shelter! dikka palla tjeri! look toward the sky!; Etz palla, pallan, pallar, palle; cf. pala; palla-díves, palleske-dìves; uninfl; LDj, Iv; s, adv; 1. (s) eftermiddag, 2. (adv) i eftermid- dag; 1. (s) afternoon, 2. (adv) this afternoon; Iv pàllar-dives; pàllar, pállar, pàllal, pállal; Iv; prep, adv; 1. (prep) etter, 2. (adv) etterpå; 1. (prep) after, 2. (adv) afterwards; páltan, pálto; Iv; s, m; (blod)klubb; (type of) black-pudding; from Sw. palt, from MLG palt piece of meat; pàni-kjibba, pàni-kjibban; Iv; s, m; vassbøtte; water-pail; pàni-mommali; Iv; s, f; petroleum, egl. vass-lys; petroleum, petrol, lit. water-light; pànda, pàndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; 1. binda, knyta, stänga, 2. stänga, 3. strikke, hekle, 4. lukke; 1. bind, tie, close, 2. close, 3. knit, crochet, 4. close; 1. panda tji diro, honkar obahi don’t bind yourself, it means bad luck, 2. pandra budan to hispan, tjavo close appendix i 177 the door to the house, boy, pandra mojen! shut your mouth! (=be quiet!); Iv pànla, pàndla, pàlla; Romani phandel bind, bond, enchain, lock, from Skt bandh-; pàndare, pàndrarle, -n, -, def pl pandarna; LDj; s, m; bindare, binderska (person som binder korgar, kvastar och dylikt); basketmaker, broommaker; cf. panda; pándel; Iv; s, n; bind; bandage; pandlipà; Rib; s; binding, festing, hekling, stenging, strikking; binding, fastening, cro- cheting, closing, knitting; cf. panda; pángro, bángro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; fånge; prisoner; cf. panda; pàni, -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; 1. vatten, 2. innsjø, elv, bekk, dogg; 1. water, 2. lake, river, brook, dew; pi butt ninna pani savi diro bliddrar sasto drink lots of water and you’ll get well; Etz pania, Iv pàni (f, rarely m); Romani pani, from Skt. pānīya- water; pania; Rib; s, def; elva; the river; Pánian; Iv; namn; Romsdalen; Romsdalen; pani-sani; Rib; s; vass-suppe, vass-velling; water soup, water gruel; paniske-tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r; vattenkanna; watering can, water jug; pànja, -(de), -t; v; vattna; water; pànlar, pàndlar; Iv; s, m; spiker, egl. binder; (spike) nail, lit. binder; pànlebangro; Iv; s, m; strikkepinne; knitting needle; pánnilkja, pánnika, -(n), pl pánilkjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; panna, stekpanna; pan, frying pan; Etz pannélika, Iv panílke (f); pansh, pansch, pransh; LDj, Iv; num; fem; five; Iv pangs; Romani pandž five, from Skt. panca five; pànsha, pànscha, pànja, -(n), pl pànsher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; femma, femkronorssedel; five kronor bill; kammar diro jekh panscha to gullo-tjakk? do you have a five (krona bill) for some candy?; cf. pansh; pànshare, -n, -, def pl pànsharna; LDj, Etz; s, r; en femma; a fiver, five kronor; cf. pansh; pànsj-dings, pánsj-dings; Iv; s, m; femkroneseddel, femmer; five-krona bill, fiver; pansj-énja-jak; Iv; s, m; femogtjue-øring; twenty-five øre (cents); pànsj-lilar, pánsj-lilar; Iv; s, pl; femkronesedler; five-krona bills; pansjo; Etz; s; rolig, skojig person; funny, amusing person; páppni, páppani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; gås; goose; Iv papína; Romani papin goose, from Gr. papi duck; par, parr, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; mage; stomach; Romani peř stomach, from Pkt. peṭṭa- stomach; paralo, paraslo; Etz; s; sabel; saber; pardo; Etz; adj; full; full; pári uninfl; LDj, Rib; adj; 1. (adj) med barn, gravid, dräktig, 2. (s) gravid kvinna, fölmärr, 3. fruktsommelig; 1. (adj) with child, pregnant, 2. (s) pregnant woman, pregnant mare, 3. fertile; devel, sass honkar tjattjot lattjot, miro romnia honkar pari! heavens, everything is great, my wife is pregnant!; cf. par; 178 appendix i paríkkipa; Iv; s, m; takk; thanks; parko, parkro, -ar; Etz; s; lapp, revers, i pl äv. papper, handlingar; note, promissory note, in pl also papers, documents; parmíssa, -n, pl parmísser, -na; LDj; s, r; berättelse; story; rakkra palla jekh parmissa, miro dad, gla vorsnos tjavoar! tell a story, father, to us boys!; Romani paramiči story, narrative, saga, tale, fable, from Gr. paramýthi; párno, pérno, pärnó , pérlo, pärló , -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; vit, ljus; white, light, fair; Iv pærno blek; pale; Romani parno white, pale, from Skt. pāṇḍu- yellowish, brown; pàrra; Iv; s, m; bør, byrde; burden, load; pàrra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; byta, 2. handle; 1. trade, 2. deal (in); Iv pàrra, pàra; Romani pařuvel exchange, trade, deal, from Skt. pāraya- bring forth; pàrrar, pàrar; Iv; s, m; kramkar, skreppehandler; huckster, pedlar; pàrrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; byte, byteshandel; trade, barter; Etz paropa, Rib parripà, Iv párripa, páripa; parreske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; magvärk, ont i magen; stomach ache, stomach pains; parreske-mósch, pàrrar-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m; byteshandlare, en som säljer och köper allt; trader, one who sells and buys everything; Iv pàrrar-mosj, pàrar-mosj kramkar, skreppehandler; huckster, pedlar; pàrrika, pàrka, pæ̀rka; Iv; v; takke; thank; cf. pakkra; Párriko-themm uninfl; LDj; namn; Finland äv. Finnmarken; Finland, also Finnmark; pasch, pash, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; 1. halv, 2. dum, tokig, 3. itu, trasig; 1. half, 2. stupid, crazy, 3. apart, broken; Romani paš half, broken, (some dialects) crazy, from Skt. pārśva- side; páschalo, paschelín, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; knäpp, tokig; loopy, crazy; Etz pasjano; cf. pasch; pàschi, pàschig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; trasig, dåligt klädd; torn, badly dressed; cf. pasch; pàsch-rabbi(k), -t, -a; LDj; adj; halvtokig; half crazy; dova honkar tjattjot pasch-rabbi it is clearly half crazy; pàsch-sleng, pàsh-sleng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; femtiokronorssedel; fifty kronor bill; pàsj-vaver; Iv; num; halvannen; one and a half; pasja; Etz, Rib; v; 1. ha sönder, växla (pengar), 2. dele; 1. break, change (money), 2. split, part; cf. pasch; pàsja, pàssa; Iv, Rib; v; tro; believe; cf. pattja; pásjano; Iv; adj; pålitelig; trustworthy; pasjanokeren; Etz; s, def; dårhuset; the lunatic asylum, the mental hospital; pasjanot; Etz; adj, infl; trasigt; broken; pasjar; Rib; s; tillit; trust; cf. pasja; pasjar, pasjerar; KIH, Iv; s pl; mynt; coins; Iv pàsjar (m) skilling; halfpenny; pasjérar (pl) småpenger, slanter; small change, coppers; appendix i 179 pasj-barolill; Rib; s; femti-kroning (=halvstor seddel); fifty-kronor bill (=half big bill); pasj-énja; Iv; num; ti, egl. half tjue; ten, lit. half twenty; pásjipa, pássipa, pássiba; Iv; s, m; tro, tillit; belief, trust, confidence; cf. pattja; pasjváro; Iv; s, m; sida; side; passja; Etz; v; ligga, lägga (sig), ställa, sätta; lie, lie (oneself) down, put, set; Romani pašljol lie, sleep; cf. pasch; passjano; Etz; adj; sömnig; sleepy; cf. pasch; passtara; Etz; v; passa; fit; from Sw. passa fit; patrejàl; Rib; s; merke; sign, signum, rations coupon; pátria, pàtri, pátri, pátron; Iv; s, m, f, m; sign on the road(side), used in order to give certain pieces of information to Travellers who were following later on; Romani patrin leaf, letter, banknote, from Skt pattra- wing, feather; patrín uninfl; LDj; s, r; skylt, sida; sign, side; KIH patria; cf. patria; patteràska, raska; Rib; s; skjære (fugl); magpie; cf. kakkaraska; pattja; Etz; v; tro, tänka; believe, think; pàttja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tro; believe; Romani paćal beleive, from Skt. pratiāya-; pàttjano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; religiös, troende; religious, of faith; páttjasi, páttjesi, pàttersi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; altare; altar; pàva, -n, pl pàver, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; flaska; bottle; Etz pavani, Iv pavvanì; cf. pani; pàvali, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; ölflaska; beer bottle; Iv pàvvali, pàvvani, pavaní flaska; bottle; pavellmanger; Etz; s, pl; tändstickor; matches; pådrar̀ ; Iv; s, m; belg (i smie); bellows (in a forge); påpplo; Etz; s, coll; folk; people; pårda; Etz; s; kvickdrag hos häst; broken wind in a horse; heaves; pårga; Etz; s; port; gate; påsjitta-kjår; Rib; s; lomme-tjuv; pick-pocket; påstil̀ ; Iv; s, m; bibel; bible; pått, påttisa; Etz; s; flaska; bottle; påvipa; Etz, Iv; s; spådom, spådomskonst; fortune telling, art of fortune telling; Iv påvipá (m); pæ̀na; Iv; s, m; søster; sister; pärda; Etz; v; följa; follow; pærdi-a-beng; KIH; adj; elak, listig; evil, wily, lit. full of the devil; pærdi-a-béng; Iv; adj; vanskelig å omgås, strid; ogs. falsk, lønsk, egl. full av djevelen; hard to deal with, obstinate; also false, clandestine, lit. full of the devil; pärdobäng; Etz; adj; full av fan, elak, illmarig; mean, mischievous (lit. full devil); pärdolackt; Etz; adj; elak, illmarig; mean, mischievous; pärgel, pärjel; Etz; s; gyckel, spektakel, förtret; jesting, spectacle, annoyance; 180 appendix i pærkenellik, pærkenikkel, pærkenilk; KIH; s; stock, pinne; log, stick; pärnoklir; Etz; s; vetebröd; white (wheat) bread; pärnot uninfl; LDj; s; arsenik (eg. vitt); arsenic (lit. smth. white); pärrepà , -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; sällskap; company; péripa; Iv; s, m; følgje; company, companionship; peíko; Iv; s, m; lapp, fille; patch, rag; cf. pajk; peikra; KIH, Iv; v; 1. patch, 2. lodde (metall); 1. patch, 2. solder; Iv peìkra lappe, bøte, ogs. lodde (metall); patch, mend, also solder; cf. pajk; pejkoa, päjkoa; Etz; s, pl; kläder; clothes; cf. pajk; pejor; Etz; s, pl; kläder; clothes; pèkkari; Iv; s, f; steikepanne; frying pan; pekkipà; Rib; s; steking; frying; pèkkra, päkkrà , -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. steka, 2. bake; 1. roast, fry, 2. bake; ninna honkar tjerva ballvaset pekkrat! the boiled pork is now roasted!; Etz päcka, Iv pèkka, píkka, píkja; Romani pekel fry, roast, bake, from Skt. pac-; pèkkrare, -n, -, def pl pèkkrarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; bagare; baker; Iv pìkkar; cf. pekkra; pekkre-pánnika, pèkkre-pannika, -(n), pl pànniker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; stekpanna; frying pan; pèkkta, pèjkta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela instrument, spela kort; play an instrument, play cards; pèkktepa uninfl; LDj; s; spel (av olika slag); games (of different kinds); péko, -t; LDj; s, n; lapp, papper, brev; note, paper, letter; pelar, pälar, peloar, päloar; Etz; s, pl; testiklar; testicles; pellus; Rib; s; hatt; hat; pénja, pènja, pénji, -n, pl pènjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; syster; sister; Etz pen, pena; Romani phen sister, cousin, from Skt. bhaginī- sister; penn; KIH; s; boende, logi, hotell; accomodation, lodging, hotel; pènna, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; 1. säga, tala, 2. fortelle; 1. say, speak, 2. tell; pänna, pena; Romani phenel speak, say, talk, tell, from Skt. bhan- call aloud, speak; penndri; Rib; s; hus; house; pennisser; Rib; s; kjaerestepar; lover couple; penring, pänring; Etz; s; logi, plats där resande får logi; lodging, place where Travellers are given lodging; pènta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stänga; close; pera; Etz; v; 1. falla, släppa, 2. växla, 3. fria; 1. fall, let go, 2. change (money), 3. propose; Romani perel fall, perish, from Skt. pat-; peraloduckepa; Etz; s; fallandesot (epilepsi); falling sickness (epilepsy); perd; KIH, Iv; s; stomach; stomach; Iv pærd; pèrda, pärdà , -(de), -t; LDj; v; fylla; fill; Romani pherel fill, scoop; cf. perdo; pèrdo, pärdó , -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; adj; 1. full, fylld, 2. svanger; 1. full, filled, 2. pregnant; alit asha perdot ninna pani the glass was half filled with water, perda oppri buttider appendix i 181 savo dova bliddrar perdot pour some more in so it’s filled; Etz pärdit, Rib perdi, Iv pæ̀rdi; Romani pherdo full, filled, from Skt. bhar- carry; perkenikkel; KIH, Iv; s; log, stick; Iv pæ̀rkenikkel, pæ̀rkenilk, pærkenéllik; perníssa, pèrnisa, pernísha, pärnisá , -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; dyna, kudde; cushion, pillow; Romani pernítsa pillow, feather bed, cushion; pèrnissa, pärnishá , -(n), pl pèrnisser, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; kudde, dyna; pillow, cush- ion; Etz pärnísa, pærníssa, pærnísa, pæ̀rnisa, pärnisá (m), panísse (f); Romani (Sinte) pernica pillow, feather bed, cushion, from Romanian pernă pillow; perr, pärr, -en; s, r; mage; stomach; pèrra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; ramla, falla; fall; Iv pèra, pæ̀rra, pæ̀rta; cf. pera; péttlo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz; s, r; hästsko; horseshoe; Etz gräjpettlo; Romani pet- alo horseshoe, from Gr. pétalo; phral, pral, prahl, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, m; bror; brother; Rib bral; Romani phral brother, (even) mate, from Skt. bhrātṛ-; phúri, phúria, púri, -/-n; LDj, Etz; s, f; gumma, gammal kvinna; sweet old woman, old woman; Etz puria; cf. puro; phuv, puj, -a/-en/-et/phúvanet; pu, -et; LDj; s, r/n; jord, mark, golv; earth, ground, floor; sutta dre phuv tjakke jekh mulot lie in the dirt like a corpse; Romani phuv earth, ground, land, soil, from Skt. bhūmi-; phùva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; begrava; bury; cf. phuv; phùvanopa, -t; LDj; s, n; begravning; burial; pi, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sup; shot (of spirits), schnaps; dela miro jekh pi, honkar diro malano! give me a shot, please!; Iv pi (m) dram; dram, drink of brandy; cf. pi (v); pi, -dde, -tt; pila, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dricka, supa; drink, drink booze; Romani pijel drink, from Skt. pib-; pìanes; Iv; s (uninfl); brennevin; brandy; pìar-baskro; Iv; s, m; fyllefant; guzzler, drunkard; pìas-pani; Iv; s, f; drikkevatn; drinking water; pìne; Iv; s, f; grime (til hest); halter (for horses); pìra; Iv; v; fri til; propose to; pìri, píri; Iv, Etz; s, f; gryte, kasseroll; (cooking) pot, kettle, casserole, stew-pot; Etz piri, piria; píriba; Iv; s, m; friing; proposal, courtship; pia; Rib; v; drikke; drink; cf. pi; pia-hisspa; Rib; s; drikke-stue (restaurant); drinking house (restaurant); piar-bangro; Rib; s; dranker, drikkfeldig, drukken-bolt; drunkard, guzzler, someone prone to drinking; pìare, -n, -, def pl pìarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; fyllerist, alkoholist; drunkard, alcoholic; Iv pìar; píben uninfl; LDj; s; öl, sprit; beer, spirits; cf. pi; 182 appendix i pibeneske-stéddo, pibena-stéddo, -n,/-; LDj, Etz; s, r; krog, ölservering; inn, beerhouse; Etz píbenastädo; pìbing, pìling, pìving, pìing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; öl, vin, dricka; beer, wine, drink; pibligavo; Etz; s; änkeman; widower; pìepa, pìlepa, -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. dryckesslag, 2. fylleri; 1. drink off (competition), 2. (offense of) drunkenness; cf. pi; pikjanéllika; Iv; s, m; steikepanne; frying pan; pìkkari; Iv; s, n; bakeri; baker’s trade, bake-house; pikkorì; Rib; s; panne; pan, tile; pìkra; Iv; v; bake; bake, make bread; pilla; Etz; s; mössa; cap, hat; pílo, píalo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; full, berusad; drunk, inebriated; cf. pi; pilo-dúkk, pílo-dukk, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fyllsjuk; hung over; pilo-dukk mande ashar! I’m so hung over!; pìngle; Iv; s, f; bjølle; bell; pìnja, pìnsa; Iv; v; kjenne; know; feel; Romani prindžanel know; pìnsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; växla (pengar); change (money); pínsno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; svettig; sweaty; pipalon; KIH; s; sjukdom av ett husdjur; sickness of a pet; pira; KIH; adj; fri; free, free (to); piranokangling; Etz; s; finkam (eg. benkam); fine comb (lit. bone comb); piri; Rib; v, s; følge; 1. follow, 2. company, crew; Iv pèri, pìri sällskap, kamratskap; com- pany, companionship; pirka; Etz; s; mössa; cap, hat; píro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; fot, ben; foot, leg; Iv péro; Romani punřo, from Skt. piṇḍa- clod, calf; pirsling, -ar; Etz; s; fot; foot; pivérta, pìverta, -(n), pl piverter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; krog, gästgivargård, ölservering; inn, hostelry, beerhouse; cf. pi; pivli; KIH, Iv; s; änka; widow; Iv píbli; pìvli-gaje; Iv; s, f; enke, egl. enke-kone; widow, lit. widow-wife; pìvli-gao, pìvli-gavo; Iv; s, m; änkling; widower; pivlo; KIH, Iv; s; änkling; widower; Iv píblo; pjuska; KIH; v; skjuta; shoot; plàkkta, -(n), pl plàkkter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; lakan; sheet; devel, gla fysha suta dre dova kaloa ratti, isarna kandrar ta plakktana honkar kaloa! heavens, to sleep in the dark night, the clothes smell and the sheets are black; KIH blakstran; Romani plaxta (Sinte) sheet, linen (sheet), canvas, carpet, from Pol. płaszcz; plastra; Etz; s; kappa; coat; Romani (Sinte) plasta coat; cf. plakkta; plastra; Etz; v; springa, rymma; run, run away; appendix i 183 plastrepa; Etz; s; flykt, rymning; escape; plattfínker; Etz; s, pl; gäss; geese; plàttra, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; tidning; newspaper; from Gm. Blatt, MLG Blat leaf, paper, Sw. bläddra turn over pages; plit; Etz; s; kniv; knife; plitt; Iv; s; blod; blood; plìtta; Iv; v; blø; bleed; plómotar; Etz; s, pl; äpplen; apples; plym, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; börs, portmonnä; purse; póffrik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; pistol; pistol, gun; from Gm. Puffer gun; pòffring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; revolver; revolver; pòggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; blåsa; blow; cf. pordra; pokkel, pokkelman; KIH; s; gammal man, pensionär; old man, retiree; pòkktan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; 1. tyg, 2. lerret, linnet, tøy; 1. fabric, 2. linen, hemp, clothes; KIH pokti carpet, Etz påktan, Iv påktí teppe; rug, carpet; Romani poxtan fabric, canvas, linen cloth, barracan, cloth, from Pers. paxte; pokl; KIH, Iv; s; gammal kvinna; old lady; Iv pòkle; pord; KIH; s; fjord; fiord; pòrda, pòrdra; Iv; v; sprenge (en hest); work (a horse) to death, break the wind of (a horse), kill (a horse); pordabaskro; KIH, Iv; s; segla; sail; Iv pordebáskro; pordar; KIH; s; vind; wind; pórdipa; Iv; s, m; storm; storm; pòrdra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; blåsa; blow; Iv pòrda; Romani phurdel blow, puff, aspirate something, from Skt. phūt-kṛ- blow; pòrga, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; port; gate; penta porgan! close the gate!; most likely from Gm. Pforte gate; pórija, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; svans, rumpa; tail, rear; Etz poria; Romani pori tail, from Skt pūta- back; porr, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; bro; bridge; Romani (Sinte) phort bridge, from Gm. Pforte, gate; porr, por, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. tagel, 2. fjäder, 3. skägg; 1. horsehair, 2. feather, 3. beard; Etz por; cf. porija; pòrsti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; skinnfäll; fur, pelt, fur-rug; suta porstia an banku- sen! put the fur-rug on the couch! Iv påsjtiń , påstiń , påstil̀ ; Romani poštin fur, fur coat, fur blanket, from Pers. pōst skin; póshika, pósitta, pósta, póttjika, -n, pl póshiker, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; ficka; pocket; Rib påsjitta, Iv påssitá , påtisa (m); Romani poski bag, pocket, from Skt. prasiti band; posjta; Etz; adj; illmarig; knowing, cunning, mischievous; possik; KIH, Iv; s; mage; stomach; Iv påssiká ; 184 appendix i postíll, póstil, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; fotsäck (till släde); cf. porsti; póto, pótto; LDj; adv; bestämt; decided; pòvva, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; spå; tell fortunes; Iv påvà (also) trolla; charm, conjure; prala; Rib; s, sg; bukse; pants; pràmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. ge kredit, borga, 2. lura, 3. ta på kredit; 1. grant credit, buy or sell on credit, 2. trick, 3. buy on credit, buy on tick; pramning; Etz; s; borgning, borgen; (personal) guarantee, security, warrant; pràschta, pràstra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; springa; run; Iv pràsta, pràsjta (also) jaga, köra; chase, drive; Romani prastel go, run, haste, jump, flee, from Skt. prati-sthā- stand up, break up; prasjtare; Etz; s, pl; 1. löpare, skidor, 2. skridskor; 1. runners, 2. skis, ice skates; pràsjtrar; Iv; s, m; sykkel, egl. springer, jager; bicycle, lit. runner, chaser; prastripàn; Rib; s, def; spranget; the leap, the spring; pre, prej, präj; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; prep/adv; på, ovanpå, upp, till; on, on top of, up, to; pre nashen on the run, pre dromen on the road, tjavon tradra pre’n ta puscha the boy went to him and asked; Rib pri, Iv pre; emphatically pre, pri; på; on, at, in; Romani pre up, upward, aloft, above, on the top, upstairs; preál, preáll; LDj; prep/adv; över, genom, ovanpå, runt, upp, uppe; over, through, on top of, around, up (direction), up (loc); cf. pre; préde, prédde; LDj, Iv; adv/prep; genom, mellan; through, between; daden tradra prede jekh vesh ta ava kaj father went through a forest and came here; Iv préder, prédder; prejs, -et; LDj; s, n; betalning; payment; Romani (Sinte) prajskrel pay, plajsrêpen pay- ment, pay, salary from Gm. Preis price; prèjsa, präjsà -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; betala; pay; Iv preìsa, prèssa, prìssa; Romani prajskrel pay, from Gm. Preis price; prèjsepa, -n/-t, -r, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r/n; betalning; payment; Rib preisipà, Iv preísipa, préssiba, príssiba; cf. prejsa; préle; LDj; adv; emellan; between; cf. pre; prépassja; Etz; v; pålägga; impose; pri-gåla; Rib; v; på-skreket, anropt; cried-on, called on, addressed; prim, primo; Etz; s; portmonnä; purse; pri-nasja; Rib; adj anfalt; attacked; prìnja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; känna, känna igen; know, recognize; Etz prinsja; Romani prindžanel know, recognize, get to know, form Skt. pratyabhijānā-; prínjano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; känd, ökänd; famous, infamous; cf. prinja; prínshano, prínshalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; bekant; acquainted/acquiantance; honkar dova prinshanoa to diro? are they acquainted with you?