Respectus Philologicus

ISSN 1392–8295

mokslo darbai transactions

RESPECTUS PHILOLOGICUS

2008 Nr. 13 (18) A RESPECTUS PHILOLOGICUS Nr. 13 (18) A

MOKSLINIS TÆSTINIS LEIDINYS Leidþia Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas ir Jano Kochanovskio Ðventojo Kryþiaus akademijos Humanitarinis fakultetas Kielcuose

ONGOING ACADEMIC PUBLICATION Published by Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities and Holy Cross Academy n. a. Jan Kochanovski Faculty of Humanities in Kielce

Referuojamas ir atspindimas tarptautinëse duomenø bazëse / Abstracted and indexed by the international databases:

Balcan Rusistics (2004) http://www.russian.slavica.org Russian Language, Literature and Cultural Studies CEEOL (2005) http://www.ceeol.com Central and Eastern European Online Library EBSCO (2006) Humanities International Complete http://www.ebsco.com Current Abstracts Humanities International Index TOC Premier MLA (2007) http://www.mla.org/ Modern Language Association International Bibliography

Redakcijos adresas / Address of the editorial office: Þurnalas „Respectus Philologicus“ Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 8, Kaunas LT-44280, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas / E-mail: [email protected]

Interneto svetainë / Homepage: http://filologija.vukhf.lt

Redagavo / Edited by: Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë (lietuviø kalba / the Lithuanian language), Jurga Cibulskienë (anglø kalba / the English language), Viktorija Makarova (rusø kalba / the Russian language)

Pagrindinë redaktorë / Publishing editor: Viktorija Makarova

ISSN 1392-8295

Eleonora Lassan VU KHF profesorë, habil. dr. (04H), Lietuva, vyriausioji redaktorë Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Huma- nities), Lithuania, editor-in-chief Kazimierz Luciñski Jano Kochanovskio Ðventojo Kryþiaus akademijos Kielcuose profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Lenkija, vyriausiojo redaktoriaus pavaduotojas Professor (04H), Holy Cross Academy n. a. Jan Kochanovski in Kielce, Poland, deputy editor-in-chief Irina Uchvanova-Shmygova Baltarusijos lingvistikos universiteto profesorë (04H), Baltarusija, vyriausiojo redaktoriaus pavaduotoja Professor (04H), Belorussian University of Linguistics, Belarus, deputy editor-in-chief Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë VU KHF docentë, dr. (04H), Lietuva, atsakingoji sekretorë Associ- ate Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Humani- ties), Lithuania, managing secretary Danutë Balðaitytë VU KHF docentë, dr. (04H), Lietuva Associate Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Humanities), Lithuania Wiesùaw Caban Jano Kochanovskio Ðventojo Kryþiaus akademijos Kielcuose profesorius, habil. dr. (05H), Lenkija Professor (05H), Holy Cross Academy n. a. Jan Kochanovski in Kielce, Poland Anatolij Èiudinov Uralo valstybinio pedagoginio universiteto profesorius (04H),Rusija Professor (04H), Ural State Pedagogical University, Russia Aloyzas Gudavièius Ðiauliø universiteto profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Lietuva Professor (04H), Ðiauliai University, Lithuania Juris Kastinð Latvijos universiteto profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Latvija Professor (04H), Latvian University, Latvia Jurij Kleiner Sankt-Peterburgo universiteto profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Rusija Pro- fessor (04H), St. Petersburg University, Russia Aleksandras Krasnovas VU KHF docentas, dr. (04H), Lietuva Associate Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Humanities), Lithuania Jadvyga Krûminienë VU KHF docentë, dr. (04H), Lietuva Associate Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Humanities), Lithuania Irina Külmoja Tartu universiteto profesorë, habil. dr. (04H), Estija Professor (04H), Tartu University, Estonia Gerald E. Mikkelson Kanzaso universiteto profesorius (04H), JAV Professor (04H), The University of Kansas, USA Olegas Poliakovas VU KHF profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Lietuva Professor (04H), Vilnius University (Kaunas Faculty of Humanities), Lithuania Marek Ruszkowski Jano Kochanovskio Ðventojo Kryþiaus akademijos Kielcuose profesorius, habil. dr. (04H), Lenkija Professor (04H), Holy Cross Academy n. a. Jan Kochanovski in Kielce, Poland ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 4 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

TURINYS

ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI

Jadvyga Krûminienë (Lietuva). The Problem of Approach to Homiletic Texts from the Perspective of Literary Criticism: Poetic, Mythopoetic, or Theopoetic? ...... 8

Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë (Lietuva). Tarpukario Lietuvos prozos modernëjimas: Nelë Mazalaitë, Kazys Jankauskas ...... 16

Jadvyga Bajarûnienë (Lietuva). Patologiniø bûsenø sklaida vokieèiø ekspresionizmo prozoje ...... 29

Asija Kovtun (Lietuva). Raðymo integralumas Czesùawo Miùoszo eseistikoje ...... 41

Èðèíà Å. Ôàäååâà (Rusija). Ðóññêàÿ ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíàÿ ïðîçà (îïûò òåìàòèçàöèè) ...... 51

Inga Bartkuvienë (Lietuva). Poezija ir kalba: Heideggeris, Derrida, Celanas ...... 61

Rûta Brûzgienë (Lietuva). Muzika ir literatûra: naratyvumo aspektas ...... 74

Loreta Ulvydienë (Lietuva). John Updike’s Rabbit Redux: Epitome of Heidegger’s Dasein ...... 81

Íàòàëèÿ Þíäèíà (Latvija). Èíîÿçû÷íûå ýëåìåíòû â ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ Â. Êàìèíåðà ...... 89

Âèêòîð Ãàëóøêî (Rusija), Íàòàëèÿ Äàèíîâè÷à (Latvija). Ìàðòèí Õàéäåããåð: ÿçûê, ñëîâî, áûòèå ...... 100

Nina Danylyuk (Ukraina). Symbolic Words in the Ukrainian Folk Poetry Texts...... 106

Saulë Juzelënienë, Rita Baranauskienë (Lietuva). Lingvistiniø diskurso tyrimø raida ...... 110

Vilma Linkevièiûtë (Lietuva). Kieran O’Halloran’s Critical Discourse Analysis in Newspaper Articles ...... 117

KALBA IR VISUOMENË

Daiva Aliûkaitë (Lietuva). Tarmiø ypatybiø vertë kultûriniu poþiûriu: Lyduokiø ðnekta ...... 129

Lina Baèiûnaitë (Lietuva). Èekiðkës parapijos tø paèiø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø fleksijø variantiðkumas iki sunorminimo ir po jo ...... 143

Danguolë Satkauskaitë (Lietuva). Leksiniai-semantiniai vokieèiø kalbos pokyèiai po 2001 m. rugsëjo 11-osios ...... 154 5

Vĕra Barandovská-Frank (Vokietija). Linguistics in an Interdisciplinary Perspective – ‘Hobby Linguistics’ ...... 166

Tatyana Solomonik-Pankraðova (Lietuva). The Anglo-Saxon ‘Mind’ Vocabulary: the Semantic Change from ‘Môd’ to ‘Minde’ ...... 181

Algis Braun (Lietuva). It Sounds Clumsy in English: Conceptual Blending and Lithuanian-English Translation ...... 186

KULTÛRA IR IÐSILAVINIMAS: LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI

Michael Cwik (Belgija). How to Achieve Non-Discrimination in “Inter-Ethnic, Inter-Cultural and International Communication” in the Long Run? ...... 201

Yuri V. Stulov (Baltarusija). Alexander Pushkin’s African Lineage and Contemporary Interpretations: Connecting Time and Cultures ...... 211

Laura Gilda Paccagnella, Carlo Minnaja (Italija). A Mathematical Dictionary for Esperanto, According to WordNet ...... 219

Vaiva Zuzevièiûtë, Edita Butrimienë (Lietuva). Interpretation of E-Learning in the Framework of Socio-Cultural System: Adequacy between the Opportunities and Students and Lecturers’ Needs ...... 233

REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS ...... 246

MÛSØ AUTORIAI ...... 254 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 6 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

CONTENTS

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Jadvyga Krûminienë (Lithuania). The Problem of Approach to Homiletic Texts from the Perspective of Literary Criticism: Poetic, Mythopoetic, or Theopoetic? ...... 8

Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë (Lithuania). The Start of Modernity of Lithuanian Prose in the Period between the World Wars: Nelë Mazalaitë, Kazys Jankauskas...... 16

Jadvyga Bajarûnienë (Lithuania). The Spread of Pathological States in the Prose of German Expressionism ...... 29

Asija Kovtun (Lithuania). Integrity of Scripture in the Essayistic Discourse of Czeslaw Milosz ...... 41

Irina E. Fadeeva (Russia). Russian Existential Prose (Thematic Essay) ...... 51

Inga Bartkuvienë (Lithuania). Poetry and Language: Heidegger, Derrida, Celan ...... 61

Rûta Brûzgienë (Lithuania). Music and Literature in the Perspective of Narrativity ...... 74

Loreta Ulvydienë (Lithuania). John Updike’s Rabbit Redux: Epitome of Heidegger’s Dasein ...... 81

Natalija Jundina (Latvia). Elements of Other Languages in the Literary Works of Kaminer...... 89

Victor Galouschko (Russia), Natalija Dainovica (Latvia). Martin Heidegger: Language, Word, Being ...... 100

Nina Danylyuk (Ukraine). Symbolic Words in the Ukrainian Folk Poetry Texts...... 106

Saulë Juzelënienë, Rita Baranauskienë (Lithuania). The Development of Linguistic Discourse Analysis...... 110

Vilma Linkevièiûtë (Lithuania). Kieran O’Halloran’s Critical Discourse Analysis in Newspaper Articles ...... 117

LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Daiva Aliûkaitë (Lithuania). Cultural Significance of Dialects: the Lyduokiai Accent ...... 129

Lina Baèiûnaitë (Lithuania). Variants of Flexions of the Same Place Names of Èekiðkë Parish until Standardization and after it ...... 143

Danguolë Satkauskaitë (Lithuania). Lexical-Semantical Changes in the German Language after September 11, 2001 ...... 154 7

Vĕra Barandovská-Frank (Germany). Linguistics in an Interdisciplinary Perspective – ‘Hobby Linguistics’ ...... 166

Tatyana Solomonik-Pankraðova (Lithuania). The Anglo-Saxon ‘Mind’ Vocabulary: the Semantic Change from ‘Môd’ to ‘Minde’ ...... 181

Algis Braun (Lithuania). It Sounds Clumsy in English: Conceptual Blending and Lithuanian-English Translation...... 186

CULTURE AND EDUCATION: TIME CHALLENGES

Michael Cwik (Belgium). How to Achieve Non-Discrimination in “Inter-Ethnic, Inter-Cultural and International Communication” in the Long Run? ...... 201

Yuri V. Stulov (Belarus). Alexander Pushkin’s African Lineage and Contemporary Interpretations: Connecting Time and Cultures ...... 211

Laura Gilda Paccagnella, Carlo Minnaja (Italy). A Mathematical Dictionary for Esperanto, According to WordNet ...... 219

Vaiva Zuzevièiûtë, Edita Butrimienë (Lithuania). Interpretation of E-Learning in the Framework of Socio-Cultural System: Adequacy between the Opportunities and Students and Lecturers’ Needs ...... 233

REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION ...... 246

OUR AUTHORS...... 254 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 8 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Jadvyga Krûminienë Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities Muitinës g. 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 71 79 20 (home); (370–37) 42 26 04 (office) E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: Baroque literature, mythopoetics and theopoetics, homily as metaliterature, emblematic, paradoxical and grotesque discourse, cultural translation.

THE PROBLEM OF APPROACH TO HOMILETIC TEXTS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF LITERARY CRITICISM: POETIC, MYTHOPOETIC, OR THEOPOETIC?

The paper discusses the specificity of the homiletic discourse and the problems encountered when it is approached from the perspective of literary criticism. As the sermon does not operate entirely as literary narrative, its analysis should demonstrate an interdisciplinary character by encompassing theology, philosophy, philosophy of religion, religion studies, cultural studies, rhetoric, philology, etc. The choice of the homiletic literature still not a frequent case in the field of literary criticism, the author draws the interpreter’s attention to the rich analytical experience acquired when dealing with the Biblical discourse. The sermon should be viewed as a theopoetic construct belonging to metaliterature. KEY WORDS: homiletic/sermonic discourse, literary criticism, mythopoetic, imagination, multidimensional, symbolic expression, types of cognition, poetics of will, metamythical, metaliterature, theopoetic, construct.

The primacy in this paper given to Christian Traditionally, the Biblical sentence is treated homiletic discourse in the perspective of literary as an instrument for structuring the sermon. It criticism, an attempt has been made at the should be stressed that in purely theological works discovery of a proper approach. What type of doctrine seems to be severe. In the homily, it calls verbal construct should the homily be viewed as – for the playful mode where play celebrates itself. poetic, mythopoetic or theopoetic? Since a In his investigation aimed at exploring the nature religious sermon is a complex discourse en- of liturgy, Antanas Maceina arrives at the compassing theological, mythical, rhetorical and conclusion that whole liturgy is based on play poetic elements and does not operate merely as (Maceina 1992, p. 373). Another viewpoint refers literary narrative, the interpreter might find it to the archetypal play of the old and the new which useful to rely on the rich analytical experience is crucial to the discourse of hope where anxiety acquired when dealing with the Biblical texts. structures finally break down. Hence, in religious J. Krûminienë. THE PROBLEM OF APPROACH TO HOMILETIC TEXTS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE ... 9 language faith and play meet; to say more, true mankind. Myth has an ontological ‘bearing’: it is faith rejoices in play. As Christian doctrine is born “the passage between the essential being of man in word play, a theological message communicates and his historical existence” (Ricoeur 1969, p.163). a cognitive orientation through indirection. Myths do in their own way portray reality through According to Northrop Frye, the doctrines can be the involvement of particular views of such stated only in “a metaphorical this-is-that form” categories as time, space and causation. Aspects (Frye 1990, p. 55) and thus the kerygma is a “mixture of the world as it really is do report themselves in of the metaphorical and existential” (ibid, p. 29). myths which show the presence of a noetic, or Therefore, theology tries to get at the enigma of cognitive component in mythical thinking. human existence by means of poetry. The aim of Through myth the past and the present are held the preacher is always to enable the hearer/reader together in “direct communication” (Frye 1992, to be drawn into the orbit of the Biblical text and p. 60). There is continuity between the archaic feel its evocative power. The homily is cha- mythical mentality and the modern mind: myths racterized by its adherence to Scriptural truth. are dealing with the “dimensions of experience Besides, sermonic literature draws on the Biblical for which earlier epochs have found a universal poetics for stimulus to original expression (here language” (Wilder 1976, p. 38). Since myth is the sermons of the English Metaphysical poet- preoccupied with the basic problems of human preacher John Donne may serve as a perfect existence, it gives a mode of psychic, moral, social example). However, when delivering a homily, the and cultural order thereby bringing reconciliation priest or preacher has no desire to merely create of conflicting powers. It “underscore[s] the a dynamic entertainment even in the case he is the polarities and antithesis of human experience, of poet. Sermonic narratives are not only aesthetic: they which the most notable appears to be that between engage the audience. Hence, the sermon is both nature and culture” (Vickery 1982, p. 75). Myth is an artistic and spiritual act. a universal and vital element performing a Paul Tillich emphasizes the mythical in- practical function in society: mythical symbols can volvement of faith (see Tillich 1994). In the Bible, emerge in power and re-enact themselves in the empirical history is united with supra-empirical present. Moreover, the mythical order of being transcendental history which cannot be perceived reveals the syncretism of the ideal and the rationally. It may be expressed and grasped only objective (Ëîñåâ 1950, p. 114). Thus, a social vision by mythical inspiration. According to Grant R. presented in myth is directed toward a transcen- Osborne, myth is the Bible’s “true literary basis” ding of history. (Osborne 1991, p. 64). Another important aspect of myth is the crea- Myth is a basic activity of human consciousness tion of sacrosanct and extramundane perspective. (which Ernst Cassirer calls mythopoeic) inherent Beside myth being treated as a psychological rein the process of reasoning (Cassirer 1946, p. 32). ality, it is also understood as an expression of sym- Experts in different fields of research, e.g. bolic reality and as a constituent element of the anthropology, sociology, religion studies, philo- spiritual. As Paul Ricoeur asserts, “ the function sophy, theology, philosophy of religion, cultural of myth is to make the bond between man and studies, linguistics, literary criticism, etc. accen- what he considers sacred, as man is dependent on tuate infinite possibilities for myth maintaining the powers of the sacred” (Ricoeur 1969, p. 6). It that myths answer to the total experience of awakens the true dynamics of the spirit throwing ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 10 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE light upon different modes of human existence in found the Biblical texts extremely ambiguous from mytho-religious perspective. According to Tillich, many points of view, Frye asserts that “whatever the expulsion of myth from spiritual life is beyond is historically true in the Bible, it is there not only the bounds of possibility – myth is the form of because it is historically true, but for some other human consciousness (Òèëëèõ 1995, p. 165). reason” (Frye 1990, p. 40). His other statement However, modern popular tendency is to call on the related matter says: the Holy Writ “takes myth just a story, or even false story. For instance, us past myth to something else” (Frye 1992, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English p. 102). And then the summing idea emerges: “the (1995) gives the following most common mean- Bible goes beyond myth as well as history” (Frye ing of the word ‘myth’: it is an idea or story that 1990, p. 62). Similarly, for Thomas Mann, the Bi- many people believe, but which is not true. As ble is a collection of either “historicized myths” Ricoeur maintains, “for us, moderns, a myth is or “mythologized historical narratives” (Mann, still only a myth, a false explanation by means of cited in Ìåëåòèíñêèé 1976, p. 327). As such state- images and fables” (Ricoeur 1969, p. 5). In a con- ments really sound obscure, Wilder in bewilder- temporary empirical, logos-centred society one ment utters the following suggestion: “it would, discovers desire for demythologization, the claim indeed, be well if we could find another term than that for contemporary mentality myth is dead. In ‘myth’ for what concerns us here” (Wilder 1976, modern world-outlook history and myth, logos and p. 79). Unfortunately, nobody has managed yet. mythos have become alienated and “mythological The traditional theologians still perceive myth space” was replaced by “scientific space” (Frye differently, never associating it with imaginative 1992, p. 33). This process, as well as its result has wisdom or treating it as “a certain form of the been defined by Ricoeur as “the conquest of myth spiritual interpretation of existence” (Òèëëèõ as myth” (Ricoeur 1969, p. 16). For Wilder, due to 1995, p. 166). They speak of the death of myth its secularised sense of a “one-level empirical re- proper, ever and again stressing the theological reality” modern pragmatism demonstrates “no-non- pudiation of mythical language as such. However, sense mentality”, the consequence being a “cul- theological cognition is achieved by imagination: ture whose aesthetic and spiritual antennae have religious insight is associated with heightened vi- been blighted” (Wilder 1976, p. 120). sionary experience. As Wilder claims, “persisting Disqualification of myth as “the false logos” archetypes come to speak in different cultural situ- (Ricoeur 1995, p. 161) resulted not only from its ations” (Wilder 1976, p. 99). Actually, when the contact with the scientific viewpoint but also from mythopoetic dimension of faith is abandoned, its collision with Christian doctrinal scholarship. “doctrine becomes a caricature in itself” (ibid, With Christianity which offered a new term, i.e. p. 2). The proclamation as a mere address and theology, mythology and theology found them- encounter would become abstract and disembod- selves in a strict opposition. Though demonstrat- ied: God’s revelations may be received only as ing obvious mythical aspects, the Bible started to “mediated in mythos” (ibid, p. 92). Frye insists be criticized both from the rational and theologi- that in the Holy Writ mythos and logos do not cal points of view (see Bultmann 1955). In the come into conflict, they “are the same thing” (Frye mentioned approaches, myth suggests mere su- 1992, p. 102). perstition and represents fanciful fiction: myth As a matter of fact, mythocritics of today con- falsifies history; in it, history evaporates. Having sider myth to be “cosmic-poetic theology” J. Krûminienë. THE PROBLEM OF APPROACH TO HOMILETIC TEXTS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE ... 11

(Laeuchli, cited in Wilder 1976, p. 85). Parallel to that they display communal and cultural charac- it, in Christian hermeneutics, the concept of an ter rather than individual and independent. In his “archetypal theology of Israel” has appeared book Morphology of the Folk Tale (Ìîðôîëîãèÿ (Osborne 1991, p. 5). Evidently, the two contra- ñêàçêè) originally published in 1928, the Russian dicting terms seem to be reconciled in contempo- Formalist Vladimir Propp shows that myth has rary mytho- and theo-criticism. undergone its first transformation into a fairy-tale It is interesting to note that the meeting point and then expanded its involvement into literature where mythology and theology seem to demon- and philosophy (Ïðîïï 1969). strate no contradiction is poetics. The language Maud Bodkin, in her turn, views the ritual of myth and the Biblical language possess literary dance as “communication of a complete experi- qualities. Above all, man’s deepest apprehension ence that makes it an illuminating prototype of of the world and God has always been poetic in the various differential modes of art [and reli- the sense of symbolic and metaphorical. It is im- gion]” (Bodkin 1978, p. 324). However, the critic portant to speak about the poetic specificity of maintains that, contrary to religious texts, pure myth as an instrument of artistic organization of poetry (even oral) offers only the ascent of the the spiritual material. Myth, says John B. Vickery, imagination but not that of the will. According to is a mythopoetic faculty participating in the proc- Vickery, myth encourages worship; yet, literature ess of reasoning in answer to certain personal and provides “an order that does not rule out moral social requirements (Vickery 1982, p. 72). Accord- reinforcement, social responsibility and religious ing to Wilder, “there seems to be a deep impulse piety” (Vickery 1982, p. 68). Still, ultimately, in human nature to orient itself in the unknown myths, fairy-tales, literature, art and philosophy by pictorial representations, by imaginative are closely interrelated, since myth is “culture’s dramatizations and narratives” (Wilder 1976, earliest mode of responding to its world” (ibid.). p. 74). More generally, myth is a religious expres- Myth shows that the imaginative patterns of mean- sion in poetic language. Besides, myth is a ing are not less important than the rational or logi- prerational element of poetry, a world of primor- cal ones. In fact, imagination maintains the origi- dial images (Ìåëåòèíñêèé 1976, p. 7). nal unity of elements separated by abstract As Friedrich Schelling pointed out in his Phi- thought. It has its own reality-sense and “more losophy of Mythology (Philosophie der Mythologie, subtle registers of existence” (Wilder 1976, p. 82). 1842), myth-making contains an unconscious po- Moreover, religion pursues rationality through etic moment thus passing into the sphere of art imagination operating on the varied symbolic ex- (see Schelling 2007). Many critics assess that myth pressions of the culture. Osborne maintains that demonstrates a specific mythopoetic reflection of it is “an imaginative substitute for science” visionary and aesthetic experience. It is (Osborne 1991, p. 216). Thus, faith is discovered Giambattista Vico who comes to the all-embrac- through the relative imaginative context. As it is ing conclusion: “all major verbal structures have frequently assumed, religion has the same rela- descended from mythological as poetic ones” tion to life that poetry has. Therefore, it is impor- (Vico, cited in Frye 1990, p. 50). In the context of tant to consider “the poetically cognitive pathos narratology, myths are treated as a narrative dis- of myth” (Ìåëåòèíñêèé 1976, p. 114). The value course containing universal structures that allow of religion being equivocal, it introduces the po- for their explanation. Claude Lévi-Strauss insists etic interpretation of experience. Both in myths ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 12 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE and in the Bible there is the primordial syncre- any piece of literature, the Bible demonstrates lit- tism of religion and poetic creativity. erary intentionality in which the author encodes According to Frye, spiritual aspects do not exist a message. In sum, both poetically dramatic and by themselves, but “only as elements in a poetic theological aspects are found within the Biblical structure” (Frye 1992, p. 119). With respect to this, texts. According to Osborne, “the theological di- he claims that in the Scriptures the poetic aspect mension relates to the propositional component, is essential. The Bible is a narrative in which the and the dramatic to the dynamic or commissive unity of recurring imagery is discovered. Evi- (related to praxis) component of meaning” dently, it is the poetic story structure that makes (Osborne 1991, p. 171). the Testaments close to literature. Here poetry Doubtless, the words of the Holy Scripture is the device that cuts across all Biblical genres. should be regarded as “the electrically charged To rely on Frye’s concern for its generic specificity, words of the poet” (Ward 1960, p. 49). So far as the Bible is: Hebrew poetry is concerned, it is important to explore its role in the life of the nation. It had a A mosaic: a pattern of commandments, worship function and a sermonic function. As aphorisms, proverbs, parables, riddles, peri- Osborne asserts, “the ancient Near East was scopes, parallel couplets, formulaic phrases, folktales, oracles, epiphanies, marginal glosses, stepped in poetic expression” (Osborne 1991, bits of occasional verse, legends, snippings from p. 190). On the other hand, Hebrew poetry dem- historical documents, laws, epistles, sermons, onstrates the highest level of theological expres- hymns, ecstatic visions, rituals, fables, genealogi- sion: here cardinal doctrines are presented in a cal lists, and so on almost infinitely (ibid, p. 206). highly developed poetic form. The Bible, likewise, exhibits the blending of the poetic and the high- Maceina, in his turn, distinguishes the follow- est possible theological message. Prophetic utter- ing literary forms found within the New Testa- ances are also given in verse. What is more, there ment: description, prophecy, verse and parable exist close affinities between the poetic patterns (Maceina 1992, p. 145). He agrees that faith brings of both the Testaments. On the whole, Biblical historical truth into the sphere of religious truth poetry reveals how every area of life is related to through poetic language. God, which in spite of being highly theological, is Other scholars, who obviously consider myth an expression of “Israel’s God consciousness” a symbol of the Christian belief, emphasize that (ibid, p. 186). theology as well as mythology has a “basic sub- In other words, the Holy Writ presents “the stratum of imaginative grasp on reality and expe- poetics of will” (Ricoeur 1969, p. 388) and “the rience” (Wilder 1976, p. 23). Dogma is heard ex- poetics of transcendence” (Charlseworth 1974, clusively in the relevant imaginative context. Thus, p. 217). It suggests that the poetic value of reli- the symbols which are woven into the Biblical text gious texts is greater than that of pure poetry since are “poetically sacramental symbols” (Tillich 1994, religion deals with higher as well as more practi- p. 176). The Scriptures are full of mythical drama- cal aspects. According to George Santayana, “Bib- tizations of the course of human life; they presup- lical poetic conceptions are not merely represen- pose the poetic relationship between a world be- tations of experience as it is or should be, but are low and a world above. In short, the poetic im- rather information of experience or reality else- agery draws the readers into a religious text mak- where which <…> supplies just the defects being them picture the old truth in a new way. As trayed by reality and experience here” (Santayana, J. Krûminienë. THE PROBLEM OF APPROACH TO HOMILETIC TEXTS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE ... 13

cited in Charlseworth 1974, p. 214). On the other the hearer/reader approaches the Bible exclusively hand, the ordinary and the transcendental are in- from the point of view of the literary structure, separable in the Biblical poetic narratives, thus he/she breaks the intimate relation between the- “what we learn is not primarily about God but a ology and poetry thus losing connection with reli- new way to live everyday life” (Jenkins 1998, gion. To allude to Gadamer, “when the Scripture p. 237). is treated like ‘Iliad’, the words become Literary critics encounter the problem whether desacralized thus turning into mere human though the Bible may be regarded as a work of literature poetic language” (Gadamer 1999, p. 122). similarly to mythocritics who discuss the question Nevertheless, there is a tendency among the of its mythical origin. Thus, it is useful to bring Post-modernist schools to ignore both historical together some ‘forking’ comments on the fictional and theological aspects of the Holy Scriptures in nature of the Holy Scriptures introduced by Frye. favour of the poetic. They insist that here the po- Firstly, he maintains that both the Testaments have etic text contains all the meaning by itself or the all the characteristics of literature, the poetic as- reader’s response is the meaning. Their disregard pect being essential. However, the deeper the of the sacred dimension in the Bible has caused scholar digs into the problem, the more puzzling the consideration of the sacred aspect to be nearly become the statements which follow. He acknowl- a genre (Osborne 1991, p. 5). edges that the Bible’s poetic language “obviously Actually, both in literary and theological criti- does not confine it to the literary category” (Frye cism the pseudo-statements are met as the result 1990, p. 29). Further, the critic provides the atti- of running to extremes. According to Frye, “there tude that the poetic body of the Bible “evades all exist anti-literary prejudices among theologians literary criteria” (Frye 1992, p. 133) and that the as well as anti-religious prejudices among literary ordinary instruments of literary criticism fail while critics” (Frye 1992, p. XIV). Frye’s final insight is applied to the analysis of the Holy Books. These his discovery of the metaliterary (as well as observations led him to the conclusion that the metamythical) mode in the Scriptural texts, which Scriptures are “neither literary, nor non-literary” allows for getting “past the limitations of litera- (Frye 1990, p. 62). Though Frye asserts that the ture into a different kind of identity with the read- reader’s initial response to the Bible should be a ers” (ibid, p. 116). The scholar considers the Tes- literary one, the Testaments, however, are not the taments a “larger verbal context” than pure lit- fruit of a purely poetic inspiration (Frye 1992, erature (Frye 1990, p. XVI). In the Biblical dis- p. 102). Ultimately, the Christian Canon runs course, images and metaphors acquire the sacra- counter to secular literature in a number of re- mental character. spects. As if clarifying Frye’s position, Osborne Doubtless, the analysis of the homiletic texts confirms that, ideally, every sentence in the Holy as well as the act of the Biblical interpretation Books is found to be the key to the whole Scrip- should be done from within a cultural, literary, tural body (Osborne 1991, p. 190). mythological and theological framework. However, beginning with the Renaissance, in Sermonic texts do make extensive use of figura- Western Europe the Biblical narratives started tion and devices usually associated with verse. The being used as ancient myths. They were translated potential of imagery for preaching is as great as into the relative language of images in imitation for poetry. Obviously, the homiletic discourse re- of the Classical tradition. The problem is that if veals the narrative quality of experience and is ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 14 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE based on the rhythm of complication, climax and focuses on the relationship between literature, resolution. However, sermonic language is not mythology and theology in the light of religious- purely poetic. It demonstrates its revelatory power poetic imagination. Thus, the offered new by uniting both the doctrinal and the poetic ele- concepts allow for precision in the very perspective ments. of critical analysis: they immediately direct the Therefore, literary critics and exegetes have reader towards the discussion of the Biblical or come across the necessity for introducing a new homiletic discourse. There is a difference in term which could best reveal what was considered treatment of the subject when the critic considers in the discussion presented above. The Penguin the sermon as a purely literary or mythopoetic Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory construct and when he/she takes it as a theopoetic (1999) includes the term ‘mythopoeia’, and the one. Certainly, there are common aspects, yet a word ‘mythopoetic’ has already become a usage. purely poetic or mythopoetic dimension excludes Following the pattern of the mentioned coinage, analysis of religious subtleties of the Christian a new word ‘theopoetic’ has also entered into the Canon with the determination of plunging deep critical terminology though the process is rather into the research for the poetic or mythical basis. slow. The term theopoetic was coined by Stanley A theocritic, in his/her turn, will try to focus on R. Hopper, a hermeneutical scholar in imitation the Scriptural or homiletic text as the fruit of the of the word mythopoetic. The terms theopoetic and productive communication of the theological, theopoesis were later consolidated and used by mythological and poetic types of cognition thus Amos N. Wilder, Professor of Divinity and a well- unveiling a multidimensional character of the known mythocritic whose book Theopoetic (1976) theopoetic.

References

BODKIN, Maud, 1978. Archetypal Patterns in Poetry. Psy- Edition. Gen. ed. D. SUMMERS. Harlow: Longman Diction- chological Studies of Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University aries. Press. MACEINA, Antanas, 1992. Religija dabarties pasaulyje. BULTMANN, Rudolf, 1955. Theology of the New Testa- Raðtai, t. 5. Vilnius: Mintis. ment. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. OSBORNE, Grant R., 1991. The Hermeneutical Spiral. CASSIRER, Ernst, 1946. Myth on the State. London: New Downers Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press. Haven. RICOEUR, Paul, 1969. The Symbolism of Evil. Boston: CHARLESWORTH, M. J., 1974. The Problem of Reli- Beacon Press. gious Language. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. Engelwood RICOEUR, Paul, 1995. Figuring the Sacred. Religion, Cliffs. Narrative and Imagination. Mineapolis: Fortress Press. CUDDON, J. A., 1999. The Penguin Dictionary of Liter- SCHELLING, Friedrich W. J., 2007. Historical-critical ary Terms and Literary Theory. Penguin Books. Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology. New York: SUNY FRYE, Northrop, 1990. The Great Code. The Bible and Press. Literature. Penguin Books. TILLICH, Paul, 1994. Pytanie o Nieuwarunkowane. FRYE, Northrop, 1992. Words with Power. Penguin Books. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Znak. GADAMER, Hans Georg, 1999. Istorija. Menas. Kalba. VICKERY, John B., 1963. The Golden Bough: Impact Vilnius: Baltos lankos. and Archetype. In: Myth and Symbol. London: Lincoln Press. JENKINS, David, 1998. Confluences. Studies in the Theory VICKERY, John B., 1982. Literature and Myth. In: In- and Practice of Literature. Kaunas: Naujasis Lankas. terrelations of Literature. Ed. J. P. Barricelli, New York: The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1995. Third Modern Language Association of America. J. Krûminienë. THE PROBLEM OF APPROACH TO HOMILETIC TEXTS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE ... 15

WARD, Ronald A., 1960. Royal Sacrament. The Preacher ÌÅËÅÒÈÍÑÊÈÉ, Å. Ì., 1976. Ïîýòèêà ìèôà. and His Message. Edinburgh: Marshall, Morgan & Scott. Ìîñêâà: Íàóêà. WILDER, Amos N., 1976. Theopoetic. Theology and Re- ÏÐÎÏÏ, Âëàäèìèð ß., 1969. Ìîðôîëîãèÿ ñêàçêè. ligious Imagination. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Mîñêâà: Íàóêà. ËÎÑÅÂ, À. Ô., 1950. Äèàëåêòèêà ìèôà. Ìîñêâà: ÒÈËËÈÕ, Ïàóëü, 1995. Èçáðàííîå. Òåîëîãèÿ Íàóêà. êóëüòóðû. Ìîñêâà: Þðèñò.

Jadvyga Krûminienë literatûrinis naratyvas, jo analizei reikalinga Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva tarpdalykinë perspektyva, apimanti teologijà, Moksliniai interesai: baroko literatûra, mitopoetika filosofijà, religijos filosofijà, religijotyrà, kultû- ir teopoetika, homilija kaip metaliteratûra, rologijà, retorikà, literatûrologijà ir kt. Kadangi emblemos, paradokso ir grotesko diskursai, homiletinë literatûra tebëra gana retas literatûros kultûrinis vertimas. kritikø tyrinëjimo objektas, autorë siekia atkreipti tyrinëtojø dëmesá á turtingà analitinæ patirtá, ágytà HOMILETINIO TEKSTO ANALITINIØ tiriant bibliná diskursà. Pamokslà reikëtø traktuoti INSTRUMENTØ PROBLEMA IÐ kaip teopoetiná konstruktà, priklausantá meta- LITERATÛROS KRITIKOS PERSPEKTYVOS: literatûros srièiai. POETINIS, MITOPOETINIS AR TEOPOETINIS REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: homiletinis/ pa- KONSTRUKTAS? mokslo diskursas, literatûros kritika, mitopoetika, vaizduotë, daugiadimensinis, simbolinë raiðka, Santrauka paþinimo tipai, valios poetika, metamitinis, metali- Straipsnyje aptariama homiletinio diskurso specifika teratûrinis, teopoetinis, konstruktas. bei problemos, iðkylanèios literatûros kritikui já analizuojant. Kadangi pamokslas, net jei já kuria Gauta 2007 11 12 kunigas–poetas, nefunkcionuoja kaip grynai Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 18 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 16 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: XX a. pr. ir pirmosios pusës literatûra, modernizmas, literatûros teorijos ir metodai, literatûros kritika, pedagogika, el. mokymas.

TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS: NELË MAZALAITË, KAZYS JANKAUSKAS

Tarpukario Lietuvos prozininkø kûryba iðtirta nepakankamai. Pastaraisiais metais ji sulaukia vis daugiau dë- mesio. Kai kurie to laikmeèio raðytojai vëliau, tarybiniais metais buvo eliminuoti ið lietuviø literatûros istorijos, kai kurie iðveþti á Sibirà, daugelio tarpukario prozos kûriniai neperleisti ir ðiandien. Straipsnyje analizuojami Nelës Mazalaitës ir Kazio Jankausko tarpukario maþosios prozos kûrinai. Ðie kûrëjai brendo ir kûrë kartu su þymia literatø neoromantikø, neokatalikø karta – Antanu Miðkiniu, Bernardu Brazdþioniu, Salomëja Nërimi, Petronële Orintaite, Jonu Aisèiu, Juozu Keliuoèiu, Antanu Vaièiulaièiu, Graþina Tulauskaite, Kaziu Inèiûra ir kt. Straipsnio tikslas – aktualizuoti minëtø prozininkø tarpukaryje paraðytø kûriniø bendràsias modernëjimo tendencijas bei individualius bruoþus. Savo kûriniais abu autoriai áneðë naujoviø á tarpukario literatûrà: autoriaus dëmesá psichologijai, egzistencijos problemoms, dëmesá veikëjø vidiniø iðgyvenimø logikai, veikëjo savikritikà, netgi susidvejinimà, bûdingà moderniam Vakarø Europos psichologiniam romanui. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: tarpukaris, kûryba, individualumas, impresionizmas, proza, modernumas.

