Chapter I Introduction

1. Introduction The is one of the oldest and largest Naga tribe in . The Poumai Naga country is geographically situated in District, Manipur and four villages from Phek District in . The Poumai country in is bordered by Phek district, Nagaland on the north, Ukhrul district on the east, Tadubi sub-division on the west and Saikul sub-division on the south. Manipur state is situated in North Eastern States of and became a full-fledged state in 1972. It is bordered on the North by Nagaland state, on the East by Myanmar, on the South by Myanmar and and on the West by and partly by Mizoram. According to Hill house tax records, the total population of Poumai tribe in 2001 was 1, 51,005 (including the Poumai in Nagaland). About 95.5% of the total population of Poumai resides in the iSenapati district of Manipur, including the four villages in Phek district.

The Poumai Naga tribe is one the most important tribes in Manipur and Nagaland since times immemorial. Their Poiili (Poumai Earthen) and Poutai (Pou salt) production were well known to the entire tribal areas in Manipur and Nagaland since ancient time. Even today, Pouli and Poutai are still produced in Poumai Naga villages. There are some Naga tribes like Mao, Angami and Chakhesang who used the Pouli in some religious rites and ritual and without the Pouli - their religious rites and rituals are incomplete. The Central Government of India had recognized Poumai Naga as a separate tribe in 2002, under the Constitution of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribe Order (Amendment) Act 2002, which was earlier under the Mao Tribes. In Poumai Naga villages - about 43% of the total villages have no bus service and about 10% of the total villages have no jeepable road linking to other villages. There are many villages, which cannot even ply a jeep in the rainy season. People located in the villages located in the dense forests in the central and eastern parts have still to travel on foot for about 5-6 hours to catch a bus from the nearest bus station located in the other villages. By the late 1990, there were some changes with respect to transportation and communications, which have brought little ease to some villages.

1.1 Justification for selection of the research topic Though abundant literature on the tribals of India is available, studies at the micro-level for specific tribes or for smaller tribal areas conspicuous by their absence. Such studies are vital, if meaningful schemes for the uplift of these marginalized and isolated groups are to be formulated to bring them into the mainstream of Indian society. No doubt the Central and State Governments and NGOs are working hard for the welfare of tribal groups, yet little progress is evident in their socio-cultural and economic life, even after 50 years of different development programs and welfare schemes implemented for the scheduled tribes. This is attributed to lack of understanding of the micro level differences, which exist in their socio-cultural and geographical setting and their mode of interacting with the environment they inhabit.

Such constraints render the standardized development schemes less meaningful in bringing in the desired results for improving their lot. This study intends to address such issues. Having raised these questions, the objective of this research is to make grass roots level assessment of the status of development: both socially and in terms of the economic resources they own, and their ability to exploit them. The assumption being that these may differ greatly within the same area, between different tribes. However, there is no denying the fact that even the most primitive tribes, located in the remotest of places are changing in their life style and also undergoing modernization in many respects.

In view of the above, it is necessary to study the socio cultural and economic changes that have taken place among different tribes individually and collectively, within distinct ecological (tribal) areas. This will lead to a better understanding of the underlying processes leading to differential development scenarios within the same milieu. All planning agencies need to be aware of these subtle inter and intra-area differences that exist within tribes in specific tribal areas for devising more pragmatic development programs. The various schemes launched by the central government for rural development in India being cast in a standardized format can hardly be effective at the grass roots level for tribal areas. This is because in the case of tribal groups, their attitude to development schemes is in conflict with their tradition bound beliefs which may not necessarily be rational since they are based on age old beliefs Thus for effective implementation of plans, the central government needs to reconsider some of these important aspects given below:

Firstly, the geographical location of different tribes in different geographical locations needs to be thoroughly surveyed before any schemes or plans are designed by the government. This will help prepare environmentally sustainable schemes and prevent ftirther degradation of the environment, which is currently taking place at alarming rates with rising pressure of population. For example, the schemes and plans launched by the government for the tribal belts in the Western Ghats may not be suitable for the tribal behs in the northeastern tribal region and vice-versa.

Secondly, the receptivity and mindset of the tribals need to be studied before the launch of any schemes. In different geographical locations, different tribes have built up their own unique societies, cultures and economies. Many of the tribal people are not very flexible and tend to be suspicious and unreceptive to governmental schemes and plans, which may not be totally unfounded, as they perceive such intervention an invasion into their sacred domain. If the tribes fail to accept the schemes, their cooperation and involvement, which is so crucial to the success of any scheme, will hardly be forthcoming. The program naturally does not bring in the desired results. In many an instance they themselves scuttle all efforts to bring in any change. For example, the tribals sorely need medical help and education, but since a large number still believe in age-old superstitions, they do not let such initiatives succeed to improve their lot.