/are they acquaintances of yours?; cf. prinja; appendix i 185 próshono, próshno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; högfärdig; self-conceited, stuck up; pùsemangrar; Iv; s, pl; lopper; fleas; pùffra -(n), pl pùffrer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bössa; rifle; pùffra, pòffra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; skjuta; shoot; Iv pùffa; pùffrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; skottlossning, skjutning; gunfire, shooting; kaj kammar honkat jekh puffrepa there has been a shooting here; cf. poffrik; púffrik, -et, pùffring, -en; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n/r; revolver; revolver; Etz puffrek, Iv púffert; puj, pùjan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. golv, mark, 2. jord, socken; 1. floor, ground, 2. earth, parish; mander bescha dova pre pujanet I put it on the floor; KIH pul, puna, punae, pur; Etz pu, def sg puen, pujen, puat, puanet; cf. phuv; pùkka, -(de), -t; LDj; säga, fråga; tell, ask; Romani phučel, from Skt. pṛcch-; pul, pui, pur, pùna; Iv, Rib; s, m; golv; floor; Rib puja; pùnta, -(n); pùntan, -, pl pùnter, -(n)a; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; börs, portmonnä; purse; Rib ponnta, Iv pónta; maybe from Sw.Dial. pung purse; pur; Etz; s; bakdel; rear; púrane (uninfl); LDj; adv, adj pl, komp; 1. (adv) gammalt, 2. (adj pl) gamla, 3. (comp) äldre; 1. (adv) old, 2. (adj pl) old, 3. (comp) older; cf. puro; púrano, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; gammal; old; Rib purranò, Iv pùrrano, pèrrano; puranò-dad; Rib; s; gamle-far; grandfather lit. old-father; Iv pùrrano-dad (m); puranò-dakri; Rib, Iv; s; gamle-mor; grandmother lit. old-mother; Iv pùrrano-dakri (f); púrjanet; LDj; s, def sg; golvet; the floor; mander suta pre purjanet dre ratti I lay on the floor last night; puro; Etz; adj; gammal; old; púro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; gammal man, gubbe; old man; Romani phuro old, from Skt. vṛddha-; púron, púrien; LDj; s, def sg; gamlingen; the old man; cf. puro; pùrrano-keral; Iv; s, m; gammalost; Norwegian old-milk cheese, lit. old-cheese; pursjta, pusjta; Etz; adj; sprängd (om häst); wind broken, heaving (about horses), a breathing disorder in horses; pùscha, pùcha, pùchka, pùsha, pùttja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fråga; ask; cf. pukka; púscher, pùchema, pùsher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; loppor; fleas; Etz pussjemåll, Iv púsjimar; Romani pišum flea, from Skt. pluṣi-; pùsjika; Iv; s, m; skinnfell; skin rug, pelt rug; púsjka, pjúska; Iv; s, m; børse, gevær; gun, musket, rifle; puska; Etz; s; bössa; rifle; puss, pusch, -en; LDj, Iv; s, r; halm, hö; straw, hay; Iv pus (n); Romani phus straw, (less common) hey, from Skt. busa-; pussja; Etz; v; blåsa; blow; pusskar; Rib; v, pres; skyter; shoot(s); 186 appendix i pùssmo-jaarje, -n, -, def pl -jaarna; LDj; s, r; loppa; flea; pördat̀ uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; 1. lungsot, 2. kvarka hos häst; 1. tuberculosis, 2. strangles (lung disease in horses cause by a bacterial infection); Romani phurdel blow, puff, aspirate something, from Skt. phūt-kṛ-; R rabba; Etz; s, coll; brännvin; brandy, home distilled spirits; rábbik, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; tokig; crazy; Rib rar; crazy, odd; rada; Etz; adv; bra, väl; good, well; Romani radosno happily, merrily, from Serbcr. radosno; ràda; LDj; adv; bara; only, just; ràffa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hälla, koka; pour, boil; Etz råffa; rafla; Rib; s; fil, rive; file, rip; ràggra, rìggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; dra, hålla; pull, hold; Rib rikkra; ragúshta, ragústa, ràgusta, ràgursta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; trolla, spå; do magic, tell fortunes; ja andre hispa ta ragushta! go into the house and tell a fortune!; ragùstare, ràgustare, ràgurstare, -n, -, def pl ragùstarna; LDj; s, m; trollkarl; wizard; ragusteske-drább, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; naturmedicin; naturopathy (using natural herbs, vitamins, etc. to treat disease); ragustning; Etz; s; trolldom, trolldomskonster; sourcery, witchcraft; ragustra; Etz, Iv; s; trolldom, förtrollning; witchcraft, enchantment, spell; Iv ragúsjta; raj, rej, -en, -ar, -arna; rajo, -n; LDj, Etz; s, m; herre, förnäm herre, herrskapsman; gen- tleman, distinguished gentleman; Romani raj, from Skt. rājan- king; raja, -n; KIH; s; sticka; fila; prick; file; ràkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; akta, passe, pleie, rökte; be careful, take caution, watch, tend to, mind, take care of; rakka diro, dova honkar daranot! be careful, that’s dangerous!; Romani arakhel protect, from Skt. rakṣ-; rákkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; flicka (icke-resande); girl (non-Traveller); cf. rakklo; rákklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; pojke (icke resande); boy (non-Traveller); Romani raklo boy (non-gypsy), from Skt. laḍḍika- child; ràkkra, ràkkla -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; tala, säga; speak, say; Romani vaćarel say, speak, from Skt. vākya- word; rakkrar-tav; Rib, Iv; s; snakke-tråd (telefon); talking-wire (telephone); Iv ràkra-tav; ràkkrepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; språk, prat, tal; language, talk, speech; rada rakkra buttier pre vorsnos rakkrepa romani speak only more in our language, Romani; Iv ráklipa; ràkrar; Iv; s, m; telefon, egl. taler; telephone, lit. speaker; ràla, rála, -t, -; LDj; adj; hygglig, trevlig; friendly, nice, decent; appendix i 187 rambána, rambánia, -(n), pl rambáner, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; såg, rasp; saw, rasp; ràmpe; Iv; s, f; kålrot; nepe; Swedish turnip, turnip-cabbage, turnip; ràmsa, ràmsla, -(n), pl ràmser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; klänning; dress; cf. ràndjsa; ran, rana; Etz; s, coll; kvister; twigs, brushwood, birching; randa; Etz; v; riva, klia; scratch, scratch (an itch); ràndjsa; Iv; v; kle av seg; undress; Romani (Sinte) randžel dress; ràndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; skriva; write; Etz randa, Iv ràndra skrapa, skriva; scrape, write; Romani řandel scratch, cut, dig; ràndra-pani; Iv; s, f; blekk, egl. skrive-vatn; ink, lit. writing-water; ràndrar; Iv; s, m; dommer, egl. skriver (det folkelige no. navn på sorenskriveren); judge, lit. writer (the popular Norw. word for the local magistrate); randrar-baskro; Rib; s; sorenskriver, skriver; lower judge in the countryside, circuit judge; ràndrar-dings; Iv; s, m; penn, egl. skrivegreie; pen, lit. writing utensil; ràndrar-låddipa; Iv; s, m; blekkhus, egl. skrivehus; ink-bottle, ink stand, lit. writing-house; ràndrar-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m; skrivare, eg. skrivkarl; writer, journalist, lit. writer-man; Iv ràndrar-mosj (m) local magistrate; ràndrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n; skrivelse, brev, brevskrivning; letter, letter writ- ing; Rib randripà, Iv rándripa (m) skrivning, skrift; writing, script; ráni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; dam, förnäm kvinna, herrskapsfru; lady, distinguished woman, noblewoman; cf. Romani rani queen, from Skt. rājñī-; rànja; Iv; s, m; buske/buskar, ris, ogs. stav; bush(es), scrub, also staff, stick; rànja; Iv; v; denge, jule; bang, lick, thrash; ránkano; Iv; s, m; fornem herre, storkar; distinguished gentleman, important man; ránkano, ránkno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; förnäm; distinguished, noble; cf. raj; rankanoker; Etz; s; herrgård; mansion; ran-nucko; Etz; s; risbarn; barn som har engelska sjukan; child with rachitis; ráno, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; herre, fin karl; Sir, gentleman; honkar ranon mala ninna krajon? is the gentleman friends with the King? cf. rani; ràno-kher -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; herrgård; mansion, manor; ráppen uninfl; Iv; s, m; båt; boat; ráshia, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, f; kvinnlig präst; female priest; rásho, ráshio, ráscho, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, m; präst; priest; rashon rakkra to ghanat palla Devel ta Jesus the priest spoke to the people about God and Jesus; Romani rašaj, from Skt. ṛṣi- seer; rashoske-khér, rásho-kher, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; prästgård; parsonage; ràsjo-lil; Iv; s, m; præsteattest; clergyman’s certificate; ràsjonere; Iv; v; confirmere; confirm; 188 appendix i ratt, -en/-et; LDj; s, r/n; blod; blood; romano ratt Romani (Traveller) blood, lollo rattet the red blood; Romani rat, from Skt rakta- red; ràtta, ràttra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; blöda; Rib blø, dryppe, lekk; bleed, drip, leak; lo ratta an mul he bled to death; cf. ratt; rattalò; Rib; adj; blodig, blodete; bloody, bloodied; rattan; KIH, Iv; s; sykkel; bicycle; Iv ráttan (m) 1. (eldre) rokk; (older) spinning wheel, 2. (yngre) sykkel; (younger) bicycle; rattan; KIH; s; kappa; coat; rattan; Rib; adj; blodete; bloodied; rátti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; natt; night; helko rattia asha mander jangno I was awake the whole night, ninna honkar ratti kaloa, karna avar nilja? the nights are black now, when is summer coming?; Romani rat, from Skt rātrī-; ràttig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; blodig; bloody; ràtti-kibb, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; potta, nattkärl; chamber pot; rattiske-gøy; Rib, Iv; s; blod-pølse; black pudding (blood pudding); Iv ràtteske-gøye; rattitjaro; Etz; s; nattkärl; chamber pot; ràtt-maro, -n; LDj; s, r; paltbröd; blood bread; ravásta; Etz; v; stjäla; steal; rådrà ; Iv; v; eie; own, possess; rådrepa; Etz; s; expr kamma rådrepa be able to afford; råvv; Etz; s; gråt; crying; räcka; Etz; v; hjälpa; help; rätsà , -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; anka; duck; jurar diro rätsan? do you see the duck?; reia; KIH; s; stav; pole; Reìa; Iv; namn; name; Lars; Lawrence; rèkkla, ràkkla, -(n), pl rèkkler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; rock, kavaj; coat, (suit) jacket; Etz rickla, räckla, Iv rékla (m) 1. ytterfrakk; overcoat, 2. genser; guernsey; 3. skjørt; petticoat; from MLG rok overcoat; rèkkra, rèkkla, räkklà , rìkkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hålla, räcka, behålla; hold, reach out/ give (a hand), keep; rekkra mander diro vashta give me your hand! rekkra kaj, miro mala! hold here, my friend!; Etz rickra, räckra; from Sw. räcka reach; rèkling; Iv; s, m; ulltrøye, genser; guernsey (frock); reppanì; Rib; s; kålrabi, kålrot, nepe, turnips; kohlrabi, swede, turnip-cabbage, turnip; Iv ràppani, rèppani; from Gr. rapáni radish; rèp-pani, -t, -ar; LDj; s, n; rotfrukt; root-vegetable; rèvel, -n, pl rèvlar, -na; LDj; s, r; revers; promissory note, IOU; rido; Rib; adj; solid, stilig; solid, stylish, tasteful; rìdra; Iv; v; rida; ride; rìdra; Iv; v; riva; tear; appendix i 189 rigg, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sida; side; Iv rigg kant; edge; Romani rig side, from Skt. *ḍhigga- side, direction; rìggeske; LDj; adv/prep; bredvid, vid sidan om; beside, next to; riggra; Etz, Iv; v; bära; carry; Iv rìgra løfte; lift; Romani rikerel hold; rìlle; Iv; s, f; brille; a pair of spectacles; rìnta, rìntla, -(n), pl rìnter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bröst; chest; from Fi. rinta chest; rìssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skaka, skälva, ruska; shake, shiver, tremble; Romani irisarel turn, from Gk. gurizo; rits, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; räkning; bill; roáska; Etz; s; piska; whip; ròddra, ròdra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; leta, undersöka; search, look for, investigate; roddra kaj riggeske mander! search here to the side of me!; Romani rodel investigate, from Skt. ḍhūnḍh- search; rodrepa; Etz; s; letande; search; roj, röj, -en, -ar, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; sked; spoon; Romani řoj, from Pkt. ḍova-; ròkkan, -(en); LDj; s, r; råg; rye; from MHG rocke rye; rom, romm, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m; resandeman; Traveller man, Romani man; jekh purano horta rom an old genuine Traveller man, dova romm honkar jengad ninna jekh schukkard romni that Romani man is married to a beautiful Romani woman; Romani řom, from Skt./Pkt. ḍomba-; rómani, rómmani, -n; LDj, Iv; s, r; resandefolkets språk; Romani language; rakkra rom- mani speak Romani; Iv rom (n); cf. rom; romani-mànusch, romano-mànusch, -et; LDj; s, n; resandefolk, romanifolk; Travelling people, Romani people; tjattjot romano-manusch real Romani people; romanitjej; Etz; s; resandeflicka; Traveller girl; ròmano, ròmmano; Iv; s, m; tater; Romany; rómano, rómmano, rómani, rómmani, -n, -a(r), -a(r)na; LDj; s, m; resande (allmänt); travellers (general); horta romano genuine traveller, dova honkar butt tjattjot lattjot romano-manusch they are very good Travelling people; cf. rom; rómano, rómmano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; resande, av romanisläkt; Traveller, of Romani heri- tage; romano narta ninna romani ratt Travelling people with Romani blood; cf. rom; romano-bókko, romano-bökkó , -n; LDj; s, r; piska (ett vapen och verktyg, som använ- des av Rosengrenarna i Västergötland. Det var en dryg meter långt med ringar samt med en blyklump i handtaget, lindat i skinn och med en blykula längst ut); whip (a weapon and tool, used by the Rosengren family in Västergötland. It was a bit over 40 inches long with rings and with a lump of lead in the handle, wrapped in leather and with a lead ball on the end); romano-dróm, -en; LDj; s, r; resandeväg, romani-resa; traveller road, Romani journey; romanoracklo; Etz; s; resandepojke; traveller boy; 190 appendix i rómanot, rómmanot; LDj; adv; resandeaktigt, på resandesätt; traveller-wise; the travel- ler way; dova honkar tji romanot that is not the Traveller way (=Travellers don’t do that); cf. rom; ròmidint, ròmmidint, romidínt; Iv; adj; gift; married; ròmmani-sæl; Iv; s, m; tater; Romany; ròmmedina, ròmmedinta; Iv, Rib; v; gifte seg; to get married; Rib rommandìnte; rómni, -n/a, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, f; resandekvinna, resandehustru; trav- eller woman, traveller wife; romnierna honka kokkaroa khere, the (Romani) women were home alone; Etz råmni, Iv rómni kvinna; woman; cf. rom; roskopp; KIH; s; falsk armklocka; false brand watch; ròta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tala romani, prata; speak Romani, talk; mander rotar tji ninna dova an dives I’m not speaking with him there today, rotar diro? can you speak romani?; cf. rota (s); ròta; Iv; s., (uninfl); taterspråk, rommani; language of the Romanies, Romany; from Gm./Rotw. Rot(t) beggar; rota; Iv; s, m; krok; hook, crook; ròtepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; tal, prat, språk; speech, talk, language; romani ashar vorsnos rotepa romani is our language; Iv ròtipa, ròtepa (m) (also) taterspråk; language of the Romanies; rotfara; Etz; v; tala; speak; ròva, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; gråta; cry, weep; Etz råvva; Romani rovel cry, weep, from Skt. rod-; röddrà , -(de), -t; LDj; v; röra; stir; röddra palla kabenet to stir the food; røyipà; Rib; s; røyking; smoking; rùbban, -, -, -a; LDj; s, n/r; träd; tree; cf. rukk; rubbdanj; Etz; s; guldtand; gold tooth; rùbberske-gustri, rùbbeske-gustri; Iv; s, m; sølvring; silver ring; rùbberskevere; Iv; v; forsølve; silver(-plate); rubbiskevère; Rib; v; forsølve; silver-plate; rubbiske-verranì; Rib; s; sølvkjede; silver chain; rùbb-kerrar; Iv; s, m; sølvsmed, egl. sølvarbeider; silversmith, lit. silver-worker; rubbmåfti; Etz; s; silver snusdosa; silver snuff box; rubbsörmis; Etz; s; guldring; gold ring; rukk, -et/-anet/-a, -/-er -e(r)na; LDj, Etz; s, n; träd; tree; tjirklon, miro nukko, ashar phu- vad telal rukkanet the bird, my child, is buried under the tree; Etz ruckan; Romani ruk, from Skt. vṛkṣa-; rukkeske-bùda, rukkeske-vùrda, -n/-, pl -bùder, -na; LDj; s, r; trädörr; wooden door; rukkeske-hìspa, -n, pl hìsper, -na; LDj; s, r; trähus; wooden house; rukkeske-léddik, -an; LDj; s, r; trälåda; wooden box; rukkeske-rój, -en, -ar, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj; s, r; träsked; wooden spoon; appendix i 191 rukkeske-stámlo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; trästol; wooden chair; rukkeske-tjúro, rùkk-tjuro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; Iv; träskniv; wooden knife; rukkeske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; rukkeske-vòddring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; trävagn, lådbil; wooden cart, soapbox (car); rùlla, -(n), pl rùller, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kärra, dragkärra; cart, barrow; from Sw. rulla to roll; rúllik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; dragkärra med två hjul; handcart with two wheels; cf. rulla; rulta, rultra; Etz; v; köra, åka; drive, ride; rumtan; Etz; s; rum; room; rumtla; Etz; v; rum; room. rupovíno; Iv; s, m; brennevin; spirits, brandy; rupp, rubb, robb, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; silver (kan även vara guld); silver (can also be gold); Romani rup silver, from Skt. rūpya- beautiful, silver; ruppeske-kambána, rùbb-kambana, -n, pl -kambaner, -na; rùppeske-kamban; LDj; s, r; silverklocka; silver watch; ruppeske-kréstos, rùpp-krestos, -; LDj; s, r; silverkors; silver cross; devel, savot schuk- krano ruppeske-krestos! heavens, what a beautiful silver cross!; ruppeske-mìnka, rùbb-minka, -n, pl -minker, -na; LDj; s, r; silverklocka; silver watch; ruppeske-mòffti, rùbb-moffti, -n/-a, -mofftier, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; silverdosa, snusdosa av silver; silver box, snus box of silver; ruppeske-rój, rùbb-roj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; silversked; silver spoon; Iv rùb- berske-røy, rùbbeske-røy (f); ruppeske-smítto, rùbb-smitto, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; silversmed, guldsmed; silver- smith, goldsmith; savo kammar ruppeske-smitton siros spekkaria? where is the gold- smith’s store?; ruppeske-stámlo, rùpp-stamlo, -n/-a, pl -stamler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; silverstol; silver chair; ruppeske-sörming,̀ rùbb-sörming, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; silverring; silver ring; ruppeske-táv, rùbb-tav, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; silvertråd, silvertelefon; silver thread, silver telephone; tjinna ruppeske-tav to miro tjej liskris ashar te sivra nevroa isar! buy silver thread for my girl, she’s ging to sew some new clothes!; ruppeske-tjáro, rùpp-tjaro, -t/-et, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; silverfat, silverskål; silver plate, silver bowl; ruppeske-tjòkkla, rùbb-tjokkla, -/net; LDj; s, n; silverkjol; silver skirt; ruppeske-tjúro, rubbeske-tjúro, rùpp-tjuro, -a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; silverkniv; silver knife; ruppeske-vóddro, rùpp-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s; silvervagn, silverbil; silver cart, silver car; rúshto, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; arg; angry, malicious; mande ledde jekh rushto jykklo pre miro dumm I got an angry dog on my back; Rib rusjdo sint, vred; wrath; Iv rúsjto, rústo arg; angry; Romani rušto, from Skt. ruṣṭa-; 192 appendix i rusjtepa; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; elakhet, ilska; malice, anger; Rib rusjdopà, Iv rúsjtipa, rúsjtepa, rústiba; ruv, ruf, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv; s, r; varg; wolf; doj boddrar dolle ruv a wolf lives there; Iv ruff (m); Romani ruv, from Skt. vṛka-; rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; trasa; rag; rýssno, rýsso, rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; matta; carpet; ryso; Etz; s; trasa; rag; S sa, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; skratta; laugh; Romani asal, from Skt. has-; sabo ̂́ria, -n, pl sabo ̂́rier, -na; LDj; s, f; prinsessa; princess; diro dikkas tjakke jekh sab- oria you look like a princess, schukkard tjakkes vorsnos saboria beautiful like our princess; saddra; KIH, Iv; v; segla; sail; Iv sàdra; saddra; KIH, Iv; v; droppa; drip; sáffis, -et/-en; LDj; s, n/r; såpa; soft soap; from Gm. Seife soap; saiba; KIH; s; skratt; laughter; saipa; Rib; s; fliring, leing, skratting; tittering, laughing, guffawing; sakers; Etz; adv; så, så här; like this, like that; sakus; KIH; adj; lik; similar; sákus; Iv; pron; slik; such as, as, like; Sàls-fåron; Iv; namn; Halden; Halden; salváris, selvális, sálvaris, sávalis, sális, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; betsel (till hästar); bridle; Iv salvária, sávvaris; Romani savari bridle; sàmbuna, sámbuna, -(n), pl sàmbuner, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; 1. tobakspipa, 2. skorstein; 1. tobacco pipe, 2. chimney; Etz sambúna, Iv sambúne, sàmbune (f) tobakkspipe, snadde; tobacco-pipe, cutty (-pipe); sammeten; Etz; s, def; församlingen; the assembly, the congregation, the parish; sáni, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; välling, soppa; gruel, soup; sani-bèda; Rib; s; suppe-fat (egtl. suppe-kjel); soup plate (lit. soup kettle); sáno, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; fin, ren, bra, snyggt klädd; nice, clean, good, nicely dressed; Iv sáno tynn, fin, grann; thin, slender, fine; Romani sano thin, fine, from Skt. ślakṣṇa-; sapala; KIH; s; tält; tent; sapp, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; orm; snake; Iv sapp (m) (hugg)orm; viper, snake; Romani sap, from Skt. sarpa-; sàpp-jakkad; LDj; pst ptc; ormögd, ser elak ut; snake-eyed, looks mean; sàpp-jakker; LDj; s pl; ormögon, elak blick; snake eyes, mean gaze; rakklon jura pre mander ninna siros sapp-jakker the boy stared at me with his snake eyes; appendix i 193 sapúnja, -n; LDj, Etz; s, r; såpa, diskmedel, tvättmedel; soft soap, dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent; Etz supunja; Romani sapuj, from Gr. sapoúni; sarga, sarja, sargan; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; 1. täcke, 2. telt; 1. cover, quilt, 2. tent; Rib sarrga, Iv sárga, særga, sæ̀rja (m), sárgan, særgan (m) 1. teppe; blanket, 2. tält; tent; Romani cara, from Serbcr. čerga; sárgan, sérga, -et, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; täcke, tält; duvet, tent; sarla; KIH; v; ro, dra; row, pull; saro, sarho; Rib; all; all; Romani sa all, from Skt sarva-; sáro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; hel; whole, intact; cf. saro; sároe; LDj; adv; hela; whole; entire; saroe miro the whole of me, lester kade oppri saroe pabbet he ate the whole apple; sáros; Iv; pron; slik; such as, as, like; cf. saro; sárrali, sárali, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; ull, bomull; wool, cotton; sarralieske-hùbba, -n; LDj; s, r; yllemössa; wool hat; sarralì-ising; Rib; s; ull-teppe; woolen carpet, woolen blanket; sàrrali-menger, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; yllekläder, yllelump; woolen clothing, woolen rags; sarrali-nùtta, sarralieseke-nùtta, -n; LDj; s, r; ylletröja, bomullströja; jersey; sweater, wool sweater; sa rstil̂̀ , sàstot; LDj; adv; 1. alltid, 2 allt, allting; 1. always, 2. all, everything; cf. saro; sarvanesse; Rib; s; huelaget (til hest); sàrvani; Iv; s, f; urkjede; watch-chain; sarvi; KIH; s; horn; horn; sárvis, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; älg, ren, horn; moose, reindeer, horn; Romani (Sinte) servo stag, deer, from Romanian cerb; sass, sàssar uninfl; LDj; pron; all, allt, alla, hela; all, everything, everyone, whole, entire; sass romnier bescha andre hispan ta rakkra sinsimaskro palla sass fann tjeri to phuv all of the women sat in the house and talked mutually about everything from earth to sky; sássaro uninfl; LDj, Iv; pron; alla, allt, alltsammans, allihop; all, everything, all (of it), everyone; Iv sàssaro, sássaro, såssarò , såssaró , såsáro; sássaroa; LDj; pron pl; allihop, allesammans; everyone, all (of them); sàste; LDj; v, pret; skulle; would, was going to (pst of will); saste diro kerra dolle? were you gonna do that?; sàstepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; hälsa; health; Iv sástipa (m); Romani sastipe; cf. sasto; sáster, sástjer, def sg sástret, pl