Ávadas beletristo reputacijà. Viena ðio rinkinio novelë Tarpukario Lietuvos prozininkø kûryba tyrinëta „Linø þiedai“ buvo iðversta á ðvedø, suomiø ir lat- nevienodai. Ko gero, labiausiai þinome Antano viø kalbas. Taèiau vëliau dël savo krikðèioniðkos Vaièiulaièio ir Jurgio Jankaus impresionistiniø po- pasaulëþiûros ir vienareikðmiðko sovietø okupa- tëpiø kupinà kûrybà, o kai kuriø populiariø tuo cijos vertinimo ðis raðytojas Lietuvoje buvo tobu- metu autoriø proza (Vinco Ramono, Kazio Jan- lai nutylimas, jo knygø neásileista, iðeivijoje – kri- kausko, Nelës Mazalaitës, Viktoro Katiliaus ir kt.) tikø ne itin liaupsintas. vëlesniais tarybiniais metais buvo eliminuota ið lie- Viktoras Katilius (1910-1993) – taip pat origi- tuviø literatûros istorijos, kai kurie ið jø dar ir ðian- nalus novelistas ir romanistas, literatûros tyrinë- dien yra daugiau ar maþiau paribio figûros, nors tojas, pedagogas, kritikas, vertëjas, 1937 m. ið- ir minimos enciklopedijose, aukðtøjø mokyklø va- leidæs apysakà vaikams Naktis alyvø krûme, dovëliuose bei literatûros istorijose. 1939 m. – romanà Katastrofa, itin retai minimas 1934 metais pasirodþiusi Vinco Ramono lietuviø literatûros panoramoje, nes buvæs iðveþ- (1905-1985) septyniø noveliø knyga Dailininkas tas á Sibirà. Rauba iðkart sulaukë nemenko skaitytojø bei kri- Nelë Mazalaitë (1907-1994) ir ðiandien tebë- tikos dëmesio ir padëjo ágyti daug þadanèio jauno ra maþai þinoma asmenybë mûsø literatûroje, nors G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 17

ðios autorës kûrybinis palikimas – itin gausus. – jaunas, savæs ir gyvenimo kelio, prasmës beieð- „Joks raðytojas iðeivijoj nëra gavæs tiek kumðèio kantis inteligentas, laisvas menininkas, dirbantis smûgiø þemiau juostos, kaip jinai – moterø rep- prie geleþinkelio, kartais gebantis jausmingai my- rezentantë“ (Lietuviø egzodo literatûra 1992, p. lëti, kartais egoistas. Svarbiausia kûriniø tema – 296). Impresionistiðkai originaliu, fragmentiðku meilë, skatinanti tikrosios gyvenimo prasmës pair lauþytu stiliumi kûrusi specifiðkai moteriðkà pa- ieðkas, esminis atributas – dulkini batai – piligrimo saulá, kuriame atsirado iki tol lietuviø literatûroje atributas, perteikiantis jo pasaulio sampratà ir þmo- nematyta savarankiðka ir dràsi moteris, jautrus ir gaus koncepcijà. Kelionës, amþinos kaitos, judëji- mylintis vyras, ádomi ir jaudinanti meilës intriga, mo topo specifika, kurá þymi ir dulkiø metafora, kankinantis pasirinkimø dualizmas, ji liko nesu- suteikia jo kûrybai egzotiðkumo. prasta to meto kritikos, buvo puolama ir Lietu- Minëtø autoriø tarpukario kûryba yra sulau- voje, ir iðeivijoje. Nepalankiai buvo sutikti jau pir- kusi ðiek tiek recenzijø ir ið to meto kritikø, vienu mieji autorës darbai 1939 metais: noveliø rinki- ar kitu aspektu sovietiniais metais jà yra tyrinëjæ niai Pajûrio moterys ir Miestas, kurio nëra. Ðian- Vytautas Kubilius, Albertas Zalatorius, Janina Þë- dien sunku gauti ðiuos kûrinius, jø pakartotinio kaitë, po Nepriklausomybës atgavimo – Janina leidimo Lietuvoje neturime. Daugeliui leidyklø Sprindytë, Þydronë Kolevinskienë, Solveiga Dau- ir redakcijø Mazalaitës pavardë nedaug kà sako. girdaitë. Taèiau iðsamiø tyrinëjimø vis dar trûks- Taèiau ði kûrëja galëtø dràsiai papildyti ta. O esantys turi bûti integruojami á besikeièiantá XX amþiaus lietuviø moterø raðytojø, kurios ban- lietuviø literatûros ir jos istorijos procesà. Juo la- dë áprasminti moterø pasaulá literatûroje, gretas. biau, kad pastaruoju metu tarpukario literatûra Kazys Jankauskas (1906-1989) – itin savitas ver- sulaukia vis didesnio tyrinëtojø dëmesio. Gausë- tëjas ir raðytojas, iðleidæs romanus Jaunystë prie trau- ja tarpukario kultûriniam ir literatûriniam gyve- kinio (1936), Vieðkelyje plytø veþimai, (1938), Juo- nimui skirtø tyrinëjimø, fiksuojanèiø modernio- dojo milþino þmonës (1939), Þygyje (1940), apsaky- sios sàmonës atsiradimà. Straipsnio tikslas – paa- mø ir apysakø rinkiná Dulkini batai (1938), 1943- nalizuoti Nelës Mazalaitës noveliø rinkinius Pajû- 1944 m. Ðiauliuose sudaræs ir publikavæs dvi alma- rio moterys (1939), Miestas, kurio nëra (1939) ir Ka- nacho „Varpai“ knygas. Vieni tarpukario kritikai zio Jankausko apsakymø bei apysakø rinkiná Dul- já peikë, kiti gyrë, dþiaugdamiesi jo natûralia, gyva, kini batai (1938), ðiø kûriniø bendràsias premisas laisva kalbësena ir savitais personaþais. Jankaus- bei individualius bruoþus, parodyti modernëjanèià kas – tikriausiai vienintelis Lietuvoje, kurio kûry- raðymo strategijà, atskleisti stiprëjanèià „vaizduo- bos tematika itin glaudþiai susijusi su geleþinkeliu, tës psichologijà“, veiksmo minimalizavimà, frag- traukiniais, geleþinkelio darbais, darbininkais, jø mentiðkëjantá naratyvà, naratoriaus statusø kaità, gyvenimo peripetijomis gamtos apsupty. „Iðskyrus susidomëjimà egzistencinëmis problemomis. De- vienà ar kità novelæ, viskas èia prasideda ir baigiasi skriptyvinis metodas derinamas su hermeneutiniu geleþinkeliu“ (Rutkûnas 1939, p. 2). Autorius „[...] analitiniu ir komparatyvistiniu raðymu. suèiupo bëgiø gyvenimui uþ paèio tikriausio ir gi- liausiai paslëpto mazgo ir taip dràsiai, taip laisvai Kalbëjimo bûdas ir nuoðirdþiai jájá supurtë ir sumaniai atmezgë, jog skaitytojas, uþvertæs paskutiná veikalo lapà, gali at- Mazalaitæ ir Jankauskà daugiau ar maþiau sieja virai pasakyti [...] ne knygà, bet scenà þiûrëjæs“ panaðus kalbëjimo bûdas – labai artimas Knutui (Vengris 1936, p. 535). Pagrindinis veikëjas daþnai Hamsunui, Ignui Ðeiniui, Antanui Vaièiulaièiui, ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 18 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Jurgiui Jankui, jø dëmesys vidinei veikëjo minèiø Kai buvo mylimasis ir suþieduotinis, rodos, pri- ir jausmø analizei bei egzistencinëms problemoms, ëjo kur pastovëti sodne ar prie vartø – jis neatsi- savo pasaulio dëliojimo pastangos, atida trumpa- mena. Tikriausiai, ne, – jis neturëjo laiko, o ji laikiams pojûèiams, unikaliems áspûdþiams, inty- buvo gera ir iðtikima. Jis tik laukë ið vienos duk- miems iðgyvenimams, nuotaikai. Autoriai, atsispy- teries didelës ateities“ (1939a, p. 82). Monolo- ræ nuo romantinio herojaus savimonës ir bûties gai atskleidþia impresionistø itin mëgtus meilës problematikos, atsisakæ auklëjamosios ir ðvieèia- ir laikinumo motyvus. mosios funkcijos, vis labiau græþiasi á kamerinæ, Skaudþius veikëjø iðgyvenimus ypaè Mazalai- impresionistinæ, psichologistinæ, asmeniniø pajau- të atskleidþia giliai prasiskverbdama á vidiná jø pa- tø erdvæ, bando tobulinti formà, vaizduoti þmo- saulá, neleisdama praslysti në vienai svarbiai de- gaus sàmonæ (pasàmonæ), sielà. Tarpukario pro- talei, veikëjus apibûdina jø mintimis, iðgyvenimais, zai nemaþà átakà darë skandinaviðkais impresio- pamàstymais. Tiesa, emociná krûvá raðytojai ne vi- nizmas, ypaè Knuto Hamsuno kûriniø tematika sada pavyksta tinkamai paskirstyti. Pasitelkiami ir raðymo braiþas. Jo apysakomis „Panas“ (1894), grafiniai elementai, kûrybiðkai dirbama su punk- „Viktorija“ (1898) iðpopuliarintos impresionisti- tuacija, itin daþni emociniai „kopimai“ ir „nusi- nës meilës istorijos, skatinanèios intuityvumà, leidimai“ ne visada leidþia skaitytojui susieti su- kvieèianèios á uþuominø, vidinio vyksmo, pasàmo- trûkusius dialogus, fragmentiðkà pasakojimà, pvz.: nës galios raiðkos pasaulá, turi pëdsakø ir tarpu- „— Þinai — — — kario Lietuvos prozoje. Impulsyvi nuotaikø kaita, — — — pas mus atostogaus, — griebia Marytë. gilus þmogaus vidinio pasaulio atskleidimas, sva- — — — dailininkas, — Birutë atima. jingumas, subtili, beveik nepastebima átaiga, po- — — — ir artistas — — — jûèiais suvokta ir plastiðkai atkurta tikrovë, poeti- — — — dainininkas — — — në gamtos groþio iðraiðka, lyrizmas, siuþeto lais- — Palauk, að pasakysiu. Operos artistas!“ vumas bei natûralumas raðytojø kûriniams sutei- (Mazalaitë 1939a, p. 12). kia skandinaviðkøjø impresionistiniø temos ir raið- Jankausko novelëse vyrauja dabarties situaci- kos atspalviø (Þëkaitë 1977, p. 150-151). ja, esamasis pasakojimo laikas, betarpiðkumo at- Ir Mazalaitës, ir Jankausko kûrybai bûdinga sivërimo stichija, monologai, pokalbiai, dialogas naratoriaus statusø kaita. Pasakojimas kartais suskilæs á du prieðingus balsus. Apysakoje „Dulki- vyksta pirmuoju asmeniu, dël to susidaro intymu- ni batai“ istorija pradedama visaþinio pasakoto- mo, autobiografiðkumo áspûdis. Pasakojama ir ne jo, taèiau vëliau tas pasakotojas tarsi transformuo- pirmuoju asmeniu, taèiau pasakojimas yra gana jasi á veikëjo alter ego, á jo sàþinës balsà arba visa- intymus, pasakotojas þino kiekvienà pagrindiniø regintá paðaliná personaþà. Antrasis herojus-pasa- veikëjø mintá, jausmà, kanèià ir në sekundei nuo kotojas atsiranda tada, kai paaiðkëja pagrindinio jø nesitraukia. Didþiàjà dalá uþima vidiniai veikë- veikëjo kova su savimi, kai jis ima pavydëti ir uþsi- jø monologai, papasakoti pasakotojo: „Ne, ne deda laimingo, mylinèio þmogaus kaukæ. Pasako- daug jai rûpi, tegu sau daro, kà nori, teisybæ pa- tojas bando priminti herojui praeitá ir jo gyveni- matys pats. Kà reiðkia ðis þmogus, jei galvoja apie mà prieð visus personaþà sukrëtusius ávykius: „Ar kità. – Nëra ano, ir visas kraðtas yra tuðèias, bet dar atsimeni, Sukèiau?“ (Jankauskas 1938, p. 146). þino, kad gráð; o laukti, þinant, kad sulauksi, ne- Pasakotojo tiesioginio klausimo intarpas, iðreikð- sunku.“ (Mazalaitë 1939a, p. 162); „Kaip seniai tas áspraudu, tekste iðskiriamas skliausteliais. Vë- jis nieko nelaukë, ar, gal bûti, nelaukë niekuomet. liau tokia pat forma iðreiðkiamas ir pasakotojo ne- G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 19 tiesioginis kreipimasis á skaitytojus: „[...] tiesa, gal dëti ið naujo. Gyventi? Ak, tai labai geras þodis“ apie tai ið viso neverta pasakoti? Bet kad að neþi- (Jankauskas 1938, p. 116), „Eini þmogus per ðità nau geresnio bûdo nuplëðti Sukèiui kaukës ir já keistà, didelá gyvenimà ir kartais bûni tiek apdo- nubausti“ (1938, p. 151). Ðiuose sakiniuose tar- vanotas, kad uþmirðti kelià tenai... á tamsumà... á tum juntamas pasakotojo pasiteisinimas, kodël ra- tai, kuo buvai pirma.“ (1938, p. 282). ðoma taip, o ne kitaip. Taigi apysakoje sudaromas Daþnos abiejø autoriø kûryboje likimo neið- spektakliams bûdingas „balso uþ kadro“ ávaizdis. vengiamumo ir mirties temos. Herojus daþnai bû- Autorius, norëdamas perteikti tikslø situacijos na per daug silpnas, kad pasiprieðintø likimui ir vaizdà ir herojø vidaus bûsenà, pasakotojui sutei- kà nors pakeistø. Mirtis uþklumpa netikëtai ir ne- kia galimybæ susidvejinti. Ironija apsakymuose su- laiku. Jos niekad nelaukiama, todël sunku su ja su- stiprina áspûdá ir skaitytojui leidþia pajusti tai, kà sitaikyti. Mirties aukomis Jankausko kûryboje tam- þodþiais perteikti kartais sudëtinga. Kalbëdamas pa jauni þmonës, kurie dar labai nori gyventi: gele- apie Sukèiaus pasimatymà, pasakotojas visa tai þinkelio darbuotojas, kurá kastuvu nuþudo draugas ávardija taip: „[...] maþa istorijëlë, nedidelis daly- – kitas darbininkas („Uþmuðë“) („Að sëdþiu prie këlis. Tai yra dulkë, tik molekulë, smulkmena. Bet Pilkos. Jis neberëkia, tik tyliai praðo, kad sustabdy- tai iðaugo ir buvo pusës mënulio didumo“ (1938, èiau kraujà: – Neleisk jam bëgti…að noriu gyventi p. 151). Itin daþnai vartojamos maþybinës priesa- […] Að taip noriu bût...“ (1938, p. 100)), linksmas gos suteikia pasakojimui ironiðkumo ir pabrëþia svajotojas, kuris kà tik sutiko savo gyvenimo meilæ situacijos neáprastumà, pvz., svarbios veikëjos be („Dovana“) ar visai maþa mergaitë („Tryliktasis ke- vardo ávardijimas „mergiote“ nurodo, kad tai në- lias“). Kartais mirtis nujauèiama, taèiau vis tiek ra labai teigiamas personaþas. þmogus nieko negali padaryti, kad jai pasiprieðin- tø: „Tik dukrelë baigiasi, Ji ðiandie atëjo mano lo- Egzistencinës problemos von, kai dar gulëjau, susirangë ðalia ir pasakë: tëte, að labai nenoriu mirti. Juk pavasará lëlæ nupirksi? Nelës Mazalaitës, ypaè Kazio Jankausko tarpu- O kur jà dësi, jeigu að bûsiu iðëjusi? Tëte, niekam kario proza tiesia kelià egzistencialistinei kûrybai. neatiduok manæs. Ir verkia“ (1938, p. 268). Daþnai svarstomi egzistenciniai klausimai: likimo Apysakoje „Dulkini batai“ pagrindinis veikë- neiðvengiamumas, bûties laikinumas, gyvenimo jas bando suvokti savo egzistencijos esmæ, atsa- trapumas, kintamumas, þmogaus egzistencijos kyti á klausimà, kas jis toks ir koká vaidmená atlie- prasmës ieðkojimas. Jankausko kûriniuose gyve- ka ðiame gyvenime (Povilionis 1939, p. 274). Tai nimas – tarsi lekiantis traukinys, pro kurio langus „naujojo þmogaus“ svarstymai, iðreikðti vidiniu bëgantys vaizdai nepaliaujamai kinta ir daugiau monologu: „Naujas þmogus gyvena kentëti! Jis ne- niekada nebepasikartos. Þmogaus bûtis ðiame pa- gali bûti paprastas ir uþmigæs kaip paðto dëþutë. saulyje yra laikina, todël jis gërisi savo buvimu èia, Jo psichika tiek lanksti ir jautri siela, kad já gali o gyvenimas traktuojamas kaip didþiulë vertybë, sujaudinti patys, atrodytø, menkiausi ávykiai. […]. skirta dovana, kurià reikia stengtis iðsaugoti. Dël Naujas þmogus sëdi paèiame viduryje viso gyve- ðios prieþasties kûriniø herojai visada iðlieka opti- nimo. […] naujas þmogus yra linksmas ir liûdnas, mistai, skatina vienas kità nepasiduoti, tikëti gy- didelis ir maþas. Ðiandien jis keikia gyvenimà, ry- venimu, ateitimi: „Gyvenimas, matai, vienkarti- toj stovi ant kalno, iðtiesia pirmyn rankas ir dai- nis dalykas. Vienà turime motinà ir vienà gyveni- nuoja himnà mëlynam dangui […]“ (1938, p. 176- mà. Kai jis praeina, niekad nepasiûlo viskà pra- 177). Naujas þmogus – moderni, kenèianti asmeny- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 20 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE bë. Tai maksimalistas, daþnai individualistas, sie- ásimyli atvykëlá ið pajûrio ir jam paðvenèia savo gy- kiantis patenkinti visus dvasinius poreikius, no- venimà, taèiau nenugali jûros („Pajûrio moterys“), rintis patirti kiek galima daugiau. Taèiau vienas nuoðaliame miðke moteris naikina pati save ne- þmogus negali aprëpti viso pasaulio, ið to kyla sie- galëdama suartëti su artimu þmogumi („Medû- los nerimas, nuolatinis blaðkymasis, vidinis tragiz- za“), Palangoje atostogaujanti garsi muzikë Elë mas. Pasaulis jam atrodo painus ir sudëtingas, nes neapsisprendþia, ar likti su jaunu, þaviu þveju Në- nuolat kinta. Kartu su juo keièiasi ir subjekto bû- ruta, kol kolizijà iðsprendþia jûra („Migloje“). Eg- sena, nuotaikos. Kita vertus, nuolatinë kaita pa- zistencinës problemos ir jø sprendimas Mazalai- deda pasijusti laisvam, atsiriboti nuo pilkos, nuo- tës kûryboje labiausiai susijæs su meilës tematika. bodþios kasdienybës. Mazalaitë taip pat dëmesá kreipia á permai- Meilë: moters ir vyro pasauliai ningà þmogø – tai atsispindi ne tik herojø santy- kiuose ir konfliktuose, bet ir kûriniø sandaroje, ir Mazalaitës tekstuose svarbiausia – moters ir vyro stiliuje. Niekur nerasime kategoriðkø iðvadø, su- santykiai, meilë. Tai ir slapèiausia kasdienio gyve- stingusiø idëjø. Viskas matuojama þmogumi, ku- nimo sritis, kupina nutylëjimø, asociatyviø perëji- riam gyvenimas ádomus ir vertingas ne dël to, kad mø, netgi aloginiø teksto grandþiø, kurianèiø ak- pavyksta já priderinti prie abstrakèiø teziø ar su- vareliná, impresiná vaizdà – ne kalbos, ne veiks- rasti pastovià pozicijà ir vietà, o todël, kad gyve- mø, o jausmø, emocijø. Kaip teigia Albertas Za- nant galima pajusti dvasinæ pilnatvæ, ávairovæ. Ma- latorius, „N. Mazalaitës noveliø semantikà sunku zalaitës veikëjai – „tai parinktiniai, ádomios sielos apibûdinti tematikos, problematikos, motyvø ter- individai, vieniði þmonës, tvirtabûdþiai, uþsispyrë- minais, paimtais ið socialinio, politinio, kultûrinio liai, kilnûs romantikai“ (Þukauskas 1940, p. 97), ar kitokio þodyno. Konkretus, objektyvus visus do- jie „[...] duonos kàsniu visiðkai nesirûpina, jiems minantis pasaulis èia labai efemeriðkas, galima nu- turbût në á galvà neateina kovos uþ bûvá klausi- rodyti tik vienà kità jo bruoþà“ (1980, p. 163). Ak- mas“ (Gailiûnas 1940, p. 128). Jie tartum neturi tualizuojamas vidinis, dvasinis, Henri Bergsono praeities, egzistuoja tik dabartyje, jø gyvenimà ne- ávardytas ir Virginijos Woolf romane Ponia Delo- tikëtai sukreèia ir apverèia svarbus ávykis, po ku- vëj iðpopuliarintas laikas – iðoriniai ávykiai tampa rio nebeaiðki tampa ir ateitis, pasipila sudëtingiau- nesvarbûs, vidinë akimirka, vidiniai prieðtaravimai, siø egzistenciniø problemø svarstymai: Emilë ási- prisiminimai, svarstymai tæsiasi keliuose pusla- myli lëkðtà miestietá („Miestas, kurio nëra“), pa- piuose, nors laikrodþio rodyklë tepajuda kelias mi- mestinukas nuþudo ir atsikrato savo globëjo („Su- nutes. Bûtent tokiomis akimirkomis Mazalaitës batvakaris“), profesorius Staigvila iðveja savo my- veikëjos ir veikëjai pasijunta esà ant persiorienta- limà dukterá ið namø („Kûdikis neþinomo tëvo“), vimo ribos, iðgyvenantys egzistencines situacijas, policininkas praranda savo mylimàjà ir nuspren- po kuriø keièiasi jø savivoka, savivertë, þmogaus dþia atkerðyti jos mirties kaltininkui, o vëliau pair gyvenimo samprata. aiðkëja, kad tai jo seniai dingæs brolis, tapæs nusi- Veikëjai myli ir kankinasi dël meilës jausmo. kaltëliu („Medþioklë Gyvatupio liekne“), veidro- Juos baugina neþinomybë, dvejonës, praeinamu- dþiø gamintojas suvokia, jog seniai ið jo gyvenimo mas ir laikinumas, jie suvokia, kad yra priklauso- dingusi dukra gyvena nedorà gyvenimà („Veidro- mi nuo kintanèiø situacijø, yra jø valdomi. Veikë- dþiai miegamajame“), mokytoja Birutë ásimyli gijai – kaip Hamsuno apysakos „Panas“ veikëjas rininkà, nors jau yra susiþadëjusi su miestelio mo- Glanas – negali atsiduoti meilei, ja patikëti, átari- kytoju („Dvasia girioje“), ûkininko vienturtë duktë nëja, blaðkosi: „Bijo teisybës ir bijo melo, ir neþi- G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 21 no, kuri baimë stipresnë. Tai yra baisu. Jis serga nio kultûra. Ji nevengia pirmoji pakalbinti jai pa- átarinëjimu [...]“ (Mazalaitë 1939b, p. 130), „[...] tinkanèio vyro, tvirtai ryþtis tragiðkam ávykiui – sa- dël ko turi galvoti – viskas yra paprasta ir aiðku: viþudybei. Moteris primena jûrà – ji paslaptinga, praeis vasara; kiek vasarø praëjo [...] kam galvoti nenuspëjama, lemtinga, pati pasirenkanti gyveni- ir apie tai? Tegu sau bûna, kas nori“ (1939a, p. mo kelià. Jûra þmogui tarsi suteikia gyvenimà, bet 38), „Mergaitë stovi ðalia, ir jis neþiûri á jà. Baimë amþiams já prisiriða prie savæs ir galiausiai visiðkai ir gëda yra jo viduje. [...] Þino, kad ið tø moterø, pasiima. Jûra yra viskas – gyvenimas ir mirtis. Jû- su kuriomis arèiau susitiko, ðita jam nëra kaip vi- ra „imituoja þmogaus sielà“ (1939b, p. 103), ji at- sos. Visi þino jo neslepiamas silpnybes – ðokyje ji ðiauri, átraukianti ir nepaleidþianti. Gimæs jûrai, pati jas iðskaièiavo – kam reikia, kad suþinotø, kas niekada nebus laimingas kitur. Norintis su ja susi- nors, jog prisidëjo dar viena. Ir tyli“ (1939a, p. 106), gyventi, turës patirti visus jos iðbandymus. Arba „Tikisi ir pavargsta, ir vël tikisi, valandomis ir gy- gráþti ten, ið kur atvykæs. Jûra tapatinama su mir- venti nebenori“ (1939a, p. 185). timi, ji „geras juvelyras, ji atskiria tikrus brangak- Tarpukario prozos modernëjimas paþymëtas menius“ (1939b, p. 109). Nors taip pat ji suteikia feministinio diskurso atsiradimu. „N. Mazalaitë, ramybæ: „Jûra – ne gimnazistë: jai nereikia áraðyti linkusi á romantines nuotaikas ir svajingumà, vaiz- á albumà: „visada, amþinai“ – ji þino, kad yra ne- davo daugiausia moters vidiná pasaulá, nepritam- pamirðtama“ (1939b, p. 85). Daþna Mazalaitës vei- pantá prie kasdienybës“ (Juðkaitis 1991, p. 3). Ji këja save ir savo meilæ tapatina su jûra – nenu- kuria ásimintinus moters paveikslus. Tai ir iðsilavi- spëjama, permaininga, kasdien vis kitokia. Nove- nusi, garsi muzikantë, ir miesto ponia, ir paprasta lës „Migloje“ pagrindinës herojës Elës meilæ for- kaimietukë, ir turtingo vyro iðlaikoma meiluþë, ir muoja jûra – nekasdieniðka, besikeièianti. Elë dël motina, ir þmona, ir sesuo. Kaip teigia A. Zalato- ypatingos meilës aukoja savo santykius su myli- rius, „N. Mazalaitës pasaulis yra betarpiðkai su- mu vyru – tam, kad nepasikeistø pati meilë, kad voktas, pamatytas, pajaustas. Pasakotoja net ne- vëjas nepakeistø savo krypties... Herojë, iðdavusi sistengia á reiðkinius þiûrëti ið ðalies, tartum nelai- laisvæ laisvai mylëti, iðduotø pati save. Ji pasitrau- kydama savæs kompetentingesne uþ herojus“ kia, kad neateitø rutina. (1980, p. 163). Opozicija „að – pasaulis“ iðnyksta, Mazalaitës vyrai – taip pat ryðkûs, kupini pa- abi pusës susilydo: pasakotoja stovi pasaulio vi- sitikëjimo savimi, santûrûs, hamsuniðko tipo, bet duje, o pasaulis reiðkiasi ja: „Nelydësiu á traukiná ir siekiantys moters, abejojantys, átarinëjantys, pa- – tuojau einu á kaimà pas tetà visam vakarui. Ne- vydintys, o kartais – jausmingi, mylintys, kenèian- atvaþiuosiu ir uþ poros savaièiø. Ir niekuomet. […] tys, netgi verkiantys: „[...] jis atsimerkia, ir kaþin Neiðmoksiu bûti didelë dama. Ir nenoriu to, – sakas sûras ir drëgnas ðliauþia per blakstienas ir lû- ko rûsèiai, – noriu bûti, kas esu“ (1939a, p. 51-52). pas“ (1939a, p. 131). Mazalaitë – subtili vyrø psi- Jos moteris savarankiðka, iðdidi, tvirta: „[...] ji pa- chologijos reiðkëja. Daþnas jos vaizduojamas vy- raudo kaip suþeistas pirðtas ir – iðbalo. Ir pasiro- ras mano, kad jam priklauso viskas – ir moteris, ir dë, kad dabar atsibudo, paþino ir suprato, suþino- jûra, nors taip nëra. Þvejys Nëruta „Migloje“ – jo kaþin kà didelá ir svarbø. Iðsitiesia ir pasidaro itin pasitikintis savimi, atvirai kalbantis apie savo aukðta ir stipri, ir, rodos, kad mato tëvà toká ma- jausmus ir lûkesèius: „Tiktai keturis metus mes þà, þemai prie savo kojø. Tylëdama atidaro duris abudu laukiam tamstos. Gali bûti, tamsta èia gy- […] iðeina be persirengimo, be nieko, kaip pasa- vensi, arba, jei nori – að vaþiuosiu á miestà. [...] kose su pamote, ar sapne“ (1939a, p. 71). Herojë Imu tik didelæ laimæ – kitaip negyvenèiau. Tikiu á iðsilavinusi, skaitanti, besidominti menu ir uþsie- þmogø ir sielà, nepripaþástu garbës, vardo, turto ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 22 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE ir kitø tuðtybiø. Tikiu, kad kuomet nors turësiu kë, todël ir staigus jos praradimas nesujaudina, o tamstà“ (1939b, p. 94). Taèiau moters ir vyro pa- moters baimë netekti mylimojo sukelia vidiná dra- sauliams Mazalaitës novelëse nelemta bûti kartu. matizmà, þlugdo, slegia, kankina, net prilygsta mir- Prieþastys neaiðkios – gal vyro konkretumas ir aið- èiai. kûs tikslai, gal moters noras bûti laisvai ir kartu Taigi pagrindinë autoriø kûrybos tema – mei- mylimai, gerbiamai: „Jis yra vertas daugiau, negu lë – dramatiðka, aiðkiai neávardijama, paprastai ne- ji gali duoti, ir ji turi paaiðkinti, dël ko negali á jo laiminga, bet iðgyvenama stoiðkai, daþnai stipriai namus atneðti neiðdilusá sapnà. Bet nëra tikrø þo- veikiama aplinkos, paþadinanti veikëjus vidinëms dþiø. [...] – Mano svajonës panaðios yra á viltá po- dvejonëms, vedanti á suvokimà, kad pasaulyje vis- mirtinio gyvenimo – tartum nori iðsiginti, bet þi- kas kinta ir tikra yra tai, kà atskiras þmogus mato no, kad tas kaþin kame gyvenàs þmogus yra èia su ir jauèia konkreèià akimirkà. Meilës Mazalaitë ne- jais valtyje, neiðvaromas ir veda jà kur nori“ ávardija: tai rankø paspaudimai, ðnabþdesiai, (1939b, p. 103). þvilgsniai, nutylëjimai, gamtos krustelëjimai, de- Moters tematika daþna ir Jankausko kûrybo- talës. Tokia meilës raiðka bûdinga ir Antanui Vai- je. Tai – modernaus màstymo apraiðka. Kalbëji- èiulaièiui. O Jankauskas apie jà kalba daug ir mas apie moterá reiðkia kalbëjimà apie ðiek tiek daþnai. Kaip raðo Albertas Zalatorius, já domina kitoká, svetimà pasaulá, bandymà kalbëti kitu bal- „ne erotinis, o filosofinis ir psichologinis meilës su, atpaþinti „kità“. Kelios novelës paraðytos „jos“, aspektas“ (1980, p. 160). Meilë – neaiðkus, nesu- „auksinës þuvelës“ akimis ir jausena. Taèiau èia gaunamas, nuolat kintantis, bet malonus jausmas: dar maþai savarankiðkos, atsakingos, individualis- „O ji nëra dþiaugsmas ir nëra skausmas. Ji yra mei- tiðkai orientuotos moters paveikslø. Mylima mo- lë. Tu esi þmogaus neramumas ir kiekvienà minu- teris Jankausko kûryboje gerbiama, netgi ideali- tæ keitiesi. Tavæs negalima aiðkiai suvokti ir suras- zuojama, vaizduojama kaip mûza, ákvepianti no- ti“ (1938, p. 112). Meilë siejama su mylimu þmo- rà gyventi ir dþiaugtis gyvenimu („Dulkini batai“, gumi. Kol veikëjas já turi ðalia – meilë idealizuoja- „Auksinë þuvelë“, „Tryliktasis kelias“, „Laikrodis ma, kai praranda – peikiama. Jankauskas tà daro be stiklo“, „Uþkaltas sandëlis“), jos nuolat siekia- ir romantiðkai, ir ironizuodamas: „Að suspaudþiau ma ir dël jos aukojamasi („Laikrodis be stiklo“). jos kojà prie rieðuko. Ji juokiasi“ (1938, p. 51), Taèiau tekstuose daþnas tuo metu populiarus nuo- „Ko jiem reikia? Jie nori turët kaþkokius svarbius dëmingos moters vaizdinys. Silpnoji lytis kuria reikalus, laimæ... Bet laimë visada yra tai, kà turi“ meilës intrigas ir spàstus, gyvenimo neásivaizduo- (1938, p. 77), „Kiek anksèiau maniau, kad gausiu ja be vyro, tad nuolankiai jam tarnauja. Kai ku- jos meilæ, o gavau temà, siuþetà. [...] meilæ galima rios Jankausko veikëjos – tik „momento jausmø paversti tema, temà eilutëm, o eilutes pinigais, o vergës“, savo meile uþpildanèios vyro „sielos be- jau pinigai duoda visa kita, ko trûksta þmogui“ dugnes“. Jos egzistuoja tik vyrams ir dël vyrø, o (1939 , p. 182), „Meilë yra sugedusi dujokaukë, paèios dþiaugiasi tik meilës trupiniais. Jos – lyg nuplëði – pasmaugs. Meilë ádrebia þmogaus ðir- marionetës, kuriomis galima þaisti: suvilioti, pa- din toká neramumà, kad þmogus nori valdyti eks- sinaudoti, padovanoti, nepaisant to, jog jø meilë presà ir kartu su garveþio sirena kaukti miðke, ka- tikra. Èia galima atrasti paraleliø su Jurgio Sa- da ekspresas drasko á gabalus orà ir plëðiasi pir- vickio kuriamais moterø-marioneèiø paveikslais. myn, dundëdamas ir spirdamas ið kamino baisiau- O nekalta, iðsvajota, mylima mergina daþniau- sias þieþirbas. Meilë þmogø pakelia ir numeta ar- siai iðteka uþ kito ieðkodama ekonominës gero- ba ima purtyti ðirdá, lyg tai bûtø skambutis. Að kar- vës. Vyrø meilë egoistiðka, kûniðka ir trumpalai- tais matau erelá ir galvoju, kad meilë panaði á já. G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 23

Kaþko tykoja ir vieniða skraido ore. Ji kovoja su gus [...]“ (1939b, p. 78). Gamta perteikia laikinu- tavim, nugali, bet yra tokia, kad galvoja apleisti mà, ji neatsiejama nuo vidiniø veikëjø iðgyveni- tave kiekvienà minutæ, tik nesako, kada tai pada- mø ir atspindi nuotaikà bei bûsenas: „Basomis ko- rys. Að pasakyèiau, kad meilë yra jaunystës brolis jomis, bugðèiai eidama, Elë galvoja [...] kad ilge- nusidëjëlis. Mylëti – reiðkia ðokinëti ið medþio á sys netirpsta nuo kaitros – vis tiek, visokiu laiku medá, kada nesi voverë“ (1938, p. 121-122). jis degina ðirdá, be pavësio. Ir galvoja, kad ilgesys Taigi meilë abiejø autoriø herojams – tai nuo- nëra saulë, tik liepsna“ (1939b, p. 82). Kartais gam- lat ieðkomas, besiilgimas jausmas, verèiantis save ta ir pati lemia veikëjø nuotaikà, pvz., audringas analizuoti, blaðkytis, nuolat gyventi neþinojime. jûros oðimas daþnai kelia baimæ, nerimà, nejau- Kai meilë apvilia, pieðiamas neigiamas jos paveiks- kumà: „[...] ji pajusta kaþin kà neiðsakoma, ko nie- las. Meilë ima ið visø pusiø slëgti, þlugdyti þmogø. kas nepatiria laukuose, sausumoje“ (1939b, p. 5). Vieniðumas, meilës trûkumas sukelia egzistenci- Þmogus – gamtos dalis: „[...] saulë jau atsikëlë, ji ná liûdesá, þmogaus siela tarsi draskoma ið vidaus. ir nusiprausë, tik plaukai suvelti ir ákaitæ, nutysæ Netekus artimo þmogaus, meilë virsta kanèia: nuo veido á þemæ ir jûrà“ (1939b, p. 86). Peizaþas „Meilë! Ji þmogø nuginkluoja, atima kojas, o lie- itin daþnai antropomorfizuojamas: „Vëjas prisip- pia bëgti, uþmerkia akis, o ásako þiûrëti ir viskà laka prie smilèiø ir vël pakilsta virðuj galvø, nule- matyti; atima balsà ir liepia dainuoti apie save. [...] kia á jûrà ir gráþta prie þmoniø – sunkus, minkðtas Bjaurybë meilë – ji reikalauja visko“ (Jankauskas vëjas. Jis atrodo saldus, kai kvëpuoji já iðsiþiojæs: 1939, p. 147-148), „Þmogus atiduoda meilæ – jam pralëkdamas jis laiþë liepø þiedus. – Kaip silueti- tuoj atneða skausmà“ (1939, p. 172). Herojø dra- nës lëlës juda ant tilto þmonys – rodos, kaþin kas matizmà slepia graudus ðypsnys, ironijos kaukë. jomis þaidþia“ (1939b, p. 115). Pasakojimas pri- sodrinamas romantinio ilgëjimosi, vyksmo, legen- dø, sakmiø, pasakø elementø, kurie suteikia nove- Gamta ir þmogus: kaitos raiðka lëms paslaptingumo: „Þino – tiktai Anderseno Ka- Vienas vertingiausiø tarpukario prozos laisvëjimo, ralaitës ilgieji plaukai, kuriuos ji atidavë raganai uþ perëjimo nuo realistinio prie modernaus prozos nemirtinà sielà ir Princo ðirdá“ (1939b, p. 96). raðymo bruoþø – gamtos alegorijomis iðsakytas ti- Daugelyje Mazalaitës noveliø ryðkus muzikos këjimas meile ir áprasminta nuolatinë kaita (Þë- motyvas. Skaitytojas gali girdëti garsus, muzikà, kaitë 1977, p. 286). Ðá bruoþà Nelë Mazalaitë at- kuriuos skleidþia visa gamta, jûra: „Muzika ið dug- skleidþia vaizduodama nuolatinæ metø kaità, ypaè no ateina dar tylesnë, be vilties; apaèioje jà apsto- vasaros baigtá ir rudens pradþià: „Tos lengvos, jo iðplëstais nagais baisybës ir nutraukia plaukà skaisèios svajonës iðlëkë su vasaros paukðèiais“ po plauko – akordà po akordo“ (1939b, p. 97), (1939a, p. 144), „Neseniai tebebuvo kitas mënuo. „Juk tik èia yra muzika, kurios niekas nesukurs, ir Jie maiðosi beregint, rodos, kaþin kokia ranka ant prie kasdienà kitokios jûros gali pasotinti savo akis, juoko, greitai vartalioja atvirukus su þaliais, pil- ieðkanèias kas kartà naujo ir ávairaus“ (1939b, p. kais ir baltais vaizdais“ (1939a, p. 6). Taèiau gam- 96). Novelëse minimi garsûs kompozitoriai, vei- toje, kaip ir þmogaus jausmuose, yra daug prieð- këjai neabejingi muzikai bei ðokiui („Migloje“, taringumo. Jûra (vandens stichija) vaizduojama „Atostogos „Ramiosios“ viloje“). Muzika – tai sie- kaip tekëjimo, kaitos, gyvumo simbolis, taèiau ji los ir pasaulio harmonija: „[...] ákaitæs medis tyliai gali bûti ir máslinga, paslaptinga, neaiðki: „Ir ro- ungzdþia, kaip uþdarytas akytoje skrynioje ðvilpis dos, kad pats savæs negali atrasti [...]. Laukimas, vëjo atgairoje. Aplinkui tiltà sukinëjasi valtis, ap- toks pat miglotas, kaip jûra, neaiðkus, kaip dan- link valtá ið tolo, skambanèiu ratu, laksto þuvëdra. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 24 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