Thirdly, authentic database for smaller tribal areas or individual tribes is hardly collected and hence unavailable. This is very important for the success of any scheme or and plan. Many people have undertaken research on tribals at the macro level but few studies exist at the micro level. Fourthly, though the government had been launching different schemes and plans for over all rural development since independence, the results leave much to be desired are not up to expectation, due to lack of proper implementation and management of the schemes and plans. The state and central government need to actively involve the non­ governmental organizations (N.G.O's) that have better rapport with the beneficiaries due to the scale at which they operate.

The central and state governments have a bigger role to play in drawing up the planning framework, while the Non-govemmental organizations can play a better role in the implementation of schemes launched by the government. In the northeastern region, (the study area) Christian church leaders can play an important role in implementation of the government schemes and plans.

In the over all assessment it has been observed that area specific and trjfee specific models can be more effective in meeting development objectives in the context of tribal areas. Thus once again, reiterating the need to have the database for individual tribes at the micro level for speedy and proper implementation of schemes. In response to the above, the researcher decided to study the Poumai Naga tribe, which is one of the major tribes amongst the Naga tribes in . The added advantage was the researcher himself hails from the Northeast and is familiar with the study region. Another important reason for choosing this particular tribe was that the researcher belongs to the Poumai Naga tribe, so communication with the locals will not pose a problem while collecting information during field surveys. The researcher also having grown up in the area has some notion of the problems, being somewhat acquainted with the different issues, which need to be addressed for the development of this particular tribe.

1.2 Research Methodology 1. Secondary data was collected (from published sources) to derive generalizations on the status of tribals in the study area.

2 Oral histories, like legends, folklore and folk songs were recorded by interviews with elders. 3 Micro-level data was collected for select sample villages, with household as the unit of investigation, to help develop generalizations on different sectors of the tribal economy.

4 Primary data (based on personal interviews and field work on various aspects of target groups) was used for drawing inferences presented in the findings from the study.

1.3 Aims and objectives

1. To study the socio-cultural and economic patterns of the past and the present

2. To study the contemporary changes in the socio-cultural and economic life of Poumai Nagas

3. To study when and how the socio-cultural and economic change took place and what were the drivers of change.

4. To study the impact of change and the directions of change in that case of Pumai Naga.

5. To build a suitable model for sustainable development of the Poumai Nagas after assessing the performance of various schemes

1.4 Hypothesis

1. The British intervention in head hunting is one of the main reasons for the initial changes that took place in the socio-cultural and economic life of the Poumai Naga

2. Their conversion to Christianity may be another significant reason that brought about changes in their socio-cultural and economic life

3. Due to introduction of modem education and contact with other plains people, a change in their socio-cukural and economic life has taken place

4. With exposure to outsiders and with the availability of some basic infrastructure changes in outlook may be expected

1.5 Review of Literatures on Tribal study It is important to review the literatures and leam what others have done in the area of socio-cultural and economic change among the tribals before undertaking the present study. The review focuses on the studies about the changes in tribal society, culture and economy in the Indian situation, particularly in the context of the Naga tribes. A large volume of studies on the northeast tribes and Naga tribes by foreigners and Indian scholars exist yet few researches have been undertaken at the level of a specific tribe. With the result, hardly any literature is available on the Poumai Naga tribe. The literature review on tribal studies included here is selective and does not make any claims to be exhaustive.

B. K. Roy Burman (1984) in “Towards Poverty Alleviation Programs in Nagaland and Manipur, attempted to study the socio-economic setting of Nagaland and Manipur and the programs for poverty alleviations under the rural development sector in the Sixth Plan. He found that though Manipur state has vast mineral and forest resources, the non­ availability of infrastructure facilities like power, skilled labor, transport and communications, financial institutions, the resources have not so far been ftilly exploited and therefore the state is one of the most industrially backward in the country. On the other hand, there is ample scope for the establishment of many industries based on minerals, forest and agriculture. He also observed that in the rural areas of Nagaland and in many parts of Manipur, there is pervasive poverty in the midst of massive endowments of nature.

In another study, K.S. Singh (ed.l982), in the “Economies of the Tribes and their Transformation”^ covered the tribal economy and the transformations in the different regions with the help of some case studies of some particular tribes. Among the other contributors to the volume, mention must be made of the following; i. Bani Prasana Misra’s paper deals with the economy of tribal societies in northeast India. He analyses the different societies according to their leve of economy. ii. N.K. Das comments on the agrarian structure and change in Nagaland. In this study he analyses the land use pattern; ownership of land, with special reference to Jhum cultivation. However, his contribution on analyzing change is not that significant, as he did not include all the important or major tribes.