sáster, -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; järn, kedja, boja; iron, chain, shackle; miro vashter an sastjer my hands (are) in shackles; Etz sjaster, Rib def pl sasstrane, Iv sáster (n) 1. jern, blikk, iron, sheet-iron, 2. handjern (således alltid i pl sastrar), handcuff, manacle (thus always in pl sastrar), 3. anker; anchor; Romani sastri, from Skt. śastra- instrument for cutting, iron; sàster-buda, -n; LDj; s, r; järndörr; iron door; 194 appendix i sàster-dori; Iv; s, f; kjetting, vaier, egl. jerntau; chain, wire, lit. iron rope; sàster-drom, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; järnväg; railway (lit. iron-road); Etz sjasterdråm; sàster-kjerar; Iv; s, m; blikkenslager, egl. (jern el.) blikkarbeider; whitesmith, lit. (iron or) tinworker; sàster-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mengarna; LDj; s, m; smed; (black)smith; sàster-tjirkli, -tjirklo, -t; LDj; s, n; flygplan; air plane; sásto, -t, -a; LDj; adj; frisk; healthy; Romani sasto, from Skt. svastha-; sàstra, so strà̂ , sòstra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; sätta på handbojor, sätta i handfängsel; hand- cuff, put in handcuffs; Iv sàstra arrestera, gripa; arrest; sàstra-beng; Iv; s, m; används som emfatiskt uttryck, starkare än bara beng, ungefär som fan i helvete! eller liknande; used as an emphatic expression, stronger than the simple beng, about the same as damnit to hell! or the like; sàstrar, -na; LDj; s, pl; bojor, handbojor; shackles, handcuffs; sàstripar; Iv; s, pl; (et par) handjern; (a pair of) handcuffs; sástro; Iv; adj; klok; prudent, wise; cf. sasto; sástro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; i uttr. sastroa bengar järnskodda djävlar; in expr sastroa bengar ironshod bastards; sàvo, sàste; adv; var, vart; where, where (to); savo boddrar diro? where do you live?; Romani savo which; sàvo, sávo, -t, -a, f sàvi; LDj; dem pron; sådan, vilken; such (a), what (a), which; sàvrige; adv; samma, detsamma; same, the same; sårraló , sárralo; Iv; adj; sterk, beisk; strong, bitter; såmbrédo; Iv; s, m; hatt; hat; såmmadacken, såmmadackon; Etz; s, def; sommaren; Summer; såmmarónomen; Etz; s, def; sommaren; Summer; säffjà , -(n), pl säffjer̀ , -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; smedja; smithy; Etz säffa; sæl; KIH, Iv; s; människor (tatere); man people (tatere), man; sæla; KIH; s; luffare; hobo; særd; Iv; s, n; segel; sail; sæ̀rda; Iv; v; 1. dra, trekke, 2. ro, 3. segle; 1. draw, pull, 2. row, 3. sail; Romani crdel pull; sæ̀rdrar; Iv; s, m; åre (til båt), egl. roer; oar, lit. rower; særja, særlat; KIH; s; gryningens röda ljus; red light of dawn; schàla, shàlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kyssa, smöra, fjäska; kiss, butter up, suck up to, brown nose; devel, dova nashtar schala! heavens, he can brown nose!; from Ru. tselovat’ kiss; scháro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sabel, lie; sabre, scythe; Iv sjáro (m) svärd, bayonet; sword, bayonet; Romani xanři, from Skt. *khaṇḍaka-; schéro, chéro, shéro, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; huvud; head; Etz sjöro, Iv sjéro (m) (also) kål (denne tyd. er bare notert fra Vestl.); cabbage (this sense is only recorded from theWestern country); Romani šero, from Skt. śiras-; appendix i 195 schèro-dukk, scheroske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; huvudvärk; headache; schìnra, shìnra, -n; LDj; s, r; sol; sun; schoìschoi, scho ̂́ scho, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hare; hare; Romani šošoj, from Skt. śaśa-; schònna, schynna, shynna, shùnna, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; höra, lyssna; hear, listen; Iv sjùnna, sjúna (sj.) skjønne; (more rarely) understand; Romani ašunel, from Skt. śṛṇu-; schònnas; LDj; v, pass; höras; be heard, hear from one another; scho rnan̂̀ , schòrnan, -, -, a; LDj, Iv; s, r; ladugård; barn; mander kammar beschat vod- dron dre schornan palla jivet avar teli I’ve put the car in the barn in case it snows (the snow comes down); Iv sjorna (m), sjonan, sjúnnan (m); from MLG schûne barn; scho ̂́ schali, -n; s, r; hare; hare; cf. schoischoi; schùmba, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; kulle; hill; jekh chocha praschtar pre schumba a hare is running on the hill; Romani (Sinte) domba, from Gr. túmbos; schùnjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; öron; ears; schúnlo, -n, -a, na; LDj, Etz; s, r; öra; ear; Etz sjönlo; schýnslo, schúnslo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; öra; ear; Rib sjullo, Iv (pl) sjyloar; sebúno, -n; s, r; väst; vest, waistcoat; sedder; Etz; adv; sedan; then; sederst; Etz; adj; sist; last; sèffarle, -n, -, def pl sèfflarna; LDj; s, r; smed; (black)smith; sèla, -t, -; LDj; adj; tidig; early; sela teijsa fysher vorsnos ja oppri we have to get up early in the morning; sellváni, séllvani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, f; sill; herring; kar diro sellvani ta proler? do you eat herring and potatoes?; Iv sèrvani, sérvani, selvaní, sévvani (f); from Sw. sill hering; sempe, seppani; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; tvål; soap; Rib sebbanì, Iv sàppanis, sápanis; sènjla, -(n), pl sènjler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; sele; horse collar, harness, reins; grejen honka ilsmat honka bongit te le pre senjla the horse was being unruly (and it) was hard to get on the reins; Etz sinja, sinjan, Iv sénja, sínja; from MLG sêne sinew of a bow; sénslo, sḗnslo; LDj; adv; sedan, sen, senare; then, late, later; serdra; Rib; v, s; 1. (v) dra, skysse, 2. (s) skyss; 1. (v) pull, push, 2. (s) lift; serdripà; Rib; s; skjutsning; giving s.b. a lift; sérga, -t, pl serger, -na; LDj; s, n; tält, täcke; tent, duvet; sèrla, -t, -; LDj, Iv; adj; tidig; early; Iv særlat, séla, sélat, særja (adv) tidlig (om mor- gonen); early (in the morning); cf. sela; séro, séros, síros; LDj; poss pron; sin, sitt, sina; his, her, its, their; séro, síro; LDj; refl pron; sig själv; oneself, himself, herself, itself; sérvo, svérske; LDj; adj; vänster; left; tradra pre servo rigg tji pre tjattjo rigg attjer drom- men drive on the left side, not on the right side of the road; 196 appendix i setålka; Etz; s; bogträ på sele; horse collar; sévri, svèri, -t, -a; LDj; adj; vass, skarp; sharp; sévro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj hård, skarp; hard, sharp; sevvanì; Rib; s; silke; silk; sho nla,̀̂ scho nla,̀̂ shòrna, shòrnla, -(n), pl shònler, -(n)a; shonn uninfl; LDj, Etz; s, r; lada, loge; barn; cf. schôrnan; sho ̂́ppa, scho ́̂ppa, shòpa, schòpa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Etz; s, r; port; gate; from MLG schup- pen barn, shed; shàddra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. kräka, spy, 2. riva, klia, gräva; 1. vomit, throw up, 2. scratch, dig; 2. shaddra mande pre sherot ta dynkra palla vavert (I) scratched my head and thought about something else; Romani čhadel, from Skt. chardaya- give up; shàffra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. skaffa, 2. tigga; 1. get, acquire, 2. beg for; from Gm. schaffen; shàra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; smickra, berömma, skryta; flatter, praise, brag; shara tji savi butt! don’t brag so much!; Rib kjara; Romani ašarel, from Skt. ucchar-; sháro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; lie, äv. sabel (gjord av lie), kårde, sverd; scythe, sabre (made from a scythe), rapier, sword; Rib sjaro; cf. scharo; shèfflan, schèfflan, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; skåp; cupboard; Etz sjaffan, sjaffran, sjappran; from MLG scheffer organiser, person who organises, from schaffen fix, organize, cf. Sw. loanword skafferi cupboard (from MLG); shúkkar, schúkkar, schúkker, -t, pl schúkkra; schúkkrano, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; vacker; beautiful; Iv sjúkar, sjúkkar, sjókkar; Romani šukar, from Skt. śukra-; shúkker, schúkker, -t, pl shukkra, schúkkrano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fin; nice; shúkklo, schúkklo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; sur, skämd; sour, bad (ex. milk); dikka tjiron pre tudden savi dova nani ashar shukklo check the date (time) on the milk in case it’s bad; Etz sjucklu, sucklu, Iv sútlo, sjúkkalo; Romani šuklo, šut, from Skt. śukta- sour; shylndrano, shöldrano -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; kall; cold; dolle honkar shylndranot avri nii it’s cold out now; Iv sjèlano, sjèllano; Romani šil coldness, from Skt. śīta-; sía, -n, pl sìer, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; själ; soul; an sia ta truppo ashar mander loschano with my body and sould, I am in love; Romani ogi, from Arm. ogi; sickepáskria; Etz; s; lampa; lamp; sickran; Etz; s, def; spegeln; the mirror; sigg; Rib; adj, adv; fort, kjapp, rapp, rask, snar, straks; quickly, fast, snappy, brisk, soon; Romani sigo quick, quickly, from Skt. śīgra-; sigga; Rib; v; nøyte, raske, snare; hurry, dash; sígga, síggo, siggro, síkka; LDj, Etz; adv; fort, genast; quickly, immediately; Etz sickt; sìggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; skynda; hurry; Etz sigga, sjickra; sìggrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; snabbhet, fart; velocity, speed; síi, sía, -t; LDj; s, r; hjärta, även i överförd bemärkelse, själ; heart, also transferred: soul; miro sii dabbar gla diro my heart beats for you; cf. sia; appendix i 197 sìkja; Iv; v; undervise, lære (fra seg); teach; sìkka; Iv; v; 1. vise, syne fram, 2. bevise; 1. show, exhibit, 2. prove; Romani sikavel, from Skt. śīkṣ-; síkklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lik; similar; sikko-dìves; LDj; expr; god dag! hej!; good day!, hello!; sìkkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; visa; show; sikkrar diro drommen gla mander? will you show me the way?; cf. sikka; sìkkrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s; 1. lyse, lampa, 2. vittne, vittnesbörd; 1. light, lamp, 2. witness, testimony; cf. sikka; sìkkrepa, -t, -n; LDj; s, n; vittne, vittesbörd; witness (person), witness (act); butt ninna sikkrepan ava many witnesses came; sìkrar; Iv; s, m; viser (på ur eller klokke); hands of a watch or clock; sila; KIH; s; kärlek; love; silja; KIH; s; sele; harness; simando, simmalo; KIH, Iv; s; löfte; pledge; Iv simándo, símmalo (m) pant; pawn, pledge; símlo, -t, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, n; snöre, mask; string, worm; sìmmali, -n/a, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; (avtalat) möte, träff; (arranged) meeting, date; avar diro pre simmali dre belven? are you coming to the meeting tonight?; Iv símmani (f); símmalo, símalo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; löfte; pledge, pawn; simpar, sippar; KIH; s; smed; smith; sìmpar-hispa; Iv; s, m; smie, egl. smed-stue; smithy, lit. smith-room; sìmpe; Iv; s, f; smie; smithy; simpe, sippe; KIH; s; smedja, järnverk; smithy, forge; sìna, sína, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; get; goat; sinkers; Etz; adv; sent; late; sínkus; LDj, Etz; num; sex; six; Etz sink, sinkes; sinsemásker, sìnsimasker, sìnsimaskar; LDj; adv; oss emellan, sinsemellan; between us, between one another; from Sw. sinsemellan between us; sinsimáskron; Etz; adv; sinsemellan; between one another; síppa, síppan; Iv; s, m; smie; smithy; sírkel; Iv; s, m; passer; divider, compasses; síro; séro; refl pron; LDj; síro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; sjö, fjord, sund; lake, fiord, channel, strait; Etz sirum, Rib siro; Romani (Sinte) zero lake, from Ru. osero; siro, sirus; Etz, Iv; pers pron, poss pron; sig, sin; himself, herself, his, hers; Iv síros, síros; sískroe devel!; Iv; expr; Gud i himmelen! eller liknande; expression of excitement, cor- responding to good heavens! or the like; sìssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klippa; cut (with scissors); 198 appendix i sìssla, sissik, sìkksla, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; sax; scissors; Etz sissa, Iv sìssar (m), sìsse (f), síssika (m); from Sw.Dial. sisa to cut; sìvar-gajia, -(n), pl -gajier, -(n)a; LDj; s, f; sömmerska; seamstress; sìvar-tav, sìvar-tavv, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sytråd; sewing thread; siverske-rákkli, -(n), -er, -er(n)a; s, f; sömmerska; seamstress; sìvra, sìva, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv; v; sy; sew; Rib sivvra, Iv syvra, sùvra, sùra; Romani sivel, from Skt. sīvya-; sivrare; Etz, Iv; s; skräddare; tailor; Iv sìvrar (m); sivreske råmni; Etz; s; sömmerska; seamstress; sjàsa-kakni; Iv; s, f; sjøfugl, egl. sjø-høne; seabird, lit. sea-hen; sjàsa-mosj; Iv; s, m; sjømann; sailor, lit. sea-man; sjapina, sjupala; KIH; s; tält; tent; Iv sjapála; sjas, -a; KIH, Iv; s; sjö, hav; sea, ocean, lake, small lake; Iv sjásja (m); sjåkà ; Iv, KIH; s, m; kind; cheek; sjärvebarn; Etz; s; barn som har engelska sjukan; child with rachitis; sjärven; Etz; s; engelska sjukan (rakitis); rachitis; sjères-diklo; Iv; s, m; halstørkle, egl. hodetørkle; neckerchief, lit. head-kerchief; sjèro-sutan; Iv; s, m; pute, egl. hodeligger; cushion, pillow, lit. head-lier; sjobaring; Etz; s; tolvskilling, 25-öring; twelve-skilling, 25 öre coin; sjörtanet; Etz; s, def; förklädet; the apron; sjtar-enja-dívesar; Iv; s, pl; 24 dager; 24 days (nearly the same function as the word month, used of terms, or time limits, appointments, etc); sjucker, sjycker; Etz; adj; vacker, fin, hygglig; beautiful, nice, decent; sjúkli; Iv; s, f; myse, egl. (den) sure (mjølk); whey, lit. (the) sour (milk); sjunfara; Etz; v; höra; hear; sjutsjo; Rib; s; patte; teat, nipple, breast; sjyldroar; Etz; s, pl; öron; ears; sjylla; Etz; v; sopa; sweep; sjýtran; Iv; s, m; sky; cloud; skali, skani; KIH, Etz; s; skål, kopp, tallrik, fat; bowl, cup, plate; skámin, -, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; stol; chair; Romani skamin, from Gr. skámni; skåjónare; Etz; s; resande; traveller; skånglar̀ ; Iv; s, pl; skjæker; shafts of a carriage; skånti(g); Etz; adj; smutsig; dirty; skåntpenneri; Etz; s; avträde; latrine; skåpan; KIH; s; skåp; cupboard; skåplanet; Etz; s, def; skåpet; the cupboard; skårjar̀ ; Iv; s, pl; 1. skaftestøvler, 2. sko; 1. high boots, 2. shoes; skåsse; KIH; s; fil; file; skíro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polis, vakt; police, guard; appendix i 199 skiroske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car; skòffa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vara tyst, vara lugn; be quiet, be calm; skójna, skònja, -n, pl skòjner, -na; LDj; s, r; sko; shoe; from Sw. sko; skòllta, -(n), pl skòllter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; skorsten; chimney; skont, skunt; KIH; s; skit, smuts, avföring; shit, dirt, excrement; skonta, skunta; KIH; v; skita; shit; skòrnjer, skòrner, -na; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; skor; shoes; so sanoa skornjer diro kammar! what nice shoes you have!; Etz skånner, skånjer, skårner, sg skårrno, Iv skorn stövel; boot; skrabba; KIH; v; fila; file; skrabbe; KIH; s; fila; file; skraj, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; filt, sjal; blanket, scarf; skríppika, skrìpka, -n, pl skrìpker, -na; LDj; s, r; fiol; violin; from Ru. skrípka violin; skråssè ; Iv; s, f; rasp; rasp(er), grater; skräjdo; Etz; s; hare; hare; skrùva, -(de) -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse; slåffra; Etz; v; låsa; lock; sleng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; hundralapp; hundred Kronor bill; Romani šelengi hundred-dinar-note, Romani šel hundred, from Skt. śata-; slíngert, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; orm; snake; slìntla, slìnta, slìttra, -(n), pl slìntler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; släde, sled; sleigh, sledge; Etz slitta, Iv slíttan, slínta (m); from MHG slite sledge; slo; KIH; s; sällskap, en grupp av fantefolk; company, company of fante-people; slutfara; Etz; v; sluta; stop; smèkkra, smäkkrà , -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; smaka; taste; smekkra kaj nii! kava kabanet honkar lattjot! taste this now! this food is good!; Iv smìkra, smìgra; from Gm. sch- mecken to taste; smeltàna, smèltana, smìltana, smäntanja,̀ smältare,̀ -(n); LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; 1. grädde, 2. rømme; 1. cream, 2. soured cream; Etz smintána, smältána, smältina, Rib smintàna, Iv smíttina, smíntina, smintána (m); Romani (Sinte) šmentana, from Romanian smântână; smíttan; Iv; s, m; smie; smithy; smítto, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s,r; smed; smith; Iv smítjo; from MLG smit; smonkert; Etz; s; fett, flott; fat, grease; snållà , snållań ; Iv; s, m; svepesnert; lash (of a whip); snàdjare, snàjdare, -n, -, def pl snàjdarna; snàjdert, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; skräd- dare; tailor; Etz snäjdare, snäjder; from Gm Schneider; snálo, snárvalo, snávalo, -, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; snål, gjerrig; stingy, greedy; snalo diro honkar! you’re so greedy!; from Sw. snål greedy; snålla; Etz; s; piska; whip; 200 appendix i snìkka; Iv; s, m; dekksfartøy; decked vessel; sno, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; 1. stjäla, ta, 2. gripa, häkta; 1. steal, take, 2. arrest, place in custody; 1. siggra diro te sno gullepat to mander! hurry up and take the sugar for me!, 2. snodde tjoron an dives (they) arrested the thief today; snöllan; Etz; s; kedja över huvud taget; chain in general; so liŝ̀ , so luŝ̀ uninfl; LDj, Etz; adj; ensam, själv; alone, by oneself; honkar diro solus khere? are you home alone? ehe, mander boddrar solis yes, I live by myself; from Romanian solitar; so ̂́ lo uninfl; LDj; adj; själv; alone; so ̂́ sti, sósti, sóste; LDj; adv; varför; why; solónomen; Etz; s, def; solen; the sun; somføy, somføyl; KIH; s; sommar; summer; sómtis; LDj; conj; som; like, as; kerra tjakke mande, kerra nani somtis lo do as I do, not like him; from Sw. som; sónneka, sónnika, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; guld; gold; Iv svánnakei, svánnika, sånnakei,́ sånnaḱ ; Romani sumnakaj, from Skt. suvarṇa-; sonnekáeske-krestos, -; LDj; s; guldkors; golden cross; sonnekáeske-moffti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; gulddosa; golden box/small container; sonnekáeske-tav, -en; LDj; s, r; guldtråd; golden thread; sonnekáeske-tjuro, -n; LDj; s, r; guldkniv; golden knife; dokka miro dova sonnekaeske- tjuro tjakke miro dadeske-dad kerrte give me that golden knife that my grandfather made!; sòralopa, sòrdalopa, -n; LDj; s, r; styrka; strength; sordalopa ta mukkepa styrka och frihet; sórralo, sóralo, sórdalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; stark; strong; kettanes honkar vorsnos soraloa together we are strong, devel, savo soralo romni te nashtar ninna sasar siros narta ta sassarot vavert! heavens, what a strong woman that can handle her whole family and everything!; Romani zuralo; sörmis,́ sörming,̀ -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ring; ring; sörpa; Etz; s; hus, stuga; house, cottage; sötta; Etz; v; sova; sleep; span, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; stöld; theft; spàna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stjäla; steal; spana tji, dova honkar tji romanot! don’t steal, it’s not traveller-like!; from Rotw. spannen look at; spékkari, spékkri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; butik, handelsbod, affär; store, shop; Iv spekarí, spèkkari, spìkkari (n, rarely m) also: stabbur; outhouse on pillars; from MLG spiker stockroom, warehouse; spèkkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; spela ett instrument, spela kort; play an instrument, play cards; spekkra ta gija miro penji schonnas schukkart! play and sing my sister, (it) sounds beautiful! voltrar diro spekkra lant ninna mander nii rakklo? do you want to play cards with me now boy?; Etz späckra, späckta; appendix i 201 spìkka, spíkkan; Iv; s, m; skåp; cupboard; spilla; Rib; v; stikke; stick, poke, sting; spínsja; Iv; s, m; skåp; cupboard; spìta uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; i uttr. kerra spita göra narr av; in expr: kerra spita make a fool of/make fun of; splítta; Iv; s, m; spegel; mirror; stàda, stàdra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lura, bedra; trick, deceive; stada nani ghanat! don’t trick people!; staddripà; Rib; s; bedrageri, jukseri; fraud, nonsense; stàdi, stàdia, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; hatt, keps; hat, cap; romano tjavo kammar stadia pre scherot the traveller-man has the hat on his head; Romani stadik, from Gr. skiádi; stádripa; Iv; s, m; fengsel; prison; stàkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sparka; kick; Romani (Sinte) štakêrel to walk over; stàkkran LDj; uninfl; s, def sg; sparkstöttingen; the kick-sled; stámlo, stámmo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; stol, skammel; chair, stool, trea- dle; Etz stamming, stamni, Rib stamlon, Iv skámlon, stámlo (m) benk, stol, krakk, skammel; bench, chair, stool, foot-stool; Romani (Sinte) štampo, from Gr. skamní; stànja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stalla; stable; stànjan, -et, -, -(en)a; stànja, -/stánjet, pl stànjer, -na; LDj; s, n; stall; stable; Romani (Sinte) stanja stable, from Serbcr. staja; stànsa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stanna; stay; star, schtar; num; fyra; four; Romani štar; starda; Etz; v; draga, bedraga, lura; pull; deceive, trick, pull; stàrda, stàda -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; lura, narra; trick, to make a fool of; puria starda ghana pre sas the woman tricked the people for everything they had; Iv stæ̀rda, stæ̀rdra, stèldra lure, snyte; cheat, diddle; stardogae; Etz; s; fjärdingsman; parish constable; staris; Etz; adj, adv; ensam, själv; alone, by oneself; starrabeng; Iv; s, m; fengsel; prison; stàrr-nashare, -n, -, def pl nasharna; LDj, Etz; s, r; bil (=en som går på fyra); car (lit. one that walks on four); starr-nascharen diro kammar jar butt lattchot, nane bongit? the car you have, does (it) work, nothing wrong?; stársman, stàrman, -en, -s, -s; LDj; s, m; björn; bear; baroa starmans dova honkar kaj andre Tjellano-them! (what) big bears they have here in Norrland!; from Sw.Dial. starsk man strong man; stàrto, -n, -ar, -arna; stàrto-mosch, -en; LDj; s, r; polis; police; Romani astarel to seize, catch; stàrto-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polisstation; police station; stattoske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car; stàttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skåla; skåla för, skåla med; toast (drink), propose a toast to, drink to; moscharna stattra the men toasted; 202 appendix i ståppiná ; Iv; s, m; 1. krus, 2. liter, 3. måleredskap (alenstokk, meterband o. l.); 1. jug, mug, 2. liter, 3. gauge (ell-wand etc.); ste, -dde, -tt; stèddra, -(de), -tt; LDj; v; 1. stå, 2. stå, vara skrivet; 1. stand, 2. be written; from Gm. stehen stand; stédo, städó , -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; stuga, ställe, plats; cottage, homestead, place; cf. ste; steldra; KIH; v; fuska, lura; cheat, deceive, trick; steldripa; KIH, Iv; s; bedrägeri, fusk; deceit, cheating; Iv stéldripa (m) bedrageri; fraud; stènass, stèna, stèra, -en, pl stèner, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; katt; cat; stenassen honkar but mijak pre jukklon the cat is angry at the dog; Etz stärran; Romani (Sinte) štirna; stetan; KIH; s; huse, plats; house, place, location; stéttan; Iv; s, m; (smed) städ; anvil; stil; KIH; s; stol; chair; stìla, stìlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lugna, tysta; calm, quiet; from