– Visas pasaulis yra muzika“ (1939b, p. 82). Aki- kausko prozoje itin daþnas ir ávairus saulës vaiz- vaizdþios sàsajos su simbolizmu: sugestyvumas, dinys: „Dþiûstàs geleþinkelis panaðus á geltono gy- muzikos ir skambëjimo reikalavimas, ritmas, tie- vulio nugarà. Saulë svyra þemyn, kaip nunokæs sioginio jausmø ir minèiø atspindþio, idëjø ir gar- obuolys. Saulë keièia spalvas ir horizonto debesø sø analogijø, atitikmenø paieðkos, aistra judëjimui nudaþymà. Ji auga kaip oro pûslë ir darosi raudo- ir spindëjimui (muzikoje, tapyboje, poezijoje), vi- nesnë“ (1938, p. 113). Jà skaitytojas regi visokià: dinio monologo, iðsikalbëjimo poreikis, jausmø skaisèiai geltonà, auksinæ ar paskendusià vakaro analizë, „sielos peizaþo“ raiðka. þaroj: „Iðeina saulë ir pasiima visà dienà“ (1938, Jankausko novelëse gamta eskiziðka, detali, di- p. 16), „[...] saulë [...] pasikorë ant berþiuko ðakos namiðka. Autoriui nesvarbu nei laiko, nei vietos ir tuoj nukris atsikabinusi“ (1938, p. 191). Ji tarsi akcentavimas, taèiau vaizdas – personifikuojamas, áamþina laiko tekëjimà, kartu ir keitimàsi – gam- apipinamas tropais, palyginimais bei kitomis fi- tos, gyvenimo, þmogaus. Taip pat vaizdingi paly- gûromis. Kiekvienas vaizdas kupinas graþios po- ginimai, epitetai ir metaforos, kuriose minimas ezijos, ðvelnaus jausmo ir melancholiðkos nuotai- mënulis. Ði romantikø kliðë Jankausko kûryboje kos. Autorius puikiai pagauna ir þodþiu iðreiðkia tampa objektu, padedanèiu veikëjui iðreikðti savo judesá – jo gamtoje viskas dinamiðka: „Saulë plau- skausmà, neviltá, nusivylimà ir kitas neigiamas emo- na jo kojas. Nuogi medþiai supasi á ðalis ir kalena cijas: „Jis sugráþta labai mënuliðkas: senas, baltas, dantim“ (1938, p. 261). Atrodo, kad net þemë ju- negyvas“ (1938, p. 111), „Horizontas iðèiulpia më- da, viskas sukasi, lyg þvelgtume á impresionistø pa- nuliui raudonumà ir paleidþia já aukðtyn visai ma- veikslus: „[...] Á pietus bëga á pietus tuðèias þvyri- þà ir baltà“ (1938, p. 195), „Mënulis iðplaukë á dan- nis traukinys“. „Platformos ðokinëja, supasi, ple- gaus vidurá ir atrodo èia, kaip ðlykðèiai maþa di- pa“. „[...] Geleþinkelis sukasi, [...] malûnas ilgà dþiulio dangaus veido nosis“ (1938, p. 162), „Ei- laikà supasi kairëj ir neatsilieka. Vietoje þengia nu geleþinkeliu. Mënulis. Aplink já skystuèiai de- vienkiemis [...]“ (1938, p. 5). Impresionizmas ob- besys. Po mano kojomis girgþda þvyras“ (1938, jektyvøjá pasaulá suvokë kaip momentiná áspûdá, p. 72), „Mënulis tuoj nukris ir padegs tolumoje kylantá ið optiniø dirgikliø ávairovës, ið atmosferos miðkà“ (1938, p. 73), „Nyksta þvaigþdës. Rytuose reiðkiniø, ið ðviesos ir ðeðëliø þaismo bei skirtingø didëja auksinis baltumas“ (1938, p. 113). spalviniø niuansø. Tai impresionistus dailininkus Gamtos áasmeninimas abiems autoriams pa- skatino ðviesinti paletæ, naudoti kuo grynesnes deda atskleisti veikëjo nuotaikø kaità, jo artimu- spalvas, kurios, tepamos ant drobës viena ðalia ki- mà gamtai, vidinæ bûsenà perteikti gamtos apra- tos ir tik optiðkai susiliedamos, sudarydavo impre- ðymu, kurti „sielos peizaþà“. Apsakyme „Auksinë sionistinio paveikslo visumà. Jankauskas itin sub- þuvelë“ automobilis „raitosi gatviø uþsisukimuo- tiliai ir detaliai vaizduoja pojûèiø ir judesiø krus- se, kol iðtrûksta á grynà plentà“ (1938, p. 26) tar- telëjimus: „Dulkës tingiai plaukia oru, pasiekia tum laukinis þvëris. Toks ávaizdis sietinas su pa- Sukèiø. Jis suèiaudi [...] Prausiasi prie ðulnio [...]. grindinës herojës vidaus bûsena – jai norëjosi ið- Ramu. Dulkës baigia nusëst. Saulë jau nusileido. trûkti ið komplikuotos gyvenimo situacijos, taèiau Kvepia dûmais“ (1938, p. 194), „Pamaldos. Ir sau- ji pasirinko kità alternatyvà, pasiliko su ðeima. Per- lës spinduliuose lëtai plaukinëja dulkës. Kaip ma- sonaþams sunkiu gyvenimo momentu apraðoma, þytës þuvys vandenyj“ (1938, p. 137). kaip „Vëjas smaugia jaunus lapelius ir jie kelia Jankausko, kaip ir Mazalaitës, kûriniuose raðtu riksmà medþiuose“ „Iðeina saulë ir pasiima visà fiksuojami impresionistiniai gamtos eskizai. Jan- dienà“ (1938, p. 163). O ðtai apsakymo „Drau- G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 25 gai“ meninës priemonës tiesiog sukreèia skaity- Miesto ir kaimo santykis tojà ir padeda ásigilinti á pasaulá, matomà hero- Miesto tematika, kasdienybë ir refleksija – mo- jaus akimis. Puðis, kuri tampa kone pagrindiniu dernizmo branduolys. Tarpukario Lietuvos kaimo apsakymo objektu, ávardijama karalaite: „Nupjaus ir miesto opozicijos refleksijai buvo bûdingos ro- jie ðià karalaitæ ir galas visam miðkui! [...] Ir kylanèiai saulei nebus á kà ásiremti pavasario mantinës retrogradinës, prieðtaringos nuotaikos, rytmeèiais“ (1938, p. 200). Ypaè iðkalbinga puðies kadangi þemdirbystës kraðte nebuvo megapoliø. pjovimo scena: „Jie tiesiog iðkirto puðiai þaizdà, ji Lietuviai autoriai ne tik prozoje, bet ir poezijoje, pasitempë, kamuojama netikëto skausmo. Bet ka- dramaturgijoje ieðkojo savotiðko aukso vidurio da jie pasilenkë, ir pjûklas pradëjo spjaudytis jos tarp kaimo ir miesto, þvalgësi savojo varianto. Tai balto kûno kruopelytëm, tada skausmas pasiekë bûdinga ir analizuojamai kûrybai. Ir miestas, ir kai- jos ðirdá, puðis riktelëjo ir suðuko debesim: gelbë- mas vertinami nevienareikðmiðkai, tai sudëtingi kit mane!“ (1938, p. 202). Autorius tokiomis prie- ir daugiaplaniai reiðkiniai. Miestas traukia savo monëmis atriboja skaitytojà nuo empirikos ir pa- kultûra, paþanga, bohema, taèiau jame – ir spli- talpina á ásivaizduojamà realybæ. Subtilø gamtos nas, degradacija, miesèioniðkumas, parsidavëlið- pajautimà ir itin artimà jos sàsajà su þmogumi pa- kumas. Kaimas þavi natûralumu. Autoriams áta- rodo daþna personifikacija, palyginimai: „Iðeina kos turëjo ir jø vaikystës prisiminimai, ir Knuto diena nusisukus nuo visko, iðeina þmogus á erd- Hamsuno teiginys, kad didieji miestai formuoja ves, kur daug þvaigþdþiø“ (1938, p. 16), „Nemu- pusiau vergiðkos psichologijos þmogø, trukdo nas vingiuojasi kairën ir deðinën, dël tø netikëtø skleistis jo fantazijai, neleidþia iki galo atsiverti jo vingiø atrodo nelabai rimtas“ (1938, p. 139). Þmo- gus ir gamta tarsi pereina vienas á kità: „Paskui prigimèiai. Taèiau kaimas – ir dvasios „tamsumo“, gal bûsiu auksinis debesis prie horizonto ðiandien kartais ir degradacijos metafora. ir nuo pamiðkës kylantis rûkas rytoj“ (1938, p. 279). Ir Mazalaitës, ir Jankausko þmogaus idealas – Impresionizmas daugeliu atvejø – realizmo iðdidus, laisvas, graþus þmogus, gyvenantis harmo- esencija. Kai kurie tyrinëtojai yra siûlæ impresio- nijoje su gamta. Kaip teigia A. Zalatorius, „N. Ma- nizmà vadinti subjektyviuoju realizmu, nes impre- zalaitë itin mëgsta sugretinti miesto ir kaimo þmo- sionistai pirmumà teikë subjektyviam pojûèiui, o gø, rafinuotà skoná ir natûralià prigimtá […] bodi- ne objektyviam vaizdui. Taip pat ir impresionisti- si didmiesèio civilizacija ir drastiðkesniais poel- nis raðymas orientuojasi á subjektyvià impresijà ir giais“ (1980, p. 163). Ji pati, gimusi prie jûros, vë- kartu nepaprastà kalbiniø priemoniø tikslinimà, liau turëjo iðvykti á miestà bei emigruoti á uþsiená. gryninimà bei koncentracijà. Impresionizmui bû- Savo darbà Kaune autorë yra prilyginusi tarnys- dingas savitas mimetiniø smulkmenø judëjimas tei (Egzodo raðytojai 1994, p. 484). Mazalaitës he- prieðingomis kryptimis ir gal kiek pavirðutiniðkai rojei miesto ðurmulys niekada neatstos gamtos apgaulingas turinys, dalykai, sukuriantys þaismæ. garsø, jûros ðniokðtimo. Tai netikras, dirbtinis gar- Panaði gamtos þaismës, svaigulio atmosfera ku- sas. Novelëje „Vargdienio avis“ moteris á pasiûly- riama ir Jankausko bei Mazalaitës kûryboje. mà palikti namus atsako labai tvirtai: „[...] geriau „Iðtirpdydamas“ daiktø kontûrus ir turiná, impre- iðplauksiu á jûræ su kiaura valte, nekaip vaþiuosiu sionizmas labai sureikðmina estetinius pojûèius. á miestà“ (1939b, p. 158). Miestas – tai „[...] vieta, Niuanso ir detalës kultas estetinëje srityje reiðkia svarbø juslinio paþinimo plitimà ir stiprëjimà. Ið- kur prabunda visi troðkuliai, o prie jûros visokie tobulintas nervingas jautrumas – tai modernizmo geismai uþsimirðta“ (1939b, p. 59). Novelëje „Mig- pagrindas, pavirðutiniðkumo, laikinumo ir greit loje“ idealizuojamas ramus gyvenimas kaime: praeinanèiø dalykø ásikûnijimas. „Maþi miesteliai yra sukurti ramiems þmonëms ir ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 26 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE laimingam gyvenimui“ (1939b, p. 66). Tokie þmo- miestieèiai savotiðkai þavi ir kelia pavydà, o mies- nës ir gyvena ten, pajûryje. Jie „[...] nenori trupu- tas atrodo kaip kaþkas didinga, tolima, nepasie- èiø, jie ima tik pilnà laimæ“ (1939b, p. 101), o veikiama, todël labai trokðtama. Ði situacija daþnes- këjams miestas kelia nemalonias asociacijas: „To- në Mazalaitës kûryboje: „Miestas. Ten dideli lan- kie pat pavargæ, alkani ir persisotinæ veidai, kaip gai, kitokios baþnyèios ir kitoks Dievas. Ten gyve- mieste. [...] Ir paskui pasidaro kartu burnoje ir sie- nimas vaikðèioja pasipuoðæs ir jaunas, áeina pro loje [...]“ (1939b, p. 89). Kaimo erdvë Mazalaitës visas duris ir visus uþkalbina, o èia snaudþia ir vi- kûryboje yra uþuovëja nuo gyvenimo netikrumo siems leidþia snausti. […] Ten kitokie þmonys: jø ir nerimo, nuo miesto ðurmulio ir blogybiø, nors dvasia didelë, ji liejasi per kningas, ji nesutelpa miesto kultûra, puoðnus ir rafinuotas gyvenimas teatre, nei radijo bangose, – ta didelë dvasia“ tikrai traukia veikëjus. (1938a, p. 11). Veikëjai, viena vertus, „bëga á gam- Jankausko kûryboje daþnas þemesniojo tà“, antra vertus, siekia sujungti dvi prieðingas sfe- sluoksnio herojus ar kasdienybës nesukaustytas ras – natûrà ir kultûrà: sodyba tarp miðkø ir eþe- romantikas kûrëjas smerkia ne tik nuobodþius rø, kurioje gyvena Oskaro Milaðiaus poemas skai- miestieèius, kurie „paima ið gyvenimo tik vienà tantis inteligentas, yra Mazalaitës svajonë. Kaip padoraus miesèioniðkumo nuotaikà ir valkioja jà teigia A. Zalatorius, „Tai tikrumo ir pastovumo per dienà naktá, kaip nudëvëtà kostiumà“ (1939, ilgesys, kai aplinkui vien nerimas, pakrikimas, su- p. 178), bet ir jø gyvenimo bûdà – tuðèià, purvinà, svetimëjimas“ (1980, p. 163). ribotà: „[...] aistra kortuoti, girtauti, loðti biliardà, stumdyti ðaðkes, miesèioniðkëti, – yra paskutinis Iðvados reikalas“ (1939, p. 124). Miesto erdvë apysakø vei- këjams svetima – mieste „[...] puola autobusai, gàs- Savo kûriniais abu autoriai atneðë naujoviø á tar- dina vitrinos, pirkliø balsai“ (1939, p. 110). Hero- pukario prozà. Nelës Mazalaitës noveliø rinkiniai jus jauèiasi tarsi ámestas á civilizuotà aplinkà, to- Miestas, kurio nëra ir Pajûrio moterys bei Kazio Jan- dël stengiasi ið jos iðsiverþti ir ieðko prieglobsèio kausko apsakymø ir apysakø rinkinys Dulkini batai gamtoje: „Miestas juokiasi. Reikia bëgti kur nors parodo modernëjantá raðymà. Veikëjai atsiskleidþia nuo to juoko“ (1939, p. 163). Neigdamas technið- ne socialinëje erdvëje, o vidiniais iðgyvenimais. Ma- kà miesto civilizacijà, Jankauskas vertybëmis lai- zalaitë kuria átaigø feministiná, moters pasaulio dis- ko fiziná darbà ir neturtà. Bûtent tokie yra ir tei- kursà, subtiliai vaizduoja vyrus. Modernaus màsty- giami jo kûriniø herojai – neturtingi savo darbà mo apraiðka laikytinas moters pasaulio vaizdavimas mylintys geleþinkelio darbuotojai arba plepûs ro- Jankausko prozoje. Autoriai atskleidþia stiprëjanèià mantikai, svajotojai, idealistai, kurie nesureikðmi- „vaizduotës psichologijà“, minimalizuoja veiksmà. na savo sunkios socialinës padëties, gyvena skur- Svarbiausia kûriniuose tampa ne kas ir kodël, o kaip. dþiai ir nesiskundþia, kiekvienoje smulkmenoje su- Tai skatina naratyvo fragmentiðkumà, minties ðuo- geba atrasti tai, kas artima sielai, ir tuo dþiaugiasi. lius, emocinius pakilimus ir nusileidimus, daþnà vei- Net bûdami neturtingi, Jankausko noveliø ir apy- këjø nesusikalbëjimà, uþsisklendimà savyje ir kartu sakø herojai kaip ámanydami stengiasi susikurti – kalbinës raiðkos tobulinimà, atidà detalei, niuanso savo iliuzinæ laimæ, ið paprasèiausiø smulkmenø raiðkai, koncentruotam vaizdui. susidëlioti gyvenimo pasakà. Pagrindinë vertybë Keisdami naratoriaus statusus, raðytojai skai- visuose kûriniuose iðlieka þmoniðkumas. tytojà priverèia ir matyti bei jausti veikëjo akimis. Nors kûriniuose ir bodimasi miesèioniðkumu, Jankausko kûrybai bûdinga „observacija ið ðalies, bet tarp kaimo ar miestelio gyventojø atsiradæ savikritika, ironizavimas, herojaus susidvejinimas“ G. Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë. TARPUKARIO LIETUVOS PROZOS MODERNËJIMAS 27

(Spindytë 1996, p. 167). Ir ðio autoriaus, ir Maza- sprendimai, skatinantys prozos perëjimà nuo re- laitës kûryboje ðias bûsenas sukelia meilë, tam- alistinio prie modernaus vaizdavimo. „Naujas panti paskata savivokai, medþiaga kûrybai, ási- þmogus“ akcentuoja gyvenimo kitimo, bûties lai- ûbuojanti vidines veikëjø galias. Raðytojai popu- kinumo, nestabilumo idëja, sprendþia likimo bei liarina dvasiná dienoraðtá, lyrinæ iðpaþintá, vidiná mirties neiðvengiamumo klausimus, bando suvokti monologà. savo vietà pasaulyje, emocijas reiðkia „sielos pei- Analizuojamiems kûriniams bûdinga roman- zaþu“, kaimo ir miesto dramatiðka opozicija. tinës, simbolistinës stilistikos jungtis su impresio- Svarstydami tokius klausimus, raðytojai atsisklei- nistine, egzistenciniø problemø individualûs dþia kaip modernios lietuviø literatûros kûrëjai.

Literatûra

Egzodo raðytojai. Autobiografijos. 1994. Vilnius: Lietuvos RUTKÛNAS, B., 1939. Dulkini batai. Savaitinis iliustruo- raðytojø sàjungos leidykla. tas kultûros priedas (Lietuvos aido priedas). GAILIÛNAS, P., 1940. Miestas, kurio nëra. Þidinys, Nr. 182, 2. Nr. 1, 128. SPRINDYTË, J., 1996. Lietuviø apysaka. Vilnius: Lietu- JANKAUSKAS, K., 1938. Dulkini batai. Kaunas: Ðviesa. viø literatûros ir tautosakos institutas. JUÐKAITIS, J., 1991. Nelë Mazalaitë. XXI amþius, VENGRIS, A., 1936. Knygos. Naujoji Romuva, Nr. 21, 3. Nr. 25-26, 535. Lietuviø egzodo literatûra 1945-1990. 1992. Èikaga: Litua- ZALATORIUS, A., 1980. XX amþiaus lietuviø novelë (iki nistikos institutas, 296-297. 1940 m.): semantinis aspektas. Vilnius: Vaga. MAZALAITË, N., 1939a. Miestas, kurio nëra. Kaunas: ÞËKAITË, J., 1977. Impresionizmas ir ekspresionizmas Spindulys. lietuviø prozoje. In: Literatûra ir kalba, T. XIV, 9-168. MAZALAITË, N., 1939b. Pajûrio moterys. Kaunas: ÞUKAUSKAS, A., 1940. Nelë Mazalaitë. Pajûrio mote- Mokslo Koop. B-vë „Þnija“. rys. Miestas, kurio nëra. Naujoji Romuva, Nr. 5, 97-98. POVILIONIS, J., 1939. Knygos ir þurnalai. Þidinys, Nr. 2, 274-275.

Gabija Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë lyzed so far. Recently more and more attention has Vilnius University, Lithuania been devoted to it. Some writers of that period were Research interests: Lithuanian literature of the first half eliminated from the history of Lithuanian prose, so- th of the 20 c., Modernism, theories and methods of lite- me were deported to Siberia in the Soviet times; ho- rature, literary criticism, pedagogy, electronic teaching. wever, their prose has not been repeatedly published up to now. The article focuses on the periphery THE START OF MODERNITY OF LITHUA- figures in Lithuanian literature – Nelë Mazalaitë and NIAN PROSE IN THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE Kazys Jankauskas’ literary works. These writers ma- WORLD WARS: NELË MAZALAITË, KAZYS tured and created together with a conspicuous generation of neo-Romantics and neo-Catholics – An- JANKAUSKAS tanas Miðkinis, Bernardas Brazdþionis, Salomëja Në- Summary ris, Petronëlë Orintaitë, Jonas Aistis, Juozas Keliuo- tis, Antanas Vaièiulaitis, Graþina Tulauskaitë, Ka- The literary works by Lithuanian prose writers in the zys Inèiûra, etc. The article emphasizes the writers’ period of World Wars have not been extensively ana- general tendencies of becoming more modern and ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 28 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

their individual features implied in the works written ticism and even duality which is a characteristic of a during the period between the World Wars. Both aut- modern Western European psychological novel. hors contributed to the literature of between the KEY WORDS: the period between the World World Wars period: the authors’ attention to psycho- Wars, literary works, individuality, impressionism, logy, existential problems, their attention to the logic prose, modernity. of characters’ inner experiences, character’s self-cri-

Gauta 2007 11 12 Priimta publikuoti 2008 02 07 29

Jadvyga Bajarûnienë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: vokiðkai kalbanèiø ðaliø literatûros, literatûros krypèiø poetika, vokieèiø ekspresionizmas, komparatyvistika (vokieèiø-lietuviø literatûrø ryðiai).

PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE

Vokieèiø ekspresionizmas (1910-1920/25) – viena ryðkiausiø XX amþiaus vokieèiø literatûros sroviø. Jis yra plaèiai tyrinëjamas, taip pat ir tarpdalykiniu poþiûriu. Pasitelkiami ávairûs – filosofijos, teologijos, antropologi- jos, sociologijos, medicinos (ypaè psichiatrijos), gamtos mokslø – kontekstai. Ekspresionizmo literatûroje ypatingas dëmesys tenka þmogaus bûsenø analizei. Taèiau raðytojai ekspresionistai (kitaip negu, tarkim, romantikai ar realistai) perteikia ne personaþø jausmus, nuotaikas, psichologijà, o atskleidþia suaudrintà, baimës, átampos ar ðoko sukeltà bûsenà, fiksuoja jos kulminacinius taðkus. Iðskirtinis ekspresionizmo literatûros bruoþas – dë- mesys patologiniams reiðkiniams, poetinio ir medicinos diskursø sàveika. Straipsnio tikslas – aptarti vienà ið vyraujanèiø vokieèiø ekspresionizmo prozos temø – patologiniø bûsenø vaizdavimà bei jø estetinæ raiðkà Alfredo Döblino (1878-1957), Georgo Heymo (1887-1912), Gottfriedo Benno (1886-1956), Walterio Rheinerio (1895-1925) bei Oskaro Loerke‘s (1884-1941) novelistikoje. Pasirinktø tekstø grupë leidþia ne tik parodyti ðios tematikos sklaidos ávairovæ, kaità, bet ir þmogaus koncepcijos ypatumus vokie- èiø ekspresionizmo prozoje, iðryðkinti ekspresionistinës novelës dominantes bei tipologinius bruoþus. Lietuviø literatûrologijoje ði problema iki ðiol nebuvo aptarta. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: ekspresionizmas, individo disociacija, pasàmonë, patologinis tipas, beprotybës fenomenas, ekspresionistinio herojaus ambivalentiðkumas, svaigulys, estetizacija, parodija, groteskas.

XX amþiaus antrojo deðimtmeèio pradþioje, Pir- sionistai radikaliai këlë klausimà apie þmogaus mojo pasaulinio karo iðvakarëse politiniø ir so- santyká su aplinka, tyrinëjo jo pasàmonæ ir psichi- cialiniø átampø kupinoje Vokietijoje uþgimæs eks- kà, atskleidë kraðtutines egzistencijos bûsenas. presionizmas akcentavo epochos þlugimà, sklei- “Mëgstamas” ekspresionizmo autoriø protagonis- dë artëjanèios katastrofos nuotaikas, plëtojo „pa- tas – patologinis tipas, o situacijos, kuriose sklei- saulio pabaigos“ (Weltende)1 motyvà. Vienas ið to- dþiasi veiksmas – susvetimëjimas, vienatvë, bai- kio katastrofizmo þenklø – individo krizë. Ekspre- më, beprotybë, agresija, saviþudybë, mirtis.

1 Ðiam motyvui pradþià davë vienas garsiausiø ekspresionizmo literatûros tekstø – Jakobo van Hoddiso (1887-1942) eilëraðtis Weltende (1911). Beje, ðis poetas sirgo sunkia ðizofrenijos forma. 1942 m. nacionalsocialistai, vykdæ ðiurpià eutanazijos praktikà, já kaip psichiðkai neágalø ligoná uþdarë á koncentracijos stovyklà ir nuþudë; mirties vieta tiksliai neþinoma. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 30 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Aptariami tekstai – A. Döblino Pienës nuþu- psichiatrijos teorija ir praktika atsidûrë lûþio situa- dymas (Die Ermordung einer Butterblume, para- cijoje. Keitësi poþiûris á psichikos ligoná, buvo svars- ðyta 1904, iðspausdinta 1910), G. Heymo Pamiðë- toma, kur ið tikrøjø glûdi riba tarp „sveiko“, „nor- lis (Der Irre, paraðyta 1911, iðspausdinta 1913), malaus“ þmogaus ir patologinio tipo. Psichiatrijos G. Benno Smegenys (Gehirne, paraðyta 1914, problemos gvildentos ne tik mokslininkø darbuo- iðspausdinta 1916), W. Rheinerio Kokainas (Ko- se, bet taip pat plaèiai aptartos ekspresionistø lei- kain, 1917) ir O. Loerke‘s Lëlë (Die Puppe, 1919) diniuose ir þurnaluose (pavyzdþiui, „Die Aktion“, – apima visà klasikiná ekspresionizmo deðimtmetá. „Wiecker Bote“, „Das Kunstblatt“). Paþymëtina, Gausiuose tyrinëjimuose apie vokieèiø ekspresio- jog ekspresionistai buvo nusiteikæ tiek prieð tradi- nizmà nemaþai vietos skiriama ir patologiniø bû- cinæ psichologijà, tiek prieð tradicinës psichiatrijos senø, ypaè beprotybës fenomeno, raiðkai (Anz metodus. Kurtas Hilleris savo atsiðaukime „Tikslo 1977, Irrle 1977, Iheweazu 1982, Krull 1984, filosofija“ („Philosophie des Ziels“, 1916) ragino p. 33-43, Vietta/ Kemper 1997, p. 176-185). „saugotis psichiatrijos“, kadangi ji orientuojasi á vi- Lietuviø literatûros kritikoje gausu nuorodø dutinybæ, o „nenormalius“, tai yra visuomenës el- apie ekspresionizmo átakà tarpukario Lietuvos ra- gesio taisykles paþeidþianèius atvejus sutapatina su ðytojams, ypaè „keturvëjininkø“ kûrybai, Jurgio Sa- liguistumu ir patologija (Manifeste 1982, p. 182). vickio, Petro Tarulio prozai (Galinis 1974, p. 181- Taip pat buvo svarstomi ypatingi psichikos li- 264; Kubilius 1983, p. 115-135; Zalatorius 1980, goniø gebëjimai savitai matyti, jausti ir meniðkai p. 109; Þëkaitë 1994, p. 272-273; Sauka 1994, p. 28- interpretuoti aplinkà bei savo vidiná pasaulá. Ra- 29; Striogaitë 1994, p. 106, 115). Taèiau atskiro tyri- ðytojas ir leidëjas Wielandas Herzfelde þurnale nëjimo apie atitinkamos tematikos vokieèiø ekspre- „Die Aktion“ iðspausdintame straipsnyje „Psichi- sionizmo prozà filologinëje lietuviø spaudoje iki ðiol kos ligonio etika“ („Die Ethik des Geisteskran- nebuvo. Todël ðis straipsnis gal bût praverstø ir besi- ken“, 1914) aistringai gynë tuos, kuriuos visuo- domintiems platesniais ekspresionizmo literatûros menë vadina beproèiais ir pamiðëliais: „Psichikos kontekstais ar lietuviø-vokieèiø literatûrø paralelë- ligonis tikrai sugeba bûti laimingesniu negu mes, mis, paskatintø tipologiniu poþiûriu patyrinëti gi- nes jis yra natûralesnis ir þmogiðkesnis. Veikti já miningas temas ir motyvus abiejose literatûrose. skatina jausmas, o ne logika. Jo veikla galingesnë, Straipsnyje bus aptariamas protagonistø ir so- betarpiðka. Beprotybæ að vadinu „valios religija“ ciumo – aplinkos – pasaulio santykis, vardø (ar – tik valia gali jausmà paversti jëga“ (Manifeste bevardiðkumo) reikðmë bei tapatybës klausimas, 1982, p.183). Visuomenës normos suvokiamos kûno ir erdvës raiðka, vitalizmo – svaigulio ir as- kaip prieðiðkas dalykas, kaip kliûtis þmogaus pa- menybës destrukcijos santykis. Pasirinktø tekstø slaptingø sielos gelmiø proverþiams, kurie buvo pagrindu bus bandoma atskleisti ekspresionisti- laikomi kûrybiðkumo, meniðkumo, genialumo ðal- nës novelës bruoþus. tiniu. Vokieèiø ekspresionizmo autoriø dëmesys pa- Esminiu veiksniu, paskatinusiu kone visuoti- tologinëms þmogaus bûsenoms aiðkintinas taip ná susidomëjimà þmogaus vidinio gyvenimo san- pat prieþastimis, esanèiomis uþ literatûros ribø. klodomis, laikytina Sigmundo Freudo (1756-1939) XX amþiaus pirmøjø deðimtmeèiø Vokietijoje psichoanalizës teorija, sureikðminusi sapnø, ins-

2 Paradoksalu, jog S. Freudas kritiðkai vertino avangardiná menà (ekspresionizmà, dadaizmà), taèiau bûtent ðio meno atstovai rëmësi þymaus psichoanalitiko áþvalgomis ir populiarino jo idëjas. Beje, pirmoji S. Freudo átakos fazë – XX a. pradþios Vienos modernizmo (Wiener Moderne) literatûra. J. Bajarûnienë. PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE 31 tinktø, pasàmonës bûsenø vaidmená2. Programi- kaip socialinës sistemos reprezentantà, o kaip su nio straipsnio „Ekspresionizmas ir psichiatrija“ galingomis gyvenimo jëgomis ir energijomis su- („Expressionismus und Psychiatrie“, 1920) auto- sietà bûtybæ, kuri savo valios, dvasios (Geist), mo- rius Ernstas Jolowiczas pabrëþia: „Naujoji, roman- ralumo, iðgyvenimo jëga uþlies pasaulá4. Populia- tinë3 meno kryptis dar daugiau negu anksèiau do- rios buvo taip pat prancûzø màstytojo, intuityviz- mëjosi psichiatrija. Að tik prisimenu galingà áta- mo ir „gyvenimo filosofijos“ atstovo Henri Berg- kà, kurià menui padarë Freudo idëjos. Vargu ar sono (1859-1941) idëjos. rasime nors vienà naujosios literatûros kûriná, ku- Taigi ekspresionizmo epochoje gerokai susvy- riame neatpaþintume psichoanalitinës tyrinëjimo ruoja tikëjimas, jog pasaulá ir þmogø galima pa- krypties átakos“ (Manifeste 1982, p. 191). Anali- aiðkinti vien proto pastangomis, racionaliais me- zuodamas instinktus, Freudas kalbëjo ir apie jø todais. Gilëja praraja tarp refleksijos ir tikrovës, praþûtingà vaidmená, pabrëþë instinktø valdomo tarp sàmonës ir bûties. Ekspresionistai aukðtina þmogaus polinká á agresijà ir destrukcijà (Freud visa, kas pirmapradiðka, iracionalu, mistiðka, cha- 1984, p. 107). otiðka, esminga, kas slypi uþ visuomenës iðorës Itin svarbø impulsà teikë Friedricho Niet- struktûrø. zsche’s „visø vertybiø pervertinimo“ (Umwertung Bûta ir konkreèiø prieþasèiø, skatinusiø vokie- aller Werte) teorija bei vitalizm¹ ðlovinanti gyveni- èiø autoriø susidomëjimà psichiatrijos tematika. mo filosofija (Lebensphilosophie). Antra vertus, Kai kurie jø patys turëjo medicininá iðsilavinimà F. Nietzsche analizavo moderniajai epochai bû- ir dirbo gydytojais (A. Döblinas, G. Bennas, Os- dingà subjekto ir kalbos krizæ, jo áþvalgos tapo ið- karas Panizza), savo kûryboje tyrinëjo þmogaus eities taðku ekspresionistø A. Döblino, Franzo psichikos reiðkinius. Ne paskutinë prieþastis – eks- Kafkos, Carlo Einsteino kûrybai bei poetikai (An- presionistinës kartos raðytojø ir menininkø bohe- dreotti 2000, p. 42). F. Nietzsche’s paveikta eks- miðkas gyvenimo bûdas, polinkis narkotikams, la- presionistø karta kritiðkai vertino savàjá laikmetá, bili psichikos bûklë. Kai kurie autoriai (W. Rhei- pozityvistiná màstymà, scientizmà, materializmà, neris, G. Bennas) ðià autobiografinæ patirtá ápras- kultûrà, institucijas (teismus, medicinà). Jø poþiû- mino savo tekstuose5. Taèiau þmogaus fizinis bei riu, visuomenës gyvenimas „sustingæs“, dekaden- dvasinis irimas ekspresionizmo literatûroje nebu- tiðkas, þmogus priverstas taikytis prie jo prigim- vo savitikslë problema. Jis simbolizavo visuotinæ èiai svetimø socialiniø normø. Tokia visuomenë epochos krizæ, susvetimëjimà, þlugimà – visa tai, prieðiðkai nusiteikusi prieð genialumà, uþkerta ga- kas apibendrintai ir buvo ávardyta kaip „pasaulio limybæ ágyvendinti, kaip formulavo Erwinas Loe- pabaiga“. wensonas (1909), „sveikata spinduliuojanèio viso Paþymëtina, jog tokio nelaimingo, susidveji- þmogaus idealo“ (Manifeste 1982, p. 202; iðryð- nusio þmogaus situacija ekspresionistø kûryboje kinta – J. B.). Þmogø ekspresionistai traktavo ne daþniausiai vaizduojama ne, tarkim, su uþuojauta

3 E. Jolowiczas ekspresionizmà apibûdina ir kaip „romantiná” menà, nes romantikais, anot straipsnio autoriaus, galima laikyti visus, kurie domisi neáprastais, keistais, paslaptingais, iracionaliais dalykais. 4 Èia bûtina patikslinti: socialinës sistemos autsaideriai yra tik ekspresionistiniai herojai, o jø antagonistai prieðingai – ne tik atstovauja oficialiai visuomenës tvarkai, bet ir yra smarkiai tipizuoti. 5 Jau kai kuriø eilëraðèiø pavadinimai byloja apie iðskirtiná ekspresionistø dëmesá medicinos bei patologijos reiðki- niams, plg.: Alfredo Lichtensteino „Operacija“ („Die Operation“), Gottfriedo Benno „Gydytojas I ir II“ („Der Arzt I und II)“, „Kokainas“ („Kokain“), Alberto Ehrensteino „Saviþudis“ („Der Selbstmörder“), to paties pavadinimo Johanneso R. Becherio ir Pauliaus Zecho eilëraðèiai „Idiotas“ („Der Idiot“), Franzo Werfelio „Morfinistë“ („Die Morphinistin“) ir kt. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 32 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