In the edited volume of Ashok Ranjan Basu and Satish Nijhawan (1994), B.K.Roy Burman in his article on approach to tribal development: an overview, has observed how the non-tribals exploit the tribals. One of the points worth mentioning here is that the flora and fauna in tribal areas are extracted by private agencies after having accurate information about the commercial values of the products^

A. N. Sharma edited (2002), “Tribal Welfare and Development: The emerging role of anthropological explorations. S. Rajoo Krishnan (2002), in his paper, changing socio­ economic profile of the tribal in India during 1961-1991, observed the changes in the literacy rate and work participation of the scheduled tribes. In his conclusion he suggested that the development process of the tribes should help them to adjust and cope with the changes in their way of life, rather than interfere with it. Secondly, the literacy for females needs to be given more attention by the authorities. He also found that recently there has been a strong tendency among the scheduled tribes to move from rural to urban areas, as if they have been ejected out of the system.

In Buddhadev Chaudhurys’ edited book (1992,) “Socio-economic and ecological development, Manis Kumar Raha talks about the changing economy of the Kinnaurese (Kinnaur district in Himachal Pradesh). He observes the changes in the occupational pattern due to the opening up of road transportation; Now people are more interested in horticulture, in fruit development, which has improved the socio-economic life of the people and many are now engaged in service, with increasing job opportunities; Improved variety of sheep also introduced in their animal husbandry. One of the important problems faced by them is the lack of adequate transport and marketing facilities. As a result, the tribes are dependent mostly on the outside agents, which invariably reduce the margin profit.

Chritsopher Lakra (1999), in "The New Home o f Tribals”^ a case study of Oraon society in Ranchi, has observed some social changes in their language among the Oraons in the city. Many tribals here are bilingual; a small group was also trilingual. About 51% of the tribals were Christians, 47% were Samia and two percent and one percent professed Hinduism and Bhagtism, respectively. He also observed that in recent times, there were some attempts of Sama religious revivalism. Marriage with non-tribals though restricted, ' were nonetheless observed, especially among the educated and working people. Education plays a vital role in changing the socio-cultural life of tribes. In conclusion Lakra observed two main trends in which unity and solidarity are clearly identifiable. On the one hand there is changing ideology, while on the other, a strong urge to maintain the status quo is also equally evident. The adherents to the former are continuously engaged in challenging the existence of tradition bound social structures and values, while the later are resisting change in favor of the status quo, glorifying the past and its traditions.

Geeta Menon in Buddhadev Chaudhury’s edited book, (1990), ''Economy and Agrarian Issues ” observes that economic development of the country has struck at the very roots of the traditional tribal society, causing sudden changes which the tribal community has not been able to cope with.^

A. Kumar in his edited book (2002), "Tribal Development in India” ^ has attempted to review and assess tribal development. In the same volume, i) Mahapatra observed that a wide gap exists in tribal society between the power elite and the ordinary folks. The former seek political power leading to economic benefits, while the latter seek economic development to check exploitation and poverty. ii). Ramesh P. Sinha (1979), in his study found that the majority of tribals in Bihar do not read newspapers, nor do they listen to radio programs, nor do they visit movie houses. In another study, iii) Sibir R. Das (1979), observed that among the Gadaba tribe of Koraput district of Orissa, absenteeism among tribals in schools is common because of economic, socio-religious and ethnocentric attitude. These people are more concerned about their food requirement rather than attendance. iv) Umanand Phuken (1979), in his paper also observed some major structural changes in society among the tribals of the North East. He found that most tribes in the northeast have shown a very low stage of socio-economic development as compared to their counterparts in the plains as they have closer relations with the capitalist market - economy.

Kishore C. Padhy .1998), in "Economic Development of Tribals, Approach Method and Strategy, observed three zones of tribal social profiles, (northern, central and northeastern zones) about the northeastern zone's social profile, he states: i. Both primitive and far advanced communities live side by side in this zone ii. No tribe is purely in the hunting and food-gathering stage. Even the primitive Lopchas are settled agriculturists, living on terraced fields. iii. Political organization is most highly developed on Republican lines iv. Jhuming is the main form of agriculture. But the Apatani carries on intensive wet cultivation. v. Headhunting was an important feature of tribal life in northeastern India. This custorns was found in a very wide area from Formosa, through Indonesia up to the interior of New Guinea. Christoph Von Fiirer-Haimendorf (1985), in his book "Tribe of India-the Struggle for Survival”'^' shows how the Konda Reddis and Kolams tribe in Andhra Pradesh have changed their economic system The change took place in the early 1910s, when outsiders, acting as agents of the wider money economy penetrated the tribal regions. The government with their system of taxes payable in money compelled the tribals to acquire at least some small amount of the officials’ currency. The change in agricultural pattern occurred in the 1950s, with reservation of forests and the shrinkage in the tribals’ habitat caused by incursions of non-tribal settlers who virtually compelled the Gonds to abandon 10 the practice of frequent fallow. Secondly, another change came about due to allocation of individual holdings in place of community ownership. Thirdly, some changes were seen only after 10-20 years, after the allocation of land on permanent patta basis to individual householders. This was to trigger the establishment of commercial centers in the heart of the tribal areas. He also observed the social changes among the Gond and Koya. One of the important causative factors in bringing about social change was the incursion of numerous outsiders of different socio- cultural backgrounds

