Scandoromani Brill’s Studies in Language, Cognition and Culture Series Editors Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (Cairns Institute, James Cook University) R.M.W. Dixon (Cairns Institute, James Cook University) N.J. Enfield (Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen) VOLUME 7 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bslc Scandoromani Remnants of a Mixed Language By Gerd Carling Lenny Lindell and Gilbert Ambrazaitis LEIDEN | BOSTON This project has been funded by a grant from the Swedish Research Council (VR). Additional funding has been received from Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg Foundation (Swadesh-data and maps), Elisabeth Rausing Foundation, and Fil.Dr. Uno Otterstedt Foundation (traveling), and Faculty of Humanities and Theology, Lund University (proof-reading). Cover illustration: The family Rosengren-Karlsson, ancestors of Lenny Lindell, photo taken at the farm Hangelösa in Västergötland, around 1930. Picture courtesy of Lenny Lindell. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Carling, Gerd. Scandoromani : remnants of a mixed language / By Gerd Carling ; in collaboration with Lenny Lindell and Gilbert Ambrazaitis. pages cm. — (Brill’s studies in language, cognition and culture ; 7) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-26644-5 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-26645-2 (e-book) 1. Languages in contact—Scandinavia. 2. Swedish language. 3. Norwegian language. 4. Romani language. 5. Scandinavia— Languages. I. Lindell, Lenny, 1981– collaborator. II. Ambrazaitis, Gilbert, 1979– collaborator. III. Title. P130.52.S34C37 2014 439.7’7—dc23 2013047335 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual ‘Brill’ typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, ipa, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1872-5412 isbn 978 90 04 26644 5 (hardback) isbn 978 90 04 26645 2 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing and idc Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. Brill has made all reasonable efforts to trace all rights holders to any copyrighted material used in this work. In cases where these efforts have not been successful the publisher welcomes communications from copyright holders, so that the appropriate acknowledgements can be made in future editions, and to settle other permission matters. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents List of Figures viii Acknowledgements ix List of Abbreviations x Spelling and Glossing Conventions xii List of Contributors xv 1 Scandoromani: Language and Speakers 1 1.1 Background 1 1.1.1 The Various Groups of Travellers and Roma in Scandinavia 1 1.1.2 The Scandoroma: Language, Culture, and Identity 2 1.2 Scandoromani: A Mixed Language 5 1.2.1 Introduction 5 1.2.2 Earlier Sources of Scandoromani 8 1.2.3 What Is a ‘Real’ Language? On Broken Variants and In-group Lexicons 11 1.2.4 Influence on Scandinavian 15 1.3 Structure and Position of Scandoromani 17 1.3.1 Mixture Patterns 17 1.3.2 Placing Scandoromani in the Northwestern Romani Continuum 18 2 The Sounds of a Mixed Language 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.1.1 Speakers and Available Recordings 24 2.1.2 Allophonic Variation, Minimal Pairs, and the Phoneme Inventory 25 2.2 Methods and Materials 26 2.3 The Vowel System 27 2.3.1 Swedish 27 2.3.2 Swedish Romani 28 2.4 The Consonant System 30 2.4.1 The Core System of Equivalent Swedish Consonants 30 2.4.2 The Bilabial Approximant [w] 31 2.4.3 Affricates 31 2.4.4 The Voiceless Post-Alveolar Fricatives 32 2.4.5 Stops and Aspiration 42 vi contents 2.5 Word-Level Prosody 49 2.5.1 Lexical Stress 49 2.5.2 Quantity 51 2.5.3 Lexical Pitch Accents 52 2.6 Patterns of Allophonic Variation 55 2.7 Phonological Complexity 56 2.8 Historical Background 60 3 The Interdependence of Adaptation, Derivation, and Inflection in a Mixed Morphology 64 3.1 General Remarks 64 3.2 Nominal Morphology 65 3.2.1 Basic Principles 65 3.2.2 Nominal Inflection 70 3.2.3 Derivational and Loan Word Adaptational Morphology 76 3.3 Verb Morphology 80 3.3.1 Background 80 3.3.2 Inflectional Morphology 80 3.3.3 Derivational Morphology 81 3.4 The Emergence of a Mixed Morphology 82 3.4.1 Development of a New Morphology: Innovation and Structural Memory 82 3.4.2 Strategies for Adaptation of Loan Words 83 3.4.3 Attributes of a Mixed Morphology: Lexical Manipulation, Heavy Morphology, and the Anti-Zipfian Effect 84 4 Outline of a Syntax 91 4.1 Use of Unmarked Verbal Infinitive Form 91 4.2 Subject Place-Holder Omission 92 4.3 Verbal Place-Holder Omission 93 4.4 Relative