(kaip tai bûdinga natûralizmo raðytojams) ar „kal- nas, somnambulizmas, hipnozë atsiskleidþia gilu- tinant“ jà sukëlusias aplinkybes (ámanoma realis- minës þmogaus psichikos struktûros. Taèiau ro- to pozicija), o kaip savotiðkà iðsilaisvinimà ið so- mantizmo literatûroje þmogus neredukuojamas cialiniø normø diktato, vidinës laisvës triumfà, net- vien á (para)medicininá atvejá. Detlefo Kremerio gi kaip iðeitá ar galimybæ – tiesa, utopinæ – susi- nuomone, E. T. A. Hoffmanno apsakymai („Smë- kurti alternatyvià erdvæ. Anot þymaus vokieèiø lio þmogus“/ „Der Sandmann“, „Majoratas“/ „Das ekspresionizmo tyrinëtojo Silvio Vietta’os, ben- Majorat“)7 meniðkai intriguojantys ir daugia- dras þmogaus vaizdavimo ekspresionizmo litera- reikðmiai dël to, kad juose beprotybë pinasi su tik- tûroje iðeities taðkas – subjekto, „að“ disociacija rove, sapnas – su sàmone, liguistumas – su sveika- (Ich-Dissoziation). Èia dialektiðkai sàveikauja dvi ta, kad raðytojas originaliai kelia tapatumo ir ði- tendencijos: maiðtas prieð konvencijas, prievartà, zofrenijos santykio problemà (1998, p. 70-71). susvetimëjimà ir siekimas kokybiðkai atnaujinti, Bene esminis XIX a. vokieèiø literatûros teks- sakralizuoti „að“ substancijà (tarsi uþpildyti mo- tas beprotybës tema – Georgo Büchnerio novelë dernizmo epochoje atsiradusià metafizinæ tuðtu- „Lencas“ („Lenz“, paraðyta 1835, iðspausdinta mà) (Vietta/ Kemper 1997, p. 22-23). Ðis „sakrali- 1839) pasakojanti apie tragiðkà þymaus „Audros zacijos“ vyksmas ekspresionizmo prozoje atsklei- ir verþimosi“ dramaturgo Jakobo Michaelio Rein- dþiamas pasitelkus deformavimo, bjaurumo, ðo- holdo Lenzo (1751-1792) gyvenimo tarpsná. Rea- ko estetikà. Veikëjai daþniausiai vaizduojami ri- listine maniera paraðytas G. Büchnerio kûrinys binëse situacijose, patiriantys ekstazæ, svaigulá. preciziðkai fiksuoja savo ligà suvokianèio meni- Anot Thomo Rietzschelio, ekstazë tampa laimës ninko bûsenà. pakaitalu (1987, p. 368). Þmogaus fiziologijà sureikðminæ natûralistai Pasirinktas noveles vienija bendra tema – as- (pavyzdþiui, Gerhartas Hauptmannas novelëje menybës skilimo, priklausomybës, ligos, beproty- „Geleþinkelio apeivis Tilis“ („Bahnwärter Thiel“, bës motyvai. Ankstesnëse literatûros epochose 1888) taip pat vaizdavo þmogaus socialinæ degra- þmogaus psichikos problemomis domëjosi vokie- dacijà, taèiau beprotybæ interpretavo ne kaip in- èiø romantikai (Novalis, Ludwigas Tieckas, Josep- dividualios, tegu ir praþûtingos laisvës potyrá, o has von Eichendorffas, Ernstas Theodoras Ama- kaip tamsiø instinktø, paveldëjimo, aplinkos (das deus Hoffmannas), kurie ypaè akcentavo þmogaus Milieu) ar sunkiø egzistenciniø bei socialiniø sàly- ir gamtos „nakties pusæ“6, þmogaus psichikos iri- gø pasekmæ. mo reiðkinius apgaubë mistikos ir paslapties ðy- Ekspresionistai iðplëtojo beprotybës temati- du, beprotybæ daþnai siejo su meninës kûrybos sfe- kos spektrà, suteikë jai naujø stilistiniø raiðkø ir ra. Kaip pastebi Ursula Mahlendorf, Novaliui li- savo koncepcijomis iðreiðkë itin kritiðkà poþiûrá á ga ir beprotybë tampa psichologinio savojo „að“, to meto visuomenæ. o kartu ir gamtos bei jos dësniø paþinimo ðaltiniu A. Döblino novelës pagrindinis personaþas – (1994, p. 594). Romantikai, ypaè E. T. A. Hoffman- nedidelës prekybos firmos vadovas, ið paþiûros tar- nas, domëjosi medicinos teorijomis, parapsi- si solidus biurgeris Michaelis Fiðeris eina á uþmiestá chologijos klausimais, mesmerizmu, magnetizmu. pasivaikðèioti. Mosuodamas lazda, uþkliudo, po Vyravo ásitikinimas, jog tokiose bûsenose kaip sap- to apimtas ásiûèio pradeda dauþyti pakelëje au-

6 Ðá terminà á vokieèiø romantizmo diskursà ávedë gydytojas, gamtos filosofas, raðytojas Gotthilfas Heinrichas Schubertas (1853-1780). 7 Ðie apsakymai áeina á dviejø daliø ciklà „Nakties vaizdai“ („Nachtstücke“, 1816-1817). J. Bajarûnienë. PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE 33 ganèias piktþoles, sadistiðkai mëgaujasi savo ga- kaitalu. Ðià lagamino „paslaptá“ jis iðduoda vai- lia. Taèiau staiga jis pasijunta nusikaltëliu, ásivaiz- kams. Kada berniukai nori ásitikinti, ar tai tiesa, duoja „nuþudæs“ pienæ. Frydrichas Ðedelis supranta, jog bus gëdingai de- G. Heymo novelës pradþioje matome ið psi- maskuotas. Jis pabëga, jam kyla spontaniðka min- chiatrijos ligoninës gráþtantá (bevardá) personaþà. tis nusiþudyti. Jis puola ant bëgiø prieðais vaþiuo- Jo mintys – dar gydymo ástaigoje, kur jam teko pa- jantá tramvajø, taèiau maðinistas traukiná paskuti- tirti personalo prievartà ir sadizmà. Vyras dega ne- næ sekundæ dar spëja sustabdyti. Frydrichas Ðe- apykanta, troðkimu atkerðyti pasauliui, taip pat ir delis vël desperatiðkai bëga, galop susmunka nu- savo þmonai, kurià jis laiko kalta dël savo bûklës. tekamajame griovyje. G. Benno novelëje „Smegenys“ vaizduojamas Visø noveliø protagonistø ryðys su visuomene gydytojo psichiatro asmenybës irimas. Anksèiau bei socialine aplinka yra silpnas, nuolat „trûkinë- dirbæs patologinës anatomijos institute, jis dabar jantis“. Netgi G. Benno herojus, uþuot gydæs savo atvyksta á sanatorijà pavaduoti vyriausiojo gydy- pacientus, praranda profesinius sugebëjimus, tam- tojo, taèiau pajunta keistus organizmo ir psichi- pa ligoniu, nors, kita vertus, beprotybës bûsena kos pokyèius. Renë (Rönne) darosi pasyvus, ne- jam yra kûrybingumo ðaltinis. Tik atitrûkæs nuo sugeba adekvaèiai reaguoti á aplinkà, jo judesiai socialinës kasdienybës ir jos konvencijø jis atran- tampa nevaldomi. Jis tarytum persikûnija á kità – da naujà – poetinës raiðkos – sferà. A. Döblino dvasinæ, kûrybinæ – sferà. novelës personaþas atstovauja biurgeriø sluoks- W. Rheineris vaizduoja kelias paskutines nar- niui, nors skaitytojas jo ir nemato tarp kitø visuo- komano Tobijo gyvenimo valandas. Herojus pa- menës nariø. Informacija apie socialinæ jo gyve- þásta tik dvi ekstremalias bûsenas: didþiausias kan- nimo pusæ yra skurdi, taèiau, kita vertus, autorius èias kelianèià abstinencijà ir laikinà kûno bei dva- keliais ðtrichais sugeba nupieðti smulkiojo biur- sios palaimà po kokaino dozës. Galop atsiduria gerio portretà, já ðarþuoja. Taip pat atskleidþiamas pas „geràjá angelà“ dailininkæ Marion, kuri ðiek vidinis „fasadinës“ visuomenës nestabilumas. tiek suðvelnina jo nepakeliamas kanèias. Nutai- Biurgeris – didþiausias ekspresionistø prieðas – kæs progà, slapèia pavagia pistoletà. Herojui netampa pajuokos objektu, taèiau nurodoma ir á ja- belieka jokios iðeities: „Jis nieko neturëjo, kuo game slypinèià agresijà, jo susidvejinimà. Michaelis lëtø dþiaugtis. Vargðas, atstumtas, ligotas ir pra- Fiðeris – komiðkas, bet pavojingas þmogus veid- keiktas. Neturëjo nei maisto, nei pinigø, nei dra- mainingoje visuomenëje. O. Loerke‘s novelës vei- buþiø, nei vieno artimo þmogaus. Nei valios, nei këjo socialinis vaidmuo taip pat skurdus ir neið- jëgø kà nors ásigyti“ (1987, p. 191). Sekmadienio reikðtas. G. Heymo ir W. Rheinerio protagonistai rytà, skambant baþnyèiø varpams, Tobijas vienoo atsidûræ sociumo pariby, galiausiai nusiþudo. namo laiptinëje paleidþia á save ðûvá. Neiðreikðtas ir protagonistø asmeninis gyve- O. Loerke’s herojus Frydrichas Ðedelis – vie- nimas. Apie santuokinæ praeitá uþsiminta tik nos Berlyno redakcijos pagalbinis darbuotojas. Jis G. Heymo „Pamiðëlyje“, taèiau ji vaizduojama ironiðkai apibûdinamas kaip „raðytojas, nepara- perdëm neigiamai, herojui þmonos paveikslas su- ðæs në vienos knygos, në vienos eilutës“ (1988, silieja su þiurkës ávaizdþiu. Moterims jø gyvenime p. 273). Vieno pasivaikðèiojimo po nykià, apleistà neskirtas reikðmingesnis vaidmuo. Protagonistai priemiesèio vietovæ jis staiga iðvysta anapus tvo- – aseksualûs, abejingi kitai lyèiai, netgi infantilið- ros gulintá kaþkieno paliktà senà lagaminà. Hero- ki. Savo fantazijas jie daþnai projektuoja á kon- jø apsëda mintis, jog lagamino viduje yra geltona kreèius aplinkos objektus. A. Döblino herojus li- lëlë. Tas vaizdinys tampa jo idée fixe, realybës pa- guistos „meilës“ objektu pasirenka pienæ, O. Lo- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 34 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE erke’s personaþas savo svajas perkelia á ásivaiz- þmoguje. Noveliø personaþai linkæ á susireikðmi- duojamà lëlæ. Meilës emocijos svetimos taip pat nimà, agresijà, savæs naikinimà. Jie tolsta nuo vi- G. Benno ir W. Rheinerio veikëjams. Jeigu jø aki- suomenës, uþsisklendþia subjektyviø vaizdiniø erd- ratyje ir pasirodo moterys, tai tik kaip gelbëtojos, vëje, tampa savo paèiø ákaitais. Objektyvià tikro- o ne jausmo objektas. væ uþgoþia pasàmonës vaizdiniai. Ar galima kal- Visuomenë, iðorinis pasaulis ekspresionistø ro- bëti apie jø asmenybinæ savastá? Ekspresionizmo domi kaip svetima, abejinga, þmogui prieðiðka jë- literatûroje ir mene svarbu yra ne charakterio inga. Ðis rakursas labiausiai iðryðkintas G. Heymo dividualumas, o tam tikrø tipiniø savybiø ar so- tekste. Ið protagonisto perspektyvos áteigiama, jog cialiniø charakteristikø iðryðkinimas. Aptariamø psichiatrijos ligoninës personalas ne tik nekom- noveliø protagonistai ne kuria ar átvirtina, o – prie- petentingas („pamiðëlis“ iðraðomas kaip pasvei- ðingai – naikina savitumà. Progresuojantis pato- kæs), bet ir þiaurus. Tokiu bûdu raðytojas plëtoja logiðkumas iðtrina individualumo þymes. Tapatu- „pasaulio kaip beprotnamio“ metaforà (plg. Da- mo neturëjimà liudija visø pirma personaþø var- emmrich 1995, p. 370). Amoko bûsenos apimtas dai arba jø bevardystë. veikëjas visà aplinkà, kuri já lydi pamiðëliðko bëgi- A. Döblino novelës personaþo vardas Micha- mo metu, regi liguistai – kaip beatodairiðkos, kru- elis – aliuzija á jo vokiðkumà, biurgeriðkumà9. Pa- vinos kovos arenà. Taip pat ir W. Rheinerio nove- vardë Fiðeris („þvejys“) nurodo á animalinæ sferà, lëje, kuri ið visø aptartø tekstø labiausiai persmelk- pabrëþia vitaliðkø instinktø galià. Paþymëtina, jog ta skausmo, tragizmo, subjektyvios kaltës jausmo, novelës tekste protagonistas daþniausiai figûruo- iðkyla individo ir visuomenës prieðprieða. Liguis- ja kaip ávardis („jis“) ar parafrazë („juodai apsi- ta herojus sàmonë didmiesèio aplinkà priima kaip rengæs ponas“, „niûrus storulis“, „rimtas vyras“ ir dundantá pragarà, ið kurio kelio atgal nëra. Nar- panaðiai), o ne kaip individualybë. Novelës pabai- komanas Tobijas visur regi persekiotojus, prieðus, goje pateikta charakteristikø ir titulø sankaupa pa- þudikus. A. Döblino ir O. Loerke’s personaþai ási- brëþia ironiðkà autoriaus poþiûrá á pienës „þudy- vaizduoja, jog visa aplinka tarsi susimokiusi prieð tojà“: „Ið piktdþiugos ir juoko storasis, korektið- juos, jog jie stebimi, jog pasaulis ið jø tyèiojasi. Vi- kai apsirengæs pirklys ponas Michaelis Fiðeris ran- si veikëjai aplinkà, sociumà vertina subjektyviai, gësi savo ðezlonge“ (1988, p. 115)10. G. Heymo iðkreiptai, hipertrofuotai. Bet koks „harmonin- protagonistas apskritai neturi jokiø konkretesniø go“ santykio su pasauliu buvimas (kaip, pavyz- referencijø á savo asmená bei biografiðkumà, vei- dþiui, romantikø koncepcijose) neámanomas. Vi- kia tiesiog kaip „pamiðëlis“. G. Benno herojus su- suomenë „nekaltinama“, ji ekspresionistø poþiû- sitapatina su medicinos sfera, „Rönne“ primena riu negatyvi savaime. Galimybës jà pakeisti netgi rentgen¹ (vok. Röntgen), jis tampa abejinga aplin- nesvarstomos8. Þmogaus ir visuomenës/ pasaulio kinio pasaulio ir savo paties kûno stebëjimo „ka- prieðprieða iðkyla visu negailestingumu. mera“, asmeniniai iðgyvenimai netenka vertës. W. Taèiau ekspresionistai parodo, jog destrukty- Rheinerio novelës pagrindinis personaþas Tobi- vus pradas bei krizës prieþastys slypi ne tik visuo- jas – kontrastas bibliniam Tobijui jaunesniajam, menës instancijose ar struktûrose, bet ir paèiame kurá tëvas nuo pat kûdikystës iðmokë „bijoti Vieð-

8 Kitaip yra ekspresionizmo dramoje, kur herojus savo etinëmis galiomis daþnai pasiryþæs pakeisti pasaulá. 9 Neþymiai modifikuota vardo forma „Michel“ vokieèiø kalboje tapo bendriniu, daþniausiai pajuokianèiu þodþiu, þyminèiu geraðirdá, bet naivø, kvailokà ar nuobodø („standartiná“) þmogø. Junginys „vokieèiø Michelis“ (der deutsche Michel) tapæs garbingo, taèiau politiðkai indiferentiðko, nerangaus vokieèiø smulkiojo biurgerio sinonimu. 10 Iðtraukos ið nagrinëjamø noveliø, iðskyrus G. Heymo „Pamiðëlá“, verstos straipsnio autorës. J. Bajarûnienë. PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE 35 paties ir sergëtis kiekvienos nuodëmës“ (Ðventa- èiau – antiherojai) – ambivalentiðki. Autoriai taip sis Raðtas 1991, p. 145). Jis elgiasi prieðingai negu konstruoja pasakojimà, kad iðoriniame veiksmo angelo lydima ir Dievo valiai paklûstanti Senojo lygmenyje personaþai veikia kaip patologiniai ti- Testamento figûra. Aliuzija á bibliná tekstà tik dar pai, o savo keistomis emocijomis, liguistomis re- aðtriau pabrëþia ðio veikëjo vienatvæ ir pasmerk- akcijomis á aplinkà atskleidþia kitoká tikrovës ma- tumà. O. Loerke‘s novelës personaþo Frydricho tymà ir tarsi „patvirtina“ S. Freudo ar H. Bergso- Ðedelio (vok. Schädel reiðkia „kaukolë“) padëtis no teiginius apie psichiniø procesø savarankiðku- apgailëtina, jo buitis – skurdi ir banali. Herojus mà, jø nepavaldumà protui bei valiai (Vietta/ praranda bet koká sàlytá su sociumu, jo galvoje Kemper 1997, p. 144-145). gimsta nerealios vizijos. Kartu kritikuojama ir eks- Noveliø siuþetuose plëtojami tokie patologi- presionizmo ideologija, sureikðminusi individà, niai veikëjø elgesio ir jausenos aspektai kaip ego- parodijinëje ðviesoje parodoma ðios srovës reto- centriðkumas, nepaprastas emocinis jautrumas, li- rika, patosas, atotrûkis nuo þemiðko gyvenimo pro- guista nuotaikø kaita, reakcijø neadekvatumas, blemø. polinkis á kliedesius ir haliucinacijas. A. Döblino Protagonistø beveidiðkumà, abejingumà socia- personaþui, „nuþudþiusiam“ pienæ, atrodo, jog linei saviraiðkai, visiðkà uþsisklendimà savyje ro- ið stiebo teka ne sultys, o kraujas. Michaelio Fi- do jø troðkimas transformuotis á gamtos objek- ðerio liguistoje vaizduotëje medþiai virsta gyvais tus. G. Heymo pamiðëlis prieð mirtá pasijunta ta- teisëjais. Savo kaltæ jis iðgyvena itin dramatiðkai, rytum á tolumas neriantis paukðtis: „Jis buvo di- hipertrofuotai. Siekdamas jà iðpirkti, herojus nu- delis baltas paukðtis virð didelës vieniðos jûros, sû- þudytai pienei (jà pavadina „Ellen“) atidaro pi- puojamas amþinoje ðviesoje, aukðtai mëlynëje. Jo niginæ sàskaità, elgiasi taip, tarytum ji bûtø ðei- galva rëmësi á baltus debesis, jis buvo saulës, uþ- mos narys. Taèiau já tarsi tikrà þmogþudá traukia tvindþiusios visà dangø, kaimynas“ (1998, p. 13). á „nusikaltimo“ vietà. Vëliau jis ið miðko parsi- Panaðø palyginimà matome ir G. Benno tekste: neða kità pienæ, ásivaizduodamas, kad ji – „au- „Að visada troðkau pakilti lyg paukðtis ið prara- kos“ duktë, jà pasodina, priþiûri lyg gyvà bûtybæ. jos“ (1987, p. 144). A. Döblino personaþas taip Kada tarnaitë vienà dienà praneða netyèia sudau- pat galop pradingsta gamtos stichijoje, já pasig- þiusi vazonà su piene ir iðmetusi já lauk, Fiðeris lemþia miðkas ir kalnai. O. Loerke’s protagonisto staiga pajunta palengvëjimà: “[…] teisingumas ágimtas nebylumas vëliau perauga á „gyvûno ir ir laimë buvo jo pusëje […] Jis pergudravo mið- nimfos balsà“ (1988, p. 273). kà. […] Jis galëjo þudyti, kiek tik norëjo. Jam bu- Tokiose transformacijose nesunku áþvelgti savo nusispjaut ant visø pieniø” (1988, p. 115). Pie- votiðkà istoriná regresà, atavizmà. Personaþai ne- nës „þudikas” bëga ið miesto ir pradingsta „kal- reprezentuoja visuomenës, jø likimais parodoma, nø miðko tamsoje“. jog resocializacija – neámanoma. Negatyvi visuo- G. Heymo „pamiðëlá“ pakeliui á namus (kuriø menës ir pasaulio vizija yra tiek liguistos veikëjø ið tikrøjø jau nebeturi) apima þiaurûs pojûèiai, o bûsenos produktas, tiek kritiðka ekspresionizmo jausmas, kad jis eina ne per javø laukà, o per aikð- autoriø nuostata visuomenës bei jos institucijø at- tæ, kurioje guli þmoniø galvos ir kurias jis traiðko þvilgiu. savo þingsniais, teikia jam neapsakomà malonu- Ekspresionistai atskirame individe iðskleidë – mà. Ðie pojûèiai pereina á atvirà agresijà ir þudy- nors ir pavojingais ratilais kunkuliuojanèià – vidi- mo manijà. Aukomis tampa du vaikai ir moteris. næ energijà, vitalizmà bei pasàmonëje slypinèias Aukø vaizdas já apsvaigina, suteikia jam fiziniø jë- estetines galias. Aptariamø noveliø herojai (grei- gø ir iðkreiptø estetiniø pojûèiø, vizualiniø ir akus- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 36 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE tiniø áspûdþiø: “Jis pasivijo vaikus ir iðplëðë mer- didmiesèio (Berlyno) gatves, aikðtes, stotis, tune- gaitæ ið smëlio. […] Jis dauþë vaikø galvas vienà á lius, vaistinëse maldauja narkotikø. Visur jauèiasi kità. Viens, du, trys, viens, du, trys, skaièiavo, o su stebimas, persekiojamas, já kankina baimë ir ha- skaièium „trys“ abi galvelës trinksëjo lyg perkû- liucinacijos. Jis girdi, kaip ðnabþda rasoti medþiai, nas. Pasirodë kraujas. Tai já apsvaigino, pakëlë á parko krûmai, miesto laikrodis jam primena me- dievus. Jis negalëjo nedainuoti. Prisiminë choralà taliná vaiduoklá, jis regi mirðtanèià motinà ir ver- ir uþgiedojo […] (1998, p. 7). Pamiðëlis elgiasi lyg kianèià seserá, girdi keistus balsus. Tekste pasako- vampyras, geria aukos kraujà. Mieste jis atsiduria tojo balsas susilieja su Tobijo tiesiogine bei vidine didelëje prabangioje parduotuvëje, kurià dël li- kalba, kitø personaþø frazëmis, literatûrinëmis ci- guistos vaizduotës palaiko baþnyèia. Apdujæs nuo tatomis. Paþymëtina, jog protagonistui kitø gyve- þmoniø ir daiktø gausos, liftu kyla á virðø, uþlipa nimas atrodo netikras. Kaviniø lankytojø bûtis – ant galerijos turëklø. Pamiðëlis pasijunta paukð- tarsi „margi atspaudþiamieji paveikslëliai, kurie èiu, já apima svaiginantis skrydþio pojûtis. „Skris- dovanojami vaikams“ (1987, p. 170-171). Taèiau damas“, tai yra ðokdamas þemyn, jis þmoniø mi- narkotikø sukeltà „sàmonës praplëtimà“, spon- nioje sukelia panikà, chaosà, pasmaugia dar ke- taniðkus estetinius atsivërimus lydi neiðvengiamos lias aukas. Pabaigoje já pakerta policininko ðûvis. praþûties nuojauta. W. Rheinerio novelëje iðkyla Prieð mirdamas jis dar girdi, kaip ið apaèios „kilo iðbaigtas, meniðkai átaigus ir tragiðkas pasmerkto amþina muzika, ir jo mirðtanti ðirdis atsivërë, vir- þmogaus egzistencijos vaizdas. pëdama nuo beribës palaimos“ (Heymas 1998, O. Loerke’s novelës vyksmà taip pat uþpildo p. 13). G. Heymo novelë „Pamiðëlis“ bene ryðkiau- protagonisto pasàmonës vaizdiniai. Frydricho Ðe- siai atstovauja charakteringai ankstyvojo vokieèiø delio galva kupina patetiðkø, ekspresionizmo ma- ekspresionizmo prozos savybei – patologiniø bû- nifestø stiliø primenanèiø minèiø apie þmonijà, senø estetizacijai, beprotybës tapatinimui su dio- brolybæ, apie þemës ir ðirdies vienovæ, saulës pra- nisiðkuoju svaiguliu. naðystæ. O kasdienybëje jis vieniðas, pasigailëti- G. Benno personaþas praranda savo sociali- nas. Ryðkiau negu kituose aptartuose tekstuose nes ir profesines kvalifikacijas, taèiau jam atsive- autorius formuoja ironiðkà poþiûrá á sveikà nuo- ria kitas, iracionalus vidinis pasaulis. Gydytojas Re- vokà praradusá herojø, atvirai iðsako savo neigia- në intuityviai jauèia savo pasàmonës kûrybines ga- mus vertinimus, pabrëþia jo tuðèiagarbiðkumà, lias. Kitaip negu pirmøjø dviejø aptartø noveliø sentimentalumà, arogancijà, infantiliðkumà. protagonistø, gydytojo Renë pakitæ pojûèiai ir O. Loerke’s novelë savo energijà semia ið grotes- veiksmai neprasiverþia þiaurios agresijos srautu, ko poetikos. Galima sakyti, jog „Lëlë“ yra litera- o tampa naujos, poetinës egzistencijos versme. Ra- tûrologinis tekstas, parodijuojantis „silpnàsias“ cionalø, scientistiná poþiûrá á þmogø autorius prie- ekspresionizmo puses – patosà, daugiaþodæ, abst- ðina su kûrybos sfera, kurioje gimsta nauji þodþiai, raktaus turinio retorikà, atotrûká nuo þemiðkos naujos metaforos („mëlynas plukiø kalavijas“, kasdienybës. „pietinis ðviesos krytis“, „pietø kraðtø griuvësiai“ Nors ekspresionizmo autoriai ir sureikðmina ir kt.). Ðis idealusis pasaulis G. Benno kûryboje patologijos temà, o socialinæ aplinkà vertina ne- daþniausiai susijæs su ðviesa, mëlyna spalva, me- gatyviai, taèiau jie nerodo beprotybës bûsenos kaip diteranine kultûra. vienintelës iðsilaisvinimo alternatyvos. Prieðingai, W. Rheinerio novelës dinamizmà lemia suaud- á protagonistø erdvæ ávedami ir teigiami pradai – rinta herojaus bûsena. Tobijo kûrybinës galios pa- gamta, vaikai, moterys. Jie nurodo skausmingà ir kirstos galutinai. Lyg þvëris narve jis blaðkosi po tragiðkà herojø atotrûká nuo natûralios gyvense- J. Bajarûnienë. PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE 37 nos, jø nesugebëjimà ir nenorà prisitaikyti prie þudytø nekaltø aukø, taip pat ir vaikø, kûnai. Ta- socialinës tvarkos. Tokia figûrø konsteliacija patvir- èiau teigiamo pasaulio vizija kuriama tik ðtrichais, tina ir Wolfgango Rothe’s mintá apie dichotominá, á jà nurodo ðalutiniai personaþai. Taip yra ir kito- prieðprieðomis paremtà ekspresionistiná pasaulio, se novelëse. O. Loerke’s „Lëlëje“ pakrikusios sà- egzistencijos, gyvenimo modelá (1979, p. 16). monës veikëjà demaskuoja vaikai. Ryðkesnæ gë- A. Döblino „pienës þudytojas“ jauèia magið- rio – demoniðkumo antitezæ regime W. Rheine- kà traukà gamtai, taèiau santykis su ja yra iðkreip- rio „Kokaine“. Marion, „auksinis angelas“, Tobi- tas, sadistiðkas. Beje, vokieèiø ekspresionistai ypa- jà priglaudþia ir suðvelnina jo kanèias: „Já apëmë tingos reikðmës gamtai neteikë. Ekspresionizmas didþiulis dëkingumas ðiai ðvelniai bûtybei, vienin- gimë ið didmiesèiø, techninës civilizacijos, nors, telei, neatstûmusiai jo, Parijo, likusio be draugø, antra vertus, ðios srovës raðytojai ir menininkai kurá kiekvienas namas iðspjaudavo tarsi ðlykðèià garbino archajiðkà pasaulëjautà, spontaniðkà þmo- atmatà“ (1987, p. 188). gaus sàlytá su gamtos jëgomis. Todël jø tekstuose Ekspresionizmo prozos dominantës – neápras- regime visiðkai kitokià gamtos pasaulio traktuo- tas veiksmas, netipiðkai besielgiantis personaþas tæ, negu, tarkim, romantikø kûryboje. A. Döblino ir staigus veiksmo lûþis. Herojai susitelkæ á save, novelës pagrindiná motyvà (geltonà pienæ) gali- taèiau jø màstymas daugiau spontaniðkas, jie per- ma bûtø traktuoti netgi kaip romantikos simboliu dëtai jautriai reaguoja á iðoriná pasaulá. Pagrindi- tapusios „mëlynosios gëlës“ ðarþà11. Taèiau bûtent në aptariamø tekstø epinë savybë – itin dinamið- taikios gamtos fone protagonisto figûra darosi dar kas, judesiø ir gestø prisodrintas veiksmas. labiau groteskiðka. Jo bûsenà iðreiðkia ir trauka A. Döblino personaþas savo „nusikaltimà“ ávyk- ryðkiems objektams bei spalvoms. Pritaikius do vaikðèiodamas gamtoje. Joje jis neranda nu- þymaus ekspresionisto dailininko ir teoretiko Was- siraminimo (tai bûdinga romantiniam herojui), silijaus Kandinskio (1866-1944) samprotavimus prieðingai, ant gamtos objektø iðlieja susikaupu- apie spalvas, galima teigti, jog A. Döblino perso- sá átûþá pasauliui, kartu – ir savo bejëgiðkumui. naþui „geltona spalva […] sukelia nepaaiðkinamà G. Heymo „pamiðëlio“ bûsena atsiskleidþia ner- jaudulá bei nerimà“ (1994, p. 2). Tolesnës Kan- vingais judesiais, psichine átampa, bëgimu, stai- dinskio áþvalgos tarsi pagrindþia A. Döblino vei- giais veiksmais ar fiziologinëmis reakcijomis. W. këjo elgsenà: „Turint galvoje dvasinæ þmogaus Rheinerio „Kokaino“ herojus blaðkosi, bëga uþ- bûklæ, geltonos spalvos poveiká galima prilyginti daru ratu – po Berlyno stotis, poþeminius tune- „spalvingai beprotybei“. Ne melancholijai ar hi- lius, gatviø labirintus. O. Loerke’s novelës pro- pochondrijai, o intensyviam pamiðimo priepuo- tagonistas savo „idée fixe“ bando realizuoti taip liui. Tarsi ligoná bûtø apëmæs aklas ásiûtis ir jis siau- pat nuolat nerimastingai judëdamas, tarsi neva- tëdamas pultø visus aplinkinius, dauþytø po ran- lingai savo kûnà perkeldamas ið vieno taðko á ki- ka pakliuvusius daiktus […], kol galø gale galuti- tà. Ir kituose ekspresionistø tekstuose pabrëþia- nai iðsektø“ (1994, p. 2)12. mas figûrø kûniðkumas, daþnai kûnas metonimið- G. Heymo „pamiðëlis“ savo agresijos átûþá pra- kai dalyvauja vietoj veikëjo, tai ypaè ryðku deda lieti taip pat gamtoje. Þiaurus kontrastas tarp A. Döblino novelëje: „O jo kojos ëjo toliau. Jis vasaros idilës ir vidinës personaþo bûsenos – nu- ëmë rûstauti. Nejau kojos dabar panoro ásakinë-

11 Ðis motyvas plëtojamas Novalio (Friedricho von Hardenbergo) romano Heinrichas fon Ofterdingenas (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, iðspausd. 1802) pradþioje. 12 W. Kandinskio knyga Apie dvasingumà mene (Über das Geistige in der Kunst) pasirodë 1912 m. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 38 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE ti; já apëmë pyktis dël to, kad jos savavaliðkai verþë- linkos ryðys. Pasaulis vaizduojamas kaip labirin- si á prieká” (1970, p. 106). Ernsto Ribbato paste- tas, ëjimas/ bëgimas simbolizuoja gyvenimo ke- bëjimu, valios nekontroliuojamas kûnas tarsi su- lià, vedantá á praþûtá. skyla á atskiras dalis ir þenklina visiðkà asmenybës Nors vokieèiø ekspresionistai teoriðkai ragi- disociacijà (1970, p. 56). no griauti ne tik „senàjá pasaulá“, bet ir tradicines Noveliø veikëjø bûsena gali bûti apraðyta ir literatûrinio vaizdavimo formas, nagrinëjamos no- psichiatrijos sàvokomis. Protagonistai yra vieniði, velës atitinka tradicinës, klasikinës novelës reika- izoliuoti, nesugeba bendrauti, adekvaèiai suvokti lavimus. Plëtojama netikëta, neáprasta situacija, esamos situacijos, integruotis á socialinæ sferà. Pa- anot Wolfgango Johanno Goethe’s, – „negirdë- sitelkus psichoterapijos terminologijà, galima teig- tas nutikimas“ (Eckermann 1999, p. 166). Apta- ti, kad jie nepajëgia iðtrûkti ið „ydingojo apmau- riamos novelës turi tvirtà veiksmo aðá, ámanoma do rato“ […], „kurio pagrindas yra abipusis ir vi- empiriðkai pajusti erdvæ ir laikà, ávedami klasiki- siðkas situacijos nesuvokimas“ (Melanas 1994, p. nei novelei bûdingi simboliai, reiðkiami konkre- 22). G. Heymo „pamiðëlá“ iðtinka amokas – per- èiais objektais. Tai pienë, smegenys (þenklinan- sonaþas apimamas nesulaikomo patologinio no- èios proto monopolá, pasaulyje vieðpataujantá ra- ro þudyti visus savo kelyje. A. Döblino novelës vei- cionalumà), kokainas, lëlë. Tik kartais (kaip, pa- këjas – uþsimaskavæs maniakas, paranoikas. Jis ne- vyzdþiui, G. Benno novelëje) pasakojimas perei- suvokia nei savo asmenybës, nei tikrovës realu- na á taip vadinamà „absoliuèià prozà“, kuriai ga- mo. Pienë jam sukelia kliedesá, apgaulingus pojû- lioja jau ne tikroviðkumo, o kalbiðkumo, muzika- èius. G. Benno personaþas gydytojas Renë yra su- lumo kriterijai. svetimëjæs savo paties atþvilgiu, ðizofrenija naiki- Nepaisant ðiø tradicinei novelei artimø bruo- na jo individualø bei socialiná tapatumà. W. Rhei- þø, ekspresionistinë novelë iðsiskiria veiksmo di- nerio novelëje átaigiai atskleista psichologinës pri- namiðkumu, kalbos intensyvumu, kinematografið- klausomybës bûsena – á saviþudybæ vedanti absti- ka vaizdø kaita, ypatingu dëmesiu ribiniø sielos nencija. O. Loerke’s personaþo mintys krypsta á bûsenø tyrinëjimui. Subjektyviø vizijø, manijø, li- lëlæ, bet ir jis pats tampa tarsi lëlë; jam galima guistø vaizdiniø, kliedesiø, haliucinacijø sureikð- „diagnozuoti“ stuporà – ligonio nejudrumà, ne- minimas, kaip matyti, yra ne atskiras atvejis kurio kalbumà, sustingimà. Visiems personaþams bûdin- nors vieno autoriaus kûryboje, o ekspresionizmo ga charakterio disharmonija, polinkis uþsisklæsti, prozos turinio dominantë apskritai. Novelëse ið- nesugebëjimas atsiskleisti kitiems (plg. Medicinos kyla suaudrintas, sutirðtintas nelaimingo, net ir enciklopedija 1993, p. 187). (tragi)komiðko, sadistiðko ar savæs naikinanèio Aptartose vokieèiø ekspresionistø novelëse þmogaus vidinis paveikslas. Tokia koncepcija eks- kuriamas dinaminis, moderniai literatûrai bûdin- presionizmo autoriai prieðinosi tikrovës neatitin- gas pasakojimas, kai figûra save iðreiðkia kaip ëji- kanèiai þmogaus ir pasaulio idealizacijai (pavyz- mo/ bëgimo, mintijimo ir konkreèiø veiksmø kom- dþiui, simbolizmo, neoromantizmo literatûroje), pleksas. Claudia’os Albes iðsamiai iðnagrinëtas pa- ardë tariamai stabilaus pasaulëvaizdþio iliuzijà, sakojimo modelis, pagrástas judëjimo formø imi- maiðtavo prieð Vakarø mentalitetui bûdingà ratio tacija (1999, p. 15), gali bûti pritaikytas taip pat ir absoliutizavimà. aptariamiems vokieèiø ekspresionistø tekstams. Pabaigoje derëtø atkreipti dëmesá á tai, kad Tokiu pasakojimu aprëpiama ne tik plati epinio aptartø noveliø autoriø santykis su savo prota- veiksmo erdvë, bet ir protagonistø psichodinami- gonistais kaip patologiniø bûsenø reiðkëjais yra ka, fiksuojamas nuolat kintantis þmogaus ir jo ap- ir individualus. A. Döblinas kuria groteskiðkà J. Bajarûnienë. PATOLOGINIØ BÛSENØ SKLAIDA VOKIEÈIØ EKSPRESIONIZMO PROZOJE 39 personaþà, akcentuoja jo keliamà pavojø visuo- mazgà. O. Loerke patologinës personaþo bûklës menei. G. Heymas ðiurpius pamiðëlio þmogþu- nepateikia kaip ypatingos, pasakojime vyrauja sa- dþio veiksmus estetizuoja, G. Bennas pasirenka tyrinis braiþas, nuvainikuojami ekspresionizmo preciziðkà ligos diagnozës apraðymà, taèiau pa- idealai. rodo, kad iracionaliuose asmenybës kloduose Ekspresionistø susiþavëjimas patologinëmis glûdi menininko kûrybos ðaltiniai. W. Rheineris bûsenomis nebuvo „mados“ dalykas – visuose vaizduoja itin skaudþià jauno raðytojo asmeny- tekstuose átikinamai atskleidþiama XX amþiaus bës dramà, identifikuojasi su herojumi ir tarsi pradþios individo krizë, pamatiniø vertybiø pra- projektuoja tragiðkà savo paties gyvenimo ato- radimas, taèiau kartu prapleèiamos estetinës moderniosios prozos galimybës.