Jacob John Kattakayam (1983), in his study of "Social structure and change among the tribals”“ (A case study among the Uralies of Idukki District in Kerala), attempted an assessment of how the Uralie’s social structure and economy undergoes change due to contact with the plains people and government’s welfares schemes. He also pointed out the problems associated with bringing about changes in the social system and economic life of the tribes due to non-cooperation with the government programs by the tribes. He emphasized in his conclusion that education can be the single most important factor^to bring in change.

P.K. Khare (1991) in his study of "Social change in Indian Tribes-Impact of Planning and Economic Development”^^ uses the case study of the Munda tribe in Bihar to observe the changes in socio-economic condition. An important observation was that shifting cultivation is no more the predominant source of live hoo^d but settled agriculture, using modem implements and fertilizers have been instrumental in changing the life style of the tribes.

Gulab Khan Gori (1984) in his assessment on tribal welfare programs by the State and Central Government for the tribals in Manipur acknowledges the great work of Christian missionaries in bringing changes in their socio-cultural and economic life. In his conclusion, he found that the tribes of Manipur display an unbalanced growth pattern, which shows segregation on the basis of infrastructure and socio-economic development. Here tribes in unbalanced growth set means those tribal communities, who live in distinct regions where infrastructure for growth has not been developed to the extent necessary 11 but who on the other hand have a fairly high level of education and technology and are not alienated from traditional economic resources.

T.B. Naik (1969), in his study of "Impact of Education on the Bhils: Cultural Change in the tribal Life in Madhya Pradesh"''’ Suggests the change-taking place is due to education among the Bhils tribes these changes are visible in their accepting a lower bride price among the educated; the influence in the family structure etc. However, there is not much change or affect on other traditional codes in the community.

Ngaihte Chinzakham L (1998): studying the "Tribal Agrarian system of Manipur"'^ has observed that the agrarian system of the Zomi tribe of Manipur, formerly known as the Chin-Kuki-Mizo show the following features: - i) All the lands are found to have belonged to the village chief ii) The village chief has superior rights iii) The production is meant more for subsistence. iv) There is unequal division of property v) No land revenue is paid vi) There is no sign of intensive cultivation. Only extensive cultivation in the form of shifting cultivation is allowed. In his conclusion, he added that due to increase in population, there has been increasing pressure on land and such a pressure on land reduces the j hum cycle.

P.C. Pande (1991), in ""Indian Tribes, Habitat, Society, Economy and Change"^^ attempted to trace the factors and determinants of transition. The association of the following factors is worth mentioning- i) Knowledge and social change ii) Exposure to modernization, in which he cites the example of the eastern states where the influence of Christianity is strong iii) Dominance of rationality- in this he observed that tribal societies in the east Indian union, have undergone a significant change in respect of the cultural features like literacy and reading habits 12

iv) In case of infrastructure for development he observed that the living standards have risen, greater productive capacity is generated and skills along with alertness have improved to keep the income level sustained.

S. S. Chib (1984), in “Caste, Tribes and Culture of India''^^, has studied the entire northeastern states with respect to their socio-cultural and economic life, and specially worth mentioning here is his study of early Naga history, right from Arjuna’s time to Phizo’s time. He has also briefly studied the socio-culture and economic life of the .

K.K. Mishra (1987) in Social Structure and Change among the Ho of Orissa has observed that the Ho tribe in Orissa, had changed from the predominantly joint family structure to the nuclear family. The impact of modem industrialization by way of integration of the young members as co -workers either in mines or factories has reduced the marriage hazards to a great extent. Love marriage and elopement have become common and the rate of divorce has also increased. Relationship with other communities and mingling freely has also brought about radical changes in Ho economy- He observed that one of the important agents of economic change among the Ho people is early industrialization of the district and another powerfiil agents of change in the life-style of Ho is the pre-eminence of Hindu impact on the tribe.

H.L. Deb Roy (1981), in his study of "A Tribe in Transition, The Jaintias of has made an attempt to observe the slow process of transition of this tribe from matriarchal to patriarchal society Adopting Christian beliefs, education plays a vital role in the transition. After converting to Christianity the tribes preferred to adopt English names rather than their traditional tribal names. All the important posts and political power is slowly handed over to the Christian and educated leaders.

Sitakant Mahapatra (1986), in "Modernization and Ritual Identity and Change in Santal society, in Mayurbhanj district, Orissd’’’^^ observed the changes in agricultural implements. Once the Santal was required to know the art of making simple implements 13 for agriculture but now the author saw better implements, which were not made at home. Of late, in celebration of iestivals, the more educated among the Santals, in particular the young generation, realize the evils of indebtedness and they do not see the logic of incurring heavy expenditure to celebrate a particular festival. His studies among the tribal groups in north Orissa show that hierarchy of economic and political power generally go together.