Gm. stillen; stilipà-baskro, stillipà-baskro; Rib; s; fengsels-direktør; prison warden; stìlla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; gripa, häkta; arrest, place in custody; Iv stìla; stìllebangro, stìllipa-bangro; Iv; s, m; fånge; prisoner; stillepangro; Etz; s; fånge; prisoner; stìllfara, stìlfara, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara tyst, vara lugn; be quiet, be calm; stìllipa-baskro; Iv; s, m; slåsskjempe; fighter; stíllo, -t, -n, -na; LDj; s, n; fängelse; jail; stillo-bángro, stillo-páskro, -n, -ar, -arna; stìllo-farare, -n, -, def pl -fararna; LDj, Rib; s, r; fängelsekund, återfallsförbrytare; jailbird, recidivist; Rib stillipà-bangro, stilipà- bangro; Iv stìlebaskro (m) forbryter; criminal; stìllopa, -t, -n, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n; fängelse; prison; Rib (s def) stilipàn, stillipàn, Iv stílliba, stilipá, stílpa, stilipan, stìlapano, stílopen (m); stimíro; Etz; adj; gnidig, prutsam; stingy, prone to haggling; stòdi, stàrdi, stàdi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; hatt, mössa, keps; hat, touque, cap; cf. stadi; stoppina; KIH; s; målarverktyg; painting tool(s); stråtà ; Iv; v; idømme (fengsels)straff; prison sentence; stråtà , stråtań ; Iv; s, m; (fengsels)straff; prison sentence; stråta-bangro; Rib; s; straff-fange; convict; stråta-låddipà ; Iv; s, m; fengsel, egl. straffehus; prison, lit. punishing-house; stråtipá ; Iv; s, m; straff; punishment; sträkklaǹ , strèkkan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; 1. tåg, 2. tak; 1. train, 2. roof; sträckali; Etz; s; tåg; train; strékkan, strékan; Iv; s, m; 1. loft, 2. kammers (vel egl. loftkammers, kvist); 1. loft, 2. closet (probably originally used of the upper room); strèkkling, sträkkling,̀ -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-a/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; strumpa; sock; Etz pl stricklingar; from Rotw. Streifling sock; appendix i 203 stròta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; häkta; place in custody; stròtan, stràtan, -et; LDj, Iv; s, def; gatan; the street; tradra pre strotan drive on the street; Iv stráttan (m); from MLG strate street; stylta; Etz; v; lura, narra; trick, make fun of; stärno, stärnus; Etz; s; katt; cat; sùtar; Iv; s, m; stol, egl. (en) sitter; chair, lit. (a) sitter; suj, soj, söj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; sùjing, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, r; nål, synål; needle, sewing needle; pl sujar, suning; Romani suv, from Skt. sūcī-; sùmma, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. spå, äv. trolla, 2. bedra; 1. tell fortunes, do magic, 2. deceive; Etz summa, sömma; Iv sùmma; summalò; Rib; v; pantsette; pledge, pawn; súmmano; Iv; s, m; trollmann, heksemester; enchanter, sorcerer, conjurer; summar-gaije; Rib; s; signe-kjerring; female fortune teller; sùmmepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; 1. spådom, trolldom, trolleri, 2. bedrägeri; 1. fortune telling, divination, witchcraft, magic tricks, 2. deception; súmmina, súmmani, súmmeni; Iv, Etz; s, m, f; soppa; soup; Etz summi, sumni välling; gruel; cf. suni; sùni, -n; LDj, Etz; s, r; soppa, köttsoppa; soup, meath broth, beef soup; Romani (Sinte) džumi, from Gr. zoumí; sùnna, sùna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; drömma; dream; cf. suta; sunnepar; Etz; s, pl; fjäderkläder, sängkläder; eiderdown, bedding; surar; KIH; s; skräddare; tailor; súrmis, sùrmus, sòrmis, sörmis̀ , -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; ring, bröllopsring, förlo- vningsring; ring, wedding ring, engagement ring; Iv sörmuś , súrbus; from Fi. sormus; súrpo, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s, n; torp, stuga; crofter’s holding, cottage; surra; KIH, Etz; v; sy; sew; Etz suvra; sùta, sùtta, sòtta -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. ligga, 2. lägga, lägga sig, 3. sova, somna; 1. lie, 2. put, lie down, 3. sleep, fall asleep; 1. suta kaj miro mala! lie here my friend!, 2. suta dova pre boven put it on the stove, mander suta klisningarna andre diro voddro I put the keys in your car; Etz suta, Iv sùta also: være, bli (=oppholde seg); be (=stay); Romani sovel, from Skt. svap-; sùtare, -n, -, def pl sùtarna; LDj; s, m; en som ligger; lazybones, someone who lies around sleeping (lit. one who lies down); sútlo; Iv; s, m; eddik; vinegar; súttano, sùte-lakk, sùtte-lakk, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; sömnig; sleepy; suvreske rackli; Etz; s; sömmerska; seamstress; svadd; Rib; s; äpple; apple; svàddar, -na; LDj; s, pl; päron; pears; svákko uninfl; LDj, Etz; pron; varje, all, -a; every, each, all; svànnika-kerrar; Iv; s, m; gullsmed, egl. gull-arbeider; goldsmith, lit. gold-worker; 204 appendix i svardara; Etz; v; svara; answer; svæ̀rtingar; Iv; s, pl; kol; coal; svèding; Iv; s, m; svenske; Swede; svèdings-mosj; Iv; s, m; svenske, egl. svenske-mann; Swede, lit. Swede-man; Svédin; Iv; name; Sverige; Sweden; svedenáris; Iv; s, m; svenske; Swede; Svèdo-them, Svèddiske-them, Svèddingen uninfl; LDj, Etz, Iv; name; Sverige; Sweden; ashi, mander avar fann Svedo-them why yes, I do come from Sweden; Etz Svedingen, Iv Svèdik-temmen; from Gm. Schweden; sveivus; KIH; borr; drill; svèjarist, sväjsariś , -en, -er, -erna, svèjsare, -n, -, def pl svèjsarna; LDj, Etz; s, r; ham- mare; hammer; mande ledde jekh svejsare ta dabba uppri budan I took a hammer and hit open the door; Etz vässari; Romani sfiri, from Gr. sphurí; svekkus; KIH, Iv; s; svensk; Swede; Iv svékus; svenarus; KIH, Iv; s; svensk; Swede; Iv svenár, svenárus (m) also: svensk loffer; (later) Swedish loafer; swéschter, shwéster, -, -, -na; swèssla, -n, -, -(n)a; LDj; s, f syster; sister; from Gm. Schwester; T ta; LDj; conj; och; and; Romani ta and; tàveske-summipa; Iv; s, m; magic art of witchcraft by means of thread; tàbbra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tända; light (on fire); tabbra kaj! light here!; Romani thabarel to light, from Skt. dah-; tabbremánger, tàbbrer, tàbbremanger, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, pl; tändstickor; matches; Rib (sg) tabbre-mang; Iv tàbrar; tábbrik, tabblík -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; tändsticka, tändare; match, lighter; tacklanet; Etz; s, def; taket; the roof; tàffla; tàfflan, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; bord; table; from MLG taf(e)le table; támlo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; 1. mörk, 2. snäll, bra, god; 1. dark, 2. kind, nice, good; Romani (Sinte) tamlo dark, from Skt. tamas- darkness; tamloske-tìa, tàmlo-tia, tamloske-tjíro, -n; tàmlo-them, -en; LDj; s, r; höst; autumn; tàmlo-trach; LDj, Etz; adj; mörkrädd; afraid of the dark; honkar diro tamlo-trach? are you afraid of the dark?; tan; KIH; s; plats; place; tangla, tangta; Etz; s; tång; pliers; tarus; KIH; s; tak; roof; appendix i 205 tatti; Etz; s; spatt; spavin (joint affliction in horses); tátto, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; varm; warm, hot; Etz tattro, Iv táto; Romani tato, from Skt. tapta-; tattomanusjet; Etz; s, coll, def; värmlänningarna; the people from Värmland (historical province); tattopà; Rib, Iv; s; varme; warmth; Iv táttipa (m); Tattoske-thémm, Tàtto-themm, -en; LDj, Etz; name; Värmland; Värmland (historical province); Etz Tattranotämmen; tattoske-tìa, tattoske-tjíro, tàtto-tia, -n; LDj; s, r; sommar; Summer; tattotämmingar; Etz; s, pl; värmlänningar; people from Värmland (historical province); tattra; Etz; v; värma, bränna; warm, burn; cf. tatto; tav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; tråd, streng; thread, string, telephone wire, tele; phone; Romani thav, from Skt. *dhāgga-; tàva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ringa; call; taveske-jínn, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; telefonnummer; phone number; tàvring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; en benämning på resande som förr i tiden var straffån- gar på trådhusen och fick benämningen tråddragare. Benämning på tuffare/hårdare resande; a name for travellers who used to be convicts in the (threadhouses) and got the nick-name threadpullers. Name for tougher travellers; cf. tav; tàvrings-krajo; Iv; s, m; bygdevekter, egl. tater-konge; parish beadle, lit. Romany king; tålvbädda; Etz; s; tolvskilling, 25-öring; twelve-skilling, 25-öre coin; tårso; KIH; adj; torr; dry; tåsjno, tåsno; Etz, Rib; adj; 1. torr; mager, 2. smal, tynn; 1. dry; meager, 2. skinny, thin; Rib tåso, Iv tåsó , tåsò , tårsó ; tåsa-diklò ; Iv; s, m; håndkle, egl. tørke-kle; towel, lit. drying kerchief; tåsto; Etz; adj; torr; dry; tåvipá ; Iv; s, m; bad; bath; tåvra; KIH, Rib; v; hugge, skära; hew, cut; tåvver; Rib; s; øks; axe; tärno; Etz; adj; ung; young; te; LDj; conj; att; to; Romani te subjunctive part; te; Rib; prep; til; to, for, in, of; Romani te by, at, in; te ável, te avél; LDj; v, inf; att vara, att bli; to be, to become; tèli-besja; Iv; v; bosette seg, egl. nedsette seg; settle, lit. set one’s self down; tèsha, -n, -ner, -nerna; tèshan, -, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; morgon; morning; lattjo tesha! good morning!; Romani tehara, form Gr. taxiá; téde; LDj; adv; direkt, omedelbart; immediately, at once; kerra tede do it at once; tèijsa, tajsá, tìsha, -(n), pl teijser, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; morgon; morning; Iv teìsan, teìsar; tèjta, -(n), pl tejter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; lus; louse; from Fi. tei louse; 206 appendix i teláll; LDj, Etz, Iv; prep/adv; under; under, below; Etz tella, Iv (prep) tèlar; telé-hoffser, teláll-hoffser; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; underbyxor, kalsonger, trosor; underwear, briefs, knickers; tova miro telall-hoffser! wash my underwear!; Etz tellahåffser, Iv tèlar-håfsa (m); tèle-jakkad; LDj; pst ptc; närsynt; near-sighted; telé-nutta, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; undertröja, linne, T-shirt; undershirt, T-shirt; Etz tellanutta, Iv tèlar-nutta (m) undertrøye, buserull; under-jacket, Garibaldi shirt; telí, telé, tilí, téli, téle; LDj; adv; ner, nere; downwards, down; Romani tele down, from Skt. tala- floor; tella-beng; Rib; s; under-faen (telefon); under-devil (telephone); tella-gad; Rib, Iv; s; under-trøye; undershirt; Iv tèlar-gad; tellan; Etz; adv; till; to; tell-jast; Rib; adv; nederst; at the bottom, farthest down; télo; Iv; adj; tidlig; early; templane; Rib; s, def; loftet; the loft; te-pali; Rib; adv; igen, på ny, til-bake; again, anew, back; térno, téno, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; ung; young; Iv tærno; Romani terno young, from Skt. taruṇa-; térnopa, -t; LDj; s, n; ungdom; youth; romano ternopa traveller youths, dre miro ternopa tradra mander duri drommar in my youth I travelled long roads; téro, téde, -t, -a; LDj; adj; nödig; in need to urinate or defecate; mander honkar muttre- tero I need to piss, fule-tero I need to shit; themm, tem, temm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; land, bygd, trakt; land, district, parts, region; fann kava themm avar vorsnos narta, tekknoa tjavo our family comes from these parts, little boy; Rib def sg temman; Romani them, from Gr. thema; tì-dingsar; Iv; s, m; tikroneseddel; ten krona bill; tìa, tìja LDj; uninfl; s; tid; time; maybe from Sw. tid time; tìavars LDj, Etz; uninfl; s, pl; galoscher, skor; galoshes, shoes; tíkkno, tékkno, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; liten, kort; small, little, short; Romani tikno, from Skt. tīkṣṇa- sharp; Tikknoske-thémm, Tìkkno-themm, -en; LDj; s, r; Småland; Småland (Smolandia); tìkno-lil; Iv; s, m; 50-kroneseddel, egl. liten seddel, i motsetn. til baro-lil stor-seddel, dvs. 100-kroneseddel; 50 krona bill, lit. small note, the opposite of baro-lil large note, i.e., 100 krona bill; tìkno-maro; Iv; s, m; bakkels, kaker, egl. småbrød; pastry, cakes, lit. small cakes; tìkno-sjas; Iv; s, m; lavvanne, fjæra sjø, egl. liten sjø; low tide, lit. small sea; tìkno-vandring; Iv; s, m; fant, mjöltråver, egl. småvandrer, småreisende; vagabond, sort of tinker (one who goes begging for flour), lit. small-traveller; timtarar; KIH; s; timme; hour; tinn; Iv; num; ti; ten; appendix i 207 tirak-fakkar; Rib; s; sko-arbeider (skomaker); shoemaker; tírakk, -a, pl tirákker, -erna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; stövel, sko; boot, shoe; Etz pl tírackar, Iv týrak; Romani tirax shoe; tirakkeske-spékkaria, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; skoaffär; shoe shop; tirak-makkipà; Rib; s; sko-smøring; shoe shining; tìssa, -n, -r, -rna; tìsing, tìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tia; ten Kronor bill; from Sw. tia ten Kronor bill; tjo ̂̀ ra, tjòra, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; stjäla; steal; KIH kjåra; Romani čorel, from Skt. coraya-; tjo repa,̂̀ tjòrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; stöld; theft; KIH kjaariba; tjacksjöro; Etz; s; kålhuvud; head of cabbage; tjàddra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; spy, kräkas; vomit, throw up; Etz tjadda; tjak, tjakes; Etz; adv; så, på så sätt, huru; so, in such a way, how; tjakk; LDj, Etz; uninfl, s, coll; 1. småhandelsvaror, saker, 2. kål; 1. small merchandise, things, 2. cabbage; from Rotw. schachern deal, from Jiddisch; tjakk, tjàkkes; LDj; conj; så; how, so; tjàkke; LDj; subj; som; as; tjàkke, tjàkkes LDj; uninfl, rel pron, part; 1. (rel pron) som, 2. partikel som ersätter tem- poralt hjälverb; 1. (rel pron) that, 2. particle replacing temporal auxiliary; tjall; Etz; s; det förh. att något, som man vill dölja (t. ex. ett brott) blivit anmält el. upptäckt; the circumstance that something you want to hide (e.g., a crime) is reported or discovered; Romani xalxalo greedy, bad; tjàlla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; anmäla, ange, förråda; report (s.th. to the police), turn (s.b.) in, tell on s.b., betray s.b; Iv kjàla sladre, angi; tell tales, report; cf. tjall; tjallfara; Etz; v; anmäla, förråda; report (to the police), betray; tjálo, kjálo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; mätt; full, fed; Romani xalo, from Skt. khādita-; tjàlopa, -t; LDj; s, r; mätthet; fullness, something filling (food); tjàmla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tugga, slicka; chew, lick; tjamlepa; Etz; s; tuggande, tuggning; chewing; tjang, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; knä; knee; Romani čang, from Skt. jaṅghā-; tjànga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; få spatt, gå ryckigt (känd ledsjukdom hos hästar); have spavin, be spavined (joint affliction in horses); tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj, Etz; s, r/n; fat, skål, kärl; plate, bowl, container; Romani čaro, from Skt. cāṭṭa-; tjarr, tjar, -et; LDj; s, n; gräs; grass; tjáttjo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; riktig, sann; real, true; KIH kjakjo sandferdig, sandru, sandt, ekte; honest, reliable, true, authentic; Romani čačo, from Skt. satya-; tjàttjopa, -n/-t, -(n), -ner; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; 1. sanning, 2. ting, rättegång, 3. domstol, 4. rannsakning; 1. truth, 2. court session, trial, 3. court, 4. examination, hearing; 208 appendix i 1. rakkra tjattjopa to liskris tell her the truth; 2. asha pre tjattjopa (I) was at court; KIH kjakkjeba forhøret; (the) hearing; tjaváskro; Etz; s; bra, hygglig person (synes ha smeknamnskaraktär); good, decent person (appears to have nickname quality); tjávo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. pojke (resande), 2. lite, barn, unge; 1. boy (travel- ler), 2. little child, kid; KIH kjao, kjavo, Iv kjávo, kjào (m); Romani čhavo, from Pkt. chāva- young animal; tjàvo-dillon LDj; uninfl, s, def sg; pojkstackarn; the poor boy; tjàvo-kaben, -en; LDj; s, r; barnmat; baby food; tjávsko, tjàvasko, -t, -a; LDj; adj; bra, hygglig; good, decent; tjåckisar; Etz; s, pl; käkar; jaws; tjår, tjårare; Etz; s; tjuv; thief; Iv kjårar̀ ; tjårakova; Etz, Rib; s; tjuvgods; stolen goods; Rib kjårar-kova; tjärvà , -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; koka; boil; tjärva morsta to vorsnus miro romni honkar diro malano! make (boil) some coffee for us please, my woman! tjärva mass an dives! boil meat today!; KIH kjerva; Romani kiravel, from Skt. kvath-; tjej, tjäj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; flicka, dotter, ung kvinna (resande); girl, daughter, young woman (traveller); bescha nani ninna vorsnos tjavoar, ja ta rakkla ninna dova vavre tjejer! don’t sit here with us young men, go and speak with the other girls!; Romani čhej, f of čhavo; tjelváni, tjèlvina, tjälvinà , -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; källare; cellar, basement; teli an tjelvania kammar vorsnos butt ninna tjakk paschanes we have lots of wares lying in the cellar; from Sw. källare basement; tjèrmo, kjèrmo, kérmo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; mask; worm; KIH kjærmlo, kjærmo, jermo orm; snake, Iv kjærmo, kjærmlo; Romani kermo worm, caterpillar, from Skt. kṛmi-; tjérri, tjéri, -n, -os, -os; LDj; s, r; himmel, himlen; sky, heaven; Romani čeri, from Romanian cer; tjèrvepa, tjärvibà , -(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; kokplats, kök; kitchenette, kitchen; tji; LDj, KIH; uninfl interj, adv, pron; 1. (interj) nej, 2. (adv) inte, 3. (pron) ingen, inget, inga; 1. (interj) no, 2. (adv) not, 3. (pron) nobody, nothing, none; 1. tji tjavo! no, young man!, tji, ja tji no, don’t go, 2. mander janar tji I don’t know, ja tji ifann mande! don’t walk away from me!, 3. rakkra tji pala dova, don’t talk about it, lester honkar tji khere he is not home; KIH ki ikke, intett, slutt, nei; not, nothing, finished, at an end, used up, no; Romani či, from Arm. oč; tjibb, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; 1. tunga, 2. språk, modersmål (tungomål); 1. tongue, 2. lan- guage, mother tongue; 1. tjibb, moj, jakk, nakk ta bal tongue, mouth, ear, nose and hair, 2. romani-tjibb mother-tongue; Romani čhib, from Skt. jīhva-; tjibbi; Etz; adj; bra, god; good; appendix i 209 tjill, tjìlla LDj; uninfl, v; är, vara; is, be; motjill! be quiet! be still!; tjilla akaj to be here, dova tjill jekh terno jukklo! that was a young dog!; tjímlo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; otrevlig, obehaglig; unkind, unpleasant, rude; tjíndo, tjíno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; våt, blöt; wet; Romani kingo, from Skt. timita-; tjing, -et, -er, -era; LDj; s, n; knivhugg, skärsår; knife wound, gash; tjìngra, kìngra, tjìnra, tjìnga, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH, Etz; v; skära, fäkta; cut, fence; tjingra maro cut bread; KIH kingra skades med kniv; be injured by knife; Etz tjinna, tjinra, tjingra; Romani čhinel, from Skt. chind-; tjìngrepa, -t, -(n), -ner; LDj; s, n; knivslagsmål; knife brawl, knife fight; puranoa romanoa sikkra siros soralopa ninna tjuro tjingrepa sinsimaskro old travellers used to show their strength by having knife fights with each other; tjingropa; Etz; s; knivskärning; slicing; tjinn, tjing, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; skåra, skärsår; score, notch, groove, gash; tjìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; köpa; buy; KIH kjenna; Romani kinel, from Skt. krī-nā-; tjinna, tjinra, tjingra; Etz; v; skära; cut; cf. tjingra; tjìnnepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. marknad, 2. kjøp (förmodligen bara i frasen lakjo kjinnipa); 1. market, 2. buying, purchase (probably only in the phrase lakjo kjinnipa =cheap, lit. good buying); Iv kjínnipa; tjíno, tjínno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; trött, matt, sliten; tired, faint, worn (out); Romani khino, from Skt. khinna-; tjirklo; Etz; s; hare, kanin; hare, rabbit; tjírklo, kírklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; fågel; bird; schonna pre tjirkloarna, dova gijar schukkranot! listen to the birds, they’re singing beautifully!; Etz tjirko, Rib kjerklo; cf. cirklo; tjíro, -n; LDj; s; tid; time; Romani (Sinte) čiro time, wheather; tjìum; LDj; adv; i uttr. tjium jekhum inte ett dugg; in expr: tjium jekhum not one bit; tjìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta; throw; tjivvra avri fulet! throw that trash away!; Romani čhivel, from Skt. kṣip-; tjòkka, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. kjol, 2. kjole; 1. skirt, 2. dress; Iv kjåkká ; Romani čoxa, from Gr. tsoxa; tjókkis, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; käke, haka; jaw, chin; nukkon dabba andre tjokkisen dre tafflanet the child hit its chin on the table; from MLG kake, keke jaw; tjomm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; kyss; kiss; Etz tjymm; Romani čum, from Skt. cumba-; tjòmma, tjòmra, tjùmra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; kyssa; kiss; cf. tjomm; tjònkra, tjòngra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; spotta; spit; Iv kjòngla; Romani čhungarel; tjôr, tjor, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; stöld; theft; tjòralo-manusch, tjòrralo-manish, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; fattigfolk; poor people; Iv kjåro-manus̀ ; tjóro, tjórro, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; fattig; poor; KIH kjåro; Romani čořo; 210 appendix i tjórralo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; adj; fattig; poor; Etz tjåralo, KIH kjårano stackars; poor (unfortunate); cf. tjoro; tjórro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; stackare, fattiglapp; poor fellow, pauper, destitute person; tjòrro-hispa, -(n), pl hìsper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; fattighus; poorhouse; tjórro-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fattighus; poorhouse; tjòva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta; throw; tjökkanet-budà , -(n), pl bùder, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; köksdörr; kitchen door; tjökklan,̀ tjökkan,̀ kökklan,̀ kökkan,̀ köttlan,̀ -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kök; kitchen; from Sw. kök kitchen; tjúkkni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; piska; whip; tjukkniera mander tjinna honka lattjoa the whips I bought were good; Etz tjucknia, tjyckni, Iv kjúkni (f) ett slags vapen; a type of weapon; Romani čhupni; tjúro, tjúri, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; kniv; knife; mander voltrar dikka pre diro tjuro I want to look at your knife; Etz tjuring, Iv kjuril, kjùro, kjúro, KIH kjuril; Romani čhuri, from Skt. kṣuri-; tjurodáni, tjurodíni, tjurodíne, -t, -r, -rna; LDj; s, n; knivstick (det dödande sticket); stabbing (fatal stab); dela moschen tjurodine! stab the man! (give the man a fatal stab wound); tjúttjo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; kvinnobröst, bröstvårta; female breast, nipple; Iv kjúkji, kjúkjo, kjúkjon, pl kjùkjiar, kjùkjorer, sjùsjoar, kjùrer; Romani čuči, from Pkt. cucuya-; tjuttran; Etz; s; tjuder; tether; tjyllra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; frysa; freeze, be cold; Iv kjyldra, kjöldra, KIH kjøldra; tjyllri, -t, -a; LDj; adj; kall; cold, chilly; tjyvvra, tjìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; kasta; throw; tjivvra dova to mander! throw it to me! tjivvra tji! ashar ali jar an mul don’t throw it, it’s glass that will break!; Etz kivra, tjivra, tjuvra, tjyvra, tjua, Iv