Literatûra

ALBES, C., 1999. Der Spaziergang als Erzählmodell. Stu- KRULL, W., 1984. Prosa des Expressionismus. Stuttgart: dien zu Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adalbert Stifter, Robert Walser J. B. Metzler. und Thomas Bernhard. Tübingen-Basel: Francke. KUBILIUS, V., 1983. Lietuviø literatûra ir pasaulinës lite- ANDREOTTI, M., 2000. Das Ich als Vielheit. Friedrich ratûros procesas. Vilnius: Vaga. Nietzsche und die literarische Moderne. Schweizer Monatshefte, LOERKE, O., 1988. Die Puppe. In: Prosa des Expressio- 2000, 80. Jahr, Heft 7/8, 42-46. nismus, hrsg. von F. Martini. Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam jun., 272-281. ANZ, TH., 1977. Literatur der Existenz. Literarische Psy- MAHLENDORF, U., 1994. Die Psychologie der Roman- chopatographie und ihre soziale Bedeutung im Frühexpressio- tik. In: Romantik-Handbuch, hrsg. von H. Schanze. Stuttgart: nismus. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler. Alfred Kröner, 590-604. BENN, G., 1987. Gehirne. In: Sekunde durch Hirn. 21 Manifeste und Dokumente zur Deutschen Literatur 1910- expressionistische Erzähler. Leipzig: Philipp Reclam jun., 1920, 1982. In: Expressionismus, hrsg. von Th. Anz und 140-144. M. Stark, Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler. DAEMMRICH, H. S.; DAEMMRICH, I. G., 1995. The- Medicinos enciklopedija, 1993. Vilnius: Mokslo ir encik- men und Motive in der Literatur. Ein Handbuch. Tübingen-Ba- lopedicjø institutas, 2-as tomas. sel: Francke. MELANAS, D., 1994. Individuali psichoterapija ir psicho- DÖBLIN, A., 1988. Die Ermordung einer Butterblume. dinamikos mokslas. Vilnius: Avicena. In: Prosa des Expressionismus, hrsg. von F. Martini. Stuttgart: RHEINER, W., 1987. Kokain. In: Sekunde durch Hirn. 21 Philipp Reclam jun., 102-115. expressionistische Erzähler. Leipzig: Philipp Reclam jun., 170-190. ECKERMANN, J. P., 1999. Pokalbiai su Goethe. Vilnius: RIBBAT, E., 1970. Die Wahrheit des Lebens im frühen Werk Aidai. Alfred Döblins. Münster: Aschendorff. FREUD, S., 1984. Abriß der Psychoanalyse. Das Unbeha- RIETZSCHEL, Th., 1987. Nachwort. In: Sekunde durch gen in der Kultur. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch. Hirn. 21 expressionistische Erzähler. Leipzig: Philipp Reclam jun., 368-381. GALINIS, V., 1974. Naujos kryptys lietuviø literatûroje. Nuo ROTHE, W., 1979. Der Expressionismus: theologische, so- simbolistø iki treèiafrontininkø. Vilnius: Vaga. ziologische und anthropologische Aspekte einer Literatur. Frank- HEYM, G., 1998. Pamiðëlis. Vertë J. Mikutytë. Literatû- furt am Main: Suhrkamp. ra ir menas, 1998.04.04, 7; 13. SAUKA, D., 1994. Jurgis Savickis. XX amþiaus literatûros IHEWEAZU, E., 1982. Wandlung und Wahnsinn. Zu ex- ðifras. Vilnius: Baltos lankos. pressionistischen Erzählungen von Döblin, Sternheim, Benn STRIOGAITË, D., 1994. Lietuviðkasis avangardizmas ir und Heym. Orbis Litt. 37, 327-344. jo patirtis. In: XX a. lietuviø literatûra. Straipsniø rinkinys. Vil- IRRLE, G., 1977. Rausch und Wahnsinn bei Gottfried nius: Vaga, 104-134. Benn und Georg Heym. In: Literatur und Schizophrenie. The- ÐVENTASIS RAÐTAS, 1991. Senasis Testamentas. T. 2. orie und Interpretation eines Grenzgebiets, hrsg. von W. Kudzus. Vertë J. J. Skvireckas. Vilnius: Vaga. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 104-112. VIETTA, S.; KEMPER, H.-G., 1997. Expressionismus. KANDINSKIS, V., 1994. Spalvø kalba. Literatûra ir me- München: Wilhelm Fink. Sechste Auflage. nas, 1994.04.09, 2. ZALATORIUS, A., 1980. XX a. lietuviø novelë (iki 1940 m.). KREMER, D., 1998. E. T. A. Hoffmann zur Einführung. Semantinis aspektas. Vilnius: Vaga. Hamburg: Junius. ÞËKAITË, J., 1994. Jurgis Savickis. Vilnius: Pradai. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 40 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Jadvyga Bajarûnienë phenomena and the relation between poetic and me- Vilnius University, Lithuania dical discourses. Research interests: literatures of German-speaking The article is aimed at discussing one of the pre- countries, the poetics of literary trends, German Ex- vailing themes in the prose of German expressio- pressionism, comparative aspects of German and Lit- nism, i. e. the depiction of pathological states and huanian literatures. their aesthetic expression in the prose by Alfred Döblin (1878-1957), George Heym (1887-1912), THE SPREAD OF PATHOLOGICAL STATES IN Gottfried Benn (1886-1956), Walter Rheiner (1895- THE PROSE OF GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM 1925) and Oskar Loerkes (1884-1941). The group of chosen texts gives a possibility to show the diver- Summary sity of this theme spread, its development as well as German expressionism (1910-1920/25) is one of the the characteristics of a human being’s conception in most conspicuous German literature trends of the the prose of German expressionism alongside with 20th century. Thus, it has been analysed interdiscip- putting emphasis on the dominants and typology fe- linary taking into consideration different contexts of atures of a short story. This problem has not been philosophy, theology, anthropology, sociology, me- discussed in the Lithuanian literary science yet. dicine (psychiatry in particular) and natural scien- KEY WORDS: expressionism, an individual’s dis- ces. The literature of expressionism focuses on the sociation, subconscious, a pathological type, the phe- analysis of people’s states. The expressionist writers nomenon of madness, the ambivalence of an expres- (differently than, for instance, romanticists or rea- sionist character, dizziness, aesthetization, parody, lists) do not convey the feelings, moods or psycholo- grotesque. gy of a character; however, they reveal the states aroused by intense fear, tension or shock and record Gauta 2007 11 12 their climax point. An exclusive feature of the ex- Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 08 pressionist literature is its attention to pathological 41

Asija Kovtun Vytauto Didþiojo universitetas Èeslavo Miloðo slavistikos centras Laisvës al. 53-205, LT-44240 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 32 78 43 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: kultûrø dialogas, kultûrinis identitetas, rusø kultûra Lietuvoje.

RAÐYMO INTEGRALUMAS CZESÙAWO MIÙOSZO ESEISTIKOJE

Straipsnyje Czesùawo Miùoszo eseistikos metodo ir savybiø analizë derinama su dekonstrukcijos idëjomis, þenklo ir teksto problemomis, koncepto sàvoka. Literatûros teorija ávardija esë kaip ávairiø pasaulëþvalgø integralumà, gebëjimà apþvelgti pasaulá. Esë turinys vystosi pats ið savæs, tampa savæs suvokimu ir savo teorijos pagrindimu. Czesùawas Miùoszas raðymo kaip nulinës disciplinos sampratà apibûdina taip: raðyti apie tam tikrà obuolá, ta- èiau kartu apraðyti jo esmæ, „obuoliðkumà”. Kiekvienas atskiras daiktas, objektas bei subjektas turi bûti atskleistas kaip visuma, kurios reikðmë neatsiejama nuo pasaulëtvarkos. Eseistikoje tokia strategija taikoma ávardyti esmæ – sukurti ne kokybinius, o substancinius þenklus. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: integralumas, refleksija, konceptualizacija, dekonstrukcija, kalba, kultûra.

Jau daug ðimtmeèiø nuo Michel’io de Montaig- visatos tik kaip paskiras, kone bereikðmis viene- ne’io Esë (Les Essais) ðis þanras traktuojamas kaip tas, ágauna savo reikðmæ, tampa visatos dalimi“1 asmenybës savivokos ir saviidentifikacijos þanras. (Ýïøòåéí 1998, c. 32). Czesùawas Miùoszas to- Prancûzø màstytojas ironizuoja neturëjæs jokios kià raðymo kaip nulinës disciplinos sampratà po- kitos temos, tad raðymo objektu pasirinko save kalbiuose su Aleksandru Fiutu apibûdina taip: ra- patá (Montenis 1983, p. 337). Eseistikoje aprëpia- ðyti apie tam tikrà obuolá, taèiau kartu apraðyti jo mos groþinës, estetinës ir antropologinës proble- esmæ, „obuoliðkumà“ (Fiut 1997, p. 85). Kiekvie- mos, todël jà galima apibûdinti kaip ypatingà ðiuo- nas atskiras daiktas, objektas bei subjektas turi bûti laikinës kultûros kokybæ – filosofijos, literatûros atskleistas kaip visavertë visuma, kurios reikðmë ir mokslo jungtá. Eseistinius veikalus raðë patys neatsiejama nuo visatos ir pasaulëtvarkos. þymiausi XX amþiaus kûrëjai: T. W. Adorno, Czesùawas Miùoszas yra vienas ryðkiausiø XX A. Schweitzeris, A. Camus, M. Cvetajeva, M. Kun- amþiaus eseistø. Jo eseistika grindþiama asmeny- dera, T. Venclova. bës ir tampanèio þodþio sàveika, kur tapsmas turi Literatûros teorija ávardija esë kaip ávairiø pa- bûti suprantamas kaip judëjimas link prasmës at- saulëþvalgø interpretavimà, apskritai gebëjimà ap- radimo. Filosofinë refleksija bûdinga svarbiau- þvelgti pasaulá. Jos turinys vystosi pats ið savæs, sioms ðio raðytojo eseistikos knygoms: Pavergtas tampa savæs suvokimu ir savo teorijos pagrindi- protas (Zniewolony umysl, 1951-52), Gimtoji Eu- mu. „Taip kaþkoks reiðkinys, egzistuojantis ðalia ropa (Rodzinna Europa, 1959), Vizijos San Fran-

1 Vertimai ið rusø kalbos – straipsnio autorës. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 42 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

cisko álankoje (Widzenia nad zatoka San Francis- vadinto „piesek przydrozny“, panaðiai á „pakelës ko, 1969), Ulro þemë (Ziemia Ulro, 1977), Tëvynës ðuniukà“. ieðkojimas (Poszukiwanie ojczyzny, 1991), Pradë- Knyga analizuojama dekonstrukcijos metodu, damas nuo savo gatviø (Beginning With My Stre- remiamamasi jo pradininko Jacques’o Derrida ets, 1992). idëjomis. Grásdamas dekonstrukcijos bûtinumà, Màstant apie Czesùawo Miùoszo eseistikos sa- jis raðo: „Taigi logoso epocha sumenkina raðtà, lai- vitumà, galima pateikti keletà preliminariniø pa- kydama já tarpininkavimo tarpininkavimu ir nuo- stebëjimø: „Eseistika – tai màstymo metodas, ku- puoliu á prasmës iðorybæ. Ðiai epochai priklausytø riantis teksto reikðmæ susiejant paèias ávairiausias skirtis tarp signifikato ir signifikanto ar bent jau ir tolimiausias sàvokas. Eseistikos siekis – susieti keistas jø „paralelizmo“ atskyrimas ir iðoriðkumas kuo daugiau idëjø ið kuo skirtingesniø srièiø“ vieno kitam, kad ir koks neþymus jis bûtø” (2006, (Ýïøòåéí 1998, c. 32). Ðis vieno ið ðiuolaikinës p. 24). Mokslininkas mano, kad signifikanto ið- esë teorijos kûrëjø Michailo Epðteino apibrëþi- orybë – „tai apskritai raðto iðorybë“. Be jos savo mas taps tyrimo gaire. Czesùawo Miùoszo eseisti- prasmæ praranda þenklo idëja, kurià J. Derrida kos metodo ir savybiø analizë bus derinama su suvokia kaip neapibrëþtà ir nuolat kintantá istori- dekonstrukcijos idëjomis, þenklo ir teksto proble- ná vyksmà (2006, p. 260). Dekonstrukcija orien- momis, koncepto sàvoka. Esë þanro kaip reflek- tuojasi á daugybæ prasmiø, á vienintelës teksto tuojanèio autoriaus ir teksto vieningumà vertini- reikðmës matricos nebuvimà, á principiná teksto mas taip pat nubrëþia tyrimo gaires. Analizë bus „daugiabalsiðkumà“. Ji visada nukreipta á raðyti- grindþiama esë knygos „Pakelës ðunytis“ (Miùos- nio teksto esmës liberalizacijà, leidþia iðkelti ko- zas 2000) tekstais. kybiðkai naujoms, anksèiau nepastebëtoms pras- Czesùawo Miùoszo knyga „Pakelës ðunytis“ yra mëms ir reikðmëms. Ði procedûra ne tik praturti- viso jo gyvenimo patirtes ir apmàstymø apiben- na teksto turiná, bet ir koreguoja, keièia iðoræ, o drinimas. Netikëtas pavadinimas apima esë, pa- kartais ir kardinaliai já transformuoja. Dekonst- skiras pastabas, marginalijas, mintis apie gyveni- rukcijos praktika neturi grieþtos metodologijos ir mà ir kûrybà, teologinius mini traktatus, eilërað- nesiûlo grieþtø „ardymo“ bei „konstravimo“ tai- èius, taip ir nesukurtø kûriniø siuþetus. Ðio rinki- sykliø. Laisvinanti dekonstrukcijos prigimtis rei- nio miniatiûros panaðios á dienoraðèio pastabas, kalauja interpretacijø. esë ar iðplëtotus aforizmus, dalis jø primena pa- Derida pradeda nuo kalbos problemos. Ji nie- sakojimà arba alegorijà, bet, nepaisant knygos kada nebuvo tiesiog viena problema tarp dauge- þanro neapibrëþtumo, akivaizdu, kad esmæ suda- lio kitø. Filosofas teigia, kad kaip tokia ji dar niero Miùoszui bûdinga refleksija. Autoriaus koncep- kada neaprëpë tokio ávairiø tyrinëjimo srièiø, glo- cija knygoje „Pakelës ðunytis“ iðreikðta jau pir- balaus horizonto, nevienalyèiø diskursø ir skirtin- mojoje esë, aiðkinant pavadinimà: „Tai buvo ðimt- gø sferø. Pamatinë dekonstrukcijos intencija yra meèio pradþia, dabar jau – pabaiga. Màsèiau ne orientacija á raðtà. Ðiuo poþiûriu raðtas, anot tik apie þmones, kurie ten gyveno, bet ir apie ðu- J. Derrida, yra prasmës þymëjimo bûdas. Esminë nyèiø, lydëjusiø jø kasdiená triûsà, ir vienà syká ið dekonstrukcijos nuostata yra tai, kad á pasaulio ir kaþkur, tikriausiai ið sapno paryèiais, iðkilo ðis juo- proto refleksijà ásijungia raðtas ir kalba. Jie tarsi kingas, ðvelnus pavadinimas: „Pakelës ðunytis“ perregima priemonë fiksuoja proto veiklos rezul- (2000, p. 7). Po knygos pasirodymo net prabilta tatus (2006, p. 15). Dekonstrukcijos uþdavinys – apie naujo þanro atsiradimà, juokais ar rimtai pa- parodyti nuolatinæ sukurto ir jau aprobuoto turi- A. Kovtun. RAÐYMO INTEGRALUMAS CZESÙAWO MIÙOSZO ESEISTIKOJE 43 nio dekonstravimo galimybæ. Taigi dekonstruk- Miùoszo esë yra savitas, suasmenintas santy- cinis Miùoszo esë skaitymas numato prasminiø kis su tekstu. Autorius kalba apie pasaulá, bet tai atspalviø ir reikðmiø iðlaisvinimà. Straipsnio visø pirma – pokalbis apie save. Ðá tekstà galima tikslas – áþvelgti esë „Pakelës ðunytis“ nulinës apibûdinti ir kaip „atvirà“. Tokiame tekste auto- disciplinos apraiðkos strategijà – minties vysty- rius gali keisti savo vaidmenis: bûti dalyvis, stebë- màsi nuo atskiro, maþo prie bendro ir univer- tojas, antrininkas, dekonstruojantysis. Stebëdamas salaus. Suvokiant ypatingà atsakomybæ kûrybiná procesà, Miùoszo skaitytojas þaidþia su Czesùawo Miùoszo tekstui, esmine darbo sàlyga tekstu savotiðkà þaidimà, kurio esmë – tam tikra laikytinas maksimalus subjektyvumo redukavi- bendraautorystë: stebintis kûrinio atsiradimà ið damas ir teksto savidekonstrukcijos galimybë, le- lies tampa jo sukûrimo bendrininku, taigi tam tikra mianti gausias teksto citatas. prasme ir bendraautoriumi. Jis gauna ypatingà au- J. Derrida tekstinio pasaulio samprata, jog tonomijà – jo akivaizdoje gimsta tekstas-pasaulis, „nëra nieko, kas neegzistuoja kaip tekstas“, tapu- kuriame autorius kuria savo gyvenimo mità. Esë si poststruktûralizmo maksima, ji pagrindþia bet galima pateikti kaip dvasinæ, transcendentinæ, em- kokio teksto skaitymo procedûros sàlygas, taip pat pirinæ raðytojo patirtá. Galima pastebëti, kad realy- ir esë. Procedûra suvoktina kaip skaitytojo noras bë su jos detalëmis, pavaizduota esë, patvirtina bû- bendradarbiauti su autoriumi. Intelektualinis ben- ties-sàmonës laikinumà, ir tai gali tapti interpreta- dradarbiavimas tampa tekstinës strategijos dali- cijos pagrindu. Literatûros pasaulis yra ypatingas mi. Epðteinas pastebi: „Eseistiná metodà sudaro pasaulis, „sukurtas genijaus vaizduotës“. tai, kad pats apraðomas dalykas virsta apraðymo Miùoszas ásitikinæs, kad jo skaitytojà domina metodu. Eseistikai suvokiamas daiktas tarsi pats pavieniai dalykai. Atsigræþimas á daiktø pasaulá bu- sukuria mokslà apie save, ið metodologijos objek- vo bendrakultûrinë Miùoszo kûrybinës brandos to virsta subjektu, ið menamos sàvokos – ásigilini- gairë, paveikusi tiek filosofijà, tiek meninæ kûry- mu á save“ (Ýïøòåéí 1998, c. 31). bà. Viena svarbiausiø autoriaus nuostatø tapo pa- Teksto erdvë, kaip þinia, gali tapti atributinës slaptingo ðeðëlio, kurá „daiktai“ meta ant viso li- informacijos ðaltiniu. Ji vienija kultûrines, sociali- kusio pasaulio, paþinimo idëja – idealu bûtø kiek- nes, kalbines, mentalines autoriaus ypatybes. Ðià vienà daiktà padaryti universumo centru. Verta problemà jau seniai analizuoja filosofija ir litera- pastebëti, kad ir esë þanro populiarumas susijæs tûrologija. Eseistikoje ji apibrëþta kaip viena ið pa- su vidiniais þanro kriterijais. Ðis þanras kur kas grindiniø. Tyrëjai daro iðvadà, kurià galima api- adekvaèiau atskleidþia daiktø esmæ, plg. Czesùawo bendrinti taip: esë siekia dviejø tikslø – dialogo su Miùoszo esë „Laistytuvëlis“: „Mûsø dailininkai re- skaitytoju ir autoriaus pokalbio su savimi, savojo tai kada mëgdþioja olandus, kurie tapo natiurmor- „að“ paieðkos. Miùoszo tekstai ið esmës nukreipti á tus, o juk fotografija padeda atkreipti dëmesá á de- autoriaus savivokà. O jo esë ið skaitytojo reika- tales, taèiau filmai iðmokë mus pastebëti pasiro- lauja ne tiek supratimo, kiek naujo dialoginio as- danèius juose daiktus, nes ðie lydi personaþø veiks- pekto: pojûèio, empatijos, ásitraukimo á teksto erd- mus“ (2000, p. 146). Bûtent esë meninis vaizdas væ. Toks tekstas nukreiptas á skaitytojo intelektà, natûraliai susilieja su mintimi, asociacija ir intui- o ne á ðirdá. Jis personifikuojamas. Personifikaci- cija, dera su logine darna, minties aiðkumu. Gali- jos diapazonas labai platus – nuo autoriaus suvo- ma nuspëti, kad esë autorinë pasaulëþvalgos sub- kimo skaitant tekstà iki beveik visiðko bet kokiø jektyvizacija virsta dialogu, padedanèiu ji harmo- nuostatø redukavimo autoriaus atþvilgiu. nizuoti („rasime viltá iðsigelbëti ið audrotø nebû- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 44 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE ties ir chaoso vandenø“ (2000, p. 146). Esë meni- Dekonstrukcijos strategija grindþiama þenklo ninko subjektyvumas ágauna savarankiðkà, meni- ir daikto santykiø atskleidimu. Bet kurio teksto næ vertæ. Anot Rolando Bartheso, „[...] iðnyksta iliu- stilistiniai parametrai apibrëþiami semiotiniu au- zinis poþiûris á þodþius kaip á paprastà áranká, jie toriaus poþiûriu – santykiø tipo tarp kuriamo þen- pradeda þybèioti proþektoriais, ðaudyti petardomis, klo ir þymimo daikto pasirinkimu, atsakymu á klau- spindëti virpanèiais þybsniais, pakilti fejerverku, pa- simà, kà ir kaip pasitelkus þenklà galima paþymë- sklisti kaip sodrûs aromatai: raðymas þinias/ þinoji- ti. Eseistikoje tokia strategija naudojama esmës mà paverèia ðvente“ (1989, p. 553). Miùoszo eseis- ávardijimui – ne kokybiniø, o substanciniø þenklø tikoje taip pat optimizuojama teksto prasmë. Màs- sukûrimui. Eseistas kalba apskritai apie daiktà, jo tytojas nuspëja savo skaitytojo þiniø lygá ir pasiren- prigimtá, o ne apie rûðinius poþymius. Esë tekstas gimà pasitikëti autoriaus patirtimi. Potencialus pa- reprezentuoja ne konkreèià knygà, kûnà, jausmà, slëptas vadovavimas tampa teksto strategijos dali- o jø „prasmæ“ (Cz. Miùoszas). Kaip pavyzdá pami. Skaitytojas átraukiamas á teksto aktualizavimo teiksime Miùoszo esë „Atlimpa“ fragmentà: „Nuo procesà, skaitymas ágauna dramatiðkumo, átampos. áprastos realybës, kuri paþini tarsi savaime, atlipo Pats esë þanras suponuoja panaðià recepcijà. kita, automatiðka, uþsklæsta kalboje, á pirmàjà ne- Vienas ið Czesùawo Miùoszo esë strategijos vek- panaði. Suglumæ klausiame savæs, ar tai sapnas? toriø yra paslëptø ar akivaizdþiø aliuzijø aktuali- Fata morgana? Kalbos þenklø audinys suvysto mus zacija. Miùoszas atsisako sudëtingø stilistiniø kon- lyg kokonà ir paaiðkëja, jog jis pakankamai stip- strukcijø, jis ironiðkas ir net aðtrus. Jo esë meto- rus, kad apniktø abejonës mûsø jutimø tikrumu“ das artëja prie hermeneutinio metodo. Esë speci- (2000, p. 284). Esë tikslu tampa ne daikto þenkle fika reikalauja, kad skirtingos interpretacinës teks- interpretacija, bet jo vizijos normalizacija – idea- to prigimties sudedamosios dalys – kultûriniø ko- lios formos pasiekimas, anot Czesùawo Miùoszo, dø, formuliø, ritmiðkø struktûrø iðtraukos, socia- „grynojo þenklo“, tarsi netekusio kalbinio apval- liniø idiomø fragmentai – iðliktø nepakitæ, netrans- kalo, „erdvinio ekstrakto“ paieðka (2000, p. 85). formuoti á vientisà visumà. Eseistas kûriná mode- Tokios normalizacijos pavyzdys – Miùoszo esë liuoja ið visø galimø citatø, intarpø ir reminescen- „Sapnø ðalis“, kurioje þymimas dalykas yra sap- cijø á kitus tekstus, taip didindamas jo interpreta- nas. Taèiau þymëjimo tikslas – ne sapno charakte- cines galimybes. Jame, kaip raðo M. Epðteinas, ristikos, mistikos ásivaizdavimas, o jo realios ne- „susijungia bûties tikrumas, kylantis ið dienorað- realybës, „nepakartojamumo“ perteikimas, palie- èio, màstymo apibendrinimas, kylantis ið filosofi- kant tik formos tuðtumà. Toliau – idealios formos jos, vaizdingas konkretumas ir plastiðkumas, ky- paieðkos, jos esmës ávairiose erdvës ir laiko koor- lantis ið literatûros“ (2005, p. 12). Panaðus inter- dinatëse atskleidimas. Miùoszas pastebi: „Nepa- tekstualus teksto organizavimo ir kûrimo bûdas sakyèiau, kad tai nuolat pasikartojanèios smul- svarbus ir Miùoszui. „Pakelës ðunyèio“ apibendri- kmenos (ðios keièiasi), veikiau savaip uþkoduota nimai atskleidþia eseistikos kaip þanro ir ypatin- erdvinë atmintis, nors sunku pasakyti, ið kokiø ka- go màstymo metodo savitumus. Esë pavadinimai daise matytø kraðtovaizdþiø ji sudëliota“ (2000, „Ribotas“, „Akys“, „Nevaldomos“, „Seni“, „Ko- p. 85). J. Derrida daro iðvadà, kad þodis ir juo þy- dël gëda?“ ir t.t. reflektuoja autoriaus að, jo patir- mima sàvoka, t. y. þodis ir mintis, þodis ir prasmë tá, konceptualiàjà pozicijà, kuri kinta kiekviena- niekada negali bûti vienas ir tas pats, kadangi to, me kûrinyje. Toks prasmës daugiareikðmiðkumas kas þymima, niekada nëra, „neegzistuoja“ þenkle yra viena ið esë kûrybos sàlygø. (2006, p. 22). Pats þenklo kaip nuorodos á realø A. Kovtun. RAÐYMO INTEGRALUMAS CZESÙAWO MIÙOSZO ESEISTIKOJE 45 daiktà suvokimas suponuoja jo pakeitimà þenklu. lizuojamas. Kaip depersonalizacijos instrumentas, Poststruktûralistinë þymëjimo samprata grindþia- jis veikia kultûrinës kalbos prasmes. Esë „85 me- ma referencijos idëjos atsisakymu. Teksto prastai“ pradþia patvirtina panaðios pozicijos galimy- më nebûna duota arba nustatyta. Prasmë formuo- bæ: „Kad bûtø þinojæ, kà galvoju. ... Praradimai – jasi procese, kadangi kalbos negalima suvokti kaip tai netiesos þodþiai, gimæ po mano plunksna, jau neutralios prasmës talpyklos. Tekstinës semanti- nebeatðaukiami, nes iðspausdinti ir likæ visiems lai- kos tapsmas – tai prasmës ádëjimas á tekstà. Tada kams, bet kaip tik jie þmonëms bus patraukliausi svarbia tampa ne reikðmë, o þymëjimas. Jis supran- ir daþniausiai kartojami.“ (2000, p. 132). Tai nuo- tamas kaip vyksmas raðto-teksto sferoje. Prasmës roda á stereotipiniø, tradiciniø þenklø perregimà konceptualizavimo sampratà Cz. Miùoszas pertei- srtuktûrà. Ði matoma þenklo pusë, tradiciðkai su- kia esë „Vardas“: „Puikumas buvo neiðpasakytas, prantama kaip tiesa, Cz. Miùoszo juntama it ne- betgi iðgalvotas: þavesys varde Emberiza citrinel- tikrumas, dirbtinumas. Ávairiose esë skamba min- la, ne paukðty, medy, akmeny ar debesy“ (2000, tis apie prasmës ir supratimo transgresijà. Kar- p. 73). Poetas jauèia, kad akustinis pavidalas nëra tais tai labai tragiðkas vieniðumo prisipaþinimas: iðorinës realybës atspaudas. Pasitvirtina J. Derrida „Visà gyvenimà vaidinti, kad savas tas jø pasau- mintis apie tai, kad raðmenys yra bet kokios kalbi- lis,/ Ir þinoti, jog tokia vaidyba gëdinga“ (2000, nës veiklos pradþia. Ir Cz. Miùoszas pastebi, kad p. 12). Kartais rodomas savosios vaizduotës ribo- per visà savo gyvenimà poetas yra „pakeliui á kelis tumo prisipaþinimas: „[...] kartkartëmis atsiran- tobulai ðvarius þenklus“. Ið esmës jis kuria vienà da, blyksteli suvokimas, kokia siaura mûsø vaiz- tekstà, kuris niekada tobulai neásikûnija. Kartu esë duotë – tarsi per kietos mûsø kaukolës trukdytø „Strategija“ autorius susirûpinæs tuo, kaip sujungti protui aprëpti tai, kà jis turëtø aprëpti“ (2000, p. þodá ir prasmæ, þenklà ir jo turiná. Jis visada ieðkojo 8). Màstytojui atrodo, kad protas jam nepaklûs- bûdo, kaip, „[...] eiliuojant þodþius iðsaugoti jà ne- ta: „Turëèiau þinoti viskà, kas dedasi dabar, ðiuo iðtartà tarp þodþiø ir eiluèiø“ (2000, p. 157). metu, kiekviename Þemës taðke. Turëèiau gebëti Esë „85 metai“ Cz. Miùoszas þymëjimà regi perprasti savo amþininkus ir keliø bûsimø kartø kaip raðymo pagrindà: „Taigi klausiau savæs, ar turi þmones, taip pat ir tuos, kurie gyveno prieð du ir taip bûti, jog tam, kad paraðytumei ðioká toká kie- prieð aðtuonis tûkstanèius metø“ (2000, p. 8). Pa- ká tikrai gerø dalykø, privalai sumokëti – ne tik naðiø apmàstymø iðvada: „Turëèiau – na ir kas“ sudarkytu gyvenimu, tokiu kaip mano, bet ir ne- (2000, p. 8). Cz. Miùoszo eseistikoje þenklas ir teks- tvarka, sàðlavynu pakeliui á kelis ðvarius þenklus“ tas siekia prasmës minimalizcijos. Autorius patei- (2000, p. 132). Ar galima Cz. Miùoszo patikslini- kia natûralios kalbos vardus kaip maksimaliai idea- mà „ðvarus þenklas“ suvokti poststruktûralistiniø lizuotus objektus. Tai ypatingas esë þanro bruoþas. þenklo sampratø kontekste? Dekonstrukcinis po- Þenklas esë gali veikti sàvokos kaip koncepto þiûris á ðá kûriná suteikia pagrindà panaðiai prie- pavidalu. Koncepto terminà reikia patikslinti. Tra- laidai. „Ðvarus þenklas“ gali bûti sugretinamas su diciðkai konceptas (lot. conceptus – „sàvoka“) trak- „tuðèiu þenklu“ – postmodernistinës filosofijos tuojamas kaip sàvokos turinys, atsietas nuo kalbi- samprata, susijusia su þenklo atvirumo bei besi- nës jo iðraiðkos formos. Jis funkcionuoja kaip su- kerojanèiø ir susikryþiuojanèiø reikðmiø begaly- pratimas ir paaiðkinimas. Poststruktûralistinë kon- bës prezumpcija. Jo „ðvarumà“ gali determinuoti cepto samprata pateikta Gilleso Deleuze’o ir Feli- kultûriniø interpretacijø begalybë. Tokiu atveju ra- xo Guattari knygoje Kas yra filosofija? Pamatinë cionalusis dekartiðkasis subjektas yra depersona- sentencija gali bûti tokia: „Konceptai nelaukia mû- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 46 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE sø jau paruoðti, lyg dangaus kûnai. Konceptai ne- zumpcijø viena svarbiausiøjø – teksto kaip nesta- turi debesø. Juos turi iðradinëti, gaminti arba, grei- bilios prasmës generacijos prezumpcija. Kalba, èiausiai, kurti, ir be kûrëjo paraðo jie niekas“ suvokiama kaip konceptas, gali tapti daugybës (Äåëåç, Ãâàòòàðè 1998, c. 14). Sàvoka, anot problemø sankryþa. Ðioje erdvëje ji susijungia su G. Deleuze’o, neturi sietis nei su subjektu, nei su kitomis, koegzistuojanèiomis problemomis. Kon- objektu, kadangi jis yra aplinkybiø visuma, jëgø sà- ceptas gali bûti analizuojamas „kaip sutapties, veikos vektorius. Toks koncepto kaip kalbos kûri- sutelkties ir sutirðtëjimo taðkas“ (Äåëåç, nio prigimties supratimas aiðkus ir Czesùawui Miùos- Ãâàòòàðè). Kiekviena sudedamoji dalis tampa zui, pastebëjusiam: „Nuo paprastos realybës, kuri intensyviu koncepto poþymiu ir eseistikos bruo- paþini áprastai, atlipo kita, automatiðka, uþsklæsta þu. Viena ið tokiø sudedamøjø daliø gali bûti da- kalboje, á pirmàjà nepanaði“ (2000, p. 284). bartis. Þmogus gali paþinti daiktus ne dël to, kad Esë erdvëje konceptas siekia universalizuoti jis prisilieèia prie daiktø ir absoliuèiø realijø. savo turiná. Já gali sudaryti atskiri fragmentai, ku- Ðiuolaikinei filosofijai priimtina þmogaus pabai- riø kiekvienas savo ruoþtu konceptualus, savaran- gos, mirtingumo idëja. Dël pabaigos þmogus tam- kiðkas, turi savo istorijà. Ði tezë visiðkai atitinka pa atidus dabarèiai. Czesùawo Miùoszo eseistikos koncepto sampratà. Dabartá Cz. Miùoszas suvokia kaip galimybæ Konceptas yra kuriamas savojo kûrëjo ir susijæs „iðsigydyti atminties negalavimus“, J. Derrida – su problema ar problemomis, á kurias turi atsaky- kaip bûdà iðsilaisvinti ið „onto-teo-teleo-fallo-fo- ti. Autoriui darbas su kalba – tai konceptualizaci- no-logocentrizmo“. Miùoszas pripaþásta, kad XX jos kelias: „Tarsi asketizmui save pasmerkæs vie- amþiaus þmogus vis dar yra visiðkai priklausomas nuolis, alinamas erotiniø vizijø, nuo savo vidinio nuo dekartiðkojo „cogito“. Jis ieðko „vienintelës, chaoso slëpiausi uþ sintaksës darnos ir ritmø“ kiekvieno þmogaus matomos, mums visiems ben- (2000, p. 143). dros tiesos apie daiktus“ (Miùoszas 2000, p. 9). Ta- Viena svarbiausiø koncepto savybiø yra jo pro- èiau ðie ieðkojimai raðytojui tampa sunkiu iðban- cesiðkumas. Galima teigti, kad konceptas yra ri- dymu ir pagunda. Mûsø sàmonei sunku suvokti binë proto bûsena, kai pasiekiamas suvokimas, tai proto fragmentiðkumà ir decentriðkumà: „Ne, vi- yra kai ágyvendinama „sielos uþduotis“. Ði sàlyga so to prieþastis man, kaip ir septyniolikto amþiaus taip pat atitinka esë bûdingà charakteristikà. Po- moralistams, yra nepakankama aistrø ir geismø ststruktûralistinis poþiûris á konceptà pagrástas tei- pavergto proto galia“ (2000, p. 165). Poetas ieðko giniu, kad supratimas netapatus konceptualizavi- stabilumo salos tarp dabarties metaistorijø ir ran- mui, kuris yra iðbaigtumo siekimo procesas, o suda jà – maidfullness. Jo supratimu, tai atidus dë- pratimas – momentali, taðkinë iðbaigtumo pasie- mesys dabarèiai, egzistuojanèiai dabar, o ne tam, kimo bûsena. Atmintis ir vaizduotë yra koncepto, kas bus (2000, p. 19). Plaèiàja prasme tokia ðiuo- nukreipto á supratimà èia ir dabar, savybës, jis yra laikiðkumo pajautos pilnatvë perteikia esë esmæ, trijø sielos galimybiø sintezë ir kaip atminties ak- paraidþiui verèiamà kaip „patirtis“. Tai mëginimas tas orientuotas á praeitá, kaip vaizduotës aktas – á ðiuolaikiðkume palikti minties erdvës neuþbaigtu- ateitá, kaip màstymo aktas – á dabartá (Äåëåç, mà, abejonæ, galimybæ. Cz. Miùoszui „Praeitis n e Ãâàòòàðè 1998, c. 31). Anot poststruktûralizmo, t i k s l i. Kas ilgai gyvena, þino, kaip viskas, kà tik dabartis tam tikra prasme iðtrina skirtybes tarp regëjo savo akimis, apaugo paskalomis, legendo- realybës ir jos vizijos. Ðiandien keièiasi klasikinio mis, didinanèiais arba menkinanèiais gandais“ tipo kultûros prezumpcijos. Tarp naujøjø pre- (2000, p. 59). A. Kovtun. RAÐYMO INTEGRALUMAS CZESÙAWO MIÙOSZO ESEISTIKOJE 47