Pronoun Deletion 94 4.5 Patterns of Code-Mixing in Free, Narrative and Written Speech 95 4.6 Samples of Speech 96 4.6.1 Frog Story 96 4.6.2 Story About a Fight 98 contents vii 5 Conclusion: Support for an Autonomous Model 100 Appendix I Vocabulary 103 Appendix II Texts 218 II.1 Trin Phralarna 218 II.2 Lollohubb 253 References 283 Author Index 289 Language Index 291 Subject Index 292 List of Figures FIGURE Caption 1.1 Computational cladistic tree of Romani dialects, based on a Swadesh-100 list, divided into 8 subgroups. Data from ROMLEX and Vocabulary 20 1.2 Map, showing the distribution of the groups 1–8 in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1 21 1.3 Map, showing the distribution of number of nodes in the cladistic tree in figure 1.1 21 2.1 Wave form diagrams and spectrograms of puv and its variant phuv, spoken contrastively by speaker ll 47 2.2 Semitone F0 tracks aligned with corresponding speech signals for an Accent I/II Swedish Romani near-minimal pair spoken by ll: lánglo ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’ 52 2.3 Rules of pitch-accent assignment in Swedish (from Gårding 1977) 54 2.4 Stylized pitch contours for disyllabic words in the five prosodic Swedish dialect types (from Bruce 2010; after Gårding and Lindblad 1973, based on data from Meyer 1937) 55 3.1 The mixing process in Scandoromani morphology 83 Acknowledgements A number of persons have been involved in the current project, whom we wish to acknowledge: First, we thank our families for their endurance and support. Lenny wishes to thank his parents, Lennart and Irene. Gerd thanks her family, Tomas and Herman, and her parents, Hans and Aina, for their support. Further, we thank our colleagues at the Department of linguistics, Lund University, Arthur Holmer, Jan-Olof Svantesson, Mechtild Tronnier, Anastasia Karlsson, and My Segerup, for valuable discussions and advice. We thank all contributors, research assistants, engineers, and others, Ylva Blomstrand, Hans Carling, Anne Goergens, Anja Hoppe, Niklas Johansson, Edin Kukovic, Per Lindell, Alex Rau, and Joost van de Weijer, for spending hours in typing, analyzing, glossing, editing, translating, coding, checking, and so forth (see Contributors). We thank Jens Braarvig and Faculty of Humanities, Oslo University, for giving us access to the material of the department (see Appendix I, Vocabulary). We thank Joel Parthemore for correcting our English. We also thank the anonymous rewiewers for valuable proposals. Finally we acknowledge Sandra Cronhamn and Anna Hed, who assisted in typing when Gerd broke her hand three weeks before final manuscript delivery. Lund September 25, 2013 Gerd Carling, Lenny Lindell, and Gilbert Ambrazaitis List of Abbreviations Language Abbreviations Arm. Armenian Dard. Dardic (dialect) Eng. English Fi. Finnish Gm. German Hi. Hindi It. Italian Lat. Latin mhg Middle High German MLat Middle Latin mlg Middle Low German Norw. Norwegian OFr. Old French ONor. Old Norse Pasht. Pashtun Pers. Persian Pkt. Prakrit Pol. Polish Rotw. Rotwelsh Ru. Russian Serbcr. Serbo-Croatian Skt. Sanskrit Slov. Slovak Sw. Dial. Swedish Dialectal Sw. Swedish ktd Speaker Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf ll Speaker Lenny Lindell Grammar Abbreviations* adj adjective adv adverb * With punctuation in text, without punctuation in Appendix I, Vocabulary. Longer forms are used in text (e.g., masc) list of abbreviations xi art article aux auxiliary cl clitic coll collective comp comparative conj conjunction cop copula def definite dem demonstrative expr expression fem/f feminine gen genitive indef indefinite inf infinitive interj interjection interr interrogative itr intransitive loc locative masc/m masculine n neuter neg negation nom nominative num numeral obl oblique part particle pass passive pers personal pl plural poss possessive prep preposition pron pronoun pst past pst ptc past participle r non-neuter (realis) s noun/substantive sg singular subj subjunction sup supine tr transitive uninfl uninflected xii list of abbreviations v verb vpart verbal particle Glossing Abbreviations adv adverb cmp comparative def definite dem demonstrative gen genitive inf infinitive/unmarked verbal form nt neuter pass passive pl plural poss possessive ppt past participle prs present pst past ptc participle refl reflexive rel relative sg singular spl superlative sup supine Spelling and Glossing Conventions Our main source—both for the dictionary and for examples in the text—is Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Therefore, we follow their spelling conventions in chap- ters 1–5, see Table I.