kjùva; tjýllrano, tjýllmano, tjöldrano, tjéllano, shylndrano, shöldranó , -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; kall; cold; dolle honkar tjyllranot avri is it cold outside?; Etz sjylanot, sjylarot, tjí- lmano, tjýlmano, Iv kjùldrano, kjyllalo, kjyllano, kjyllmano, kjìllalo; Romani šil coldness, from Skt. śīta-; tjylma; Etz; v; frysa; freeze; be cold; tjylmert; Etz; adv; kallt; cold; tô; LDj, Iv; prep, vpart; 1. till, 2. (vpart) till; 1. to, 2. (vpart to); 1. dova tradra to spekkarian they went to the store, 2. penn to palla diro honkar bukkalo say to (tell me) if you’re hungry; Iv to 1. prep till; to, 2. adv åter, igen; once more, again; Romani to to; tôpálo, tôpále; LDj, Etz; adv; tillbaka; back; karna avar diro topalo khere fann tradre- pan? when are you coming back from the trip?; appendix i 211 tòsa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; v; torka; dry, wipe; tosa jakkera ta rova tji buttare miro nukko! dry your eyes, and don’t cry anymore my child!; Etz tåsa, tåssa, Rib tåsdra, Iv tåstrà ; Romani (Sinte) khosel dry up, from Skt. ghṛṣ- rub, pound; tòvepa, tòvvepa, -t; LDj; s, n; tvätt; laundry; sutta avri tovvepat! take (put) out the laundry!; tòving, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; tvål; soap; Etz tåvving, tåvvis; tovre; KIH, Iv; s; ox; ox; Iv tåvrè ; to và̂ , -(n), pl to ver̀̂ , -(n)a; LDj; s, r; tusenlapp; thousand-kronor bill; tòvva, tòva, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; tvätta; wash; Iv tåvà bada; bathe; tovveske-híspa, tòvvar-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; tvätthus, badhus; laun- dry, public baths; Iv tåvar-hispà (m) badstue; steam room; tovveske-ménger, -n, pl méngrar, -na; LDj; s, r; tvättrasa, disktrasa; wash-cloth, dish-cloth; tovveske-rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; disktrasa, tvättsvamp; dish-cloth, sponge; tovveske-tjáro, tòvvar-tjaro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; tvättfat; washbasin; Iv tåvar-kjarò ; t ö j̀ a , -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; röka; smoke; Iv töyà ; cf. tya; tönniḱ , törniḱ , törniká ; Iv; s, f, m; skjorte; shirt; tørbus; KIH; s; portmonnä; purse; tøy; Rib; s; røyk; smoke; töyar̀ ; Iv; s, m; cigarett; ogs. generelt om en røyk; cigarette; also generally of a smoke; töyepá ; Iv; s, m; ånga; steam; törbuś ; Iv; s, m; pengepung; purse; trach, trash, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; rädd; frightened; Etz trassj; Romani traš, from Pers. tras fear; tràcha, tràsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. skrämma, hota, 2. frukta; 1. frighten, threaten, 2. fear; cf. trach; tracht, trasht, tráschanot, tráshanot; LDj; adv; farligt; dangerous(ly); honkar tracht kaj pre dova stedot attjer foron it is dangerous in this part of town, rakka diro honkar trachanot! watch out, its dangerous!; traddra-dromm; Rib; s; kjøre-veg; roadway, carriageway; traddrare; Etz; s; körare, åkare; driver, wagoner; tràdra; Iv; v; kjøre; drive; Romani tradel, from Skt. tard- split; tràdrar-beng; Iv; s, m; jernbane, egl. kjøredjevel; railway, lit. driver-devil; trādra£ , -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; resa, fara, åka, köra; travel, go, drive; Etz traddra; cf. tradra; trādrare£ , -n, -, def pl trādrarna£ ; LDj; s, m; förare, chaufför; driver, chauffeur; trādrar-juling,£ -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; cykel; bicycle; trādrepa£ , -t; LDj; s, n; resa; journey; tradrepa; Etz; s; farande, körande; bustling about, driving; tragla; KIH; v; träda; tread; 212 appendix i tràkksa, -(n), pl tràkkser, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; barnmorska; midwife; trànsuring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; tallrik; (dinner) plate; tovva transuringarna! wash the dishes!; Etz transúring, Iv tránsarist, tránsurus (m); Romani (Sinte) trans- uri, from Fr. tranchoir; trasjipà; Rib, Iv; s; skremming, redsel; fright, scare, fear; Iv trásjipa (m) redsel, skrekk; horror, terror; tråmò ; Iv; adj; vanskelig, uvillig (f.eks. om en hest), tung, seig; difficult, unwilling (e.g., a horse), heavy, dull, tough; trétan; Iv; s, m; träd; tree; trémmo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; förstuga; (entrance) hall, passage; motjilla! shonn! honkar dolle ghana an tremmon? be quiet! listen! are there people in the entrance hall?; Etz trämma, Iv trémmo (m) gang (i hus); passage, corridor; Romani (Sinte) tremo doorway, from Serbcr. trijem; tríllert; Iv; s, m; hjul; wheel; trin, trinn; LDj; num; tre; three; Romani trin, from Skt. trīṇi; trínter, trìnter, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; ärtor; peas; trìnte-summina; Iv; s, m; ertesuppe; peasoup; trìssa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; träffa, möta; encounter, meet; Etz rissja, rissa, trissja, Iv drìssa, trisja; maybe Romani resel arrive; trìssepa, -t, -na; LDj; s, n; möte, träff; meeting, date; trománik; Etz; s; käpp, påk; cane, cudgel; tròmma, trùmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; våga; dare; Romani tromal, from Gr. tolmõ; Trø̀ntus-fåron; Iv; name; Trondheim, egl. Trønder-byen; Trondheim, lit. the Trønder City; trùdra; Iv; v tro, tru; believe; trùlsing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; docka; doll; trúmmano, trúmano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; ensam; lonely; trúmmo, trúmo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; lat; lazy; Etz tråmo; trumo; Etz; adj; envis; stubborn; trúppo, tróppo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kropp; body; honkar sasto an truppo my body is healthy; Romani trupo, from Romanian trup; trùsha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; törsta (efter); thirst (for); trúshalo, tróshalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; törstig; thirsty; Iv trùsano, túsjalo; Romani truš, from Skt. tṛṣya- be thirsty; trättanet́ ; Etz; s, def; trädet; the tree; tscho, tschon, -en, -er, -erna; tuscho, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; månad; month; Romani čhonut, from Skt. kaumudī-; tschon, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv; s, r; måne; moon; Iv sjon (m); cf. tscho; tudd, -en/-a; LDj, Etz; s, r; mjölk; milk; Etz tödd; Romani thud, from Skt. dugdha-; tùdda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; mjölka; milk; cf. tudd; appendix i 213 tudda-gùrmi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; mjölkko; milk-cow; tudda-kóri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; mjölkflaska; milk-bottle; tuddiske-sani; Rib; s; mjølke-suppe; milk gruel; tùdd-kippo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; mjölkkärl; milk-container; túgalo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sorg; mourning; Romani dukh, from Skt. duḥkha-; túgalo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; ledsen, sorgsen; sad, mournful; Etz týalo; tùgalopa, -t; LDj; s, n; sorg; mourning; tùlipa-gøye; Iv; s, f; fleskepølse; pork sausage; túllano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; tjock; fat; cf. tullo; tùllepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; fett, flott, fetma; fat, lard, grease, obesity; Etz tulopà, Iv tùlipa (m) flesk; pork; túllo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; tjock, kraftig, i grossess (gravid); fat, chubby, pregnant; man- der kammar bliddrat tullo I’ve gotten fat; Etz tullro, tulo; Romani thulo, from Skt. sthūla-; tusjalò; Rib; adj; tørst; thirsty; túsjni; Iv; s, f; kanne; can; tvalo; Etz; s; tvål; soap; tviling; KIH, Iv; s; en bit tvål; piece of soap; Iv tvìlling (m); tya, thyja, thùja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; röka; smoke; Etz töja; Romani thuv smoke, from Skt. dhūma-; týali, tíali, töjalí , -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; tobak, cigaretter; tobacco, cigarettes; Iv teali, tyalí, työli; tyali-kjammlo; Rib; s; tobakkskrå; tobacco law; tyali-kjonker; Rib, Iv; s; tobakk-spytt, -ing; tobacco spit, -ting; Iv työli-kjonker; tyepa, töjepa; Etz; s; rök, rökning; smoke, smoking; tyrak-kjerar; Iv; s, m; skomaker; shoemaker; tytrom; KIH; s; syster; sister; U ula; KIH; v; mullra; grumble; ulma; KIH, Iv; v; vägra; refuse; Iv ùlma trasse, mukke; be obstinate, grumble; uschál, -et, -er, -erna; LDj; s, n; skugga; shadow; Romani učal, from Skt. *ava-chāda- covered; ùshla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara skyldig (pengar); owe (money); cf. ushli; ùshlepa, -t/-n; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n./r; skuld; debt; Rib usjlipà, Iv úsjlipa; ùshli, yshli, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; skyldig; owing s.b., in debt; Iv úsjlo; Romani udžile guilty, from Skt., Dard. ūsh guilt; usjli, usjlo; Etz; adj; skyldig; owing; 214 appendix i V vágerst, vágest; adv/adj; först; first; cf. vago; vágerste LDj; uninfl, adj/adv; först; first; vágo, váko; Iv; adv; 1. (adv) før, føre, 2. (adj, num) først, ogs. forrige; 1. (adv) before, 2. (adj, num) first, also last (i.e., preceding); Romani (Sinte) vago, from Skt. agra- tip; vàgo-divisen; Iv, Rib; s, m, adv; gårdagen, mest brukt adverbielt = igår, egl. forrige dagen; (the) yesterday, generally used adverbially, lit. the last day; Rib vago-divis; váli; Iv; s, f; (drikke)glass; (drinking) glass; Romani valin window, from Gr. gualí; válo; Iv; s, m; lampeglass; glass lamp cover; válgorna; Etz; adj; ljus, vitaktig; light, fair, whitish; valmus; Rib; adj; ferdig; finished; valsje; Etz; s; fan, djävulen; hell, the devil; valsje; Etz; s; fransos, ett ord som används för att beteckna venerisk sjukdom; Frenchman, a word used to refer to venereal disease; vampe; KIH; s; tjocktröja; sweater; vàndring; Iv; s, m; reisende, tater; traveller, Romany; vàndrings-kjei; Iv; s, f; taterjente; Romany girl; vant, vànta, -(n), pl vànter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; vägg; wall; from Gm. Wand; vanteske-díkklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, r; tapet, gobeläng; wallpaper, tapestry, Gobelin; vanteske-jùva, vànta-juvja, -(n), pl -jùver, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; vägglöss; bedbugs (lit. wall lice); Etz vantersjuver, Rib vannta-ju(v)a, Iv vànta-juar; vanteske-kambána, -n, pl kambáner, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; väggklocka; wall clock; vanteske-tèjta, vànta-tejta -(n), pl tèjter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; vägglus; bedbug (lit. wall louse); vantra; Etz; s; skjul; shed; vàntra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja; want; maybe from Skt. van- wish for s.th.; vàntra, -n, pl vantrer, -na; vàntrepa, -n/-t, -n, -na; LDj; s, r/n; vilja; will; vàrna; Iv; v; varna; warn; váro, -t; s, n; LDj; mjöl; meal; flour; Romani ařo, from Skt. *ārta-; vàro-mangar; Iv; s, m; lägre sorts resande, mycket lik en vandrande kittelflickare, egl. mjøltigger; lower sort of traveller, much the same as tramping (wandering/hiking) tinker, lit. flour-beggar; varokingla; Etz; s; mjölkvarn; flour mill; varsjia; Rib, Iv; v; regne; rain; Iv vàrsja; cf. brisha; várvara, vàrvara LDj, Etz; uninfl, pron; 1. varandra, 2. annan; 1. each other, 2. other; from Sw. varandra another; vasht, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; hand, näve; hand, fist, handful; Iv vasjt, vast, vas (m) hand, arm; hand, arm; Romani vast, from Skt. hasta-; appendix i 215 vashteske-díkklo, vàsht-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; handduk; towel (lit. hand- kerchief; Iv vàsjta-diklo (m); vashteske-léddika, vàsht-leddika, -n; LDj; s, r; handväska; handbag; váver, -ert, pl vàvra; LDj, Iv; pron; annan; other, another; Iv váver, vávro, vávri; vaver-jekk; Rib; adv; annen-en; other than; vavri; Rib; adj; andre; other; vavrot; Etz; pron; annat; other, else; våddroisar; Etz, Iv; s, pl; sängkläder; bedclothes; Iv vådro-isar̀ , vådro-isaŕ ; vådrar̀ ; Iv; s, m; eiermann; owner; vårdiné; Rib; s; kjerre, vogn; cart, carriage; vårföỳ ; Iv; s, m; vår; Spring; v å r̀ o s , v å ŕ o s ; Iv; poss pron; vår; our(s); vådripá ; Iv; s, m; eiendom; possession, property; v å d́ r o ; Iv, Etz; s, m; seng; bed; Etz våddrus; v å ŕ o , v å r̀ o ; Iv; pron; vi; we; väljfara, väljtara; Etz; v; välja; choose; väntfara; Etz; v; vänta; wait; värri; Etz; adj; röd; red; væ̀rta-kjer; Iv; s, m; 1. (eldre) skyss-stasjon, 2. (nyere) jernbanestasjon; 1. (older) coach office, stage-house, 2. (more modern) railway station; värtan; Etz; s; värd, gästgivare; host, inkeeper; véro; Iv; adj; deilig; delicious; véder, véders; LDj; adv; tillbaka; back; veísan; Iv; s, m; sabel; sword; veíster, veísta; Iv; s, m; kniv; knife; vèjsta, vèjshla, -(n); vèjsting, véjsti LDj, Etz; uninfl, s, r; kniv; knife; from Fi. veitsi knife; vemling; KIH; s; tarmarna; the bowel(s); verani, värani; Etz, Rib; s; kedja, klockkedja; chain, watch chain; Rib verranì, Iv vèrani, væ̀rrani (f); vèrta, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; krog, pub; bar, pub; from MLG wert landlord; vèrta-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gästgivaregård, krog; inn, pub; vesh, vesch, -en/-an, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; skog, skogsbygd; forest, woodland; Etz vissj, vässj, Iv vésja, vésjan, værsa, værsan (m) (sj.) ås; (rarely) redge; Romani veš forset, from Pers. veša; veshteske-dróm, vèsch-dromm, vèsh-dromm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; skogsväg; forest trail; veshteske-mèngare, vèsh-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mèngarna; LDj; s, m; skogsarbetare; woodsman, lumberjack; vesja-kev; Rib; s; skog-hull; forest gaps; vèstring, véstus; Iv; s, m; vest; waistcoat; 216 appendix i vèttran, vättraǹ -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; väder; weather; dikkas pre tjeri ta dolle bliddra kerjat vettra an dives you can see in the sky that it will be bad weather today, vettranet bliddrar schukkart to teijsa it will be nice weather tomorrow; Iv vétra, vétran; from Gm. Wetter; vìna, vína; Iv; s, m; feil; error, fault, defect; vidder; Etz; adv; igen, tillbaka; again, back; vikting; KIH, Iv; s; butikägare; shopkeeper; Iv vìkting (m) handelsmann, særl. landhan- dler; merchant, esp. country-dealer; vináta, vináshta, vìnata, vìnastja, -(n), pl vinater, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; vinter, jul; Winter, Christmas; Rib vinntak; from Gm. Weinachten; vinateske-bálo, -n; LDj; s, r; julgris; Christmas pig; vinateske-kàben, -; LDj; s, r; julmat; Christmas food; vinateske-vriál, -en; LDj; s, r; julgröt; Christmas porridge; vìndfang; Iv; s, n; segl; sail; vinlingen; Etz; s, def; vinden (i ett hus); the attic; vinvána, varvara; Iv; s, m; ros; rose; vinvana; KIH; v; prisa; praise; vìra, -(n), pl vìrer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kedja; chain; Romani (Sinte) verklin from Serbcr. veriga; vírali; Etz; s; kedja, klockkedja; chain, watch chain; vìronila, -(n), pl vìroniler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; guldkedja; golden chain; vìrra, -de, -t; LDj; v; viska; whisper; vish, vich, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; landsbygd; countryside; vislo, vislos, visnos; Etz; pers pron; vi; we; vìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; visa; show; vivan; KIH, Iv; adj; våt, rå; wet, raw; Iv vívan; vòddring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; vagn, husvagn; wagon, caravan; vóddrish, vóldrish, vógglish, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; säng, soffa; bed, couch; from Ru. odr bed, also used in combinations meaning wagon; voddrishke-ìser, -na; LDj; s pl; sängkläder; bedding, sheets; vóddro, vóddo, -n, -s, -s; vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; bil, vagn; car, wagon; Romani (Sinte) vordin cart, caravan, wagon, cf. voddrish; vodra; KIH; v; äga; own; vòggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; väga; weigh; from Sw. våg scale; vòggrepa, -t, -, -na; LDj; s, n; våg; scale; vòlta, -n, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; gång; occasion; jekh volta one time, once; vòltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja; want; vórdo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; vagn, kärra, bil; wagon, cart, car; Iv vårdi,́ vårdin,́ vårdíne, vårdýne (f), vårdína (m); cf. voddro; appendix i 217 vórsnos, vórsnus, vòrsnus; LDj, Etz, Iv; pers pron, poss pron; 1. (pers pron) vi, oss, 2. (poss pron) vår, vårt, våra; 1. (pers pron) we, us 2. (poss pron) our, ours; Etz vårsno, vårsnos, våssnos, vårsnus, vårsnås, Iv vårsnuś , våsjnuś ; from Sw/Norw. vår our; vri; LDj, Etz; adv; ut, ute, utanför; out, outside, outside of; vriál, -et/-en; LDj; s, n/r; gröt; porridge; from MLG brī porridge; vripassjelse; Etz; s; utlägg (av pengar); outlay; expense; vùda, vùrda, -(n), pl vùrder, vùrder, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; dörr; door; Romani vudar, from Skt. dvāra-; vurdi, vudding, vurdo, vårdi, vårding; Etz; s; kärra, vagn; barrow, cart, carriage; vusjta; Etz; s; förstuga; (entrance) hall; passage; vust, -a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; läpp; lip; Romani vušt, from Skt. oṣṭha-; Y yks; Etz; num; en, ett; one; from Fi. yksi; Appendix Ii Texts II.1 Trin phralarna Fairy tale “Three brothers”, translation by Lenny Lindell 2011 Dolle ach-a an jekh volta there be-INF in one occasion trin phral-as. Dova duj purano-a three brother-PL the two old-PL ach-a gasskano-a, abbo dova trintoske be-INF wise-PL but the third ach-a jekh bengalo. Pre sero be-INF a madman on refl dad-s muleskeboggro, karna lo sass-te father-GEN deathbed when he will-PST mul-a, penn-a lengro-s dad: die-INF said-INF they-GEN father -Nii fysh-er ersno-s sano-t ach-a now will-PRS you (PL)-GEN nice-ADV be-INF jekh ratti riggeske miro mulo-phuv. one night beside my funeral Savo sut-a dova teli an so lay-INF DEM down in phuv, lengro-s dad, ta dova earth thy-GEN father and the phurano-aste fysh-te ja to mulokher-en. old-SPL will-PST go.INF to churchyard-DEF © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/97899004266452_��8 appendix ii 219 Dolle voltr-a lo tji kerr-a then want-INF he not make-INF te dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv. to sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth Savo lo penn-a: so he say-INF -Bengalo, diro nast dombr-a pre madman you can.PRS sleep-INF on Phuv-en savo mander tji fysh-er earth-DEF so I not have to-PRS kerra dova? Pala diro kerr-ar do DEM if you do-PRS kava dokk-ar mander diro jekh DEM give-PRS I you INDEF nevoa skojn-er. new shoe-PL -Lattjot, penn-a bengalo-n le-dde pre good say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on sero-s pagrad-e gadd, le-dde jekh REFL-GEN broken-DEF shirt take-PST INDEF dori pala sero dor-a jekh string around REFL string-DEF INDEF jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde leather-string around REFL take-PST sero kilo ta ja-dde to REFL cudgel and go-PST to 220 appendix ii kangari-kher-en. church-yard-DEF Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth to senslo pre ratti-a, ta dolle to late on night-DEF and then ja-dde lo oppri ta agr-a go-PST he up and start-INF dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv soralo-t. beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth hard-ADV Tjakkes phuv tjivvra-de-s vir abri REL earth throw-PST-PASS out away to himlo, dollo ava dad-en to heaven then come father-DEF oppri ta pusch-a: up and ask-INF -Honk-ar dova, miro purano-aste tjavo? be-PRS DEM my old-SPL boy -Tji, penn-a bengalo-n. no say-INF madman-DEF -Ach-ar dova miro masker-ste tjavo? be-PRS DEM my middle-SPL boy -Tji! no -Honk-ar dova diro bengalo-n? be-PRS DEM you madman-DEF appendix ii 221 -Ehe, dad! yes father Dad-en drej-a nikli jekh kalo-t father-DEF pull-INF away INDEF black-NT bal fann babb-et, porda pret hair from beard-DEF blow on it ta dikk-a, avri to nanit and see-INF out to/for nothing ta doj av-a jekh butt and there come-INF INDEF very kalo grej ninna sonnikaeske-marpina. black horse with gold-harness Dad-en penn-a: Father-DEF say-INF -Mande denkr-a te dock-a vir I think-INF to give-INF away kava grej to miro purano-aste DEM horse to my old-SPL tjavo, abbo lo kamm-ar tji boy but he have-PRS not av-at, fysh-er diro le ninna have-SUP get to-PRS you take.INF with diro kava grej. Pala diro you dem horse if you kamm-ar tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a have-PRS urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF 222 appendix ii pre babb-bal-et, savo av-ar grashno on beard hair-DEF so come-PRS stallion to diro. Ta karna diro to you and when you le-r Doj-er-na, bliddr-ar diro jekh take-PRS rein-PL-DEF become-PRS you INDEF shukkard ta fedig morsh. Nii beautiful and fine man now fysh-er diro ja khere, tjavo. shall-PRS you go.INF home boy Ta bengalo-n ja-dde khere. Pre and madman-DEF go-PST home on teijsa-n pusch-a Phral-ar-na: morning-DEF ask-INF brother-PL-DEF -So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So what have-PRS you see-SUP what kamm-ar diro shonn-at? have-PRS you hear-SUP -Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta I have-PRS not see-SUP and nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a not hear-SUP such much say-INF bengalo-n. madman-DEF Into vavre ratti honk-a dova next to other night be-INF DEM appendix ii 223 maker-ste phral-en-s volta te ja middle-SPL brother-DEF-GEN occasion to go.INF to kangari-kher-en, ta lo to church-yard-DEF and he pusch-a bengalo-n: ask-INF madman-DEF -Ja diro to dadeske-phuv savo go.IMP you to father-earth so ach-ar te mander kerr-a nevoa be-PRS to me make-INF new skoinereske-dori to diro! shoe-lace for you -Lattjo-t, penn-a bengalo-n le-dde pre good-ADV say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on sero-s pagrade gadd, le-dde jekh REFL-GEN broken shirt take-PST INDEF dori pala sero dor-a jekh string around refl string-def INDEF jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde leather-string around refl take-PST sero kilo ta ja-dde. REFL cudgel and go-PST Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth to senslo pre ratti-a, ta to late on night-DEF and 224 appendix ii dolle ja-dde lo oppri ta then go-PST he up and agr-a dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv start -INF beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth soralo-t. Tjakkes phuv tjivra-de-s vir hard-ADV REL earth throw-PST-PASS out to himlo, dollo av-a dad-en to heaven then come-INF father-DEF oppri ta pusch-a: up and ask-INF -Honk-ar dova, miro purano-aste tjavo? be-PRS dem my old-SPL boy -Tji, penn-a bengalo-n. no say-INF madman-DEF -Ach-ar dova miro masker-ste tjavo? be-PRS dem my middle-SPL boy -Tji! no -Honk-ar dova diro bengalo? be-PRS dem you madman -Ehe, dad! yes father Dad-en drej-a avri jekh kalo-t father-DEF pull-INF out one black-NT bal fann babb-et, pord-a pret hair from beard-DEF blow-INF on-it appendix ii 225 ta dikk-a, avri to nani-t and see-INF out to/for nothing-NT ta doj av-a jekh herma and there come-INF INDEF grey grej ninna ruppeske dorj-er. Dad-en horse with silvery rein-PL father-DEF penn-a: say-INF -Mande denkr-a te dokk-a vir I think-INF to give-INF away kava grej to miro mekr-este dem horse to my middle-SPL tjavo, abbo lo kamm-ar tji boy but he have-PRS not av-at, fysh-er diro le ninna come-SUP get to-PRS you take.INF with diro kava grej. Pala diro you dem horse if you kamm-ar tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a have-PRS urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF pre babb-bal-et, savo av-ar grashno on beard-hair-DEF such come-PRS stallion to diro. Ta karna diro to you and when you le-r