Màstytojui nesvetimas kalbos, kaip vieno ið erdvæ þaidimui, refleksijos ironijai, nuðalinimui, centriniø, ðiuolaikinës kultûros, filosofijos koncep- kurie ryþtingai prieðiðki dogmatiðkam visø mi- tø supratimas. Jis ironiðkai raðo: „Ðiandien nebe- tologijø, pagrástø prioritetais, beatodairiðkumui“ þinau, ar tai tiesa, bet sulaukiau epochos, kada þo- (2005, p. 31). Anot autoriaus, kalbos santykis su dis nebesisieja su daiktu, pavyzdþiui medþiu, o tik kultûros pasauliu yra ypatingas. Tiesos siekimas su tekstu apie medá, atsiradusiu remiantis tekstu tampa apysaka ar eilëraðèiu, kuriuos poetas ávar- apie medá, ir taip toliau“ (2000, p. 57). Cz. Miùos- dija tik kaip mitologijà – „nei taip buvo, nei taip zas kalbà regi kaip autonomiðkà realybæ su sava jautei“. Jis daro iðvadà: „Tai pati kalba vyniojo vidine struktûra. Bet kuris tekstas apipavidalina- savo aksominæ juostà, kad uþklotø tai, kas be jos mas þodþiu ir egzistuoja „savyje ir dël savæs“. Esë prilygtø niekam“ (2000, p. 134). Cz. Miùoszas pri- – patogi þanrinë erdvë tikroviðkumo ir sàlygiðku- paþásta, kad skirtingose kultûrose egzistuoja samo konkurencijai, teksto ásiskverbimui á gyveni- vos kalbiniø þaidimø taisyklës, sava mitologija – mà ir atvirkðèiai. Esë autorius visada maksimaliai kultûrinë ir ideologinë. Jo vaikystës ðalyje þmo- tikras, bet kartu ir sàlygiðkas. Iðgalvoto ir realaus nës gyveno „veikiami tokio didelio visiems priva- santykio proporcijos nustatyti negalima, taèiau pa- lomos frazeologijos spaudimo“ (2000, p. 218). ti esë, panaðiai kaip dienoraðèio uþraðai, áprastai Laisvë jam taip pat yra þodyje: „Toji maþuma þi- paperka tariamu nuoðirdumu ir atvirumu. Ið èia nojo þodá, kurá iðtarus bûdavo iðeinama ið þaidi- ir jai bûdingas meniðkumo varþymasis su tikrovið- mo ir tada nebegaliojo jokie draudimai“ (2000, kumu. Pastaruoju atveju eseistika dar kartà kon- p. 218). Màstytojas ironizuoja: negana to, kaip mi- taktuoja su poststruktûralizmu, kuris postuluoja te stebuklingas þodis sergsti herojø, taip ir ðiuo- reprezentacijos krizæ, klasikinio pasaulio vaizdo laikiniame pasaulyje egzistavo ir buvo laikomas sugriovimo idëjà, bet „ne daiktuose, o kalboje ir paslaptyje þodis – „Èiur-èiu-ra“, kuris kasdienia- per kalbà“ (Umberto Eco) (Ïîñòìîäåðíèçì me gyvenime buvo þinomas daugeliui ir „jie galë- 2001, c. 986). Pasaulis ákalintas kûrinyje, þodis jo normaliai gyventi ir màstyti“ (2000, p. 219). neatskiriamas nuo sàvokos. Eseistika, kaip ypa- Tekstas kaip konceptas yra formuojamas kal- tingas ðiuolaikinës kultûros bruoþas, nukreiptas bos (judëjimas G. Deleuze‘o knygoje „Prasmës á neomitologinio vientisumo sukûrimà. Esë su- logika“ vyksta „nuo triukðmo prie balso“, „nuo jungia ne tik þodá ir sàvokà, bet mëgina suvieny- balso prie kalbos“, nuo kalbos prie þodþio, prie ti kultûrà ir bûtá. Toks visko bendrumas ir visko veiksmaþodinio þodþio, vidujai turinèiam kitimo aprëpimas bûdingas mitologinei sàmonei. galimybæ (Äåëåç 1998, c. 205). Ðis procesas tam- Cz. Miùoszas esë „Tos fejerijos“ menui, mitolo- pa eseistikos strategijos pagrindu. Teksto kon- gijai ir filosofijai, pagrástoms kalba, taip pat per- ceptualizavimo procese þodis iðsiskaidë á kalbà teikia mûsø pasaulio paþinimo funkcijas: „Visi ir ðnekà. Ðneka susijusi su sielos erdve ir su jos menai, visi mitai ir filosofijos, kad tik neuþsi- ritmais, energija, intonacija, patikslinimais ir ko- sklendæ savo paèiø aukðtybëse. Nes ið jø, ið pro- mentarais. Gramatika tampa tik jos dalimi. Ðne- to sapnø, atsirado ði planeta tokia, kokià paþás- ka gali bûti apibûdinta kaip esmë, kuriai bûdin- tame, pakeista ir keièiama matematiniø lygèiø“ gas subjektiðkumas, prasmiø iðskyrimo funkcija (2000, p. 71). M. Epðteinas taip aiðkina skirty- ir prasminis vientisumas. Ðneka kaip koncepto bes tarp sinkretinës senøjø epochø mitologijos dalis – tai ne diachroninis garsinës sekos proce- ir ðiuolaikinës eseistikos: „Eseistika vël sujun- sas, o sinchroninis prasmiø atskleidimo proce- gia iðirusias kultûros dalis, bet tarp jø palieka sas. Ðneka kaip bet kurio teksto pagrindas struk- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 48 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE tûruojama kalbinëmis priemonëmis (plg. „Tai, rijos, ta ðventë, þmogaus proto kuriama ðalia kas nepasakyta, tarsi neegzistuoja“ (Miùoszas gyvenimo bjaurasties!“ (2000, p. 71). Be to, kaip 2000, p. 62). Negana to, màstytojas supranta, kad pastebi J. Derrida, „Tarsi raðtas aprëptø kalbà minties jëga ir aktualumas dalykus susieja tam visomis ðio þodþio reikðmëmis“ (2006, p. 16). tikra seka: mintis – kalba – ðneka – daiktas: „Þo- Nuo tautos raðtingumo vystymosi gali priklau- dþiø rinkinys ar spalvø derinys drobëje pakeitë syti kultûros iðsaugojimas. Panaðus kultûrinis klausimus dangui, þemei, þvaigþdëms ir debe- kalbos reikðmës supratimas artimas Cz. Miùos- sims; ið ten atsakymø niekas nebelaukë“ (2000, zui: „Taigi jo kûrinys po dviejø, trijø ðimtø me- p. 82). Poststruktûralistai kalbà suvokia kaip tø. Jei bus gyva kalba, kuria paraðytas. Tai vis prasmiø kûrëjà ir tekstus konstruojanèià galià. dëlto priklauso ir nuo daugybës kvailiø, kurie Formuojasi visiðkai nauja kalbinës realybës vi- tà kalbà vartodami stums jà pragaiðtin, ir nuo zija. Netgi bûties prasmës suvokimas tampa ta- iðmintingøjø, kurie jà puoselës“ (2000, p. 74). patus kalbiniam jos konstravimui. Ákandin Paulio J. Derrida taip pat teigia, kad kalbos problema de Mano, cituojanèio Maurice‘à Blanchot‘à, ga- niekada nebuvo tik viena ið daugelio proble- lima pastebëti: „Bet kalba taip pat ið esmës yra mø. Þenklo „kalba“ nuvertëjimas filosofui reið- inkarnuota sàmonë, suviliota þodiniø formø su- kia paties þenklo infliacijà, kurià jis vertina kaip vokimo, þodþiø gyvenimo, jø skambëjimo gali- simptomatiðkà (plg.: „tarsi pati prieð save ji liu- mybës, tikint, kad ði realybë gali kokiu nors bû- dija, kad istorinë-metafizinë epocha savo pro- du atverti kelià, krypstantá á tamsià daiktø ðer- bleminio akiraèio visumà pagaliau privalo api- dá“ (Ìàí 2002). brëþti kaip kalbà“ (2006, p. 15)). Konstituoja- Kalbos kaip uþgimstanèio fenomeno traktuo- màjá kalbos vaidmená istorijoje Cz. Miùoszas të aiðki ir Cz. Miùoszui. Esë „Kalbos galia“ jis perteikia samprotaudamas apie lenkø kalbos raðo: „Galima tarti, kad net stipriausia, pilnak- reikðmæ: „Lenkø poetas didþiulëmis pastango- raujë, energinga asmenybë yra viso labo tik ðe- mis nugali savyje visà su kalba paveldëtà rûpestá ðëlis, palyginti su taikliu keliø þodþiø dariniu, net dël ásprausto tarp dviejø galingø valstybiø sa- jei jis pasakotø tik apie patekantá mënulá“ (2000, vojo kraðto likimo“ (2000, p. 102). Màstytojas p. 62). Konceptualizuojami laiko ir sàmonës ste- susirûpinæs lenkø kalbos situacija. Jo dëmesys reotipai sugriûva, o plaèiàja prasme supranta- kalbos ir kultûros ryðiui demonstruojamas pa- mas tekstas liaujasi jiems paklusæs. Tekstas nu- stabomis: „Negaliu atleisti tiems neþinomiems kenèia, kai subjektas ar „cogito“, priklausomas savo pirmtakams, kurie nesutvarkë lenkø kal- nuo asmeninës laisvës iliuzijos, áperða jam savas bos ir paliko man suveltà visokiø p r z e, p r z y, prasmes. Esë „Áspëjimas“ autorius taip pat pa- ú c i fonetikà“ (2000, p. 74). Ámanomas stebi, kad mûsø pasaulio vizija turi maþai kà ben- Cz. Miùoszo teksto suvokimo suartëjimas su J. dro su tikruoju pasauliu: „Susimàstykime ir krûp- Derrida gramatologiniu pasaulio suvokimu, kur telkime“ (2000, p. 72). Esë bûdingas daikto ir analizuojamas ne iðbaigtas þenklas, o tie proce- metodo panaðumas, ámantrus minties judesys, sai, kurie já sukuria. Labiausiai akcentuojama ga- einantis kiaurai per daugybæ ávairiø faktø, reið- li bûti teksto suvokimo interpretacija. Tokioje in- kiniø, idëjø. Jis reikalauja erudicijos ir aktyvi- terpretacijoje svarbi giluminës reikðmës paieð- zuoja màstymà, formuoja ir savàjá skaitytojà – ka, iðlaisvinimas ið kalbos valdþios. Klasikinë va- recipientà, átraukia já á specifinius þaidybinius karø filosofija laikësi kalbos perregimumo min- santykius. Ir Cz. Miùoszui raðymas – „Tos feje- ties atþvilgiu iliuzijos, o poststruktûralizmas kal- A. Kovtun. RAÐYMO INTEGRALUMAS CZESÙAWO MIÙOSZO ESEISTIKOJE 49 bà suvokia kaip priemonæ tiek prasmës nuðvie- mis þodþio formomis. Ryðá su kalba greièiausiai sinimui, tiek ir jos uþtemdymui. Kalbos ir galios apibrëþia jo eseistikos ypatumai. Vienos kalbos fenomeno koreliacija tapo aksioma. Tekstas ið- mokëjimas realizuoja apriorines, dar prieð pa- laisvinamas nuo autoriaus ir pakliûva á skaityto- tirtá esanèias þinias apie pasaulá. Tokiu atveju dar jo, kuris tampa pagrindiniu prasmës ðaltiniu, keliø kalbø mokëjimas suteikia aposteriorines nuosavybæ. Esë „Troðkimas“ Cz. Miùoszas raðo sàvokas, besiformuojanèias patirties pagrindu. apie tokià raðmenø ir prasmës sàveikà: „Troðki- Tai pleèia minties ribas. mas atsiverti þmonëms ir apie savo gyvenimà pa- Kaip galima ið teksto dekonstrukcijos pozi- sakyti viskà. Tai neámanoma. Nebent paraðius cijos nustatyti Cz. Miùoszo tikslà vëlyvojoje eseis- psichologiná romanà, kuris, be kita ko, bûtø la- tikoje, vadovaujantis „Pakelës ðunyèio“ teksto bai toli nuo tiesos“ (2000, p. 112). Nepriklauso- analize? XX a. kultûroje susidarë situacija, at- mà ir nevarþomà màstymo procesà siekia atkur- siejanti vienà nuo kitos þodþio ir daikto sàvo- ti ir eseistika. Esë autorius nepretenduoja á rim- kas, Cz. Miùoszo analizuojama kaip neviena- tà analizæ ir tik imituoja objektyvumo iliuzijà. reikðmë, „pavojinga“ visø pirma þymimam pa- Kartu eseistas linkæs á tam tikrà ypatingà þan- sauliui. Daiktai iðtirpsta savo vizijose. Tekstas sa- rinæ intonacijà – nelygià, nepastovià, orientuotà vyje kartu visada yra savojo objekto interpreta- á vidinæ kontrolæ, joje yra ir netikrumas, ir ne- cija. Jis visada literatûrinis, o tie stilistiniai bû- kompromisiðkumas, „tremtinio liûdesys ir val- dai, kurie pasitelkiami já kuriant, daro átakà jo katos akiplëðiðkumas“. M. Epðteinas raðo: turiniui. Kalba, nepriklausomai nuo jos vartoji- „Eseistas kiekvienà akimirkà neþino, kà jam da- mo sferos, neiðvengiamai yra meninë, t. y. visa- ryti toliau – ir todël gali leisti sau viskà, kà tik da funkcionuoja pagal retorikos ir metaforos nori“ (2005, p. 36). Panaðus teksto suvokimas dësnius. Interpretacija – tai pasaulio supratimo vyrauja esë „Aleksandriðkumas“. Cz. Miùoszas bûdas. Kaip minëta anksèiau, bet kuris eseisti- aiðkina aleksandriðkumo sàvokà kaip kûrybinio nis tekstas orientuotas á aibæ prasmiø ir daugia- impulso silpnëjimà ir praeities veikalø komen- balsiðkumà, todël autorius taip nemëgsta esteti- tarø skaièiaus didëjimà. Raðtijos kaip atsisaky- niø teorijø ir visokeriopø svarstymø, kurie „áva- mo nuo „represinio aiðkumo“ supratimas paste- ro mus á vieno vaidmens rëmus“. Nobelio pre- bimas ávairiuose esë. Jis suvokia savàjá kûriná kaip mijos paskaitoje jis atsigræþë á politikos ir emig- tam tikrà pareigà. Uþbaigtas kûrinys, sukurtas racijos problemas, taèiau ðio pasisakymo pras- „Jei kas bent þinotø, kokia kaina“, turi savyje mæ galima iðplësti iki semiotiniø eseistinio dis- aibæ prasmiø. O kûrëjas visada lûkuriuoja prieð kurso pagrindø: „Ðiandien poeto iðtrëmimas yra paskutiná taðkà ir uþbaigtiems bûtinybæ (2000, nelabai seno atradimo funkcija; kas turi valdþià, p. 66). Esë „Ne tas“ jis raðo: „Að ir jie. Kiek ga- tas gali kontroliuoti taip pat kalbà, ir ne tiktai lima prie jø priartëti? Poetas þino, kad jie laiko cenzûros draudimais, bet ir pakeisdamas þodþiø já kaþkuo kitu, nei jis yra, ir kad taip bus ir po jo prasmæ. Nelaisvos, ágyjanèios tam tikrø nuolati- mirties ir joks þenklas ið „ano“ pasaulio to ne- niø áproèiø bendruomenës kalba yra ypatingai atitaisys“ (2000, p. 58). Màstytojui duotas gebë- keistas reiðkinys...” (Miùosz 2001, p. 33). jimas regëti pasaulá virð þodþio barjero, visiðkai Meninis, refleksinis ir analitinis pasaulio suvo- laisvas keliø Europos kalbø mokëjimas, kai ra- kimas Cz. Miùoszo eseistikoje – tai siekimas kurti ðytojo sàmonë manipuliuoja ávairiais pasaulio substancionalius þenklus, kalbëti apie daiktà apskri- paþinimo aspektais, asociacijø impulsais, vidinë- tai, apie prigimtá, o ne apie rûðies poþymius. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 50 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

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Asija Kovtun concepts of contemporary culture. He sees the sign Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania as an autonomous reality with its interior structure. Research interests: studies of cultural dialogue, cul- Any text is shaped by word and exists “in itself and tural identity and Russian culture in Lithuania. for itself”. An essay offers a convenient generic space for the competition of reality and relativity, for INTEGRITY OF SCRIPTURE IN THE ESSAY- the introduction of text into life and vice versa. The ISTIC DISCOURSE OF CZESLAW MILOSZ world is enclosed in the literary work, and the word is inseparable from the concept. According to Czes- Summary law Milosz, language is in special relationship with Essayistic discourse is a special quality of contem- the world of culture. He admits that in specific cul- porary culture. The union of philosophy, literature tures specific rules of linguistic games and specific and science can be argued to be present here. In the mythologies, both cultural and ideological, exist. The paper, the method and quality of the essayism of treatment of a language as a phenomenon giving Czeslaw Milosz is related to the ideas of deconst- birth is also understandable to Czeslaw Milosz. Pre- ruction and to the issues of sign, language and text. tentious movement of the idea proceeding through An essayist discusses the object generally, a species, a number of various facts, phenomena and ideas are but not the typical features. In essay, the aim is not typical of the philosopher. It requires erudition and the interpretation of an object in the sign but maxi- activates thinking; it shapes its reader-recipient and mum formalization of its reflection, i.e. the achieve- involves him into the specific relations of play. ment of the ideal form. In his essays, Czeslaw Mi- KEY WORDS: integrity, scripture, deconstruc- losz concentrates on the language as a way of con- tion, essayism, language, culture, conceptualization. ceptualization: he sympathizes and he takes understanding of language as one of the core intellectual Gauta 2007 11 12 Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 11 51

Èðèíà Å. Ôàäååâà Êîìè ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé èíñòèòóò óë. Êîììóíèñòè÷åñêàÿ ä. 25, 167000 Ñûêòûâêàð, Ðîññèÿ E-mail: [email protected] Îáëàñòü íàó÷íûõ èíòåðåñîâ àâòîðà: ñåìèîòèêà êóëüòóðû, ðóññêàÿ êóëüòóðà XX âåêà, ñèìâîë è ñèìâîëèçì.

ÐÓÑÑÊÀß ÝÊÇÈÑÒÅÍÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÏÐÎÇÀ (ÎÏÛÒ ÒÅÌÀÒÈÇÀÖÈÈ)

Ðóññêèé ýêçèñòåíöèàëèçì âåäåò ñâîå íà÷àëî îò îïûòà èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé ðåôëåêñèè XIX âåêà: ôèëîñîôñêàÿ ñòðàòåãèÿ òåîëîãèçàöèè àóòåíòè÷íîãî îïûòà ðóññêîé êóëüòóðû, ïðåäïðèíÿòàÿ ñëàâÿíîôèëàìè è ðåëèãèîçíîé ôèëîñîôèåé íà÷àëà XX âåêà, ðåàëèçóÿ çàïàäíûé «äèñêóðñ îá Èíîì», óòâåðæäàëà ñèìâîëè÷åñêèé õàðàêòåð ðóññêîé êóëüòóðû, îíòîëîãèçì è ïåðñîíàëèçì ðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðû è ôèëîñîôèè (Â. Ô. Ýðí). Ðåôëåêñèâíàÿ ñòàäèÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ðóññêîãî ýêçèñòåíöèàëèçìà ïðåäñòàâëåíà, ïîìèìî ôèëîñîôñêèõ èäåé Ë. Øåñòîâà è Í. À. Áåðäÿåâà, òàêæå «ìåòàôèçè÷åñêèìè» ðîìàíàìè Ô. Ì. Äîñòîåâñêîãî. Õóäîæåñòâåííàÿ ýêñïëèêàöèÿ ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíîãî ïåðåæèâàíèÿ êàê òàêîâîãî ñòàëà âîçìîæíîé â XX – íà÷àëå XXI ñòîëåòèé, êîãäà îáíàðóæèëèñü òåíäåíöèè ñìåíû êóëüòóðíîé ïàðàäèãìû, è ïðîåêò ìîäåðíà ñìåíèëñÿ ïîñòìîäåðíîì – ðàçî÷àðîâàíèåì â ìîíîëîãè÷åñêîì ðàçóìå Ïðîñâåùåíèÿ è çàìåíîé åãî äèñêóðñèâíî-äèàëîãè÷åñêèì «êîììóíèêàòèâíûì äåéñòâèåì» (Þ. Õàáåðìàñ). Â ðåçóëüòàòå âíåïîëîæíîå Ðàçóìó «Èíîå» íå òîëüêî îáðåëî îíòîëîãè÷åñêèé ñòàòóñ è ïîçíàâàòåëüíóþ öåííîñòü, íî è ïîçâîëèëî ñôîðìèðîâàòü íàððàòèâíûå ñòðàòåãèè, àëüòåðíàòèâíûå ëîãèöèçìó êëàññè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû. Ðóññêàÿ ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíàÿ ïðîçà XX âåêà íà÷àëàñü ñ æàíðîâûõ òðàíñôîðìàöèé è íàððàòèâíûõ èçìåíåíèé â òâîð÷åñòâå Â. Â. Ðîçàíîâà; åå ïðîäîëæåíèåì ñòàëà ïîñòìîäåðíèñòñêàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà â ëèöå Ì. Ïàëåé, Ì. Øèøêèíà, îò÷àñòè Ò. Òîëñòîé è äðóãèõ ñîâðåìåííûõ ïèñàòåëåé. ÊËÞ×ÅÂÛÅ ÑËÎÂÀ: ýêçèñòåíöèàëèçì, ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíàÿ ðåôëåêñèÿ, ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíàÿ àíòðîïîäèöåÿ, ïîñòìîäåðíèçì, íàððàòèâíûå èçìåíåíèÿ, æàíðîâûå òðàíñôîðìàöèè, ýêçèñòåíöèàëüíûé «êåíîçèñ».

Истоки русского экзистенциализма ведут к экзистенциализма представлена, помимо интеллектуальной рефлексии XIX века: фило- философских идей Л. Шестова и Н. А. Бер- софская стратегия теологизации аутентичного дяева, также «метафизическими» романами Ф. опыта русской культуры, предпринятая славя- М. Достоевского. Однако собственно худо- нофилами и религиозной философией начала жественная экспликация экзистенциального XX века, реализуя западный «дискурс об переживания стала возможной в XX – начале Ином» (Гройс 1992), утверждала символи- XXI столетий, когда обнаружились тенденции ческий характер русской культуры, онтологизм смены культурной парадигмы, и проект и персонализм русской литературы и фи- модерна сменился постмодерном – разо- лософии (Эрн 1991). чарованием в монологическом Разуме Про- Рефлексивная стадия развития русского свещения и заменой его дискурсивно-диало- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 52 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

гическим «коммуникативным действием» (Ю. веческого существования, – именно в твор- Хабермас). В результате внеположное Разуму честве Розанова они нашли совершенно «Иное» не только обрело онтологический неожиданный способ репрезентации и осмыс- статус и познавательную ценность, но и ления. Именно Розанову удалось воплотить позволило сформировать нарративные стра- переживание экзистенции в адекватные формы тегии, альтернативные классической литера- экзистенциальной прозы. туре. В связи со сказанным появляется исследо- В своей ранней работе «О понимании» вательская возможность в пространстве Розанов писал: «Идея чистого бытия ранее всех русской литературы XX – начала XXI века других выступает в разуме и составляет первое обнаружить очертания ее глубинного пласта, реальное, уже сформировавшееся содержание который можно тематизировать как экзистен- его» (1886, с. 33). Идея бытия есть идея циальная проза. На наш взгляд, следует существования, и «понять существование есть говорить не столько о пострефлексивной первая и самая трудная задача науки» (1886, стадии художественного выражения экзис- с. 165). Переживание существования как боли тенциального опыта, определяющей его – экзистенциальный фон «Опавших листьев» мотивно-образный строй и характер дискур- и «Уединенного», организующий всю массу сивной манеры, сколько, скорее, о гиперреф- впечатлений и образов: «Боль жизни гораздо лексивной, когда рефлексии подвергается сама могущественнее интереса к жизни» – замечает экзистенциальная рефлексия. Отметим, что в Розанов (1912, с. 32). Отсюда «импрессио- наши задачи не входит рассмотрение всей темы нистичность» этой прозы, сквозь пестрые экзистенциальности в русской литературе XX мазки которой просвечивает, говоря словами века, поскольку наличие в ней экзистен- М. Хайдеггера, «ужас» и «забота». Отсюда и циальных мотивов представляет обширнейшее столь большое место, которое занимает здесь проблемное поле и за пределами анализа фиксация времени и места – размышления, остается целый ряд значимых для историко- впечатления, получения новости: «здесь- литературного процесса имен. Целью иссле- бытие» становится художественным хро- дования является попытка очертить границы нотопом «Опавших листьев» и «Уединенного». экзистенциальной прозы, выявив марки- В непосредственной связи с религиозным и рующие ее элементы и связав их с архети- экзистенциальным опытом тела в миро- пическими пластами русской культуры. созерцании Розанова, как известно, находится Русская экзистенциальная проза XX века проблема пола. Не что иное, как пол, по началась с жанровых трансформаций и нарра- Розанову, представляет собой выражение тивных изменений в творчестве В. В. Розанова. глубинной сущности существования как В многоцветной картине философских, культу- такового: «связь пола с Богом – большая, чем рологических и религиозных идей начала XX связь ума с Богом…» (1912, с. 169), и любовь – века личность и творчество Розанова предс- единственное «в себе самом истинное» (1912, тавляют особый интерес в силу его очевидной с. 205). Трагическая и полная духовных связи с последующими этапами русской противоречий борьба с историческим хрис- культуры. И хотя экзистенциальные идеи, тианством и Церковью, закончившаяся в очевидно, прорастали и сквозь проблематику конечном счете полным примирением в самом религиозной философии «серебряного века», событии смерти в Сергиевом Посаде в 1919 обращая внимание на проблемы смерти и году, становится для философа «оправданием» свободы, оставленности и трагизма чело- пола и плоти – своего рода экзистенциальной È. Å. Ôàäååâà. ÐÓÑÑÊÀß ÝÊÇÈÑÒÅÍÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÏÐÎÇÀ (ÎÏÛÒ ÒÅÌÀÒÈÇÀÖÈÈ) 53

антроподицеей. В творчестве Розанова, как и в для рефлексии и, пропущенное сквозь горнило духовной истории XX столетия, отчетливо все еще всепобеждающего разума, обретало прослеживается, говоря словами Г. Л. Туль- формы логического парадокса или вопло- чинского, «персонологический сюжет», щалось в трагедийно-катарсических пе- звеньями которого являются «феноменология рипетиях парадоксов психологических (но в гендера» и, позднее, «постмодернистский любом случае экзистенция находилась под телоцентризм с его деконструкцией тела» и, присмотром зоркого взгляда «всезнающего наконец, – метафизика личности (Тульчинский автора») – то в прозе Розанова ничего по- 2002). добного нет. В розановских заметках можно Говоря об экзистенциальной прозе В. В. Ро- выделить два плана. С одной стороны, это часто занова, следует отметить еще один ее мотив, случайный набор (калейдоскоп) впечатлений не нашедший своего отражения в «классичес- и размышлений (то, что Розанов приме- ких» формах русской экзистенциальной нительно к В. С. Соловьеву назвал «журна- философии – ни в творчестве Л. Шестова, ни у листикой» (Розанов 1912, с. 231-232)). С другой Н. А. Бердяева, однако чрезвычайно значимый – постоянный экзистенциальный фон, который для второй половины XX и начала XXI века. сам писатель определил как «боль» («…но Речь идет об отвращении как наиболее, может только при боли я и согласен жить» (Розанов быть, показательной черте современной 1912, с. 251)). Художественная сверхзадача – экзистенциальной рефлексии (Кристева 2003). выражение «интимного» – стала основанием Характерны в этом контексте рассуждения дискурсивной практики, основанной на Розанова о «микве» – слове еврейского языка1 , принципиально иных когнитивных, лингвис- значение которого соединяет в себе «непри- тических и логических принципах, нашедших личное» и «святое» (Розанов 1912, с. 83-84). продолжение в русской экзистенциальной Впрочем, и о себе писатель говорит, что душа прозе конца XX века. его сплетена из «грязи, нежности и грусти» – Не следует, однако, определять характер это золотые рыбки, играющие в аквариуме, розановских литературных фрагментов, только наполненном «навозной жижицей» (Розанов исходя из их так называемой импрессио- 1912, с. 181). нистичности (импрессионизм – одна из Примеры, подтверждающие эту мысль, характеристик, часто приписываемых его можно множить. Однако связь низкого, иногда прозе): впечатление здесь не является смысло- «пошлого», «некрасивого», откровенно телес- образующим началом по отношению к худо- ного, с одной стороны, и «интимного» (то есть жественному целому, не является и ценностью экзистенциального) – с другой, стала фило- как таковой. Напротив, калейдоскоп впеча- софским и художественными прозрением тлений становится формой сокрытия под- Розанова. Именно признание такой связи линного, того, о чем можно только молчать можно выделить в качестве того, что отличает (характерно, что даже сообщение о смерти Розанова от экзистенциальной традиции века часто выражается в «Опавших листьях» или минувшего и вписывает в век нынешний – XXI. «Уединенном» посредством фигуры умолчания Если для героев Ф.М. Достоевского экзистен- – знаком †). При этом в структуре каждого циональное переживание становилось поводом фрагмента розановской прозы акцент смещен

1 Миква – еврейск., баня с источниковой купальней, в которой моются еврейские женщины после регул (по Ф. А. Брокгаузу и И. А. Эфрону). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 54 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

с импрессионистических мазков – впечатлений ренский запоминается именно потому, что он и размышлений – на фон: фон общего экзистен- переключил способ религиозного мышления и циального (и всегда единого) переживания и его высказывание из плана чисто внешней фон «реальный». В частности, для Розанова догматики … в план духовной конкретности» чрезвычайно характерно точное указание (Фудель 1988, с. 41). Что касается В. В. времени и места впечатления – то есть той Розанова, то его «духовная конкретность» реальности, которая чаще всего остается «за особого рода – являясь телесной по своей сути, кадром» повествования. И это не случайно. неразрывно связанной с «мистикой пола», она Принято считать, что после публикации ранней и требует новых форм, преодолевающих работы «О понимании», не вызвавшей боль- дискретность вербальных определений и шого научного интереса и обойденной вни- логицизирующих нарративных стратегий. манием критики, Розанов обратился от проблем Экзистенциальный опыт в случае Розанова гносеологии к «жизни». Однако уже в этой касается не только экзистенциального одино- ранней работе он говорит о совокупности чества и ощущения собственного бытия как человеческих знаний как о бесконечном ряде «бытия-к-смерти» (хотя именно это наиболее отражений в сознании «бесконечного ряда очевидно и значимо), но и в попытке его явлений, проходящих во времени» (Розанов концептуализации. Можно говорить, на наш 1886, с. 7), и, противопоставляя случайность взгляд, что сущность экзистенциального опыта знания, которое он сравнивает с разорванной представлена в его творчестве посредством цепью, целостности понимания, приравни- концептов боли, пола, внутреннего («интим- ваемого им к стремлению восстановить ного»), внушающего отвращение / жалость. разорванную цепь (Розанов 1886, с. 15), он Концепт при этом не следует понимать как утверждает тем самым приоритет конти- форму абстрагирующего мышления, сопоста- нуальности над дискретностью. Розанов, на вимую с понятием: розановский концепт наш взгляд, создает модель своей будущей онтологичен, поскольку в его основе – пере- прозы – реализующей в форме лирико- живание бытия и рефлексия смыслов, которые философского фрагмента то, что не удалось сам писатель (впрочем, вполне в духе роман- выразить в нарративной форме философского тической традиции) определил как «непо- дискурса. При этом фрагментарность, «им- стижимое» (Розанов 1886, с. 66). Таким прессионистичность» являются здесь отнюдь образом, очевидно, что в экзистенциальной не способом выражения собственно мыслей и рефлексии Розанова обнаруживается доста- чувств писателя – они представляют собой не точно универсальная для столетия в целом что иное, как звенья «разорванной цепи», «тенденция сужения границ вменяемости и которые скреплены «тайной» личности автора личности» (Тульчинский 2002, с. 533). («бесконечной интимностью»). Однако, обнаруживая укорененность Такое отождествление истины и личности мировоззрения и личности В. В. Розанова в с ее «тайной» вообще было характерно для европейской культуре и философии, следует культурной рефлексии начала XX века – отметить и то, что связывает его с русской примером тому являются идеи П. Флоренского духовной традицией2 . или В. Эрна. В частности, несколько позднее На наш взгляд и «мистика пола», и «навоз- С. И. Фудель писал о П. Флоренском: «Фло- ная жижица», и «интимность» – то есть все то,

2 Тема «Розанов и национальный вопрос» достаточно изучена, обширна и не является предметом данной статьи. È. Å. Ôàäååâà. ÐÓÑÑÊÀß ÝÊÇÈÑÒÅÍÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÏÐÎÇÀ (ÎÏÛÒ ÒÅÌÀÒÈÇÀÖÈÈ) 55

что порой отталкивает читателя, всегда оказываются глубинным образом связаны с пронизаны общим для писателя (и не всегда мистикой и эсхатологией отдельного челове- выражаемым, «невыразимым»): жалостью к ческого существования. При этом эсхатологизм телесному, нечистому, некрасивому человеку. розановской прозы связан с растворением Отвращение предстает, как, впрочем, и все у личностного в телесном, интимно пережи- двуликого и многоликого Розанова, в разных ваемом: мистика истории метафорически обликах – телесного, «интимного», «непри- удвоена в мистике пола и телесности. При этом личного», «теплоты животности», объединяясь «Иное» по отношению к всесильному Разуму в то же время всегда единым: переживанием оборачивается попыткой «персонологичного» жалости к твари – «жалением». В этом смысле по своей природе смыслообразования, являясь Розанов является продолжателем хрис- «результатом глубоко личностного опыта» тианской, православной традиции, в центре (Тульчинский 2002, с. 539). которой герой скорее созерцательный и Не пытаясь проследить пути эволюции претерпевающий, нежели действующий и экзистенциальной прозы в литературе XX века, героический. Открытая христианской куль- обратимся сразу к его завершению и к началу турой «невиданная ранее влюбленность в XXI. Парадоксальность влияния парадоксаль- тварь» (Флоренский 1914, с. 288), становится ного В. В. Розанова на русскую культуру не любовью-любованием, а любовью-состра- заключена (в числе прочего) и в много- данием и любовью-претерпеванием – своего численных отражениях смыслов и мотивов его рода духовным кенозисом: умалением, нисхож- «Опавших листьев» и «Уединенного» в лите- дением высокого к низкому и малому. На наш ратуре русского «постреализма» и пост- взгляд, можно утверждать, что своеобразная модернизма. Современная проза в лице «антроподицея» Розанова состоит в оправ- М. Палей, М. Шишкина, Т. Толстой, Л. Петру- дании некрасивого и жалкого человека. шевской (список мог бы быть продолжен) в Человек оправдан потому, что смертен: существенной степени если не повторяет, то в экзистенциальный опыт становится осно- любом случае продолжает традиции Розанова, ванием этического, не отменяя его, но ставя хотя вряд ли возможно прочертить между автора на позицию эстетически и этически началом двух столетий прямую линию – линия иную по отношению не только к адресату, но и пунктирна, и связать начала и концы возможно, наблюдателю. Перефразируя В. С. Соловьева, лишь определенным образом взглянув на них. можно сказать, что розановская экзис- Выделим две группы признаков, позволяющих тенциальная рефлексия – это рефлексия «в это сделать. С одной стороны, это постоянство кубе». дискурсивной манеры, с другой – постоянство Поэтому столь значимы для калейдоскопа онтологических смыслов, допускающих «впечатлений» прозы В. В. Розанова мотивы именно эти, а не иные формы репрезентации. болезни, смерти, страдания, сочувствия, Определяя сущность творческого метода связующим звеном которых становится пере- Л. Петрушевской, Н. Лейдерман и М. Липо- живание времени – времени человеческой вецкий отнесли его к постреализму, для ко- жизни и времени истории. Тектонические торого характерно совмещение архетипичных сдвиги русской истории в русле традиционного пластов с натуралистически воссозданной для философии истории «серебряного» века повседневностью (2001, с. 101). На наш взгляд, провиденциализма и стремления охватить ее это определение в существенной степени мистику и эсхатологию – в творчестве Розанова может быть отнесено к экзистенциальной прозе ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 56 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

в целом. Однако функцию архетипичных плас- менительно к ней самой). С другой – острого тов в этой прозе выполняет обращение не ощущения жалости и боли от созерцания только к выделенным К. Юнгом архетипам картины бесконечного умирания. На наш «Мать», «Дитя» и т. д., но к архетипам пра- взгляд, нельзя согласиться с теми иссле- вославной культуры, представляющей собой дователями, которые отказывают Т. Толстой, тот необходимый пласт самосознания, без Л. Петрушевской или М. Шишкину в связи с которого оказалось бы невозможным само гуманистической традицией русской лите- появление экзистенциальной рефлексии в ратуры (см., например, Щеглова 2001). Дело в культуре конца XX – начала XXI века. том, что, так же, как и в заметках В. В. Розанова, Одной из постоянных тем в литературе здесь можно обнаружить по крайней мере два конца XX – начала XXI века, как и у нарративных уровня. С одной стороны, это В. В. Розанова, становится смерть в мно- уровень, условно говоря, факта – событийный гообразных ее проявлениях, умирание, телес- ряд, обнажающие неприглядную сторону ный и личностный распад, тление. Харак- человеческого существования детали, прямые теризуя искусство конца столетия, Т. Толстая оценки повествователя-рассказчика: уровень пишет: «жизнь есть смерть, смерть здесь, рефлексии как таковой. С другой – уровень смерть сразу» – процессы дегуманизации и авторской рефлексии над рефлексией. Экзис- распада, с точки зрения писательницы, обна- тенциальный опыт, в отличие от романов руживают свое родство с явлением десакра- Ф. М. Достоевского, принадлежит не герою, а лизации («Квадрат» // «Река Оккервиль») образу автора, и смысл повествования откры- (Толстая 2003). Поэтому постмодернистская вается как рефлексия по поводу этого опыта – манера письма, апофеоз «глумления» и распада как нарративный фон, экзистенциальный по этических ориентиров («горизонтальная» своей природе. система ценностей) могут быть и оказываются Экзистенциальное в своей основе пере- преодолены только при посредстве и глу- живание конечности человеческой жизни бинном усвоении религиозного опыта имеет своим следствием оправдание человека культуры. Это определяет одну из очевидных, – дурного, недоброго, жалкого и всегда – на наш взгляд, особенностей современной смертного… Иными словами, в творчестве экзистенциальной прозы – ее обращение к этих (и ряда других) писателей можно обна- религиозным истокам человеческого сущес- ружить продолжение «экзистенциальной твования, и именно это определяет ее онто- антроподицеи», начатой в начале XX столетия логизм и гуманистическую традицию. Вместе В. В. Розановым. с тем можно говорить о парадоксальном С этой точки зрения описание смертей, рож- соединении в произведениях Т. Толстой, дений, болезней, увечий, испражнений (напри- Л. Петрушевской или М. Шишкина двух, мер, в романе М. Шишкина «Взятие Измаила» казалось бы, несовместимых начал. С одной рассказ о слабоумной девочке, о смерти стороны, безжалостного, острого, холодного ребенка, наконец, в финале, подробное опи- наблюдения над немощностью и уродливостью сание родов (Шишкин 1999)) становится путем жизни и человека – того, что применительно к к обнаружению Бога в самом остром пере- Л. Петрушевской принято называть неокри- живании любви-жалости. Оставив содержа- тическим реализмом, или того, что тельные интерпретации романов М. Шишкина Т. Толстая называет «глумлением» (и то, что и, не касаясь собственно постмодернистких парадоксально называют «глумлением» при- характеристик его прозы (интертекстуальности, È. Å. Ôàäååâà. ÐÓÑÑÊÀß ÝÊÇÈÑÒÅÍÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÏÐÎÇÀ (ÎÏÛÒ ÒÅÌÀÒÈÇÀÖÈÈ) 57