K.L. Kothari (1985), in his study o i "Tribal Social Change in lndid’'^ \ in Bhil society in Rajasthan found that on the whole the tribals are not as rigid as they are generally made out to be in term of chang ng their occupation from agriculture to other jobs. Some of the social and cultural changes in Bhil society are due to change in the economic and political life of the people in general. A few of the changes may also be due to the constitutional privileges given to the tribals. Modernization, including urbanization, education and developmeit programs has had significant impact in bringing about the social and cultural changes. These forces also affected change, both in the tribal institutions of birth, marriage, death, festivals and fairs and also at the level of attitudes and values. Besides, the local forces there are two other movements: Bhagatism and tribal social reform associations. Another force of change is the introduction of transport and means of communications, which has brought socio-cultural change among the tribals.

S.R. Sharma (2000), in his study of "Process of Social Change among the Gond tribe of Madhya Pradesh”^^ has shown that the advent of British colonialism brought a radical change in the tribal situation. British rule created the problems of replacing the old social organization, modifying or discarding old social institutions, removing old forms of social control and revising old agencies of social change. The Christian missionaries’ welfare works for the tribals: on education, economic, hygienic had vital impact on modernizing the tribals. He also acknowledges the impact due to the Central and State sponsored development projects. While analyzing the causes of failure of the Integrated Child Development Services Project in Kesla Block, he found that the services did not reach the backward and remote areas because of inadequate transport facilities. With the 14 result the delivery of health services was not effective because of the non-availability of doctors and storage facilities etc.

P. Sudhakara Reddy (.1995), in his studies on "Displaced populations and socio-cultural change'^^ on Sriharikota Island in Andhra Pardesh, found that the practice of making of fire by friction has virtually disappeared among the tribals and is replaced by lighting a match; making of wooden chappals has also disappeared, except in the north-west zone; the digging stick too has became obsolete; and many of the old hunting implements are discarded in the new environment except in the north-west zone; fishing technology has been improved in all the four zones; the displacement and rehabilitation of this tribe brought in lots of changes in the social organization, the interaction between the maternal uncle and nieces is not as intensive as before.

Padmashri S.S. Shashi, (1995), in the study of '‘'The tribal world in Trans it ion”^"^ has attempted to study social and cultural change among the' tribes. His study on tribal education shows six main causes of slow progress in literacy- i. Poverty of the parents ii. Contents of education iii. Inadequate educational institutions and supporting services iv. Absenteeism

V. Medium of instruction and vi. Education policy. He also suggested some measure for improvement in education. In the case study of Lushai tribe (Meghalaya), he observed that with the spread of Christianity, belief in all the multifarious spirits and in the efficacy of appeasement was replaced with the new faith.

P.C. Jain (1995), in his study of '"Christianity, Ideology and Social Change among the tribals, a case o f Bhils in Rajasthan”^^ shows that social change due to Christianity and Bhagatism has shown that animism has suffered decay and has virtually died out. The government officials are overwhelmingly high caste-Hindus. The traders who migrated to 15 the tribal hinterland have all conspired to put their axe on tribal animistic ideology. The Christian missions provide a new alternative, a new ideology to the effect that animism in fact was a religious practice of blind faith and superstitions. He further states that tribals are at the crossroad of these alternatives. He concludes that Bhagat and Christians had brought about a social change in their primordial institutions. He also observed that due to differences in ideology, especially on a comparative scale he found that Christian Bhils are way ahead of Bhagat Bhils.

R.S. Mann and K. Mann (.1989), in ''Tribal culture and Change’'^^ observed that among the Bhils, Minas and Garasias, the women are looked after well. The latter are better dressed than their men folk. In the pattern of division of labor, a Garasia woman occupies an important position. Among the Bhil, there is improvement and more awareness about health and they visit the primary health centers frequently.

1.6 Review of literatures on Naga tribes Some of the earliest literature on Naga tribes includes the work of A. Mackenzie (1884), Sir James Johnston (1896), B.C Allen (1905), T.C. Hudson (1911), J.H. Hutton (1921), J.P. Mills (1922). Sir James Johnston (1896), in his study of, “ and Manipur” attempted to highlight briefly the different tribes in Manipur and Naga Hills He also wrote a brief early history of the British in connection with Manipur king-Ghumber Singh.