doj-er-na, bliddr-ar diro jekh take-PRS reins-PL-DEF become-PRS you INDEF 226 appendix ii shukkard ta fedig tjavo. Nii beautiful and fine boy now fysh-er diro ja khere, tjavo. shall-PRS you go.INF home boy Ta bengalo-n ja-dde khere. Pre and madman-DEF go-PST home on teijsa-n pusch-a phral-ar-na: morning-DEF ask-INF brother-PL-DEF -So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So what have-PRS you see-SUP what kamm-ar diro shonn-at? have-PRS you hear-SUP -Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta I have-PRS not see-SUP and nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a not hear-SUP such much say-INF bengalo-n. madman-DEF Dova trinto belv-en bhiss-a phral-ar-na the third night-DEF send-INF brother-PL-DEF an nikli. in away -Ja ni, diro fysh-er dombr-a go.IMP now you shall-PRS sleep-INF pre dadeske-phuv, penn-a dova. on father-earth say-INF they appendix ii 227 -Lattjo-t, penn-a Bengalo-n le-dde pre good-ADV say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on sero-s pagrad-e gadd, le-dde jekh refl-gen broken-DEF shirt take-PST INDEF dori pala sero dor-a jekh string around REFL string-DEF one jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde leather-string around REFL take-PST sero-s kilo ta ja-dde. refl-gen cudgel and go-PST Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth to senslo pre ratti-a, ta to late on night-DEF and dolle ja-dde lo oppri ta then go-PST he up and agr-a dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv start-INF beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth soralo-t. Dad-en sikkr-a tji sero. hard-ADV father-DEF show-INF not REFL Lo dabb-a jekh vavre volta, he beat-INF one other occasion dad-en dikka-de-s tji vri. Dolle father-DEF see-PST-PASS not out then gol-a bengalo-n butt attjer sass yell-INF madman-DEF much of all 228 appendix ii lo nast-a gol-a: he can-INF yell-INF -Dad, kamle dad! father dear father Dolle av-a dad-en glan ta penn-a: then come-INF father-DEF forward and say-INF -Asjj, bengalo-n, sosti jiddr-ar diro all right madman-DEF why make noise-PRS you savo? Diro fysh-er le diro-s such you get to-PRS take.INF you-GEN dokkepa fann diro dad! Dad-en gift from your father father-DEF drej-a nikli jekh perno bal pull-INF away one white hair fann babb-et, pord-a pret ta from beard-DEF blow-INF on-it and dikk-a, avri to nanit ta see-INF out to/for nothing and doj av-a jekh dukkalo-dummo balo there come-INF INDEF ill-back pig ninna dech-duj nukko-ar! with twelve child-PL -Akaj kamm-ar diro miro-s dokkepa, here have-PRS you me-GEN gift penn-a dad-en. Pala diro kamm-ar say-INF father-DEF if you have-PRS appendix ii 229 tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a pre urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF on babb-bal-et, savo av-ar balo-n ta beard-hair-DEF so come-PRS pig-DEF and hasht-ar diro. Kamm-at lattjot, tjavo. help-PRS you have-SUP well boy Ja khere nii! go.IMP home now -So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So what have-PRS you see-SUP what kamm-ar diro shonn-at? pusch-a phral-er-na have-PRS you hear-SUP asked-INF brother-PL-DEF pre teijsa-n. on morning-DEF -Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta I have-PRS not see-SUP and nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a not hear-SUP such much say-INF bengalo-n, ta ja-dde oppri pre madman-DEF and go-PST up on bov-en ta sut-a sero te domr-a. stove-DEF and lay-INF REFL to sleep-INF Savo ja-dde dolle jekh ta such go-PST there one and senslo duj senslo trin bassjt. then two then three year 230 appendix ii Bengalo-n besch-a sass dives pre madman-DEF sit-INF all day on bov-en ta kerr-a sero to stove-DEF and do-INF refl to te tji jan-a jekh dusta that not know-INF INDEF mite ta nani furste-de jekh dustus. and not understand-PST INDEF mite Jekh dives shonn-a lo phral-ar-na one day hear-INF he brother-PL-DEF rakkr-a pala krajjo-n fysh-te jeng-a talk-INF about king-DEF will-PST marry-INF vri sero terno-aste tjej ta out refl young-SPL daughter and fysh-a kava tjakke jeng-ar sero get to-INF dem rel marry-PRS refl ninna liskri-s fysh-a bliddr-a krajjo with her-GEN will-INF become-INF king preal helko themm-en. Te dova over all of land-DEF that dem tjakkes nast-ar le pre jekh rel be able-PRS take.INF on one summris fann saboria-s vasht karna ring from princess-GEN hand when li besch-a oppri an jekh she sit-INF up in INDEF appendix ii 231 vali butt duri oppri an window very far up in krajjoske-hisp-an fysh-te bliddr-a liskri-s king-house-DEF will-PST become-INF her-GEN tjatto morsh. true man Phral-er-na rakkr-a te tradr-a to brother-PL-DEF talk-INF that travel-INF to krajjo-n ta fysh-a sero to king-DEF and will-INF refl to le summris-en fann saboria-s vasht. take.INF ring-DEF from princess-GEN hand Ta pala tji dova nast-a and about not dem can-INF kerr-a dova. Dikk-a pre vavert do-INF dem see-INF on other manusch tjakke fysh-te sero pre people rel will-PST refl on dova thugalo-a mengrepa, penn-a dova. this sad-DEF job say-INF they -Le ninna miro! penn-a bengalo-n. take.INF with me say-INF madman-DEF -Diro fysh-er tji jeng-a diro you will-PRS not marry-INF yourself ninna saboria? Sa-de phral-er-na. with princess laugh-PST brother-PL-DEF 232 appendix ii -Ehe, penn-a bengalo-n. yes say-INF madman-DEF -Le diro-s purano grashni, savo take-IMP you-GEN old mare so kerr-a vorsnos kettalo! make-INF we together Phral-ar-na besch-a sero oppri pre brother-PL-DEF sit-INF REFL up on star-nach-ar-na pre sero-s grashno-s ta car-PL-DEF on refl-gen stallion-PL and bengalo-n ja-dde oppri pre sero-s madman-DEF go-PST up on refl-gen purano grej tjakkes tji nast old horse rel not can nast-a ja pre piro-ar-na, ta can-INF go.INF on leg-PL-DEF and savo kli-a dova avri. Ghana such ride-INF they away villagers sa-de, karna dova jur-a bengalo-n, laugh-PST when they see-INF madman-DEF ta sa-de kerr-a phral-ar-na. Karna and laugh-PST do-INF brother-PL-DEF when dova tji nast-a sa buttider, they not can-INF laugh.INF more del-a dova vir jekh gol give-INF they out INDEF yell appendix ii 233 ta rada kli-a niklia, gla and only ride-INF away for tji bengalo-n tji sass-te nast-a not madman-DEF not should-PST be able-INF tradr-a ninna. travel-INF with Savo av-a bengalo-n glan to such come-INF madman-DEF forward to jekh flusa. Lo kli-a pre, INDEF river he ride-INF on le-dde glan kava herma babb-bal-et take-PST forward the grey beard-hair-DEF ta pord-a pret. Dollo av-a and blow-INF on-it then come-INF dova herm-a grej ninna ruppeske- the grey-DEF horse with silver- marpina. Bengalo-n le-dde dorj-er-na ta harness madman-DEF take-PST reins-PL-DEF and bliddr-a jekh shukkard tjavo. become-INF INDEF beautiful boy Lo ach-a isa-d an jekh he be-INF clad-PPT in INDEF ruppeske-sivra-d rekkla, kamm-a perno-t silver-sew-PPT coat have-INF white-NT bal ta ach-a shukkard ta hair and be-INF beautiful and 234 appendix ii buno. Ta ach-a glaneske phral-ar-na proud and be-INF before brother-PL-DEF to krajjo-n-s hispa. Doj dikk-a to king-DEF-GEN house there see-INF lo saboria besch-a an vali-t. he princess sit-INF in window-DEF Ta pre liskri-s kuttia vasht and on her-GEN small hand kamm-a liskris sero-s kuttia summris. have-INF she refl-gen small ring Siggrano-a moschar sikkr-a sero-s bunopa quick-PL men show-INF refl-gen pride ta kli-a trummanot pre sero-s and ride-INF alone on refl-gen grej-ar ta sass-te le summris-en horse-PL and will-PST take.INF ring-DEF fann saboria-s vasht, ta nani nane from princess-GEN hand and not none attjer dova nast-a kerr-a kava. of them can-INF do-INF that Bengalo-n ach-a soralo pre sero-s grasnho madman-DEF be-INF strong on refl-gen stallion ninna ruppeske-marpina, lo kli-a siggro with silver harness he ride-INF quickly to vali-t ta sass-te le to window-DEF and will-PST take.INF appendix ii 235 summris-en fann vasht-en. Abbo lo ring-DEF from hand-DEF but he kamm-a obakkt ta nast-a tji have-INF misfortune and can-INF not le dova. take.INF dem -Kon honk-ar lo? denkr-a krajjo-n. who be-PRS he think-INF king-DEF Tji jekh dova jan-a kon not one dem know-INF who lester honk-a. Bengalo-n nasch-a nikkli. he be-INF madman-DEF run-INF away Lo kamm-a tradr-at khere. Avri he have-INF travel-SUP home outside attjer ghav-en mukk-a lo grej-en of village-DEF release-INF he horse-DEF ta bliddr-a bengalo-n anvolta, karna and become-INF madman-DEF again when dova purano-a phral-ar-na av-a khere, DEM old-PL brother-PL-DEF come-INF home pusch-a bengalo-n fann sero steddo ask-INF madman-DEF from REFL place pre bov-en: on stove-DEF -Le-dde saboria jekh morsch? get-PST princess INDEF man 236 appendix ii -Tji, penn-a phral-ar-na, Tji nane no say-INF brother-PL-DEF not nobody nast-a le summris-a fann liskri-s can-INF take.INF ring-DEF from she-GEN vasht. Rada jekh butt shukkard hand only INDEF very beautiful ta soralo morsh le-dde nerdi and strong man take-PST nearly dova fann liskri-s vasht. it from her-GEN hand -Ehe, dova honk-a mander, penn-te yes that be-INF me say-PST bengalo-n. madman-DEF -Ashi, dova pattj-ar vorsnso pre! yes that believe-INF we on Sa-de phral-ar-na butt. laugh-PST brothers-PL-DEF much Vago dives kerr-a sero phral-ar-na next day make-INF REFL brother-PL-DEF fedig-a to tradr-a to krajjo-n-s-kher, ready-PL to travel-INF to king-DEF-GEN-yard ta bengalo-n kli-a-oppri pre sero and madman-DEF ride-INF-up on refl dukkalo-a grasnhi. Phral-ar-na kli-a avri, ill-DEF mare brother-PL-DEF ride-INF out karna bengalo-n av-a glan to when madman-DEF come-INF forward to appendix ii 237 fluss-an dollo mul-a lester-s grasnhi! river-DEF then die-INF his-GEN mare Lo pord-a pre kava kalo-a he blow-INF on the black-DEF babb-bal-et, ta glan kli-a dova beard-hair-DEF and forward ride-INF the baro-kalo-a grej-a ninna sonnekaske-marpina. big-black-DEF horse-DEF with gold-harness Bengalo-n le-dde dorj-er-na ta bliddr-a madman-DEF take-PST reins-PL-DEF and become-INF jekh shukkard ta fedig morsh INDEF beautiful and fine man an sonnekaske- rekkla. Savo av-a in gold- coat such come-INF glan to krajjoske-kher-en, doj forward to king-yard-DEF there kamm-a dova spekkrepa-t radat agr-at. have-INF the show-DEF only begin-SUP Bengalo-n tradr-a glan pre sero madman-DEF travel-INF forward on refl kalo-a grasnho. Ta kli-a glan black-DEF stallion and ride-INF forward to saboria-s vali ta dabb-a to princess-GEN window and hit-INF pre kutti, kutti pre liskri-s on little little on her-GEN 238 appendix ii kutti-a vasht, abbo nast-a tji little-DEF hand but can-INF not le summris-en fann liskri-s vasht. take.INF ring-DEF from her-GEN hand -Kon ach-a lo? Pusch-a krajjo-n, who be-INF he ask-INF king-DEF nani nane jan-a kon dova not nobody know-INF who the shukkrano tjavo honk-a an sero beautiful boy be-INF in refl sonnekeske- rekkla. Lo nasch-a nikkli gold- coat he run-INF away an vesh-en ta ghan-at jan-a in forest-DEF and people-DEF know-INF tji savo lo tradr-a to. not which he travel-INF to Rada jekh kalo uchal dikk-ade-s only one black shadow see-PST-PASS affter lester-s soralo ta siggrano of him-GEN strong and fast kalo-a grasnho. Bengalo-n ja-dde avri black-DEF stallion madman-DEF go-PST out fann grej-en nerrdi ghav-en ta from horse-DEF near village-DEF and bliddr-a purano-a pargano-a bengalo-n. Karna become-INF old-DEF broken-DEF madman-DEF when appendix ii 239 kutti tjiro ja-tt av-a dova little time pass-SUP come-INF the purno phral-as, ta bengalo-n pusch-a old brother-PL and madman-DEF ask-INF fann sero-s steddo pre bov-en: from refl-gen place on stove-DEF -Fys-te saboria jekh morsh an dives? get-PST princess a man in day -Tji, penn-a Phral-ar-na, Nani nane no say-INF brother-PL-DEF not nobody nast-a le summris-en fann liskri-s can-INF take.INF ring-DEF from her-GEN vasht, jekh shukkrano ta fedig hand INDEF beautiful and fine morsch pre jekh kalo grasnho man on INDEF black stallion honk-a nerrdi pre kerr-a dova be-INF near on do-INF dem -lo dabb-a kutti-t pre liskri-s he hit-INF little-ADV on her-GEN vasht, abbo summris-en le-dde tji lo. hand but ring-DEF take-PST not he -Dova honk-a mander, penn-te bengalo-n. that be-INF me say-PST madman-DEF -Diro, tjakke tji nast-ar ja you rel not can-PRS go.INF 240 appendix ii teli fann bov-en, sa-de phral-ar-na. down from stove-DEF laugh-PST brother-PL-DEF Dova trinto dives kli-a phral-ar-na the third day ride-INF brother-PL-DEF to krajjoeske-kher-en, bengalo-n ja-dde to king-yard-DEF madman-DEF go-PST pre piro-ar-na affter seros phral-as on leg-PL-DEF after refl-gen brother-PL karna lo le-dde glan to when he get-PST forward to fluss-an pordr-a lo pre kava river-DEF blow-INF he on the perno-a babb-bal-et ta glan av-a white-DEF beard-hair-DEF and forward come-INF dova kerji-a balon ninna sero-s the ugly-DEF pig with refl-gen dech-duj nuko-ar. Bengalo-n besch-a twelve child-PL madman-DEF sit-INF sero oppri pre balo-n-s dummo, refl up on pig-DEF-GEN back ta butt siggro-t ach-a lo and very quick-ADV be-INF he avriglan krajjonske-kher-en,karna ghan-at back king-yard-DEF when people-DEF jur-a bengalo-n pre balo-n-s dummo see-INF madman-DEF on pig-DEF-GEN back appendix ii 241 sa-dde sass-sassroa attjer dova, ehe, laugh-PST everyone of them yes krajjo-n ta krali sa-dde tjattjot king-DEF and queen laugh-PST really butt. Ta fann saboria-s vali much and from princess-GEN window shonn-ade-s jekh sa savo fedig-t hear-PST-PASS INDEF laugh such fine-NT ta sano-t tjakke jekh kambana and clean-NT REL INDEF clock attjer sonneka. Dova kerja balo-n of gold the ugly pig-DEF kli-a siggro-t glan to saboria-s ride-INF quick-ADV forward to princess-GEN vali ta bengalo-n le-dde summris-en window and madman-DEF take-PST ring-DEF fann saboria-s vasht. Krajjo-n ta from princess-GEN hand king-DEF and kralil besch-a sa-et an men-en, queen sit-INF laugh-DEF in throat-DEF karna nii dova fys-te ste when now they have to-PST stand.INF la sero lav ta dokk-a by REFL word and give-INF saboria to bengalo-n tjakke sero-s princess to madman-DEF REL refl-gen 242 appendix ii romni. Doj ste-de lo an wife there stand-PST he in sero pagr-ad-e gadd ta purano his break-PPT-DEF shirt and old dori pale sero. Krajjo-n lakk, string about REFL king-DEF angry kralil basch-ade ta saboria ta queen yell-PST and princess and bengalo-n jenglo ta teli fann madman-DEF married and down from jakk-e-na av-a loschepa. Abbo liskri-s eyes-PL-DEF come-INF love but her-GEN purano-a penj-i ta kava-s morsch-ar old-DEF sister-PL and they-GEN man-PL sa-dde. Dolle ach-a nanit te laugh-PST it be-INF nothing to kerr-a ta jengepa bliddr-a dolle: do-INF and wedding become-INF it dolle bliddr-a jekh grekkalo jengepa! that become-INF INDEF sinful wedding Per-de fysh-te krajjo-n dova boddr-a Propose-PST have to-PST king-INF they live-INF an tatto-kammora, gla lo in dark-room for he ladj-ade-s te kamm-a dova pre shame-PST-PASS to have-INF them on krajjo-n-s-kher. Oppri an kher-en king-DEF-GEN-yard up in yard-DEF appendix ii 243 ach-a jekh baro ghilo ninna be-INF INDEF big feast with sero-s narta. Abbo bengalo-n an refl-gen kin but madman-DEF in sero tatto-kammora le-dde tji refl dark-room get-PST not jekh dustus tji kaben nani one flour not food none le-dde lo. Lo ta saboria get-PST he he and princess honk-a bukkalo-a. Ta rov-ande ja-dde be-INF hungry-PL and cry-PRS.PTC go-INF li to sero dad krajjo-n she to REFL father king-DEF ta penn-a: and say-INF -Kamle dad, ach-a lochano pale dear father be-INF nice toward mande ta miro morch ta me and my husband and fysh-a tji vorsnos ta boddr-a get-INF not us and live-INF doj an tatto-kammora ta tji there in dark-room and not fysh-a vorsnos bukka an mul! get-INF us hunger in death -Lattjot, penn-a krajo-n, mander penn-ar good say-INF king-DEF I say-PRS 244 appendix ii to miro tjejeske- morschar te to my daughter- men to lattj-a glan dova shukkrano-a ta search-INF for the beautiful-DEF and sano tjavo ninna sero-s sonnekaske- fine boy with refl-gen gold- rekkla ta kalo grej ninna coat and black horse with sonnekaske-marpina. Dova avri ersno-s gold-harness dem of you-GEN tjakke nast-ar kava le-r pache REL can-PRS that get-PRS half miro-s krajjoske-themm! me-GEN king-land Dollo purano-ste tradr-a abri ta the old-SPL travel-INF away and lattj-a grej-en ta sero klie-prasko. search-INF horse-DEF and refl rider Dova makreste honka pre krajjo-n-s-kher the middlest be-INF on king-DEF-GEN-yard helko ratti ta pre teijs-an all night and on morning-DEF an vago dives tradr-a lo in next day travel-INF he abri ta hilpr-a to te away to help to to appendix ii 245 lattj-a dova. Saboria rakkr-a ta find-INF it the princess talk-INF and rakkl-a pre bengalo-n helko ratti-a talk-INF on madman-DEF all night-DEF ta helko vago dives, abbo and all next day but lo rada penn-te: he only say-PST -Mander stanns-ar akajj! I stay-PRS here Karna krajjo-n shonn-a te bengalo-n when king-DEF hear-INF that madman-DEF tji voltr-a hascht-a to an not want-INF help-INF to in lattjepa-t, bliddr-a lo butt lakk search-DEF become-INF he very angry ta ja-dde to bengalo-n ta penn-te: and go-PST to madman-DEF and say-PST -Savo diro shonn-ar tji pre what you hear-PRS not on diro-s krajj-oske lav? Mander kamm-a you-GEN king-POSS word I have-INF denkr-at te dock-a diro pache think-SUP to give-INF you half attjer miro themm to diro of my land to you 246 appendix ii pala diro lattj-a grasnho-n to if you find-INF stallion-DEF for mander, nii fysh-er diro ja me now get-PRS you go-INF to stilopa-t te bliddr-a jekh to jail-DEF to become-INF INDEF bangro doj! Saboria rada gol-a prisoner there princess only yell-INF ta rov-a. Bengalo-n penn-a: and cry-INF madman-DEF say-INF -Dova honk-ar tji tjattjo-t, mander dem be-PRS not true-ADV I shonn-ar pre diro lav. Mander hear-PRS on your word I kamm-ar lattj-at kava kalo-a grasnho! have-PRS find-SUP the black-DEF stallion -Savo ach-ar lo, savo ach-ar where be-PRS he where be-PRS lo? Pusch-a krajjo-n. he ask-INF king-DEF -An diro stanja, miro krajjo! in your stable my king Krajjo-n siggr-a sero doj te king-DEF hurry-INF REFL there to dikk-a, pala bengalo-n rakkl-a tjattjo-t. see-INF if madman-DEF talk-INF true-ADV appendix ii 247 Karna krajjo-n kerr-a kava, pord-a when king-DEF do-INF dem blow-INF bengalo-n pre kava kalo-a madman-DEF on the black-DEF babb-bal-et, ta fann nani av-a beard-hair-DEF and from nothing come-INF dova kalo-a grej glan ta the black-DEF horse forward and ste-dde doj an krajjo-n-s stanja. stand-PST there in king-DEF-GEN stable -Savo ach-ar dova shukkrano ta where be-PRS the beautiful and sano tjavo tjakkes kli-a pre fine boy REL ride-INF on grej-en? Pusch-a krajjo-n. horse-DEF ask-INF king-DEF -Dolle honk-a mander, penn-a bengalo-n, it be-INF I say-INF madman-DEF le-dde dova sonnekneske dorj-er-na ta take-INF the gold- reins-PL-DEF and bliddr-a to dova shukkrano-a ta become-INF to the beautiful-DEF and sano-a tjavo an sonnekaneske-rekkla. fine-DEF boy in gold-coat Krajjo-n bliddr-a butt lattjo ta king-DEF become-INF much kind and 248 appendix ii lester-s kralil bliddr-a loschano. Saboria he-GEN queen become-INF happy princess ta bengalo-n le-dde pache krajjoske- and madman-DEF get-PST half king- themm-en, ta dova kerr-te dova land-DEF and DEM make-PST DEM jekh nevot shukkar-t kher dova INDEF new beautiful-NT mansion that boddr-a bengalo-n ninna sero-s saboria. live-INF madman-DEF with refl-gen princess- Ta saboria-s penjiske-moschar honk-a and princess-GEN sister-men be-INF butt avundukkalo-a pre bengalo-n ta very jealous-PL on madman-DEF and sero-s shukkrano-a saboria! REFL-GEN beautiful-DEF princess The three brothers—a Russian folk tale1 Once upon a time, there were three brothers. The older two were wise, but the third was a tomfool. On his death bed, before he died, their father commanded: “Now you will, all in turn, spend one night by my grave.” Then they buried the father, and the oldest had to go to the graveyard. For this, he had no desire, so he said: “Tomfool, can’t you sleep on the grave in my place? In return I will wreathe a pair of birch bark shoes for you.” “Good,” answered Tomfool, pulled on his torn blouse, tied a rope around his waist, grabbed his oak cudgel and went to the graveyard. He slept on the father’s grave until 1 Original text in Swedish from Sagor från hela världen (1989, 1995) Botkyrka: Mångkulturellt Centrum. appendix ii 249 midnight, but then he rose and started to strike at the grave with all his strength. Then the earth rent, the father came out and asked: “Is that you, my oldest son?” “No,” answered Tomfool. “Is that you, my middle son?” “No!” “Is that you, Tomfool?” “Yes, father!” The father then pulled out a black strand of beard, blew on it and behold, out of nowhere came a coal black horse with golden reins. The father said: “I had intended to give the horse to my oldest son, but since he hasn’t come, you may take the horse with you. If you are ever in distress, you should blow on the strand of beard, and the horse will come to you. And when you grasp the reins, you yourself will become as grand and fancy as you never saw. But now you should go home, boy.” And Tomfool went home. In the morning, the brothers asked: “What have you seen? What have you heard?” “I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool. The next night, it was the middle brother’s turn to go to the graveyard, and he bad Tomfool: “Spend the night in my place, and I will make new shoe laces for you!” “Good,” answered Tomfool. He dressed in his torn blouse, tied a rope around his waist, grabbed his oak cudgel and went. He slept on the graveyard until midnight, but then he got up and started striking and hitting the grave with all his strength. Then the earth rent, the father came out and asked: “Is that you, my oldest son?” “No!” “Is that you, my middle son?” “No!” “Is that you, Tomfool?” “Yes, it is.” The father pulled out a gray strand of beard, blew on it, and behold, there came a gray horse with silver reins. The father said: “I had intended to give the horse to my middle son, but since he has not come, the horse is yours. Take this strand of beard and blow on it, if you ever are in distress, and soon the horse will come. And when you grasp the reins, you yourself will become a young man, fine to behold. But now you should go home, boy.” When Tomfool had returned to the cottage, the brothers asked: 250 appendix ii “What have you seen? What have you heard?” “I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool. The third night, the brothers sent Tomfool off anew. “Go now, it is your turn to sleep on the grave,” they said. “Good,” answered Tomfool, took his torn blouse, tied a rope around his waist, took his oak cudgel and went. He slept on the graveyard until midnight, but then he rose and started striking and hitting with the oak cudgel, but the father didn’t show him- self. He struck another time, but neither this time did the father show himself. Then Tomfool took to shouting as loud as he could: “Father, dear father!” Then the earth rent, the father came out and said: “There now, Tomfool, why are you making such a racket? You will soon have your share of the inheritance!” And he pulled out a white strand of beard, blew on it and behold, there came a hunch-backed sow with twelve piglets! “Here you have my parting gift,” said the father. “If you are ever in distress, you should blow on the strand of beard, and the sow will come to aid you. Farewell, boy. Go home now!” “What have you seen? What have you heard?” asked the brothers the following morning. “I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool, climbed up on the stove and lay down to sleep. Thus a year