измененного характера пропозициональности, пичных для русской культуры ценностей: «пространственности»), обратим внимание на жалости, умаления, сострадания к «малым их художественную «онтологию». Русская сим». история, в пространстве которой тонет и Вообще роман как жанр современной растворяется отдельная человеческая личность, литературы обязан своим возникновением становится бытийным «фоном», метафорой «вторжению вертикали Трансцендентного в экзистенциального опыта. горизонталь Истории» (Страда 1995, с. 330), однако современная проза обнаруживает в нем …Вы переходите в вашего сына, он еще в новое «измерение»: «глубину» экзис- кого-нибудь, я перехожу в вас, вы в меня, все во тенциального опыта и экзистенциальной всех. Они смотришь. Мы поете. Ты едим. Вы люблю. Она умер. Я, ты, вы – какая разница! рефлексии. В частности, «христианская» Пифагор из Самоса даже в лае собаки узнал природа романа М. Шишкина заключена не голос умершего друга (…) Вот мы они и есть. только в наличии «диалогического разума» или Понимаете? Скажем, я – Ермак. И туманятся по в понимании личности как включающей в себя берегам Туры урманы. Кусты боярышника и трансцендентное, но в открытом именно таволги плещутся в воде. Река неглубокая,с каменистым руслом, только наши струги и христианством понимании человека. Постмо- подойдут. Берега сдвинулись… (…) О светло дернистский дорефлексивный опыт тела «вне светлая и украсно украшенная земля Русская, о сигнификации и означивания» (Ж. Бодрийяр) православная вера християньская! (…) Тоска трансформирован опытом православной разлияся, печаль жирна тече средь земли Русскыи! (…) культуры, той «раной», «влюбленной жалости Взятие Измаила (Шишкин 1999) о всем сущем» (Флоренский 1914, с. 288), которая определяет онтологизм и «пер- Формой репрезентации экзистенциального сонализм» этих романов. Такая «встреча» опыта становится и внутренний монолог экзистенциального и религиозного исто- русской классической литературы, прелом- рически и культурно «оправдана»: «Поскольку ленной сквозь призму литературы потока самосознание трудно подвести под рацио- сознания, и это в равной мере характеризует и нальные, объектные категории, в философии прозу М. Шишкина, и рассказы Т. Толстой. сложилась традиция рациональной неопре- Внутренний монолог при этом теряет свою делимости самосознания и связанных с ним логически выстроенную структуру, а вместе с философем (свободы, экзистенции и т. д.). (…) тем и линейность, нарративность, и, поскольку Именно поэтому проблема самопознания непосредственный телесный и безымянный обнаруживает себя традиционно, в конечном опыт не может быть представлен в линейной счете, как проблема религиозная: подлинное форме логически дифференцированного самопознание достигается лишь через соотне- дискурса, формой его выражения становится сение с Абсолютом, проявляет зависимость от часто провокативный («калейдоскопический»!) богопознания, предваряя его гносеологически» интертекст. Читатель без труда угадывает (Тульчинский 2002, с. 528). Размышляя о источники виртуозной интертекстуальной современном искусстве, Т. Толстая пишет: игры, однако «фоном» этой игры становится «Разговор о Боге либо так бесконечно сложен, экзистенциальный опыт, определяющий ее что начинать его страшно, либо, напротив, он логику и открывающий онтологический и очень прост… Он есть все, включая нас, а для персонологический смысл. Но при этом нас он, в первую очередь, и есть мы сами» очевидным является воспроизведение архети- («Квадрат»). Поэтому так же, как и прозу ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 58 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

В. В. Розанова, поэтику экзистенциальной лом человеческой смертности. Предметный прозы определяет архетипичная для русской мир в результате обретает онтологизм и литературы шкала ценностей – «со-чувству- становится формой выражения экзистен- ющее» разделение опыта (Хоружий 2005, циальной рефлексии самой писательницы, с. 20), «влюбленность в тварь», парадоксально «сочувствующего разделения опыта» как опыта «перекочевавшие» из духовной традиции тела и опыта смерти. Тот же онтологизм детали старчества в светскую литературную традицию находим и у Т. Толстой: «Старушечье барахло постмодернисткого толка. «Физиологичное», – чулки какие-то… Шляпа с четырьмя вре- откровенное описание телесной жизни в ее менами года. Вам не нужны облупленные нечистоте и «некрасивости»3 в прозе, нап- черешни? Нет?.. Почему? Кувшин с отбитым ример, М. Шишкина не является самоцелью, носом…» («Милая Шура»). поскольку основано на любви-жалости к Вещи становятся единственным следом смертному человеку, становясь формой духов- (ликом) человека, которому «задолго до ного (экзистенциального) «кенозиса», экзис- появления, наравне с равными, было отказано тенциальным опытом, или, говоря словами оставить по себе память» («Евгеша и М. Хайдеггера, «заботой». Аннушка»). Отсюда и безликость времени. Не менее показательна с этой точки зрения «Так я лежала лицом к стене, не различая проза М. Палей, Т. Толстой, Л. Улицкой. времени года, и только запах Евгешиного кофе Достаточно показательно проявление такого давал мне ненужное знание, что сейчас семь духовного – экзистенциального – «кенозиса», утра очередного мартобря между днем и ночью, к примеру, в «Трилогии повестей» М. Палей никоторого числа» («Евгеша и Аннушка»). («Поминовение», «Евгеша и Аннушка», Показательна отсылка к И. Бродскому – «Кабирия с Обводного канала»). В центре «Ниоткуда с любовью, надцатого мартобря…» внимания писательницы – человеческая жизнь (поэма «Часть речи»), – общность экзистен- в ее не только обыденности, но и в непри- циального опыта становится основанием глядности, видимой бездуховности, в почти общности переживания времени. полном отсутствии личностно-трансцен- Идентичность человеческого «я» опреде- дентной «вертикали». В повести «Евгеша и ляется памятью, временем (у Августина – «Я» Аннушка» рассказывается об умирании – это память и ум), и поэтому исчезновение, старухи, прожившей жизнь, не наполненную, умирание без следа и растворение в некотором казалось бы, никаким не только высоким, но и до-личном и без-личном начале, являясь просто человеческим смыслом, жалким смысловой доминантой и повестей М. Палей, свидетельством которой становятся после и романов М. Шишкина, и рассказов Т. Толстой, смерти героини оставшиеся «на Аннушкиной становится знаком обезличивания человека. полочке» «темный обмылок с засохшими Однако такое растворение в доличностном и кольцами пены, черствый огрызок пемзы и безликом отнюдь не является отказом от лысая зубная щетка» («Евгеша и Аннушка»). личностного и «трансцендентного» – авторское Вещи – их медленное умирание, их жалкость сознание не только облекает в плоть и кровь и убогость или, напротив, умирающая их тех, «тень тени» которых не осталось на земле, тяжеловесная «роскошь» – становятся симво- не только «эстетически», по М. М. Бахтину, но

3 По мысли П. Флоренского, «чувство природы», открытое христианством, не является «любованием» (1914, с. 288). È. Å. Ôàäååâà. ÐÓÑÑÊÀß ÝÊÇÈÑÒÅÍÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÏÐÎÇÀ (ÎÏÛÒ ÒÅÌÀÒÈÇÀÖÈÈ) 59

и этически «завершает» их в слове. Пока- персонологизма и онтологизма, в то же время зателен финал повести «Евгеша и Аннушка»: отразив «персонологический сюжет» евро- «Она была святая, – вдруг сказала я, с инте- пейской культуры и философии. С другой ресом слушая не свой голос. Слезы хлынули из стороны, экзистенциальная рефлексия лите- моих глаз, которые были отдельно, потому что ратуры XX-XXI века не только продолжила меня самой не было на том крыльце, а там, где я традиции русской экзистенциальной реф- была, меня корчило болью, она выхлестывалась лексии XIX века и не только вобрала в себя наружу рекой, река впадала в море, а море – в совокупность экзистенциальных мотивов и океан – земной и небесный; и река эта от- идей середины XX, но и обнажила глубинные ворилась словом…» («Евгеша и Аннушка»). пласты национального сознания, в частности, То же у Т. Толстой: «Вот, собственно, и систему православных смыслов и ценностей. все, что можно сказать о Соне. Жил человек В частности, наиболее значимой чертой, – и нет его. Одно имя осталось» («Соня») объединяющей разных авторов и несходные (выделено мной. – И.Ф.). по образному строю и проблематике произ- Подводя итоги, попытаемся определить те ведения, стала экзистенциальная антропо- основные характеристики, которые позво- ляют говорить об экзистенциальной прозе об дицея, одним из первых опытов которой как об одной из важнейших составляющих явилась проза В. В. Розанова. Парадок- русской литературы XX и особенно его конца сальным средством ее выражения стала кон- и начала XXI века. С одной стороны, эк- цептуализация физиологизма, отвращения / зистенциальная проза от В. В. Розанова до жалости, а также многоплановость дискурса, М. Палей стала выражением глубинных, архе- включающего в себя элементы модернизма и типичных пластов русской культуры, ее постмодернизма.

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ГРОЙС, Б., 1992. Поиск русской национальной субъект, постчеловеческая персонология и новые идентичности. Вопросы философии, № 9, 52-60. перспективы гуманитарной парадигмы. In: Я. (А.Слинин) КРИСТЕВА, Ю., 2003. Силы ужаса. Эссе об и МЫ: к 70-летию профессора Ярослава Анатольевича отвращении. (Серия «Гендерные исследования»). Слинина. Санкт-Петербург: Санкт-Петербургское Харьков: Ф-Пресс, ХЦГИ; Санкт-Петербург: Алетейя. философское общество. Серия «Мыслители», вып. 10, ЛЕЙДЕРМАН, Н.; ЛИПОВЕЦКИЙ, М., 2001. 528-555. Современная русская литература. Книга 3. В конце века ФЛОРЕНСКИЙ, П. А., 1914. Столп и утверждение (1986-1990-е годы). Москва: Эдиториал УРСС. истины. Опыт православной феодицеи в 12 письмах. ПАЛЕЙ, М., 1998. Месторождение ветра: Повести Москва: Путь. и рассказы. Санкт-Петербург: Лимбус Пресс. ФУДЕЛЬ, С. И., 1988. Об о. Павле Флоренском. РОЗАНОВ, В. В., 1886. О понимании. Опыт Париж: YMCA-Press. исследования природы, границ и внутреннего строения ХОРУЖИЙ, С. С., 2005. Опыты из русской духовной науки как цельного знания. Москва. традиции. Москва: Изд. дом «Парад». РОЗАНОВ, В. В., 1912. Уединенное. Санкт- ШИШКИН, М., 1999. Взятие Измаила. Знамя, Петербург: Путь. № 10-12. СТРАДА, В., 1995. Значение «открытия Бахтина для ЩЕГЛОВА, Е., 2001. Человек страдающий мировой культуры. Континент, № 3. (Категория человечности в современной прозе). Вопросы ТОЛСТАЯ, Т., 2003. Река Оккервиль. Сборник литературы, № 6. рассказов. Москва: Изд. дом «Подкова». ЭРН, В. Ф., 1991. Борьба за Логос. In: В. Ф. ЭРН. ТУЛЬЧИНСКИЙ, Г. Л., 2002. Трансцендентальный 1991. Сочинения. Москва: Правда. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 60 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Irina E. Fadeeva prose from Rosanov to Paley expressed deep, ar- Komi State Pedagogical Institute, Russia chetypical layers of the Russian culture, its Research interests: semiotics of culture, Russian personologism and ontologism, at the same time reflecting “personological subject” of the European culture of the 20th c., symbol and symbolism. culture and philosophy. On the other hand, existential reflexion of the literature in the 20th-21st RUSSIAN EXISTENTIAL PROSE (THEMATIC centuries not only continued traditions of the Rus- ESSAY) sian existential reflexion of the 19th century and not only absorbed total existential motifs and ideas of Summary the middle of the 20th century, but also revealed This article aims at the thematization of deep layer deep layers of national perception, the system of of the Russian literature of the 20th-21st centuries, the Orthodox ideas and values in particular. Espe- which can be referred to as the existential prose. cially the most significant characteristic, compris- The author does not set a task to observe the whole ing different authors and works by figurative sys- theme of existentiality in the Russian literature of tem and problems, was existential anthropodicea, the 20th century; therefore, a number of history and one of its first experience was Rosanov’s prose. The literature significant names are left beyond the paradoxical way of its expression were the concepts analysis. The investigation aims at outlining the of physiologism, disgust / compassion, and also mul- boundaries of existential prose, defining its mark- tidimensional discourse including elements of mod- ers and connecting them with archetypical layers ernism and postmodernism. of the Russian culture. The article makes an attempt KEY WORDS: Existensionalis, existential to define the main characteristics that allow speak- reflexion, existential anthropodicea, postmodern, ing about the existential prose as the most impor- narratological change, existential “cenosis”. tant component of the Russian literature of the 20th century, especially of its end and the beginning of Gauta 2007 11 12 st the 21 century. On the one hand, the existential Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 16 61

Inga Bartkuvienë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: modernizmas vokieèiø literatûroje; poststruktûralizmas; filosofinës ir teorinës kalbos, raðto bei raðymo, subjektyvumo, skaitymo problemos.

POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS

Tyrimo objektas – kalbos ir poezijos refleksijos M. Heideggerio, J. Derrida filosofijoje bei P. Celano poetologijoje. Tyrimo tikslas – ið hermeneutinës-dekonstrukcinës perspektyvos, vadovaujantis kalbos poezijoje màstymo formomis, iðskleisti literatûros teorijai rûpimus kalbos, poezijos, subjekto, reikðmiø produkavimo klausimus, ðiø problemø aktualizacijà bei sàsajas minëtø autoriø màstyme. Mokslinio intereso centre yra Heideggerio ir Derri- da kalbiðkumo samprata, kalbos filosofijos bei kalbos teorijos atspindþiai Celano kalbinëje savimonëje. Atra- mos taðkais pasirinkti Martino Heideggerio straipsniai „Kalba“ („Die Sprache“), „Kalba eilëraðtyje“ („Die Spra- che im Gedicht“), Jaques‘o Derrida studija „Ðiboletas“ („Schibboleth“), esë „Kas yra poezija“ („Che cos’e la poesia?“) bei Paulio Celano kalba „Meridianas“ („Der Meridian“). Ðiuos tekstus jungia tematika, poþiûriø sankirta: Heideggeris vertina Celano kûrybà, Celanas savo ruoþtu reflektuoja Heideggerá, o Derrida – ir Heideg- gerá, ir Celanà. Heideggerio màstyme poezija atspindi kalbos esmæ, reikðmës gimsta suvokimo procese, kalba kaip bylojanti imasi subjekto vaidmens. Derrida filosofija prapleèia mums rûpimà problemø laukà poezijos kaip vienkartinës, svetimos, ásiraðanèios á atmintá, subjekto kaip signatûros, prasmës diseminacijos traktuotë- mis. Celanas reflektuoja poetinæ kalbà kaip reikðmiø radimosi terpæ. Poezijà jis paþymi metriðkumo, marionetið- kumo, baisumo, tropiðkumo þenklais. Subjektas suvokiamas kaip árankis eilëraðèio kalbëjimui atsiskleisti. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: poezija, kalba, kalbos refleksija, prasmës produkcija, subjektas, signatûra, dekonstrukcija, hermetizmas.

Paulis Celanas (1920-1970) – vienas ryðkiausiø ir mantizmo tradicijà, atskaitos taðku pasirinkdamas daþniausiai reflektuojamø vokieèiø XX amþiaus tokius autorius kaip Georgas Traklis, Stefanas Ge- autoriø. Poetas literatûros kritikø priskiriamas orge bei Raineris Maria Rilkë. Didelio autoriaus modernizmo tradicijai – jo kûryba vadinama kla- susidomëjimo sulaukë prancûzø simbolistai bei sikinio modernizmo kulminacija ir atomazga. Ce- siurrealistai, rusø akmeistai, kuriø nemaþai eilë- lano sàlytis su modernizmo iðtakomis áþvelgiamas raðèiø jis iðvertæs á vokieèiø kalbà. vokieèiø romantikø Novalio ir Friedricho Hölder- Klasikiná modernizmà apibûdina estetikos lino kûrybos recepcijoje. Jis permàsto, transfor- koncepcija l‘art pour l‘art. Literatûra èia suvokia- muoja, atliepia vokieèiø simbolizmo bei neoro- ma kaip þodþio menas, autoriai susitelkia ties „for- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 62 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE ma“, siekia „grynosios estetikos“, atmeta didak- deggerio ir Derrida kalbos bei poezijos traktuo- tinius, moralinius ar politinius literatûros kûri- tës pasiûlo mums priëjimà prie Celano kalbinës nio tikslus, kuria izoliuotà menà. Taèiau negali- savimonës suvokimo. ma teigti, kad XX amþiaus pradþios modernizmas, mistifikuodamas literatûros meno kûriná, Martino Heideggerio kalbos koncepcija perþengtø kalbos kaip iðraiðkos bûdo ar priemo- nës suvokimà.1 Paulá Celanà kaip ir kitus kalbà màstanèius kûrë- „Grynojo meno“ paieðkos Celano atveju kei- jus Ingeborgà Bachmann, Günterá Eichà, Ilsæ Ai- èiamos „grynosios kalbos“ paieðkomis. Literatû- chinger ákvepia Heideggerio kalbos filosofija, daþ- ros kritikai Paulio Celano kûrybà dël jo kalbai bû- nai tampanti jø màstymo ðaltiniu, polemikos ob- dingo autoreflektyvumo apibûdina kaip herme- jektu. Celano kalboje „Meridianas“ aiðkiai impli- tiðkà, t.y. á kalbà orientuotà ir kalboje sau pakan- kuota ði filosofinë atspirtis. Tyrimui svarbûs ðie kamà. Þodis hermetiðkas (lot. hermetice) reiðkia Heideggerio filosofijos aspektai: kalbos traktuo- „uþbaigtas, uþdaras, tankus, nepralaidus“ (Duden. të, poezijos samprata, subjekto vieta, poezijos su- Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 1996, s. 694), o vokëjo, aiðkinimo ásijungimas á poetiná procesà. kalbant apie literatûrà „sunkiai pagaunamos pras- Pirmiausiai reikëtø atkreipti dëmesá á tai, kad mës, kalbiðkai uþðifruotas“ (Wilpert 2001, s. 338). poezijos problemà apibûdina konkretaus eilërað- Taigi hermetikos sàvoka sietina su paèios poezi- èio problema. Kiekvienas eilëraðtis yra nuoroda á jos esme – vokieèiø kalbos þodis Dichtung, reið- kitus eilëraðèius, kiekvienas jø kalba apie poezijà, kiantis poezijà, nurodo á bûdvardá dicht – „tan- ákûnija poezijà, yra poezija. Eilëraðtis linkæs at- kus“ bei daiktavardá Verdichtung – „sutirðtinimas“. sigræþti á save, màstyti savo ðaknis, tai jis daro màs- Ðios sàvokai poezija giminingø þodþiø suteikiamos tydamas kalbà. Poezijos esmës ir kalbos proble- savybës identifikuoja jà kaip koherentiðkà, visu- matika susipina. Apie tai Heideggeris raðo á kalbà minæ, nedalià, iðbaigtà. orientuotame filosofiniame veikale Unterwegs zur Kondensuotumo savybë bûdinga paèiam po- Sprache. etiniam praneðimui. Atsigræþus á skaitytojà, aki- Heideggerio kalbos koncepcija apibrëþta vaizdu, kad suvokimo aspektu ji anaiptol nëra vi- straipsnyje „Die Sprache“: „Pati kalba yra: kalba sumiðka ar iðbaigta: suvokëjo mintis negali pra- ir niekas kita. Pati kalba yra kalba. Logikos iðmo- siskverbti prie pasakymo turiniø, vienareikðmið- kytas, viskà apskaièiuojantis ir dideliø uþmojø tu- kai suvokti kalbinio praneðimo, atsiranda skai- rintis protas pavadins ðá teiginá nieko nesakanèia tymo, „vertimo“ problema. Todël hermetizmà tautologija. [...] Turime apmàstyti: kaip iðties yra vertëtø suvokti paèia plaèiausia prasme – kaip su kalba? Todël klausiame: Kokiu bûdu kalba esti þodþio meno ambivalentiðkumà apimanèià savy- kaip kalba? Ir atsakome: kalba kalba“2 (2003, bæ. Paulio Celano poezija nepaklûsta sunormini- s. 12). Kalbà filosofas pavadina kalbanèia kalba. mui, neapsiriboja konkreèios epochos ar krypties Kalbos esmës nusakymas suvoktinas kaip apsisto- tapatybe. Jo poezijos esmë – poetiðkumas. Hei- jimas kalbëjime. Þodþius iðtarti tegali þmogus –

1 Paulis de Manas savo straipsnyje „Tropai (Rilkë)“ pastebi, kad Rilkës poezijoje iðkylantis poetologinis lygmuo nëra intencionalus þingsnis kalbos kritikos linkme. Jis klausia, ar Rilkë suvokë savo poezijà kaip màstanèià kalbà ar kaip màstanèià bûtá, o analizuodamas tekstus parodo, kad metakalbinë dimensija nëra tikslingai ápinta, jog ji glûdi paèioje kalboje, o Rilkë „màstydamas bûtá“ (arba poeto egzistencijà) nebûtinai valingai implikuoja ir kalbos klausimà (Man 1988, s. 52-90, 54-55). 2 Iðtraukos ið vokiðkø ðaltiniø verstos straipsnio autorës. I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 63 taip vidujybëje, sàmonëje esanèius dalykus pavers- dinamas ið þodþio „vieta“ (Ort) – aiðkinimas reikð- damas iðoriðkais, þodiðkais, materialiais. Tokiu bû- tø vietos nustatymà. Vieta, pasak filosofo, sutel- du þmogus, anot Heideggerio, ásiterpia á kalbos kia, suburia esmæ ir saugo savyje. Taèiau vietos kalbëjimà kaip kalbos paþadas (Versprechen). nereikëtø suvokti kaip kapsulës, aklinai uþdaran- Þmogaus dëka kalba ágauna balso savybæ ir ágali- èios sutelktus dalykus. Vieta, prieðingai, perskro- nama prabilti. Taèiau pati kalba yra sau pakanka- dþia savo ðviesa tai, kas surinkta ir taip leidþia daik- ma, ji semiasi ne ið kalbanèiojo, o ið savo kalbiniø tams bûti (Heidegger 2003, s. 37). Màstydamas (struktûriniø, semantiniø) rezervø. Kalbà filosofas Traklio kûrybà, eilëraðèio vietà filosofas apibrë- atskiria ir nuo bûties, ir nuo subjekto: bûtis savo þia kaip erdvæ, kurioje poetinis sakymas suteka á ruoþtu nebyli, o prabilti gali tik konkreti kalba. eilëraðtá: „Kiekvienas didis raðytojas kuria tik ið Taip màstant prieinama prie naujo kalbos ir vienintelio eilëraðèio. Jo dydis glûdi tame, kaip ge- subjekto suvokimo – kalba ir subjektas yra atskir- rai jis paþásta tàjá vienintelá, kad gebëtø visà poeti- ti, o susitinka eilëraðtyje, taèiau neáprastu bûdu: ið ná sakymà iðlaikyti ðio eilëraðèio ribose. Poeto ei- subjekto Heideggeris „atima“ kalbëjimo savybæ lëraðtis lieka neiðtartas. Në vienas ið eilëraðèiø, net ir „atiduoda“ jà kalbai. Eilëraðtyje kalba kalba, o jø visuma nepasako visko. Taèiau kiekviena po- ne þmogus, poetas, ne vadinamasis eilëraðèio kal- ezija kalba ið vieno eilëraðèio visumos ir kiekvie- bëtojas. Eilëraðtis kaip visuminis, koherentiðkas, nà kartà já sako. Ið eilëraðèio vietos kyla banga, á kalbà nurodantis, kalbà integruojantis ir kalba kuri sakymà paverèia poetiniu sakymu“ (Heideg- esantis darinys, Heideggerio traktuojamas kaip ger 2003, s. 37-38). Antra vertus, eilëraðèio taps- „grynai iðtartas“. Eilëraðèio kaip iðtarto, pasakyto mas susijæs su jo ágarsinimu aiðkinant (erläutern). definicija sietina ne su asmeniniu, subjektyviu Abu aiðkinimai (erörtern ir erläutern), kaip saky- þmogaus pasakymu, o su kalbos gebëjimu ávietin- mo ávietinimo ir ágarsinimo ávykiai, koreliuoja. Su- ti, lokalizuoti, Heideggerio þodþiais tariant, kalba vokiant vietà ir garsà, anot filosofo, uþsimezga „apgyvendinti“ eilëraðtá bûtyje. Tokiai iðtarai rei- skaitytojo dialogas su konkretaus poeto eilërað- kia suvokëjo, þmogaus kaip klausytojo, kuris atliep- èiu. Toks pokalbis tegali bûti poetiðkas arba filo- tø eilëraðtyje pavadintus daiktus ir tø daiktø suda- sofiðkas, kadangi ir poetinei kûrybai (Dichten), ir rytà konsteliacijà ar galimø konsteliacijø ávairovæ. màstymui (Denken) bûdingas glaudus ryðys su kal- Lokalizacijos klausimà Heideggeris kelia ba: „Màstymo pokalbis su poetiniu raðymu siekia straipsnyje „Die Sprache im Gedicht“. Svarbu ap- iðkviesti kalbos esmæ, idant mirtingieji vël iðmok- sibrëþti, kur apsistoja eilëraðtis, kur jis yra ir ar tø gyventi kalboje“ (2003, s. 38). Pokalbis su eilë- gali bûti nustatomos eilëraðèio ribos. Tai implikuo- raðèiu turás bûti màslus ir jautrus, jo tikslas nëra ja klausimà, koks yra eilëraðèio santykis su kalba, nusakyti poeto pasaulëþiûrà ar aptarti jo kûrybos o atsakymas bûtø dvikryptis, logiðkai siejamas dirbtuvæ. Eilëraðèio aiðkinimas negalás pakeisti ei- junkcija „ir..., ir...“: ir eilëraðtis yra kalboje, ir kal- lëraðèio iðgirdimo kuo kitu bei nubrëþti iðgirdimo ba eilëraðtyje; ir eilëraðtis yra ið kalbos, ir egzis- gairiø. Aiðkinimas imasi ið eilëraðèio kalbos iðklau- tuoja kalbai; eilëraðtis yra paraleliai sutelktas ið symo bei atkartojamo. Eilëraðèio klausymas sie- kalbiniø elementø, bet kartu jis ir kaip veidrodis jasi su priklausymu tai paèiai kalbai. Didþiausias parodo kalbai jos esmæ, o tada jà vël skaido, ardo. màstanèio aiðkinimo pasiekimas, Heideggerio tei- Kalba iðsipildo eilëraðtyje ir eilëraðtis iðsipildo kal- gimu, yra gebëjimo iðgirsti uþklausimas ar aktua- boje. Eilëraðèio ir kalbos saitus tegali suvokti ir lizacija. Ðis uþklausimas atveria supratimo galimy- aptarti suvokiantysis subjektas, skaitytojas. Todël bæ – dialogas su eilëraðèiu leidþia iðkristalizuoti eilëraðèio vietà Heideggeris susieja su skaitymo sàvokas ir nusakyti paties eilëraðèio kaip kalbos vieta. Þodis „aiðkinti“ (erörtern) Heiddegerio kil- kûrinio esmæ. Ásigilinama á þodþio daugialypumà, ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 64 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE jame glûdintá potencialà, þodþio reikðmiø ávairo- nusakanti savybë. Heideggeris iðryðkina þodþiø væ. Vyksta dvilypis judesys: màstymo keliu eina- vieldeutig und mehrdeutig skirtá. Þodis vieldeutig ma nuo iðsikelto klausimo prie eilëraðèio teksto, (viele Bedeutungen – „daug reikðmiø“) vokieèiø sustojama prie paskirø iðtarø, kurios aptariamos kalboje reiðkia tiesiog daug reikðmiø turintá, poli- kaip akivaizdþiai nurodanèios á bûtá, jos atvirumà semija pasiþymintá þodá. O þodis mehrdeutig (meh- bei esmæ. rere Bedeutungen – „daugiau reikðmiø“) nurodo Gebëjimas ar neámanomybë iðgirsti eilëraðèio ne tik á reikðmiø gausà, bet ir dël jos atsirandanèià kalbëjimà siejasi su Heideggerio keliama kalbos aiðkinimo ávairovæ (dalelytë -deutig ðiuo atveju nu- daugialypumo problema. Eilëraðèio kalba, pasak kreipia ne vien á reikðmes, bet ir á aiðkinimà – Deu- jo, savitu bûdu esmiðkai daugeriopa. Neámanu nie- tung) (Duden. Deutsches Universalwörterbuch ko iðgirsti ið eilëraðèio sakymo, kol màstoma tik 1996, s. 1679, 1002, 216, 337). viena kryptimi, ásitikinus viena màstymo vaga bei Heideggerio pokalbio sàvoka (integruojanti ir suponuojant vientisà reikðmæ kontekste: „Poezi- mums rûpimà skaitymo veiksmà) funkcionuoja ja kalba ið savo dvireikðmio dvireikðmiðkumo. Ta- brëþdama pliuralumo, atskirties ir harmonijos gai- èiau eilëraðèio reikðmiø pliuralumas (Mehrdeutig- res. Eilëraðèio vieta, kaip prasmës steigties vieta, keit) nesubyra á neapibrëþtà daugiareikðmiðkumà balansuoja tarp daugiareikðmiðkumo, eilëraðtyje (Vieldeutigkeit). Traklio eilëraðèio polifonija (mehr- uþmezgamø daugialypiø santykiø visumos, dau- deutiger Ton) kyla ið susitelkimo, t.y. ið harmoni- giaplanio aiðkinimo ir tarp visà autoriaus kûrybà jos (Einklang), kuri ið tiesø lieka neiðtarta. Poeti- apimanèios, „tikrojo eilëraðèio“ koncepcijos. nio sakymo pliuralumas nëra atsainaus [þmogaus Pliuralaus ir daugiaplanio meno kûrinio skai- – I. B.] netikslumas, o paliekanèiojo grieþtumas, tymas vyksta atsekant besidriekianèius þodþiø sai- kuris ávedë teisingà poþiûrá ir pats prisidëjo prie jo. tus, renkant prasmës nuolauþas. Tà surinkimà Daþnai mes negalime ðio Traklio kûrybai bûdin- (Versammlung) Heideggeris pavadina „vieta“ go, savaime aiðkaus pliuralaus sakymo atskirti nuo (Ort). Pasitelkæs Traklio kûrybà, eilëraðèio vietà kitø poetø kalbos, kuriø daugiareikðmiðkumas kyla filosofas randa „atskirtyje“ (Abgeschiedenheit). Ei- ið poetinio ieðkojimo netikrumo, kadangi tokiai lëraðtis yra atskirtas, jis kalba apie atskirtuosius, poezijai trûksta tikrojo eilëraðèio ir vietos. Uni- mirusiuosius, kitokius, svetimus. Taigi eilëraðtis kalus esmiðkai pliuralios Traklio kalbos grieþtu- tampa kalbos sukurtu egzistenciniu pagrindu, ga- mas, aukðtesne prasme, yra toks vienareikðmis, jog limybe kalbëti apie bûtá bei nebûtá. Iðplaukianèios ji [kalba – I. B], nukreipdama á moksliðkai viena- atskirtojo, svetimojo bei iðeinanèiojo, atsisveiki- reikðmæ sàvokà, lieka nepaprastai techniðkai ið- nanèiojo figûros yra ribinës figûros. Slenkstis tarp sami. [...] Grieþta daugiabalsës kalbos harmonija, ðiapus ir anapus savo ruoþtu nurodo eilëraðèio po- ið kurios kalba Traklio eilëraðtis, kartu reiðkia, kad zicijà. Viena vertus, þymima riba tarp eilëraðèio ir jis ir tyli, ir atitinka atskirtá, kaip eilëraðèio vietà. bûties. Kita vertus, eilëraðtis nelyginant pleiðtas Idant galëtum susitelkt ties ðia vieta, jau reikia pa- ásiterpia á bûtá: atspindëdamas/ atvirkðèiai jà at- galvoti. Mes dar vargiai drástame paklausti apie spindëdamas, jis pasako ir apie nebûtá. Anot Hei- ðios vietos vietovæ“ (2003, s. 75-76). Taigi galima deggerio, ir bûtyje telkiasi nebûtis, ir nebûtyje yra teigti, kad poezijos vieta sunkiai apibrëþiama, erd- bûtis. Analizuodamas Traklio „Psalmës“ eilutæ „In viðkai bei laikiðkai ið viso nenurodoma. Prie to pri- seinem Grab spielt der weiße Magier mit seinen sideda reikðmës iðsklidimas, dichotomiðkas þodþio Schlangen.“, Heideggeris sako: „Mirusysis gyve- santykis su savo reikðmëmis, jø pliuralumu. Rei- na savo kape. Savo kampelyje jis yra toks tylus ir këtø atkreipti dëmesá ir á tai, jog daugiareikðmið- susimàstæs, kad net þaidþia su gyvatëmis. Jos ne- kumas èia suvoktinas ne vien kaip poetiná tekstà gali nieko jam padaryti. Jos neuþdusæ, bet jø blo- I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 65 gis permainytas“ (2003, s. 53)3 . Taip pasakoma, verèia jà ribiniu reiðkiniu. Poezija yra bûties ir ne- jog eilëraðtis iðties esti tik bûdamas atsiskyræs ir bûties, bûties ir raðto kryþkelëje. Paradoksalu tai, vienkartinis. kad ði riba yra, bet sutrûkinëjusi, nestabili, nenu- sakoma, o poezija visada lieka raðto pusëje. Jacques‘o Derrida poezijos samprata Derrida samprotauja apie vienetiná meno kû- rinio identitetà, kuris ásteigtø absoliuèià reikðmæ, J. Derrida straipsnyje „Che cos’e la poesia?“, ta- sutampanèià su „raðto þenklo kûnu“. Ðis uþklau- riamai atmesdamas visà kultûriná þinojimà, kelia simas bûtø nuoroda á Heideggerio „absoliutø ei- klausimà, kas gi yra poezija. Kalbëti apie poezijà lëraðtá“ kaip á eilëraðèio esmæ. „Absoliutaus neat- jam reiðkia paklusti poezijos diktatui – prisiimti skiriamumo siekis, absoliutus ne-absoliutumas, èia jos primetamas taisykles. Derrida vartojama sà- Tu ákvepi ið poetiðkumo ðaltinio. Èia glûdi pasi- voka „poezijos diktatas“ (dictée, Diktat) reiðkia ir prieðinimas raðtiðko þenklo perkëlimui [...]“ (1998, ástatymà, kuriam reikia paklusti, ir diktantà – taip s. 301). Derrida ironizuoja „absoliutaus eilërað- nurodoma á poezijos perraðymà, skaitytojo ásiter- èio“ sampratà, nes visada tekste egzistuoja pras- pimà á raðymo procesà bei jo signatûrà. „[Poezija mës perkëlimo, atidëjimo, sulaikymo galimybë, o – I. B.] anonimiðkume pasimetus esybë, tarp mies- „absoliutus eilëraðtis“ pretenduotø á absoliuèià pra- to ir gamtos, pasakyta paslaptis, vienu metu ir vieða sminæ iðtarà. Ðiuo atveju panaðiai kalba ir Celanas ir intymi, bûtinai ir viena, ir kita, iðtarta ir ið iðorës, „Meridiano“ kalboje teigdamas, kad nëra „abso- ir ið vidaus, nei viena, nei kita, tik ant gatvës nu- liutaus eilëraðèio“ ir negali bûti, taèiau kiekvienas mestas gyvis, bûtinai vieniðas, greta savæs susisu- tikras eilëraðtis priartëjàs prie klausimo, ið kur kyla kæs á kamuoliukà. Jis, eþys, istrice4, gali leistis tei- ir kur link krypsta poezija (1990, s. 56-57). sëtai, ir bûtent dël to [teisëtumo – I. B.], perva- Eilëraðtis pasiþymi poetine kalba, kuri padaro þiuojamas“ (1998, s. 299). Derrida màstyme po- já vienkartiniu ávykiu: jo forma ásteigia unikalià for- ezijos vieta deklaruojama kaip riba tarp vidujy- mà, kiekvienas perskaitymas – kità suskambëjimà. bës ir iðorybës, sàmonës ir raðto, turinio ir formos Kiekviena interpretacija leidþia prabilti apie to pa- – poezija yra materiali savo raðtiðkumu ir ideali ties kûrinio kitoniðkumà. Derrida kalba apie Kito perteikiama prasme. Ji savaip jungia balsà ir rað- santyká su eilëraðèiu. Kitas jam yra singuliarus Ki- tà, vaizdiná ir þodá, todël ji balansuoja tarp kultû- tas, kiekvienas Kitas – visai Kitas. Suvokianèiojo kal- ros ir natûros, tarp prigimties ir civilizacijos tvari- ba – tai Kito kalba. Màstyti eilëraðtá reiðkia preten- niø. Poezijai apibûdinti Derrida pasitelkia retori- duoti á sau Kito kalbos prisisavinimà, savo raðomo kà – pavadina jà vieniðu eþiu, dygliakiaule, mizan- teksto kûno „aprengimà“ eilëraðèio „rûbu“, nuo- tropu ir lokalizuoja jà autostradoje, o ið to iðplau- lat turint omeny ðio rûbo netikimà – neiðverèia- kia tokia poezijos definicija: poezija – eþio nuoty- mumà, suvokimo kliuvinius. Poezija interpretato- kis, katastrofa pasirinktame kalbos kelyje. Absur- riaus atþvilgiu yra jam svetima. Èia vertëtø prisi- do momentas eilëraðtyje vaidina ne paskutiná vaid- minti Aristotelio teiginá, jog poetinë kalba turi bûti mená. Visø poezijos veiksmø, santykiø visuma pa- kaip svetimðalë, kelianti nuostabà, pakylëta.