A. Mackenzie’s (1989, 1884) discussion on Naga tribes, about their early history and in particular the government’s policy on the Irmer Line and non-interference policy, is valuable to the present study. According to the Inner Line policy of 1872-73, power was to be given to the Lieutenant Governor to prescribe a line, to be called, “the inner line” in each or any of the districts affected, beyond which no British subject of certain class or foreign resident can pass without a license. 16

B.C. Allen (1905) ^*had attempted to throw some light on the anthropology of the Nagas in relation to their particular, physical features. The British expeditions to the Naga Hills made possible a study of the socio-economic life of the people.

J.H. Hutton (1921) in his book, '"The Angami had discussed the occupation of the people, their general appearance; the laws and customs; religion; folklore and language of the Angami tribe.

T.C. Hudson (1911), in his book "The Naga tribes in Manipur”^^ attempted to discuss about the Nagas in Manipur, with particular reference to their geographical location; general physical appearance of the people; origins of different legends and the socio­ cultural life of the people.

J.H. Hutton (1921), in his book "The Serna Nagas""^^ tries to discuss the origin and migration of the Sema tribe. He also briefly covers their occupations and food habits; social life, religion, language and folklore. However, he skipped the culture of the Sema Nagas.

J.P. Mills (1926) in his book ''The Ao Nagas”^^ had covered the domestic life of the Ao people, their laws and customs, religion and a brief introduction to language and folk tales.

J.P. Mills (1980, 1937), in a study of the ''The Rengma Nagas”^^ has attempted to trace the origin and migration of the Rengma tribe. He also studies their economic life and social organization. He describes the folk tales, songs and language in his study.

Christoph Von Fiirer-Haimendorf (1939) an eminent anthropologist has discussed some important culture traits like feasts of merit; head hunting; Morung and some experiences of his visit to the Naga Hills. 17

Elwin Verrier (1961), in his book, ''NagalancT'^^ attempted to observe the nature of Naga people and their history. He also discusses about the . He observed that the form of Christianity they follow would broaden out and adjust itself to the modem world. The greatest achievement of the Naga awakening has been to unite the formerly divided and warring tribes.

Elwin Verrier (1969, 1959), ‘‘‘'The Nagas in the Nineteenth Centiity"^^, is a collection of tour notes from different people who had visited the Naga Hills. He attempts to edit and put together all the tour notes on physical features; socio-cultural life of different tribes; early history and economic life of the Nagas. It is to be noted that George Watt’s tour notes about the tribes in Manipur, in particular, about the Poumai Naga tribe, in which he described briefly the Morung or dormitory institution is interesting. He stated that the Maos (Poumais) and Maram young men slept in a club or watch house.

North and North-Eastern Frontier tribes of India (1983 1907) ” , is compiled by the Chief of Staff of Army Head Quarters in India. What is relevant in this study is about the early British expeditions to Naga Hills. The country up to Patkoi came nominally under British rule with the rest of Muhammadans possessions in Assam in 1765, but no British came in contact with the Nagas until 1832.

Tajenyuba Ao, (1957): “ customary laws'' 38 , one of the earliest literature available on Nagas written by a Naga scholar, attempts to study the Ao Naga customary laws, which are practiced by the Ao Naga tribe.

V.K. Anand (1967) studies on Naga social-cultural life and in his observation he found that the way of life seemed to be changing fast. He found that Morung is completely absent in today’s Naga villages. He also found that means of communication and lack of transportation facilities is the biggest difficulty. As an administrator, he also found that in no way casual treatment of their problems and dispute will win their heart. One has to know the history of the dispute before giving a decision, which might have started sixty to hundred years back when their grandfather were at the helm of affairs. 18

M. Alemchiba (1970), one of the Naga writers in his book "A brief historical account o f Nagaland’"'^^ attempted to trace the origin of Nagas, etymology of the word Naga and migration of Nagas to their present Naga Hills.

M. Horam (1975) is one of the eminent Naga writers attempted to discuss the socio­ cultural life and starting of Naga National Movement in his book “The Naga Polity”'^^ He also discussed the historical background and entomology of the word Naga.

M. Horam (1977), in his book, "Socio-cultiiral life ofNagas”'*^ has attempted to use case studies on the socio-cultural life of the Tangkhul tribe to trace social change. He observed that looking at their economy, political, social or religion, many transformations have taken place. He observed that some of the factors leading to social change are due to British intervention in headhunting, contact with plains people, Christian missionaries, and craze for westernization. In political sphere, the Naga underground held some responsibility to change in social life. In his conclusion, he found the awareness of the Tangkhul people in education.

S.T. Das (1978) has studied the Zelianrong tribe (Liangmei, Rongmei and Zemi) in relation to Zemi tribe. He discusses briefly the socio-cultural life of the Zemi tribe. He also mentioned that shifting cultivation is changed to wet cultivation due to not enough land for j hum cultivation.

Ringkahao Horam (1998) in his book ''The Genesis o f the Naga political movemenf’’*^ highlighted some historical background of the Nagas and the causes of the Naga political movement in Naga Hills.