went, and perhaps two, or even three. Tomfool sat all days by the stove and made as though he knew nothing and understood nothing. Then one day, he got to hear his brothers talk about the emperor intending to marry off his youngest daughter, and that he had let it be known across the whole kingdom, that the one who could take a ring from the princess’s finger where she sat in the window of her chamber, highest up in the castle, would be her husband. The brothers now agreed to go to the castle and try their luck. And if they them- selves had no success, they could always look on as others tried, they said. “Take me with you!” pleaded Tomfool. “You don’t possibly think about marrying the princess, do you?” laughed his brothers. “Yes,” said Tomfool. “Then take your old mare, and join us!” His brothers mounted their steeds and Tomfool crawled onto his old beast of draught, that barely could move its feet, and they were off. People laughed when they saw Tomfool, and so did his brothers. But when they tired of laughing, they gave out a yell and took off galloping, so that Tomfool wouldn’t keep up. appendix ii 251 Then Tomfool came to a marsh. He dismounted, took out the gray strand of beard and blew on it. Soon came the gray horse with silver reins. Tomfool took the reins— and became a young man, fair to behold. He was dressed in a silver sewn coat, had blond hair and was tall and proud. He reached the emperor’s castle before his brothers. There he saw the princess sitting in the window of her chamber at the highest point, and on her little finger she wore a small ring. Bold young men showed their courage and leapt with their horses up to the window and tried to take the ring from the princess’ finger in flight, but no one succeeded. Tomfool urged on his horse with the silver reins, leapt up—and managed to reach the window with his hand, but could not catch the ring. “Who could that be?” the emperor wondered. But nobody could tell. Tomfool disap- peared before anyone could see where to, and went homeward. Outside the village, he let the gray horse go and was turned back to Tomfool. When the older brothers came home, Tomfool asked from his place on the stove: “Did the princess get a husband?” “No,” answered his brothers, “no one succeeded in leaping all the way up to the win- dow, but one young man, fair to behold, managed to touch the window with his hand.” “Yes, that was me,” said Tomfool. “Oh yes, we believe that!” laughed his brothers. The following day, the brothers got ready once more to ride to the castle, and Tomfool saddled his old mare. His brothers galloped ahead, but Tomfool barely made it to the marsh—then the mare went down! He blew on the black strand of beard, and up galloped the coal black horse with golden reins. Tomfool took the reins and soon was turned into a grand young man in black curls and gold-sewn coat. Then he arrived at the emperor’s castle, where the contest had already begun. Tomfool urged on his black steed, leapt up and reached the very tip of the princess’s little finger, but he could not catch the ring. “Who is he?” the emperor wondered, but no one recognized the grand young man in the gold-sewn coat. He disappeared before anyone could see where to. Only a cloud of dust showed where the coal black horse had flown by. Tomfool let the horse go outside the village and was once more the usual old tattered Tomfool. After a while, the older brothers arrived, and Tomfool asked from his place by the stove: “Did they find a husband for the princess today, then?” “No,” answered his brothers, “no one succeeded in taking the ring. A grand young man on a coal black horse well near succeeded—he graced the princess’s finger, but he didn’t catch the ring.” “That was me, that,” said Tomfool. “You, who can’t come down from the stove!” the brothers laughed. “You can’t jump to the princess!” 252 appendix ii On the third day the brothers got ready once more to ride to the castle, but Tomfool had to go to the marsh! There he blew on the white strand of beard, and up came the hunch-backed sow with twelve piglets. Tomfool took up to her back and before he had blinked three times with his eye, he arrived at the emperor’s castle. People laughed when they saw Tomfool at the back of the sow, and yes, the emperor and the empress laughed as well. And from the princess’ window came laughter, as clear and pure as a little bell. The hunch-backed sow took a run, jumped up—and Tomfool took the ring from the princess’ finger. The laughter stuck in the emperor’s and the empress’ throat but they had to keep their promise and give away the princess in marriage to Tomfool. There he stood in his torn blouse, the rope around his waist. The emperor frowned, the empress grumbled, and the princess, Tomfool’s betrothed, burst into salt tears. But her older sisters and their husbands smiled satisfied. There was nothing to do about it and the wedding was held. It was a sad feast! Afterwards, the emperor let them live in the sauna as he was ashamed to have them at his castle. Up in the castle, the emperor celebrated once again with his son-in-laws but Tomfool in the sauna did not get a single bite. He was hungry and so was the princess, too. In tears, she went to her father and said: “Dear father, have mercy with my husband and do not let us live in the sauna and do not let us starve!” “Well,” said the emperor, “I order that my son-in-laws shall search for the grand young man in the gold-sewn coat and buy his coal-black horse with the golden reins. The son-of-law of mine which brings the horse to me first, shall receive half of the empire!” The oldest of the son-of-laws set out first to search for the horse and its rider. The second one spent the night at the castle and set out early in the next morning. The princess nagged at Tomfool the whole night and the whole next day but he just said: “I’m staying here!” When the emperor got to hear that Tomfool refused to go out searching, he was very angered, went to Tomfool and said: “So you refuse to obey my imperial command? I had intended to give you half the empire, if you brought the horse to me, but now you will go to jail!” Then the princess started crying again, but Tomfool said: “It is not true as they say that I have not obeyed your command. For I have found the coal black horse!” “Where is it, where is it?” the emperor wondered. “In the imperial stable, Your Majesty!” appendix ii 253 The emperor hurried off to see, if Tomfool had told the truth. Meanwhile, Tomfool took out the black strand of beard, blew on it—and out of thin air, the coal black horse came and stood there prancing outside the stable. “Where is the fine young man, who rode the horse?” asked the emperor. “Why, that was me, that,” answered Tomfool, took the golden reins and soon turned into the fine young man in a gold-sewn coat. Then the emperor rejoiced, and his empress and the princess too. Tomfool got half the empire, let build a big castle for himself, where he then lived with the princess merrily. But his brothers-in-law—they were jealous! II.2 Lollohubb Fairytale “Red Riding Hood”, translated by Lenny Lindell 2011 An volta an tjiro-n ach-a in occasion in time-DEF be-INF jekh tikkno gullo tjej. Sass INDEF little sweet girl all tjakke jur-a liskris dynkr-a pale REL know-INF her think-INF of li. Pale buttider dynkr-a liskris she of more think-INF her dejeske-dej palo liskris. Jekh grandmother of her one volta dokk-a li tjej-a jekh occasion give-INF she girl-DEF INDEF butt shukkard hubba attjer sano-t very beautiful hat out of fine-NT lolo-t pokktan. Dova ach-a butt red-NT fabric dem be-INF very 254 appendix ii lattjo dynkr-a liskris, te liskros good think-INF she and she rada voltr-a kamm-a kava pre only want-INF have-INF that on sero, senslo kava dives fyss-te refl since dem day get to-PST li bjuss-a Lolohubb-an. she be called-INF redhat-DEF Jekh teijsa penn-a liskris dejj one morning sa-INF her mother to li: “Av-a Lolohubba, to her come-INF redhat mander kamm-ar le-t teli an I have-PRS bring-SUP down in diro-s korba jekh pava moll you-GEN basket INDEF bottle wine ta je kutti bekk markli. and INDEF small piece bread loaf Ach-a malano ta ja to be-INF kind and go.INF to dejeske-dejj ninna kava. Li grandmother with dem she honk-ar dukkalo ta tji sassto is-PRS ill and not healthy ta fys-er kamm-a kava te and have to-PRS have-INF dem to appendix ii 255 bliddr-a soralo ta sassto. Ja become-INF strong and healthy go.IMP karna dolle tji bliddr-a gla when it not become-INF too tattot. Ta denkr-a pre nani hot and think-IMP on not ja avri fann dromm-en savo go.INF away from road-DEF such diro tji perr-ar ta mul-ar you not fall-PRS and ruin-PRS pav-an nina moll savo dejeske-dejj bottle-DEF with wine so grandmother nani le-r nane. Ta Lolohubba not get-PRS nothing and redhat denkr-a hassta pre te diros think-INF also on that you dikk-a pre dejeske-dejja karna see-INF on grandmother when diro helstar-ar pre liskris sano-t.” you greet-PRS on her nice-ADV Lolohubba koch-a pret ta penn-a: redhat swear-INF on-it and say-INF “Mander nast-ar kerr-a dova.” Savo I can-PRS do-INF DEM such ja-de li an nikli. go-PST she in away 256 appendix ii Dejeske-dejja boddr-a avri an vesch-en, grandmother live-INF out in forest-DEF savo tji duri drom nikli such not far road away fann ghav-en. Karna Lolohubba-n from village-DEF when redhat-DEF av-a andre an vesch-en, triss-a come-INF into in forest-DEF meet-INF li je ruv. she INDEF wolf “Lattjo dives, Lolohubba-n,” penn-a good day redhat-DEF say-INF lo malano-t, “Savo ach-ar te he friendly-ADV which be-PRS to diro ja savo serla-t pre you go.INF so early-ADV on teijsa-n?” Lolohubba-n honk-a tji morning-DEF redhat-DEF be-INF not trach gla ruv-en. Li jan-a afraid for wolf-DEF she know-INF tji gla lo ach-a gla not for he be-INF for kerjat lester ach-a, li puch-a evil he be-INF she ask-INF stila-t: “Mander fys-er ja to calm-ADV I will-PRS go.INF to appendix ii 257 miro dejeske-dejj ninna moll my grandmother with wine ta jekh bekk markli. and INDEF piece bread loaf Dejeske-dejj honk-ar dukkalo ta fys-er grandmother be-PRS ill and shall-PRS bliddr-a sassto.” become-INF healthy “Savo boddr-ar diro dejeske-dejj?” where lives-PRS your grandmother pusch-a ruv-en. asked-INF wolf-DEF “Akajj honk-ar dolle tji savi here be-PRS it not such nikli vri fann to ja away out from to go.INF glan to liskris,” penn-a Lolohubba-n forward to her say-INF redhat-DEF nani-jan-ande. “Liskris stedo sut-ar an not-know-PRS.PTC her cottage lie-PRS in vesch-en, telal dolle masker trin forest-DEF under it between three baro-a rukk.” big-PL tree “Aha asjj,” penn-a ruv-en malano-t. ah I see say-INF wolf-DEF friendly-ADV 258 appendix ii Palo lo dinkr-a kerja-t gla but he think-INF wicked-ADV for sero: Kava tikkno-a tjej-a ach-ar REFL dem little-DEF girl-DEF be-PRS je lattjo mass bekk. Lo INDEF good meat piece he kamm-ar ach-a tjattjo-t lattjo-are karna have-PRS be-INF true-ADV good-CMP when dova puri-a gaja-n. Harr fys-er the old-DEF woman-DEF How shall-PRS mande kerr-a gla le dova I do-INF for take.INF dem dujj? Stila-t ta fedig-t ja-de two quiet-ADV and nice-ADV go-PST lo riggeske Lolohubba-n. Senslo he beside redhat-DEF then penn-a lo ilmarig-t: “Kamm-ar diro say-INF he cunning-ADV have-PRS you dikk-at savo butt ninna shukkrano-a see- SUP how much with beautiful-PL lollodjil, Lolohubba-n! Dikk pale flower redhat-DEF look.IMP around diro kutti! yourself little Ta shonn-ar diro savo shukkar-t and hear-PRS you how beautiful-ADV appendix ii 259 tjirklo-r-na gij-ar! Diro ja-r drom-en bird-PL-DEF sing-PRS you go-PRS road-DEF glan tjakke diro ach-a to forward rel you be-INF to drabbreskehispa-n. Dolle ach-ar savo school-DEF there be-PRS such butt akajj an vesch-en te much here in forest-DEF to dikk-a ta jur-a!” Dolle dikk-a see-INF and look-INF then see-INF Lolohubba-n sero masker ta redhat-DEF REFL between and jur-a gla kham-en tradr-a sinsimaskro look-INF for sunlight-DEF travel-INF between rukk-e-na. Ta denkr-a, savo butt tree-PL-DEF and think-INF how much ninna shukkarno-a lollodjil-s dova ach-a with beautiful-PL flower-PL dem be-INF akajj. Dejeskedejj sass-te bliddr-a loschano here grandmother will-PST become-INF happy pala liskris le-dde kutti ninna if she get-PST little with lollodjil-s. Ta dolle ach-a ju flower-PL and it be-INF after all serla-t pre dives-en. Lo ja-de early-ADV on day-DEF he go-PST 260 appendix ii fann dromm-en te le lollodjil-s. from road-INF to take.INF flower-PL Ta karna ste-dde liskris ta and when stand-PST she and le-dde lollodjil, karna li dikk-a take-PST flower when she see-INF savoa shukkarno-are little duri nikkli. such beautiful-CMP kutti farther away Rada gla dova ja-de li only for dem go-PST she duri ta duri andre an farther and farther inside in vesch-en. Preal liskris ja-de andre forest-INF through she go-PST inside an vesch nasch-a ruv-en to in forest run-INF wolf-DEF to dejeskedejj-s hispa. Lo dabb-a grandmother-GEN house he beat-INF pre buda-n. on door-DEF “Kon honk-ar doj!? Gol-a dejeske-dejj. who be-PRS there yell-INF grandmother “Lolohubba-n! Mander av-ar ninna redhat-DEF I come-PRS with markli-r ta moll to diro. Maloandri.” bread loaf-PL and wine for you let me in appendix ii 261 “Kurr-a rada teli vaschtlear-en hit-IMP only down handle-DEF ta ja andre!” Gol-a dejeske-dejj. and go.IMP inside yell-INF grandmother “Mander ach-ar gla dukkalo te I be-PRS too ill to nast-a ja oppri!” be able-INF go.INF up Dova oppr-a ruv-en buda-n ta dem open-INF wolf-DEF door-DEF and ja-de andre an hispa-n. Dova go-PST inside in house-DEF the kerj-a ruv-en nasch-a siggro-t gla wicked-DEF wolf-DEF run-INF quick-ADV forward to vodrisch-en ta ka-de oppri to bed-DEF and eat-PST up dejeskedejja-n. Senslo le-dde lo grandmother-DEF then take-PST he pre puri-a-s iser ta besch-a on old woman-DEF-GEN clothes and put-INF pre liskris rattiske-hubba ta on her nightcap and sut-a teli andre vodrich-en. Telal lay-INF down in bed-DEF under tjiro-n kamma-de Lolohubba-n ja-tt time-DEF have-PST redhat-DEF go-SUP 262 appendix ii masker an vesch-en fann lollodjil between in forest-DEF from flower to lollodjil. Karna li tji to flower when she not nast-a le buttider av-a li can-INF take.INF more come-INF she te denkr-a pre dejeske-dejj. to think-INF on grandmother Ta siggro-t ja-de to liskris. and quick-ADV go-PST to her Lolohubba-n bliddr-a kutti trach redhat-DEF became-INF little afraid preall buda-n ach-a tji pent-ad. over door-DEF be-INF not close-PPT Karna li ach-a andre dikka-de-s when she be-INF inside look-PST-PASS tji sass tjattjo-t sikklo-t khere not all true-ADV similar-ADV at home pale dejeske-dejj. Baro-t gol-a of grandmother big-ADV yell-INF Lolohubba-n: “Lattjo teijsa, dejeske-dejja!” Li redhat-DEF good morning grandmother she shonn-a tji dejeskedejj-a savo hear-INF not grandmother-DEF so li ja-de shukkar-t glan to vodrich-en. she go-PST neat-ADV forward to bed-DEF appendix ii 263 Doj sut-a dejeske-dejj ninna there lay-INF grandmother with sero rattiske-hubba telal gla REFL nightcap below for lisjto-n. Li dikk-a nani sero face-DEF she look-INF not refl sikklo vri. Dolle penn-a Lolohubba-n: similar out then say-INF redhat-DEF “Dejeskedejj, savo baro-a shonnlo-ar grandmother what big-PL ear-PL diro kamm-ar!” you have-PRS “Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar it be-PRS for I be-PRS te shonn-a diro lattjo-are,” penn-a to hear-INF you good-CMP say-PST ruv-en. wolf-DEF “Dejeske-dejj, savo baro-a jakk-er grandmother what big-PL eye-PL diro kamm-ar!” penn-a Lolohubba-n. you have-PRS say-INF redhat-DEF “Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar it be-PRS for I be-PRS te dikk-a diro lattjo-are.” to see-INF you good-CMP 264 appendix ii “Dejeske-dejj,” penn-a Lolohubba-n, grandmother say-INF redhat-DEF “savo baro-a vasht-ar diro kamm-ar!” what big-PL hand-PL you have-PRS “Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar it be-PRS for I be-PRS te hikkr-a an diro.” to hold-INF in you “Dejeske-dejj, savo baro-a mojj grandmother what big-DEF mouth diro kamm-ar!” you have-PRS “Dolle ach-ar gla mander lattjo-are it be-INF for I good-CMP honk-ar te ka oppri diro!” be-PRS to eat.INF up you Ta siggro-t av-a ruv-en oppri and quick-ADV come-INF wolf-DEF up fann vodrich-en ta ka-de oppri from bed-DEF and eat-PST up grekkoste Lolohubba-n. poor redhat-DEF Senslo sut-a lo teli an then lay-INF he down in vodrich-en, ta domr-a dingstro-t te bed-DEF and sleep-INF heavy-ADV and appendix ii 265 dollo shonna-de-s butt fann ruve-n. it hear-PST-PASS much from wolf-DEF Dekkeprasko-n, tjakke ja-de glaneske hunter-DEF rel go-PST before dejeske-dejj-s kali, denkr-a sosti grandmother-GEN cottage think-INF why dova puri-a gaja-n dombr-a savot dem old-DEF woman-DEF sleep-INF so dingstro-t savo dollo shonna-de-s vri heavy-ADV so it heard-PST-PASS out an dives! Mander fyss-er dikk-a in day I have to-PRS see-INF to liskris. Karna lo av-a to her when he come-INF glan to vodrich-en. Jur-a lo forward to bed-DEF see-INF he te ruv-en sut-a an dova. that wolf-DEF sleep-INF in dem Lo bliddr-a butt trasch. Glaneske he become-INF very afraid for lo pattj-a, te lo nast-a he believe-INF that he can-INF hilpr-a dejeskedejj-a avri ruv-en-s help-INF grandmother-DEF out of wolf-DEF-GEN belsing, savo poffr-a lo nani ruv-en. belly such shot-INF he not wolf-DEF 266 appendix ii Lo le-de glan sero kakkli he take-PST for REFL scissors ta kakkl-a oppri belsing-en pre and cut-INF up belly-DEF on lester. Affter lo kakkl-at jur-a him after he cut-SUP see-INF Dekkaskiro-n Lolohubba-n teli an ruv-en-s belsing. hunter-DEF redhat-DEF down in wolf-DEF-GEN belly Ta Lolohubba-n nast-a le sero oppri and redhat-DEF can-INF take REFL up fann belsing-en ta gol-a vri from belly-DEF and yell-INF out “Åh, savo trach mander honk-a! oh how afraid I be-INF Dollo ach-a kalo-t ta tamlo-t it be-INF dark-ADV and cold-ADV an ruv-en-s belsing!” Senslo nast-a in wolf-DEF-GEN belly then can-INF puri-a dejeske-dejj hasst-a ja old-DEF grandmother help-INF go.INF oppri fann ruv-en-s belsing ta up from wolf-DEF-GEN belly and liskris ach-a an jibb-en. she be-INF in life-DEF Lolohubba-n nasch-a palamasker an stedo-t redhat-DEF run-INF around in cottage-DEF appendix ii 267 loschano-t. Senslo ann-a liskris dech happy-ADV then fetch-INF she ten baro-a barr ta le-dde teli big-PL stone.PL and take-PST down an ruv-en-s belsing ta sivr-a in wolf-DEF-GEN belly and sew-INF anhopri belsing-en. together belly-DEF Karna lo ach-a jagno, dinkr-a when he be-INF awake think-INF lo siggro-t nasch-a niklo. Abbo he quick-ADV run-INF away but barr-en an belsing-en ach-a gla stone.PL-DEF in belly-DEF be-INF too dingstro-a, te lo perr-a teli heavy-PL and he fall-INF down mulo. Dolle bliddr-a sass trin lochano-a. dead then become-INF all three happy-PL Dekkaskiro-n jimm-a avri ruve-n ta hunter-DEF skin-INF out wolf-DEF and Lolohubba-n kel-a lochano-t, Dejeske-dejj-an ka-de redhat-DEF dance-INF happy-ADV grandmother-DEF eat-PST markli-er ta pi-de moll-et tjakke bread loaf-PL and drink-PST wine-DEF REL Lolohubba-n kamm-a ninna sero. Ta redhat-DEF have-INF with REFL and 268 appendix ii Dejeskedejj-a kansl-a sero lattjo-are ta grandmother-DEF feel-INF REFL good-CMP and sassto. Lolohubba-n denkr-a: Nani healthy redhat-DEF think-INF not fys-er mander ja fann drom-en will-PRS I go.INF from road-DEF an vesch-en kokkaro karna miro in forest-DEF alone when my kamle dejj kamm-ar penn-at to dear mother have-PRS say-SUP that mander tji te kerr-a kava! I not to do-INF DEM Little Red Riding Hood (traditional Folk tale) Once upon a time there was a sweet little girl. Everyone who saw her was fond of her. But above all, her grandmother was fond of her. Once, she gave the girl a very pretty hood out of red velvet. It suited her so well, she didn’t want to wear anything else. That was why she later got to be called Red Riding Hood. One morning, her mother said to her: “Come, Red Riding Hood, I have packed a bottle of wine and a piece of cake in a basket. Kindly bring it to your grandmother. She’s ill and weak and needs something to strengthen her. But go before it’s too hot. And above all, keep in mind not to stray from the path, because then you might trip and fall, the bottle will break and grandmother gets nothing.” “And Red Riding Hood, keep in mind that you should look at grandmother when you visit her.” Red Riding Hood promised to, and said: “I think I shall manage that.” Then she went on her way. But grandmother lived out in the woods, about half an hour’s way from the village. When Red Riding Hood entered the woods, she met a wolf. “Greetings, Red Riding Hood,” he said friendly. “Where are you going this early?” Red Riding Hood was not afraid of the wolf. She didn’t know what kind of mean- spirited animal he was, therefore she calmly answered: “I am going to my grand- mother with wine and a piece of cake. Grandmother is ill and needs something to strengthen her.” appendix ii 269 “Where does your grandmother live, then?” asked the wolf. “From here it takes well over a quarter of an hour to walk,” Red Riding Hood answered unassumingly. “Her house is in the middle of the woods, under the three big oaks.” “Oh, really?” the wolf answered kindly. But to himself, he thought: This little girl will be a treat. She will taste better than the old woman. What should I do to get both of them? Calmly and peacefully, he walked beside Red Riding Hood for a while. Then, he cunningly said: “Have you seen how many beautiful flowers there are, Red Riding Hood? Take a look around! And can you hear how beautifully the birds sing? You walk down the road as if you were going to school. There’s so much to discover in these woods!” Then, Red Riding Hood looked around herself and noticed how the sunbeams gleamed between the tree trunks. And how many beautiful flowers there were here. Grandmother would surely be happy if she got a bouquet of flowers. And it was still early. She strayed from the path and picked flowers. She had barely picked one before she discovered an even more beautiful one farther away. That way, she got deeper and deeper into the woods. Meanwhile, the wolf ran straight to her grandmother’s cottage. He knocked on the door. “Who’s there?” asked Grandmother. “Red Riding Hood! I come with cake and wine for you! Let me in.” “Simply push down the handle and come in!” the grandmother called out. “I’m too weak to get up!” Then the wolf pushed the handle down and the door went open. The sinister wolf rushed to the bed and devoured the grandmother. Then he pulled on her clothes, put on her nightcap and crawled into the bed. Meanwhile, Red Riding Hood had run from one flower to the other. Only when she could carry no more, she came to think of her grandmother. Then she hurried to her. Red Riding Hood was surprised to find the door open. As she stepped inside, she felt a little worried—she who otherwise liked so much to be at her grandmother’s. Aloud Red Riding Hood called: “Good morning, grandmother!” But she got no answer. Then she pulled aside the curtains and tip-toed up to the bed. There lay grandmother with the nightcap pulled down into her face. She looked so peculiar. Then Red Riding Hood said: “But grandmother, what big ears you have!” “The better to hear you,” answered the wolf. “But grandmother, what big eyes you have!” said Red Riding Hood. “The better to see you.” “But grandmother,” said Red Riding Hood, “what big hands you have!” “The better to hold you.” “But grandmother, what an incredibly big mouth you have!” 270 appendix ii “The better to eat you!” And in a wink, the wolf came out of the bed and devoured poor Red Riding Hood. Then he crawled into bed again, fell asleep and snored so that the walls shook. The hunter, just then passing by grandmother’s cottage, was confounded: “How loud the old lady snores today! I have to check in on her.” As he came up to the bed, he saw that the wolf lay in it. He was very terrified. But since he thought he might be able to save grandmother from the wolf’s belly, he didn’t shoot him. Instead, he took a pair of scissors and cut up his belly. After just a couple of snips, he saw Red Riding Hood’s red hood glow. Another few snips and Red Riding Hood could crawl out, and she exclaimed: “Oh, how fright- ened I was! It was so dark inside the wolf’s belly!” Then the old grandmother could also crawl out, and she was still alive. Red Riding Hood merrily hopped around the room. But then she fetched a few big rocks. With them, they filled the wolf’s belly, and then they stitched him up again. When he woke, he intended to swiftly run away. But the rocks in his belly were so heavy, he fell down dead. Then all three were happy and content. The hunter pulled the pelt off the wolf and Red Riding Hood danced for joy. Her grandmother ate of the cake and drank from the wine that Red Riding Hood had brought, and she immediately felt better. But Red Riding Hood thought to herself: “I will never, ever again leave the path and run into the woods alone, when mother has forbidden it.” THE END 1.6. LUKE.15.11-32 in 4 versions LL=Lenny Lindell, KIH=Kåre-Ivan Holm, FLH=Fredrik Larsen Hartmann (KIH and FLH published by permission from Oslo Universitet: Det Historisk-Filosofiske Fakultet) 11 LL Ta lester penna: “jekh mosch kamma dy tjavoar” KIH Kava/lo rakla/rakra: “Jekk mors kamma dy raklo-kjavoár” FLH Han rakra: “jik manus kamma dy rakloar” FLH II Mino päio rakra: “jik manus kamma dy kjavoar” appendix ii 271 FLH III Minno daln rakra: “Jikk mannusi kamma dy kjavoar” Eng Jesus continued: “There was a man who had two sons. 12 LL Dolle ternoa avri dova penna to BaroDad. “BaroDad docka miro dolle beck avri barvalopan, tjakke perrar teli pre miro lott” dolle parra lo barvalopan pere sinsimaskro lengros. KIH Dåva tærnoasterdåvane rakla to/te dadden: “Dad, dela miro dåva kåtro avri vådripán savo perár pre/pri miros kjavoár” Kava kjingra andri dy siros v¨dripa preder sirosé raklo-kjavoár. FLH I Tærnoaste ninna pena dadoen: “De mander meros kova som manders kammas” Dadoen para kovan Kjetanes kjavoane. FLH II Onno daava tærnoaste af dem rakra nino dadoen: “Dado! De mero daava parra af kovan, som mero nino kammas” Onno päio parra kovan kettanes FLH III Onno dåva ternoaste pas vavre rakra nino dadoen: “Dado de miro dåva delar pas kovan, so mero tinno kammas” Onno daln parra kovan ketanes vavre. Eng The younger one said to his father, ‘Father, give me my share of the estate.’ So he divided his property between them. 13 LL Ta nani duri tjiro senslo becha dova ternoa tjavon sas siros pattjepa ta taradra duri niklos to jekh fremmslot themm. Dojj jibba lester an kerjat jibbepa ta dingla ta tjinna oppri sasarot avri siro barvalopa. KIH Kji butri divisar pallar lédde tærnoaste raklo-kjavoen/rakloén sassarotén, jádde døi pallar nikli to/te kavot tem durit niklít honka kádde honka pídde opri sassaroé vådripán siros andri jikk bengalot jibén. FLH I Kji butte divisar döi pallar parra ledde rakloen tærnoe raklo sassarot, jade nekli döi fremlandt tem dur nikli onnis og kade og pide sassarot kovan opri I jik bengalodt giben. 272 appendix ii FLH II Onno kji budtte divisar döipallar ledde daava tærnoaste kjavo sas sarot onni sada avritems ninno jik tem durnikli. Onni kjera döi sit kova i jik bengalodt gjiben. FLH III Onni kji bute divisar döipallar lede dåva ternoaste kjavo sas-sarot. Onni sarda utems ninno jikk tem dur nikli, onni sarda kae dli seros kova i jikk hiir jiben. Eng Not long after that, the younger son got together all he had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his wealth in wild living. 14 LL Senslo penna lester kammar diro dinglat nilkos sas, ava jekh baro. Bokkalopa preall dolle themm, ta lester fyste jibba an nagnoapa. KIH Men ninna kava kammáde kádd honka pídd opri sassaroé vådripán I jikk bengalot jibén ava baro bokipa andri dåva tem, honka lo jédde jikk keria jib. FLH I Döi kammas kadopri sassarot sinna (seros) lovoar assjade kik baro bokkipa i daava tem og kamma kji butare lovar at kjinna kaben for. FLH II Minno döi kamma vago opri sas daava pöio kamma ninna jik baro bokkipa i illud daava tem onno pöio kjerrar at bokka pöi. FLH III Mino döi daln kamma kadopri sas dåva daln kamma ava jik baro bokipa i dåva tem. Onni daln bokipa jade pas barorankanoerna döi i tem. Eng After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine in that whole country, and he began to be in need. 15 LL Dolle jade lester nikli ta docka siro preall jekh beddo dojj dre Themmen, ta tradra avri lester to siros themmar ta veschar te dikka Palla beddons balos. appendix ii 273 KIH Kava jádde nikli honka rikra siros to/te jek avri manushé andri dåva tem, honka lo mangán ja nikli pre puét siros honka dikka pallar baloáne. FLH I Han jade nikli og rikra til jik rankanoen döi i temmon daava mangan ja nikli pre pu at rakka dikka pallar baloarne. FLH II Onni pöio jade nikli, onno rekra sig ninno, jik af rankanoerna döi i temmen, onno daava kjera päio pre meros pu, at rakka baloarne. Eng So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs. 16 LL Ta karna lo voltra fyssa perda oppri siro belsing ninna kabent tjakke Baloarna kadde, nane attjer dovas kaben dockades to lester. KIH Kava færnisát honka ka opri baloánes/balo kabingén/kabing, honka kji færnisa honka dela lo avri baloánes/balo kabingén/kaben. FLH I Dela mander kaben at pæren asjar kjarto med raakon baloarne kar asjar kji jik gavo dela mander kaben. FLH II Onno pöio kammar at pilo sin poren pærdi raakon, som baloarne kade onno kji dedde pöio teknot. FLH III Onno daln mangar at pærdi seros pærd med kaben, so baloarne kade, onno kji dede knaspern teknot. Eng He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs were eating, but no one gave him anything. 17 LL Dolle lo bliddra stilad ta penna: “karna buttider ninna mengeske-rakklos palla diro miro Barodad kammar tji butt ninna maro, karna mander bukkar an mul” 274 appendix ii KIH Kava ava to kåtro/kåkkaro honka rakra: “Miro dadd kammas butri lindráde fakkare, dåvane kammas butare maro jekk dåváne kar opri, dorsta manders besjár/s jibé to avri bokipa” FLH I Han ava ninna til kokkare oh pukka: “Budtte kjereste divisar gar kammar meros dado kammar maro dorsta mander muler af bokipa” FLH II Minno döi ava ninno kokkare rakra: “pöio hvor budtte diviskjerare kammas meros dado kamma dorsta maro minno kamnder muler af bokkipa” FLH III Minno döi daln ava ninnoo sero solus rakra daln: “Vorna bute diviskjerare kammar meros dado so kammas dåista maro! Ninno manders mular pas bokipa” Eng When he came to his senses, he said, ‘How many of my father’s hired servants have food to spare, and here I am starving to death! 18 LL Mander voltrar ste oppri ta ja to miro Barodad ta penna to lester: “Baro Develeske Dad, mander kammar grekkopa pala devel ta pala diro” KIH Mander jar opri to miro dad/dado honka pukka to kava: “Dad, mander kammas grikkót mot kamloén honka diro” FLH I Mander jar opri til meros dado og penna: “Dado, manders kammas grekkopa mod punen og dero” FLH II Mander besjar opri onno jar ninno meros dado, onno rakra ninno päio: “Dado, mander kammas grekipa mod punen onno vago dero” FLH III Mander siltan beschar opri, onno ja ninno meros dado, onno rakra knasper dado: “Mander kammas grekipa mod punen onno vaga deros” Eng I will set out and go back to my father and say to him: “Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you” appendix ii 275 19 LL “Mander honkar nani buttider mollepa to karar siro tjavo, mander voltrar honka jekh attjer diros mengeske-rakklos” KIH “Mander asjár kji duritáre karás diros raklo-kjavo. Kjera mander to jekk avri diros lindra-gaer” FLH I “Mander asja kji duriare verdo karas deros raklo kjera mander som jik deros dindrare” FLH II “Onni asjar kji duriare maalar ar karas deros kjavo kjerrar mero som jik af deros diviskjerare” FLH III “Onni aschjar kji duriare mållar at karas deros kjavo. Kjera mero so jik pachs deros diviskjerare” Eng “I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me like one of your hired servants” 20 LL Savi stedde lester oppri ta jadde to siro dad, ta pala lester ascha duri niklos, fyste lesters dad dikka lo ta chala preall lester ta jadde siggrot pala lester perra pala lesters men ta tjommra lester. KIH (Og) kava stédde opri honka jádde to siros dad. Kava besjade durit nikli, dikka los dad kava honkaledde baro miak to lo. Kava nasja/prasta lo andri drissa, perát kava om menén honka kjommáde lo. FLH II Onni pöio besja opri. Onni ava minno ceros dada. Minno döi han pöi var endnu durnikli, dikka antes dado pöio. Onni miak budt, onni nasja ninno, pera om antes meen, onno kjuma pöio. FLH III Onno daln beschja opri onno ava ninno seros dado. Minno döi daln virna jik ninna dirnikli savo ante dado knaspern onni mijak inderligen, orna knaspern onno naschjar ninno onno pera no antes mee, onno kjumma knaspern. 276 appendix ii Eng So he got up and went to his father. But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him. 21 LL Tjavon penna to lester: “BaroDad, Mander kammar kerrat grekkopa pala tjeri ta glaneske diro: mande aschar nani buttider moll te karas diro tjavo” KIH Raklo-kjavoén rakla to kava: “Dad, miro kammas mot kamloén honka diro. Miro asjár kji duriáre mållar honka karás diros raklo-kjavo” FLH II Minno kjavo rakra ninno pöio: “Dado, mander kammar grekipa imod punnen ono vago dig, onno asjar kji duriare maallar at karas deres kjavo” FLH III Minno kjavoen rakra ninno knasperten: “Dado, mander kamar grekipa buno punen onno vago dero, onno aschjar kji duriare mållar at karas deres kjavo” Eng The son said to him: “Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son” 22 LL Dolle penna BaroDad to siro mengeske-rakklos: “sigga erssnos ta le glaneske dova shukkranoast isa Ta isade lester an kava, ta bescha jekh gustro pre lesters vhasjt ta kalsinger pre lesters piror”. KIH Dadoén rakra te siros dendráre: “Sigga diros! Le kei dåva lakjoáste isingane/ isarna og kamma dåva pre kava. Dela kava jekk gustro/gustri ore vasjén/ vastén los, honka kalsingár pre piroáne” FLH II Minno dadoen rakra ninno ceros denrar: “Regrar kei daava lakjoaste isar, onno isar pre pöio daava, onno dellar pöio jik gustro pre antes vairst, onno tiraker pre piroane” FLH III Minno dadoen rakra ninno seros dendrare: “Regrar kei dåva lakjoaste isar dårjan, onno isardar knasperten; onno delar knasperten jik sormus pe antes varirster onno tirakker pre piroarne” appendix ii 277 Eng But the father said to his servants: “Quick! Bring the best robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet” 23 LL Ta anner dova tullanoa musskro ta merra dova, Savi karmissa vorssnos ka ta dolle kerra vorssnos loschanoa. KIH Le gjø-gurg-kjavoén honka mera/marra dåva, (og) la vårsnusáne ka honka asja låsjanoé! FLH II Onno ja pallar daava tuloe muskro kei, onno mara daava, onno lader os kae, onno asjar gladttan. FLH III Onno regrar dåva tuluaste muskroe kei, onno marar dåva, onno la hirst ka, onno honkar glattan. Eng Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let’s have a feast and celebrate. 24 LL Ta dova miro tjavo acha mulad, karna kammar lett pala siro jibben, lester honka niklos karna nii aschar aveskeske-lattjad. KIH Vago dåva miros raklo-kjavo ajáde kjivra-nikli honka asjár/(asját lakját) ava pali. (Og) dærsno begynte honka asja låsjanoé. FLH II Tinno daava meros kjavo var mulo onno asjar blavar gjidanes ipali, onno var nikli onno pasjar lakja. Onno de begyndte at asja glatan. FLH III Tin dåva meros kjavo varna mulo, onno aschjar blavanes jidanes pali, onno varna nikli onno aschjar lakjan pali. Onno de begyndte at honka glattan. Eng For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found. So they began to celebrate. 278 appendix ii 25 LL Lesters phurano tjavo honka avri pre themmen,Karna lester nii tradra pale ta ava glan to hispan fyste lo shunna spekkrepa ta kelepa. KIH Men dåva puranoéste/áste raklo-kjavón kavás asjáde avri pre nitanén. Ninn akava jadde pali to kjeriét honka(nærmet)/avade siro låddét/låddipaét, heiáde lo knarka honka kelipa/kellipa. FLH II Minno antes puronoste kjavo var pre pu onno da pöio ava, onno var nær kairst. Kjæren, skjuna pöio polipan gjibar onno kjelipa. FLH III Minno antes puriaste kjavo varna pre puu, onno da daln ava hikelt nino hispan, sjuna daln gålipa jibar onno kjellipa. Eng Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came near the house, he heard music and dancing. 26 LL Dole kara lo to siros jekh attjer dova mengeske-rakklona ta puscha so dova savia naschtade ascha. KIH Kava kara to siro jekk avri dendrárne/árna honka pukja/áde hva dåva kanfara asja. FLH Onno daln kara jik pasch dendro-rakloarne nino serot, onno avrepuitja hvad dåva virna. Eng So he called one of the servants and asked him what was going on. 27 LL Lengro penna to lester: “Diro phral kammar avat khere: Ta dole nii diro BaroDad kammar lett lester an baro sastepa topalo, kammar lomerrat dova tullanoa musskro” appendix ii 279 KIH Kava rakla to lo: “Diros pral asjár avát, honka diros dad kammas marrát gjø-gurg-kjavoén vago kava lédde lo lakjo pali/pale” FLH Minno daln rakra ninno knasperten: “Deros pral aschjar ava onno deros dado mara dåva tuloaste muskro, vago daln kammar led knasperten lakjo pali” Eng He replied: “Your brother has come, and your father has killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and sound” 28 LL Dole ascha lester miak, lakk ta voltra nani ja andre, lesters BaroDad jade avri ta rakkra ninna lester. KIH Ninna asjáde kava rusjto honka færnissa kji ja andri. (Kava asjáde rusjto honka færnissa kji ja andri). Dadén/dadón jádde avri honka rakla lakjot/ bunigt to lo. FLH Minno daln blavanas rusto. Onno sillan kji ja andre. Döi vago jade antes dado avri onno manga knasperten. Eng The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So his father went out and pleaded with him. 29 LL Lo rakkra ta penna to siro BaroDad: “Dikk savi butt ninna bhers mander kammar mengrat ta mangat gla diro, ta tji nani jikh volta kammar mander jatt preall diros devleske-lav, ta nani jikh tjium diro dockat mander. Savo mander saste naschta kerra mande loschano ninna miro mala” KIH Men kava rakla to siros dad: “Dikkra andri savo butri bæsj kammas mander dinrát/dendrát diros, (og) kji kammas mander kjerát imot diros lav. (Men) mande rkammas diro delát jikk kjavo-busjni/bekron/Bakro savo mander færnissa låsjipa miros me maléne manders. 280 appendix ii FLH Minno daln rakra onno penna nino dadoen: “Dika sao budte bærs dendrar mander dero, onno kji rakra naban deros bodran, onno dero kammar ded mero jik buschni-kjavo, at mander karnas honka glattan mero manuser” Eng But he answered his father, ‘Look! All these years I’ve been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders. Yet you never gave me even a young goat so I could celebrate with my friends” 30 LL Karna lengros tjavo, tjakke kammar kat oppri diro barvalopa kettanes ninna lumnier(lobbor), nii kammar avat topale, savo kammar diro gla lester merrat dova tullanoa-musskron. KIH (Men) ninna dåva raklo-kjavón diros ava, kava savo kammas kjivrát nikli vådripán diros kjettanes me lubniér, ninna marra diro gjø-gurg-kjavón vago lo. FLH Minno da dåva deros kjavo aschjar ava, so kammar vago kadopri deros kova med lubianer, mara dero dåva tuluaste muskro ninno knasperten. Eng But when this son of yours who has squandered your property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the fattened calf for him! 31 LL Dova penna lo to lester: “Miro tjavo diro honkar sas-tjiro pala manderta sas-sasarot miros aschar diros” KIH (Men) kava rakla to lo: “Raklo-kjavo, Diro asjár dåstano/sastot hos miro, honka helkót/hilkót meros asjar diros” FLH Minno daln penna ninno knasperten: “Meros kjavo, dero aschjar sasstiil hirst mero, onno sas dåva so meros aschjar, aschjar deros” Eng The father said: “My son, you are always with me, and everything I have is yours” appendix ii 281 32 LL Ninna fyser vorssnos ascha fedia ta loschanoa, karna lengros phral ascha an mulkammar lett siro jibben, lo honka niklos karna nii lo aschar lattjad. KIH Men ninna skulle våro låsjanoé våros honka asja låsjalé vago dåva diros pral asjáde mulo honka asjár/ás avát pali jido, asja kjivra-nikli honka asjár/ás lakjipát. FLH Minno gavon burde være glattan sero vago dåva deros pral varna mulo. 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Author Index Abramson 44–46 Iversen 7, 10, 14, 73 Almqvist 9 Árnason 49 Jessen 49 Johansson 11, 77 Bakker 3, 8, 17, 18, 56ff., 100 Baldi 84 Kaufman 98 Behne 27 Klein 56 Bergman 14 Kotsinas 16 Bergstrand 4 Bruce 27, 33n, 49, 51, 54–55, 63 Ladd 51 Ladefoged 45–46 Carling 6, 15 Levander 4 Cho 45–46 Lie 70 Czigler 27 Lindblad 55 Lindell 7, 8, 11, 25–27, 32n, 41ff., 57, 66 Dawar 84 Lindgren 53 DeCuypere 88 Lindholm 4 Dorph 9 Lisker 44–46 Ehrenborg 9 Maddieson 56, 59 Elert 27, 33, 51–53 Malmberg 53 Elšik 64 Matras 1, 3, 7, 8, 11, 17, 18, 19, 60ff., 64, 77, Enevig 3 80 Engstrand 27–28, 30 Meyer 55 Ericsson 4 Minken 4 Ernby 16 Montesino-Parra 4 Etzler 2, 3, 7, 8, 10 Mous 11 Muysken 8, 17, 100 Faarlund 70 Myers-Scotton 95 Fraurud 3 Riad 63 Ganander 9 Ribsskog 10 Gjerdman 8, 9, 10 Roll 53 Gussenhoven 51 Gårding 53–55, 63 Sampson 18 Schlüter 2, 3 Halliday 11 Segerup 55n Heymowski 2, 3 Steensland 14 Hincliffe 65, 73, 92 Strandskogen 70, 73 Holmes 65, 73, 92 Sullivan 27 Holzinger 68 Sundt 2, 3 Horne 53 Svensson 2, 3 Hultman 92 Hyltenstam 3 Thomasson 98 © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/97899004266452_08 290 author index Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 7, 8, 11, 25–27, 32n, Vannebo 70 41ff., 57, 66 Trommelen 49 Zonneveld 49 Language Index Apache 45–46 Navajo 45 Arawak 19 Norwegian Armenian general 7, 17, 66, 76ff., 83ff. Eastern 45 Bokmål 71 Nynorsk 71 Danish 14 Romani Elfdalian 14 general 14, 24, 46, 60–63 English 28, 42–43, 50–51 Angloromani (Romnichel) 7, 17, 18, 19 Arli 1 Finnish 14, 83 Caló 17 European 68, 82 Gaelic 45 Kale 1, 9, 16, 18, 19, 23, 68, 76 German Kelderaš 1 general 14, 28, 31, 51, 60 Lajenge 18 High German 19, 71, 76ff., 83ff. Lovari 1, 17 Low German 14, 19, 65, 70, 83 Manouche 2, 19 Middle Low German 14, 15, 76ff., 83ff. Romnichel 2 Germanic Romungro 64 general 51 Sinte 2, 9, 16, 18, 19, 23, 60–61, 64, 68, 76 North 49 Welsh Romani (Kååle) 18 pre-North 63 Rotwelsch 14, 60 West 49 Russian 83 Gråspråk 14 Sami 14 Hupa 45 Skinnarmål 14 Swedish Jalapa Mazatec 45 general 7, 16, 17, 26ff., 33–34, 42–43, 49ff., 59ff., 66, 68, 76ff., 83ff., 92ff. Khonoma Angami 45 Central 27–28, 33, 39 Knoparmoj 14 Finland 33, 54n Korean 45, 46n Gothenburg dialect 55n Media Lengua 17 Thai 45 Månsing 14, 17 Tlingit 45 © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/97899004266452_09 Subject Index adjective dress code 4 attributive position 75 duration 44, 50–51 general 67, 73 predicative position 75 feature, distinctive 46, 49, 52 affricate 31–32, 34, 41, 61 folk etymology 88 allophones fricative complementary distribution 32–33, general 30 37, 39 (alveolo-)palatal 33, 41 free 25–27, 34, 39 post-alveolar 24–25, 31, 32ff., 56, 61 see also alternation; variation uvular 34, 37, 41 alternation velar 33, 36–37, 41 allophonic 25–26, 32ff. fundamental frequency (F0) 52ff. morphological 50 prosodic vs. segmental 56 gender see also allophones; variation general 65ff., 82 animacy 65, 67, 82 feminine 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73 anti-zipfian effect 13, 89ff. masculine 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73 approximant 31 neuter 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73 argot 11 non-neuter 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73 aspiration 24, 42ff., 61 grammaticiser language 17, 95 breathy voice 46–48 iconicity 88 inflectional morphology 64 case in-group lexicon 11, 13, 15, 16, 84ff. nominative 65 intertwined language 17, 100 oblique 65 isogloss 18 code-mixing 95 code-switching 95ff. Kieltringar 9 complex manipulation 13, 15 compounding 87 language mixing 8, 17ff., 100ff. computational cladistics 19 lexical borrowing 11, 84ff. copula 92 lexical manipulation 11, 84ff. cultural practices 3 lexifier language 17, 95 liquid 30 definite article 8 loan translation 11 definiteness loan word 76, 83 definite 70, 73, 75 indefinite 70, 73, 75 minimal pair demonstrative 67 general 25–25, 30–31, 40, 48, 49, 52 dialectal divisions near-minimal pair 29–30, 41, 52, 54 Balkan 19 mixed code 11 Central 19 mixed languages Northern Romani continuum 18, 19 autonomy 17, 98ff. Vlax 19, 19 mechanical model 17 morphology 64ff., 84ff. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/97899004266452_10 subject index 293 morphology, adaptational 64, 76ff., 81, pitch accent 18, 24, 51, 52ff., 59, 62–63, 76, 83, 101 76ff., 82 morphology, complex place-holder subject 9 general 11, 84ff. present participle 67 camouflaging morphology 11 pronoun clipping 11, 1, 585 demonstrative 94 dummy affixes 13 personal 94 extending 11, 13 relative 94 heavy morphology 13, 86 pronunciation options 41 hypocoristic 16 see also alternation; variation syncope 85 prosody morphology, derivational 53, 56, 62–63, dialect types 54–55 64, 76ff., 81–82, 101 Lund model of Swedish prosody 54–55 prosodic alternation 56 naming 4 prosodic manipulation 86 nasal 30 word-level 24, 49ff., 59 Natmaend 9 see also stress; pitch accent nominal inflection 18, 70ff. noun quantity 24, 27, 51, 59 abstract 66 concrete 66 reduction, segmental 48 general 66 Reisende 2, 5 inflection of 70ff. re-lexification 11–12 number Resande 2, 5 plural 70, 73 Romnichel (group) 7 singular 70, 73 Scandoromani occupation 3–4 baro-vandringene 5 occupational jargon 11 bilingualism 7 onomatopoeia 11 dialects 5, 101 doculects 6 Para-Romani 14 familylect 6, 25, 56, 60ff., 101 phone, distinctive 26, 33–34, 36, 59–60 horta Romani 7 phoneme ideolecs 6 inventory 25–26, 27ff., 56ff. Norwegian 5 potential phonemic status, contrast number of speakers 5 30, 41, 48, 56 preservation 4–5 status 26, 30–31, 33 Rodi 7, 14 phonology sources 8 complexity 56ff. Swedish 5 prosodic 51 tikno-vandringene 5 see also alternation; variation vocabulary 15 phonology, change writing 7 general 101 secret language 11 metathesis 15 semantics sporadic phonetic substitution 15, 86, extension 11 87 metaphor 11 phonology, preservation 101 metonymy 11 294 subject index sexus 65 variation sibilant 36–37, 41 allophonic 25–26, 29, 31ff., 41, 46ff., see also fricative 55–56, 59ff. slang 15, 84 dialectal 33 stops 24, 30, 42ff., 61 phonetic 34, 36–37, 41 stress 18, 24–25, 49–51, 59, 76, 62–63, 82 phonological 24–25 structural memory 82 see also allophones; variation subject place-holder 92, 93 verbal inflection 18, 80ff. syllable structure 24, 56 verbal place-holder 93 voice onset time (VOT) 44ff. TAM marking 17, 95 voice quality 46–48 Tatere 2, 5 vowel Tattare 2, 5 context 32ff. thematic status vowel quality 27–28, 51 athematic 68 general 65, 68, 70, 82 word class thematic 68 closed 18 Travellers 2 open 18 word order 17 unmarked infinitive 91 prahl, pral, prahl ‘brother’ themm, temm ‘land, district, parts, region’ phúri, púri ‘(sweet) old woman’ thỳja,̀ thùja, tỳa ‘to smoke’ phuv, puj ‘earth, ground, floor’ phùva ‘to burry’