R.R. Shimray (1985) has made a good attempt to elucidate about the origin and culture of Nagas in his book "'Origin and culture o f Nagas”‘*\ He has discussed different theories on origin of Naga and the etymology of Nagas. He gave his own hypothesis about the origin of the word “Naga” and he supported with some example that the word Naga was 19 derived from the Myanmares word “NAKA’. He also discussed all the important culture traits of Nagas.

Imchen Panger (1993), another Naga scholar has done the work on Ao tribe. He had discussed the ancient religion and culture of Ao Naga'**’.

R. Vashum (2000), in his book, "'Nagas' Right to self-determination"^^ deals with the Nagas in general aspects and Naga National Movement from its inception to 1999. He also discussed different perceptions of the different sections of the Naga people on self- determination.

Murot Ramuny (1980) the Indian author on Nagas, attempted to discuss on the early history of Nagas, how the British came to Naga Hills and the formation of Nagaland state. He also writes about the Christianity prevelant in Nagaland. In one word he described in brief about Nagas history from the ancient to the present world of Nagas.

Major General S.C. Sardespande (1987), one of the Indian authors on Nagas wrote about the Khiamnungans and upper Konyaks tribe inhabiting on both sides of India-Myanmar border in Tuensang and Mon districts of Nagaland. In his book, "'The Patkoi Nagas"‘^‘^ he attempted to write about the origin of these two tribes and their socio-cultural life. He also highlighted in brief about the change in socio-cultural life of the Khiamnungans.

Kanwar Randip Singh (1987), another Indian author on Nagas, in this book ''The Nagas of Nagaland: Desperadoes and Heroes of Peace ” writes about the outcome of his experiences and observation during his stay in the Naga hills as a superintendent of police in Naga Hills. He writes in brief about the different tribe, attempting to trace the course of turbulent events ushered in by Phizo and the Naga National Movement Council and assess the forces working for and against peace and Nationalism among the Nagas

Sipra Sen (1987) in her book "Tribe ofNagaland’'^^ deals a little about the different tribes of Nagas and she compiled the bibliography on Naga tribes. 20

Kiranshankar Maitra (1991), in "'Nagaland-Darling of the North Easf'^'^, attempted to study on various Naga tribes on their socio-cultural life. He observed how the simple tribal people of the Northeast embrace Christian faith and he writes- ' i. The missionaries impress upon the ignorant dim-witted people that all the non-Christians are the heathens and will have to pass through the hell fire ii. Missionaries, and many pioneering works in the field of educations, medical services, humanitarian social services iii. The protective British helped them above all in various ways iv. The pioneers worked with grit and determinations; they had in their mind a tremendous missionary zeal. He also writes about the changes in dress, life style, cooking system, pattern of house­ building, personal hygienic etc.

Subhadra Mitra Channa (ed.l992), in his book "Nagaland-A contemporary ethnography^^ has one topic worth mentioning: that is the changing agrarian structure in Nagaland.

Joseph Athickal (1992), in his book, ""Maram Nagas-A socio-cultural s tu d y , has attempted to study the socio-cultural life of the tribe, the only primitive tribe in Manipur. He also tried to find the impact of Christianity on this tribe. He observed that the advent of Christianity seems to have made the people dependent on institutions as in the case of Maram, whether it is education or social. In his conclusion, he also observed that Maram villagers show a tendency to move down to those sites where communication is easy and have better economic prospects. He also found that education certainly brought with it, a sort of affluence and hygienic ways of living. The influence and development of ones own particular tribe, which the Marams failed to enjoy, as they were comparatively latecomers to the benefits from fruits of modernization. Hargovind Joshi’s (2001) is another Indian author’s attempt to study the Nagas. He discusses the Naga’s origin and migration to their present inhabitation; he traces the Naga 21 history from ancient time to the present situation in term of socio-cuhural and economic life of the people.

The above review of literatures shows that studies on social; cultural and economic change of different tribes are comparatively few. However, it is found that some of the common factors that brought changes in tribal societies are due to education, contact with non-tribals, Christian missionaries, Hinduism, modernization, urbanization, transport and communication et(/which plays an important role in changing the tribal societies’, culture and economic li'fe.

1.7 Outline of the Chapters The present study is divided into Seven Chapters. The First Chapter gives a brief introduction of the study area. In this chapter, a review of literatures is provided on tribal studies in general and in particular of theNaga tribes. In this introductory chapter, the aim of study, methodology and hypothesis are highlighted. The problems and limitations of this study are also included in this chapter.

The Second Chapter gives an account of the geographical location of study area and introduces the tribes inhabiting the area and their characteristics. The topography of Manipur state and its people are briefly discussed, followed by a detailed account of the people and topography of Senapati district, where the study area is located. Thirdly a brief description of the Poumai tribe and their geographical location, the flora and fauna of their habitat is described in some detail.

The Third Chapter trac(;s the origin and migration of Nagas through history, to the present time in general, and with particular reference to the Poumai Naga. In this chapter the routes of Naga migration, the affinities to the southern seas (Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia etc) and the etymology of the word NAGA is discussed to help trace the origin of the Nagas since this is necessary to understand place of the Poumai Naga: being one of the sub-groups of the parent Naga tribe. An attempt to explain the Poumai Naga tribe migration from Makhel (di spersal site of Nagas) to their present villages is included. 2 2

The Fourth Chapter deals with the case studies of the fifteen villages selected for micro level analyses. The case studies reveal the pattern of land ownership and land holding per household, occupational patterns, annual income, size of the family, uses of cultural attires, knowledge of traditional dance, song, community festivals etc. Here personal observations and intei'views with different people in the village were used to derive inferences.

The Fifth Chapter deals with socio-cultural change. In order to study the changes more clearly, the time period is divided into three main sections; - a) Before the arrival of British to the Naga Hills (-1832), b) During the British period (1832-1947) and c) Post Independence period up to 2004. Different forces or factors that brought about the changes in the socio-cultural life of Poumai tribe are discussed in this chapter.

The Sixth Chapter highlights the economic changes that have taken place among the Poumai Naga tribe, ranging from the prevalence of the barter system to monetary transactions, diversification from traditional occupations, handloom and handicrafts truck faming etc are analyzed in this chapter. The resource utilization practices have also been studied in some detail. The different natural resources like land resources, forest resources, mineral resources, water resources and animal resources are also discussed.

The Seventh Chapter gives a brief account of the major findings and recommendations from the study.

1.8 Scope of the study The present study focuses attention on a single tribe. However, it is important in many respects, especially when one is carrying out a micro-level study it is hardly possible to extend the scope to a wider universe For bringing about overall development in the Indian context, projects are sanctioned by the Central government for the tribal areas. But unfortunately, even after more than 50 years of welfare schemes and development projects initiated for the scheduled tribes, the basic infrastructure is either sub- standard or even lacking in most villages the extension services have not made the necessary to to 23 bring in improved farming techniques to enhance productivity. The health-care and education facilities too are either lacking and wherever present are of poor quality. Changes in tribal society seem at best to be of a superficial nature. The present study is about the basic changes in tribal society, culture and economy and this kind of study would definitely help the central government, state and NGOs to understand the prevailing situation of this tribe for further development programs.

1.9 Limitations of the study It is not easy to carry out rssearch at the micro-level in many trilaal areas. Apart from lack of availability of statistical data, the safety to life and property and the difficulty of traveling in these inaccessible parts can only be imagined. So micro-level study in remote places like the North East is more difficult in many respects. Apart from the severe constraints imposed by the non-availability of statistical data, there are not many written historical and socio-economic details of the area or people, barring the studies by British authors who have been fascinated largely by the anthropological and cultural uniqueness of tribal society. The study on society, culture and economy of the past are entirely based on personal interviews and fieldwork from the elderly people in the village.

In this study, recent statistics on infrastructure and other statistics from the 2001 census could not be included because the District Hand Book is not yet available. To quote from the Census of India 2001 Final Population Totals, “it is important to note that the census result of Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati District of Manipur were cancelled due to administrative and technical reasons, although a population census was carried out in these sub-divisions, as per schedule. However, the population by sex and residence only for these three sub-divisions has been estimated.”^^

The present study area is located in Paomata and Purul sub-divisions, in Senapati district for which the census report is excluded. Incidentally, about 98 percent of the total populations of Poumai tribe live in these two sub-divisions. In most of the villages there is no bus service available and during the rainy season and no vehicle is plying in most of the villages except in some emergency cases. So it is very difficult to carry out fieldwork. Besides, there is no hotel for boarding and lodging except to take refiige with 24 some friends or at a relative’s house or with the village official, like the chairman or secretary. The other difficulty encountered was that some of the respondents were suspicious and apprehensive about giving information. Some of the village chairmen and secretaries hesitated to give the details of households, population, income etc thinking that the information may send to the government or insurgent groups. In addition to the village chairman and secretaries, the researcher also approached the church 'pastors and secretaries, who were more reliable in giving accurate information.

In addition to the arduous task of carrying out the field investigation, all the statistical data have been computed from the census book for this particular tribe. This kind of computing work for micro-level study is time consuming. Though the researcher has faithfiilly carried out the fieldwork without any bias, the lack of information, and adequate data and sufficient information on oral histories kept plaguing the researcher continuously this may have led to insufficient description of some clans, villages or areas and differences in some views on oral history. The researcher is quite aware of some of the personal differences in narration of oral history, which may vary slightly from one person to another person, but on the whole, after personal discussions with many elders from different villages, the researcher could draw reasonable inferences, acceptable to the Poumai community in general. 25

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