3 Þaidþiantájá su gyvatëmis matome ir Celano eilëraðtyje „Todesfuge“. Taèiau èia þaidþiantysis nëra mirusysis, o mirtá neðàs þmogus: „[...] Ein Mann wohnt im Haus der spielt mit den Schlangen der schreibt / der schreibt wenn es dunkelt nach Deutschland [...]“ (2005, s. 40). 4 Pirmà kartà ðis straipsnis pasirodë 1988 metais italø þurnale „Poezija“. Italø kalbos þodis istrice, reiðkiantis „dyg- liakiaulæ“ ir „mizantropà“, prancûziðkame ir vokiðkame tekstuose neverèiamas ið italø kalbos. Pastebëtina tai, kad eþio figûra humanitariniuose svarstymuose nëra nauja, nes F. Schlegelis eþiu yra pavadinæs fragmento þanrà. Taip poezija apibrëþiama kaip fragmentiðka, hermetiðka, savo prigimtimi linkusi nusisukti nuo þmogaus. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 66 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

„Eilëraðèio fabula, kurià tu galëtum papasa- kaþkas poetiðka. Technikà, anot màstytojo, pre- koti kaip eilëraðèio dovanà, tai yra simbolinë isto- zentuoja vokiðkas þodis Gestell, reiðkiantis „sto- rija: kaþkas Tau, apie Tave raðo. Ne, yra á Tave nu- và, apaèià, maðinos karkasà, korpusà, griauèius, kreipta, Tau atiduota, Tau patikëta markiruotë ne- stelaþà, lentynà“ (Duden. Deutsches Univer- ða savyje ásakymà, iðties prisiima ðià tvarkà, kuri salwörterbuch 1996, s. 602). Modernios technikos savo ruoþtu Tave konstituoja, priskiria Tau Tavo savybë yra susvetimëjimas. Technikoje natûralios iðtakas arba duoda Tau pretekstà: sugriauk ma- gamtos elementai virsta daiktais. Poezijos atveju ne, arba dar daugiau – leisk mano reiðkëjui pasi- ðis susvetimëjimo atvejis veikia kaip sukeistinimas daryti nematomu pasaulyje, nukreiptu á iðoræ (ir – neáprastai vartojama kalba neávardija dalykø tie- tai jau yra visø disociacijø poþymis, transcenden- siogiai, o nuolat atitolina sakomø tiesø suvokimà. cijø istorija), padaryk bet kuriuo atveju taip, kad Pasak Heideggerio, daiktas – Gestell, pastato, iðsta- nuo ðiol markiravimo kilmë bûtø nerandama ar- to (stellen) ir taip iðslaptina (entbergen) tiesà. Ta- ba neatpaþástama. Paþadëk, kad ji sustos savo uos- èiau technika kartu ir uþtveria, uþstato (verstellen), te, pakeista arba neapibrëþta, o Tu ðiuo þodþiu su- pakeièia raðysenà, apsimeta (sich verstellen) ir taip voksi iðeities taðko krantà bei referentà, á kurá uþveria tiesà (verbergen) (1992, s. 223, 229). Per- linksta perkëlimas. Valgyk, gerk, ryk mano raðto imdamas nuostatas ir praplësdamas Heideggerio þenklà, neðk já, prisiimk já kaip raðto ástatymà, ku- svarstymus apie techniðkumà kaip apie meno kû- ris tapo Tavo kûnu: raðtas sau“ (Derrida 1998, rinio esmæ, Derrida technikos savybes priskiria s. 301). Autorystës uþklausimas reiðkiamas mar- raðtui. kiruotës iðtrynimu – eilëraðtis tampa eilëraðèiu rað- Studijoje „Schibboleth“ Derrida, skaitydamas te, o „Tavo kûnu“ – ávietintas interpretacijos raðte Celano eilëraðèius, koncentruodamasis á Celano (erörtert), perraðytas skaitytojo. Derrida neegzis- kûryboje vis iðnyranèià schibboleth sàvokà, iðkelia tuoja prasmë be raðto, o raðtas sujungia ir uþraðy- datavimo klausimà. Data, raðtiðkai fiksuojanti vie- mo sistemà, ir raðto veiklos turinius. „Raðtas sau“ tà bei laikà „èia“ ir „dabar“, anot Derrida, atsi- – tai intranzityvus raðtas, savaime neintensiona- skleidþia kaip ið esmës jø neþymintis „melagingas lus, taigi nenukreiptas á objektà, susikoncentra- vaizdas“ (2007, s. 11). Mums tai rûpi kaip aki- væs á raðymo veiksmà/ paraðyto atliktá bei atsiribo- vaizdi prasmës átrûkio apraiðka tekste. Schibbo- jantis nuo bet kokio konkretaus subjekto. Subjek- leth – tai hebrajø kalbos þodis, etimologiðkai reið- tas gali bûti ir aktyvus, ir pasyvus – ir raðantis, ir kiantis „javø varpà“, o bendrinëje vokieèiø bei ki- paraðytas, taèiau raðte (raðto aspektu) jis visada tose Vakarø Europos kalbose – „atpaþinimo þen- paraðtinis. Kitaip tariant, èia matome Heidegge- klà“ „atrakinant þodá“ (Duden. Deutsches Uni- rio traktuotës apie kalbanèià kalbà parafrazæ á ra- versalwörterbuch 1996, s. 1315). Jo funkcija, pa- ðantá raðtà. sak biblinës legendos, patikrinti þmogaus „savu- Prasmiø gimimas, pasak Derrida, veikia mne- mà“ pagal ðio þodþio iðtarimà, atskirti vietiná nuo motechnikos principu – ásidëmint, iðmokstant at- svetimðalio. Toks þodis Celano kûryboje bûtø ar- mintinai tekstinius turinius ir taip paverèiant juos chajiðka bei dialektinë mënesiø pavadinimo for- sàmonës turiniais. Vël juos iðtarus, sàmonës turima Feber vietoj Februar bei Jänner vietoj Januar, niai ið vidujybës gráþta á iðoriná pasaulá. Taigi pras- prancûziðki pasakymai vokiðkuose tekstuose. Anot më steigiasi jau Heideggerio „Technikos klausi- Derrida, schibboleth þymi perëjimà prie Kito to me“ aptartu paslëpties (verbergen) ir atverties paties viduje, taip pat neiðverèiamumà. Eilërað- (enthüllen) principu. Straipsnyje Heideggeris kal- èio paraðymo data yra þenklas be nuorodos, auto- ba apie technikos suartëjimà su menu: technika riaus signatûra, kuri suvokëjui pati savaime, neþi- (τέχνη) priklauso pagaminimui (ποίησις), ji yra nanèiam istorijos, biografijos, nieko nepasako. I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 67

Schibboleth sàvoka suponuotø ir beuþsimezgantá bà bûtø galima pavadinti svetima kalba – jis savo laikiðkai ir erdviðkai nutolusá, taèiau pokalbá tarp kûryboje transformuoja ne tik áprastinæ kalbos var- kûrëjo ir referento. Ðis pokalbis, þinoma, tebûtø tosenà á poetinæ – jis sukeistina ir poetinæ varto- veikiau pokalbio uþuomazga ar prielaida, kadan- senà, uþdëdamas „kalbos grotas“. Kalbos grotø gi poetiniame tekste tëra verbaliai fiksuota auto- figûra to paties pavadinimo eilëraðtyje reiðkia ir riaus figûra, jo pasiraðymas bei kreipimasis á refe- kalbëjimo grotas. Jos sulaiko pokalbá, barikaduo- rentà. Tokiu kreipimusi ir ávyksta eilëraðèio kal- ja. Kita vertus, kalbos srautas kaip vaivorykðtë bëjimas: „Eilëraðtis kalba – net tada, kai jame re- (Ιρις) gali prasiskverbti pro grotas. Iris, dievø pa- ferencija nëra atpaþástama, [kalba I. B.] ne kà nors, siuntinë (Ειρις), Hermio pirmtakë, gali perteikti o Kità, tà, á kurá jis kreipiasi ir kuriam jis kalba, þinià. Taèiau grotø pavidalu lauþoma vaizdinio vie- kada jam sako, kad á já kalba. Net jei tai ir nepa- novë. „Kalbos grotos“ baigiasi þodþiø junginiu siekia Kito, vis dëlto jis já kalbina. Kreipinys ávyks- munvoll Schweigen – „pilnaburniai tylëjimai“. Taip ta“ (2007, s. 62-64)5. Schibboleth, kaip simbolio, jis tampa kalbëjimu, kaip ir daugelis kitø Celano pëdsako, signatûros apibrëþtá Derrida perkelia po- eilëraðèiø (pvz. Tübingen Jänner, Todtnauberg, Aus ezijos traktuotei teigdamas, jog pati poezija yra der Tiefe, Das Wort vom Zur-Tiefe -Gehn der Welt, „ðiboletiðka“ ir jà ákûnija þodis schibboleth. „Kal- Psalm) apie eilëraðèio nutilimà. boje, poetiniame kalbos uþraðyme nëra nieko ki- Paties Celano nubrëþtas literatûros (ποίησις) ta kaip schibboleth“ (2007, s. 80). Eilëraðtá Derri- kaip kalbos meno gaires randame jo Georgo da teigia esant pëdsaku, galimybe atverti paslap- Büchnerio premijos gavimo proga pasakytoje kal- tá. Pëdsako uþduotis naikinti ribà tarp perskaito- boje „Der Meridian“: „Menas yra, Jûs prisime- mumo ir neperskaitomumumo. Data kaip vien- nate, marionetiðkas, jambiðkai penkiapëdis ir – ði kartinis uþraðymas perskaitant ar perraðant tam- savybë nurodant á Pigmalionà ir jo kûriná, yra mi- pa universaliu ávykiu. Interpretacijos procese po tologiðkai patvirtinta – bevaikë bûtybë“ (1990, autoriaus paraðu pasiraðo jo skaitytojas, taip dau- s. 40). Meno definicija, kurià Celanas pateikia pa- ginasi signatûra (taèiau bûdama singuliariu ávy- èioje kalbos pradþioje, suteikia menui tokias sa- kiu ji netampa pliurali, o tiesiog atsiskleidþia savo vybes kaip marionetiðkumas, formalumas, vien- heterogeniðkumu). Taip vyksta reikðmiø mainai, kartiðkumas. jø atsiradimas ir irimas. Meno kûrinys yra metriðkas, priklausantis nuo Eilëraðèio prasmës sklaida sietina su filosofi- jam suteiktos formos ir jos nekeièiantis. Paveiks- niu sprendimu eliminuoti subjektà. Subjektas ei- las, nepriklausomai nuo skirtingø jo aptarimø, lie- lëraðèio tekste egzistuoja kaip signatûra. ka drobëje. Eilëraðtis, nepriklausomai nuo ávairiø interpretacijø, lieka raðte. Pats savæs meno kûri- Paulio Celano poezijos traktuotë nys pratæsti negali (net autoriui pratæsus ar patai- sius kûriná, jau nebekalbama apie tà patá kûriná, o Paulio Celano poezija yra sunkiai suvokiama. No- apie kità, net jei ir pirmojo redakcijà ar versijà). rint apibrëþti suvokimo sudëtingumo kilmæ, per- Metriðkumas ákûnija kilimo ir kryèio sintezæ, kuri ðasi vienintelis atsakymas – sudëtinga dël poetið- poezijos menui yra pirmapradiðka. Eilëraðtyje gali kumo. Bûtent poezija Celano eilëraðèiuose daro bûti derinami skirtingi metrai, metras gali bûti ne- juos sunkiai perskaitomus. Celano eilëraðèiø kal- reguliarus, metro gali bûti atsisakyta, taèiau jo pëd-

5 Werneris Hamacheris straipsnyje „Inversijos sekundë“ iðryðkina tikrovës begalybës prieðstatà kalbos begalybei ir dekonstruoja á interpretatoriø kalbanèios kalbos idëjà aporija: „kalba nekalba; ji negali reikðti nieko apart savæs ar savo iðnykimo“, o „apsimestiná“ kalbos intensionalumà sieja su inversijos figûra (Hamacher 1988, s. 82). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 68 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE sakas – ásispaudæs. Metriðkumas gali bûti supran- ezijos valdomos kalbos centralizavimas kûrëjo at- tamas kaip kûriná sustyguojantis bei já kûriniu da- þvilgiu. Poezija atsiskiria nuo meno, bet ne kaip rantis (dis)harmonijos principas. viena jo ðakø. Poezija atsidalina nuo meno, neið- Krytá ir kilimà kûrinyje ákûnija kylanèios ir eidama ið uþ jo ribø, tarsi sukurdama kiautà, lei- krintanèios marionetës vaizdinys. Kûrinio mario- dþiantá jai bûti laisvai. Todël poezija ir pavadina- netiðkumas apima daugiaplaná mechanizmà. Lë- ma „iðsilaisvinimu“. Ið èia poezija yra ne menas lës figûra brëþia ribinæ poezijos pozicijà tarp or- menui, o poezija vardan poezijos. Tezë „Menas ganizmo ir mechanizmo. Marionetë kaip antro- yra poezijos nueitas kelias“ skelbia meno negali- pomorfiðkas daiktas, veikiantis pagal mechanikos mumà be poezijos. Poezijos ir meno atsiskyrimas taisykles, organiðkumo áspûdá ágauna judesyje, ku- nëra vienpusis vienos srities dominavimas kitos ris yra valdomas aktoriaus. Marionetës judesys vi- atþvilgiu, – tai veikiau nuolat Celano tekste pa- sai pagrástai galëtø bûti laikomas meno alegorija. brëþiamas „tolumas“ ar „svetimumas“. Poezija, Apie tai yra kalbëjæs Paulis de Manas savo straips- kurià Celanas vadina „svetima, kitokia“, pasiþymi nyje „Aesthetic formalization in Kleist‘s Über das „nejaukumu, baisumu“ (ungeheuer, unheimlich). Marionettentheater“. Teoretikas teigë, kad esteti- Tà savybæ menui priskyrë Hölderlinas, o vëliau ir në jëga glûdi ne lëlëje ir ne aktoriuje, o tarp jø Heideggeris, Sofoklio „Antigonëje“ meno (τέχνη) uþsimezganèiame tekste. Ðá tekstà reikëtø suvokti esmæ apibrëþdamas graikiðku baisumà reiðkian- kaip transformacijø sistemà, siûlo formos prara- èiu þodþiu δεινóς (Lacoue-Labarthe 1988, s. 34). dimà jam besisukant ir pavirstant elipsës, hiper- Akcentuodamas ðià sàsajà, prancûzø literatûro- bolës ir parabolës tropais. Tropai, pasak teoreti- logas Philippe‘as Lacoue-Labarthe‘as Celano ko, yra judesio sistemos. Judesys atsiranda dël tro- „Meridianà“ pavadina atsaku á Heideggerio filo- pø, o ne atvirkðèiai (Man 1988, s. 228). Tropiðku- sofijà. Celanas, aptardamas Büchnerio kûrybà, pa- mas aptariamas ir „Meridiane“ kaip vienas cen- sirenka menà kaip „jûros pabaisà“ apibûdinanèià triniø poetiðkumo/ poetiðkumo destrukcijos prin- citatà ir jà komentuoja: „Reikëtø bûti „medûzos cipø. galva“, tam kad [...] meno dëka bûtø apèiuoptas Jau pirmojoje „Meridiano“ pastraipoje iðke- natûralumas kaip natûralus. Reikëtø èia, þinoma, liamas poezijos ir meno santykio klausimas: „Kas nereiðkia: man reikëtø. Tai yra iðþengimas ið þmo- prieð akis ir mintyse turi menà, tas [...] pamirðta giðkumo, pasisukimas á tam tikrà á þmogø nukreip- save. Menas pasiekia Að-nuotolá. Menas konkre- tà ir baisià (unheimlich) sritá – tà paèià, kurioje, èiu kryptingumu reikalauja konkreèios distanci- regis, ir beþdþionës figûra, ir automatai, o greta jos, konkretaus kelio. O poezija? Poezija, kuriai to [...] ach, ir menas bûtø namuose“ (1990, priklauso eiti meno keliu? [...] galbût poezija, kaip s. 47). Menas atskleidþia natûralumà pats nebû- ir menas, eina su save pamirðtanèiu Að linkui to, damas natûralus. Celanas uþsimena apie Büchne- kas baisu bei svetima ir iðsilaisvina, taèiau kur, ko- rio dramà „Dantons Tod“, kurioje herojës Kami- kioje vietoje, kuria kryptimi eidama, kuo bûda- lës lûpomis pasakoma, jog menas yra marionetið- ma? Tokiu atveju menas bûtø poezijos nueitas ke- kas, fragmentà „Woyzek“, kuriame paðiepiama lias – nei daugiau, nei maþiau. Þinau, kad yra ir beþdþionë, aprengta kelnëmis ir ðvarku; komedi- kitø, trumpesniø keliø. Bet ir poezija mums kar- jà „Leonce und Lena“, kurioje muzikuojama au- tais uþbëga uþ akiø: „La poésie, elle aussi, brûle nos tomatais. Menà (Kunst), jo þodþiais, atitolina jo étapes“ (Celan 1990, s. 48-49). dirbtinumas (künstlich) kaip prieðprieða meniðku- Poezija suvokiama kaip nuotolis, atsiskyrimas. mui (künstlerisch). Meniðkumà, matyt, reikëtø su- Distancija èia yra esminë. Po distancijos sàvoka vokti kaip mimezá plaèiàja prasme – kaip dalykø slypi daugybë dalykø: autorystës eliminacija, po- pasimatavimà ar priëmimà á savo (meno) kûnà, I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 69 kaip reprezentacijà, kaip panaðumà ar klaidini- lo „Fadensonnen“ laiku, taèiau publikuoto po po- mà (lot. imitacio). Klaidinimo aspektas èia itin eto mirties, strofa: svarbus, kadangi egzistuoja ir iðvirkðtinis mime- Eine Sprache zio veiksmas, kurá mini Celanas – tai tarsi inversi- gebiert sich selbst, ja paremta realybës savybë prisiimti á save bei imi- mit jedem aus tuoti menà. den Automaten gespieenen Celanas, supindamas „baisumo“ (unheimlich, Gedicht oder dessen ungeheuer dämonisch) ir „namø“ (Heim, Heim- kenntlich-unkenntlichen kehr, Heimat, Zuhause) semantines gijas á vienà Teilen6 (Celan 2005, s. 494). tekstà, leidþia menui bûti: ir bûti namuose, ir bûti „Galbût dabar rasime vietà, kur buvo sveti- baisiam. Menas balansuoja tarp baisaus, tolimo, mybë, vietà, kur asmuo, susvetimëjæs Að, galëjo svetimo bei savo, artimo, saugaus. Pastaroji greta iðsilaisvinti? Ar rasime tokià vietà, toká þingsná – turëtø priklausyti þmogui, subjektui. Taèiau sub- „[…] tik kartais buvo nemalonu, kad jis negalëjo jektà Celanas, sekdamas Heideggerio tradicija, pa- stovëti ant galvos.“ – tai jis, Lencas. Tai, manau, ðalina pasakymu „Tai, kas þmogiðka gali bûti pa- jis ir jo þingsnis, jis ir jo pasakymas „Tegyvuoja naikinama arba sugràþinama pagal poreikius“ karalius.“ [...] Kas eina ant galvos, mano ponios ir (1990, s. 47). Telieka þmogaus atributika meno kû- ponai, – kas eina ant galvos, tam po kojomis dan- rinyje, antropomorfine forma be þmogaus. Þmo- gus kaip praraja“, – sako Celanas ir èia pat pridu- giðkumas ðiuo atveju tëra bendrybë, kuri, prieðin- ria, kad „nûnai galima poezijai prikiðti tamsumà“ gai nei þmogus, gali bûti „patalpinta“ kûrinijoje. (1990, s. 51). Vaikðèioti ant galvos yra iracionalu „Iðëjimas ið þmogiðkumo“ atitinka „savimarðà“. arba intencionalu. Iracionalumas bei tamsuma nu- Èia galima kalbëti ir apie meno ásiterpimà á gyve- rodytø á beprotybæ, intencionalumas – á klouno nimà ir dël jo poveikio atsirandanèià „savæs uþ- sieká apsimesti, imitacijà. Imitacija, kalbant apie marðtá“. Baugu yra „turëti medûzos galvà“ ir ni- poezijà, savaime implikuoja kalbos veikimà. Pa- veliuoti skirtumà tarp þmogiðkosios (realios) ir saulio apvertimas aukðtyn kojomis vyksta kalbai medûziðkosios (meniðkosios) bûties, bûti kuria- veikiant inversijos principu – tikrovë kuria save mam, o ne paèiam kurti. atspindëdama kalbà. Celano deklaruojamà þmo- Tokio tipo susvetimëjimas ir kyla ið kalbos. Kal- gaus susvetimëjimà reikia suprasti kaip þmogaus ba atitolina þmogiðkumà. „Savimarðos“ prigimtis buvimà „iðvirkðèiu“ kalbos atþvilgiu – kai þmogus yra kalbëjimas. Kalbantis þmogus yra genamas kal- ámetamas á kalbà, vietoj to, kad bûtø ámestas á pa- bos, jos dësniø, pasiduodantis kalbos ûþesiui. Kal- saulá – jis pradeda vaikðèioti ant galvos. bos ûþesys ásuka á savo mechaniná ritmà ir þmogus Kalbos priedermë – bûti ant bedugnës kraðto. paklûsta kalbos tëkmei, apsivilkdamas kalbiðku- Tad egzistuoja nuolatinë grësmë atsirasti kalbai mà, já perteikdamas savimi. Þmogus tampa kal- bûdinguose sau neadekvatumo paribiuose. Kal- bos priemone. Tokiame baisiame kalbëjime uþ- ba neadekvati pati sau, kadangi tas pats dalykas mirðtamas ir klausytojas, praneðimo objektas, tiks- pakeitus rakursà gali bûti pavadintas esmiðkai las ar kryptis, viskà uþvaldo pati kalba. Þmogus opoziciniais vardais – ir dangumi, ir bedugne. praranda namus, o kalba – randa. Tai iliustruoja Das Wort vom Zur-Tiefe Gehn, paskutinë eilëraðèio „Zerstörungen“, paraðyto cik- das wir gelesen haben.

6 Kalba/ pagimdo pati save/ su kiekvienu ið/ automatø iðspjautu / eilëraðèiu arba jo/ atpaþástamai-neatpaþástamomis/ dalimis. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 70 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Die Jahre, die Worte seither. Wittgensteino frazæ: „Apie kà neámanu kalbëti, Wir sind es noch immer. privalu tylëti“ (1994, s. 89). Èia svarbus George‘s Bataille‘aus pasakymas, esà tylëjimas yra þodis, Weißt du, der Raum ist unendlich, kuris nëra þodis, o kvëpavimas yra daiktas, kuris weißt du, du brauchst nicht zu fliegen, nëra daiktas. Taigi tyla yra kito, poetinio kalbëji- weißt du, was sich in dein Aug schrieb, mo uþuomazga ir garantas. Sustojimas kalbant, vertieft uns die Tiefe7 (Celan 2005, s. 125). atokvëpis, sustabdo tai, kas iki jo buvo pasakyta. Ðiame raðymà ir skaitymà eksplicitiðkai reflek- Po tokio atokvëpio iðtarus þodá, ankstesnis kalbë- tuojanèiame eilëraðtyje matome bedugnës figû- jimas suspenduojamas. Kalbai bei jos uþraðymui rà, bedugnës þodá. Paraðytos prarajos perskaity- yra bûdingi tarpai tarp þodþiø, tuo tarpu atokvë- mas susipina su laiko bei raðto patirtimi, o iðgyve- pis byloja apie esminá plyðá. Kvëpavimas siejasi su nus ðià patirtá iðliekama: „Mes vis dar esam“, t. y. þmogumi, taigi èia sugràþinamas kalbiðkai/ egzis- neatsidûrëme ties atminties praraja, nors ir per- tenciðkai veikiantis subjektas: „Galbût èia, kartu skaitëm bedugnæ. Toji patirtis atsiveria kaip þaiz- su Að – su èia ir taip iðlaisvintu susvetimëjusiu Að, da ir „pagilina gylá“, kurio pakanka ir „nebereikia – galbût èia iðsilaisvins ir Kitas“ (Celan 1990, skristi“. Derrida kalbëjo apie tekstà, ásiraðantá á s. 52). Kvëpavimo posûkio figûra tarsi pristabdo- ðirdá bei á atmintá. Celanas kalba apie eilëraðtá, „ási- mas arba apsukamas kalbos automatizmas, taèiau raðiusá tavo akin“. Ásiraðymas á aká prilygsta uþra- subjektas atgaivinamas ne dël jo paties, o dël po- ðymui ant pavirðiaus, pvz., popieriaus. Akis, kitaip ezijos: „Bet eilëraðtis kalba!“ (Celan 1990, s. 53). nei Platono „sielos akis“, yra veidrodis, taèiau at- Subjektas nelyginant þodis schibboleth esti tik ty- spindintis ne sielos turinius, mintis, o prieð akis lëjime, tarpe tarp þodþiø. Eilëraðtyje jis, nors ir esantá/ á atmintá ásiraðiusá raðtà. Akies figûroje esantis, suskliaudþiamas. áþvelgiant literatûriná principà mise en abyme Celano kryptingas atokvëpis þymi ne vien eilë- (pranc. abyme – herbo laukas, o abîme – praraja), raðèio pasirinkimà pasukti á kità pusæ, o „egzis- reiðkiantá „veidrodiná tekstà“, „krytá á kartoèiø pra- tenciná“ eilëraðèio lûþá. Eilëraðtis yra pakeliui ir rajà“ (Wilpert 2001, s. 525), paaiðkëja, jog eilë- bepasiekiàs savo ribas: „Eilëraðtis parodo, ir tai raðtyje pakartotas þinojimas veda á bedugnës gylá. nepaneigiama, savo stiprø polinká á nebylumà./ Ei- „Poezija: tai gali reikðti kvëpavimo posûká lëraðtis teigia save [...] savo paties paribyje; idant (Atemwende). [...] Galbût jai pavyks, kadangi at- iðliktø, jis parkvieèia, gràþina save ið savo jau-nerodo, jog svetimumas, taigi praraja ir medûzos gal- be á savo vis-dar“ (1990, s. 54). Eilëraðtis balan- va, praraja ir automatai eina tuo paèiu keliu, – gal suoja ant bûties ir nebûties ribos. Ir tyla, ir kalbë- jai èia pavyks – bent ðiai vienai trumpai akimirkai jimas gali reikðti ir bûtá, ir nebûtá. Kalbëjimas yra – atskirti svetimumà nuo svetimumo, gal susi- gyvybës þymë – mirusieji tyli. Kita vertus, kalbëji- trauks medûzos galva, gal suges automatai?“ (Ce- mas pragaiðtingai susijæs su lemiamu kryèiu á kal- lan 1990, s. 52). Vienu kryptingu atokvëpiu Cela- bos prarajà. Tyla gali tverti ir amþinybæ, ir mirks- nas bando sustabdyti kalbà poezijos vardan. Ðá ná. Eilëraðèio vis dar ávardijamas eilëraðèio „bû- lemtingà posûká poetas pavadina „vaisingu nutili- ties“, jo „kûriniðkumo“ (Celano vartojamas vok. mu“, sustabdanèiu kvëpavimà ir þodá. Poezijos ke- Kreatürlichkeit, kildinamas ið Kreatur, reiðkianèio lias prasideda nutilus. Tokià poezijos koncepcijà bûtybæ, padarà, bjaurybæ, bei Kreation – kûrimà, galime suvokti kaip nuorodà á garsiàjà Ludwigo kûrybà) „pasisukimo kampà“ (Neigungswinkel) ar-

7 Þodis apie leidimàsi gilyn,/ kurá mes perskaitëme./ Metai, þodþiai nuo tol./ Mes vis dar esame.// Þinai, erdvë begalinë,/ þinai, tau nebûtina skristi,/ þinai, kas ásiraðë tavo akin,/ pagilina mums gylá. I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 71 tikuliacija. Eilëraðtis yra posûkyje (Winkel) ir kaip piantys tekstà katastrofos link. Celanui svarbus uþuomina (Wink): „Eilëraðtis yra vieniðas ir pa- teksto utopijos, absurdo paþinimas. Tik taip uþ- keliui“ (1990, s. 55). Ðtai èia apèiuopiame gijà, ve- klausiant poetiðkumà, galimas visoje „Meridiano“ danèià link Derrida eilëraðèio definicijos, apibrë- kalboje bandytas átvirtinti pokalbis su tekstu. Ne- þianèios eilëraðtá kaip vieniðà ir mizantropà. Eilë- gatyvus poþiûris, dialektika leidþia eilëraðèiui bû- raðèio vienatvë ir vienkartiðkumas leidþia jam bû- ti. „Argi nueiname, jei màstome apie eilëraðèius, ti, t. y. eilëraðtis yra tik bûdamas vienkartinis. Ei- argi nueiname su eilëraðèiais tokius kelius? Gal lëraðtis kiekvienà kartà ávyksta kaip singuliarus ávy- tokie keliai tëra aplink-keliai, aplinkkeliai nuo ta- kis. Vieniðas ir bevaikis jis pasisuka savo bûtyje ir væs prie tavæs? Taèiau juk tai ir keliai tarp dauge- pakrypsta á Kità: „Eilëraðtis viliasi Kito, jam rei- lio kitø keliø, kuriuose kalba tampa balsi, tai susi- kia ðio kito prieðais já patá. Jis já susiranda, á já kal- tikimai, balso keliai á suvokiantájá Tu, kûrybiniai ba“ (Celan 1990, s. 55). Taigi bûtinas Kitas, á kurá (kreatürlich) keliai, galbût bûties projektai, savæs eilëraðtis pakrypsta (aus-wendet) ir kurá jis mo- atgræþimas á save, savæs beieðkant... Tam tikra ke- ko savæs, á kurio aká ir ðirdá jis nori ásiraðyti. Kitas lionë namo...“ (1990, s. 60). Gráþimas prie savæs ðiuo atveju nëra svetimas, net jei ir pastarojo pa- eilëraðèiu reiðkia gráþimà prie esmës ir prie kil- kaitalas. Kitas priartëja prie eilëraðèio ir ágalina mës (Herkunft), taigi prie Ðv. Jono Evangelijos pokalbá – „vyksta pokalbis, daþnai tai beviltiðkas „pradþioje esanèio“ þodþio: „Tada eilëraðtis bûtø pokalbis“. – aiðkiau nei bet kada iki ðiol – forma tapæs atski- „Jis [eilëraðtis – I. B.] prisimena savo duome- ro þmogaus þodis, – ir savo vidine esme dabarti- nis, bet – jis kalba“ (Celan 1990, s. 53). Tai jis gali nis“ (1990, s. 55). Teigdamas save neigianèio eilë- atlikti tik pats bûdamas mnemotechnika, prisimi- raðèio esatá, Celanas pasiekia „kaþkà kaip kalba nimo menas, menas prisiminti þodá – þodþio me- materialaus, bet þemiðko, kaþkà apvalaus, abiem nas. Matome, kad poezija yra atskilusi nuo meno poliais gráþtanèio á save“, „kertanèio, suþlugdan- bendràja prasme, bet kartu jungia menus kaip èio tropus“ (1990, s. 62) – meridianà, dienovidá, technikas. Ið èia kyla klausimas, kur yra eilëraðèio pagal kurá bûtø galima ieðkoti eilëraðèio. vieta, ar atmintyje ar (raðymo) technikoje. „Mes [...] vis liekame ties klausimu ið kur ir kur link: Iðvados bûdami ties ðiuo „atviru“, „nesibaigianèiu“, á atvi- rumà ir tuðtumà kreipianèiu klausimu, esame per- Aptarus Heideggerio kalbos eilëraðtyje sampra- dëm iðorëje. Eilëraðtis, manau, ieðko ðios vietos“ tà, galima teigti, kad tarp eilëraðèio ir kalbos uþsi- (1990, s. 56). Eilëraðtis, funkcionuojantis kaip at- mezga ávairuojantys ryðiai – eilëraðtis, bûdamas viras klausimas, ieðko vietos. „Meridiane“ nuolat kalboje ir ið kalbos, atspindi jos esmæ. Suvokimo kalbama apie eilëraðèio judëjimà, kelià, kryptá, po- procese eilëraðèio kalbai suteikiami konkretûs bû- sûká. Eilëraðtis nei pats yra vietoje, nei yra vieta. ties parametrai – erdvë ir balsas – ágalina reikð- Eilëraðèio vieta (τόπoς), kaip tai supranta ir ávar- miø produkcijà. Teiginys, kad kalba kalbëdama ið dija Celanas, yra u-topija, vieta be sustojimo. „Taigi eilëraðèio prabyla á suvokëjà, yra paremta paties eilëraðtis bûtø vieta, kur visi tropai ir metaforos recipiento valios suvokti prielaida. Iðanalizavus þo- privedami ad absurdum.“ (1990, s. 57). Ðiuo as- dþiø daugiareikðmiðkumà, suvokiama, kad kalbos pektu poezija yra poetiðkumo pertrûkis. Tropø ir ávykis eilëraðtyje nëra baigtinis. Dël þodþiø reikð- metaforø pastûmëjimas imas iki absurdo (lot. ab- miø pliuralumo galima nuolatinë reikðmës de- surdus – „neðvaraus skambesio, nerimuotas“ (Du- strukcija ir rekonstrukcija. Eilëraðtyje atmetamas den. Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 1996, s. 73) subjektas kaip kuriantysis, o jo vaidmená perima nereiðkia jø paneigimo. Tropai veikia kaip krei- kalba. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 72 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Perskaièius Derrida poezijos koncepcijà, gali- suvokimo atþvilgiu. Pasitelkus „kvëpavimo posû- ma teigti, kad viena pagrindiniø poezijos funkcijø kio“ metaforà, sukuriama erdvë, kurioje ámano- yra nukreiptumas á recipientà. Ji prilyginama ásta- mi autoriaus teksto, teksto – skaitytojo santykiai, tymui, primetanèiam skaitymo/ raðymo valià. Po- taèiau màstantysis subjektas tëra priemonë „eilë- ezija kaip poetinë technika veikia dvejopai: kaip raðèio kalbëjimui“ atsiskleisti; subjektas - visada raðytinis tekstas ir kaip sàmonës, atminties turi- iðorinis teksto atþvilgiu. Poezijai priskiriamas for- nys. Reikðmës produkuojamos suvokëjo sàmo- malumas ir metriðkumas leidþia nustatyti iðorines nëje, pagal paraðyto teksto dësningumus. Poezi- teksto savybes, marionetiðkumas – poezijoje vei- ja yra singuliarus ávykis, kiekviena eilëraðèio in- kiantá teksto rasties bei poetiniø judesiø koordi- terpretacija patvirtina eilëraðèio bei atskiros nacijos principà, vieniðumas – poezijos hermetið- reikðmës vienkartiðkumà. Poezija nuolat balan- kumo savybæ, svetimumas – distancijà, autoriaus suoja ant perskaitomumo ir neperskaitomumo figûros eliminavimà ir poezijos centralizavimà, slenksèio. Derrida filosofijoje subjektas atitrau- baisumas – kalboje slypinèias, pasakymo turiniø kiamas ið poezijos centro, o vietoje jo telieka sub- iðkraipymo tendencijas, o tropiðkumas – savaran- jekto pëdsakas, signatûra. kiðkà prasmës organizavimo sistemà, pavaldþià re- Aptarus Celano kalbà „Meridianas“, galima torikai. Dël tropø veikimo konstatuojamas poezi- teigti, kad jo naudota „kalbos grotø“ metafora jos þymimas prasminis pertrûkis, skelbiantis kal- identifikuoja ir kalbos uþdarumà, ir pralaidumà bos neadekvatumà paèiai sau.

Literatûra

CELAN, P., 1990. Der Meridian. In: Der Meridian und HEIDEGERIS, M., 1992. Technikos klausimas. In: M. andere Prosa. 2. Auflage. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, HEIDEGERIS, Rinktiniai raðtai. Vertë A. Ðliogeris. Vilnius: 40-62. Mintis, 217-243. CELAN, P., 2005. Die Gedichte. Komentierte Gesampaus- HEIDEGGER, M., 2003. Unterwegs zur Sprache. Stut- gabe. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. tgart: Klett-Cotta. DERRIDA, J., 1998. Che cos’e la poesia? – Was ist Dich- LACOUE-LABARTHE, P., 1988. Katasthrophe. In: Paul tung. In: Auslassungspunkte. Wien: Passagen, 299-304. Celan. Hrsg. Werner Hamacher, Winfried Menninghaus. DERRIDA, J., 2007. Schibboleth. 4. durchgesehene Auf- Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 31-60. lage. Wien: Passagen. MAN, P., DE, 1988. Allegorien des Lesens. Frankfurt am Duden. Deutsches Universalwörterbuch. 1996. Mannheim, Main: Suhrkamp, 52-90, 205-233. Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. WILPERT, G., VON, 2001. Sachwörterbuch der Literatur. HAMACHER, W., 1988. Die Sekunde der Inversion. Be- 8. Auflage. Stuttgart: Kröner Verlag. wegungen einer Figur durch Celans Gedichte. In: Paul Celan. WITTGENSTEIN, L., 1994. Tractatus Logico philosop- Hrsg. W. Hamacher, W. Menninghaus. Frankfurt am Main: hicus. Logisch-philosophische Abhandlung. 23. Auflage. Frank- Suhrkamp, 81-126. furt am Main: Suhrkamp. I. Bartkuvienë. POEZIJA IR KALBA: HEIDEGGERIS, DERRIDA, CELANAS 73

Inga Bartkuvienë from a hermeneutic–deconstruction perspective. The Vilnius University, Lithuania analysis of Heidegger and Derrida’s theoretical as- Research interests: modernism in German literatu- sumptions concluded that poetry reflects the essen- re, poststructuralism, theoretical and philosophical ce of language, the meaning emerges in the process problems of language, writing, reading and subjecti- of perception and the language takes over the role vity. of subject. Celan reflects the poetical language as a medium of meaning uprising. Poetry is being mar- POETRY AND LANGUAGE: HEIDEGGER, ked with signs of mastership, puppetship, creep and DERRIDA, CELAN trope. The subject is perceived as a tool to unfold the talk of a poem. Summary KEY WORDS: poetry, language, reflection of This paper focuses on the exploration of language language, subject, signature, production of meanings, and poetic concepts in the philosophy of Heidegger deconstruction, hermetic poetry. and Derrida and poetry of Celan. The paper discusses the aspects of localization of poetical language, Gauta 2007 11 12 production of meanings and key subjects in poetry Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 08 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 74 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Rûta Brûzgienë Mykolo Romerio universitetas Ateities g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lietuva Tel.: (370–5) 21 22 889 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: komparatyvistika, muzika, literatûra, forma, lituanistika.

MUZIKA IR LITERATÛRA: NARATYVUMO ASPEKTAS

Straipsnyje nagrinëjama problema – kai kuriø naratyvumo koncepcijos aspektø panaudojimo galimybë literatû- ros kûrinio formos muzikalumui analizuoti. Naratyvumo konceptas, be bendrøjø fundamentø, turi specifinæ raiðkà atskirose meno ðakose. Nors apie já kalbama reikðmingoje komparatyvistikai Wernerio Wolfo laiko menø intermedialumo teorijoje, bet plaèiau mokslininkø jis nebuvo tyrinëtas. Aptariami kai kurie bendrieji naratyvumo aspektai, atskleidþiami specifiniai jo raiðkos muzikoje momentai. Pagrindinis straipsnio tikslas – praturtinti formos muzikalumo literatûros tekste analizës galimybes. Straipsnyje analizuojamas klausimas yra pakankamai naujas, nes formos muzikalumas literatûros tekste iki ðiol Lietuvoje buvo nagrinëjamas remiantis funkcinës analizës principais ir grindþiamas temos samprata, kurios raiðka muzikoje yra gana akivaizdi ir be galo ávairi. O literatûros kûrinyje ji daþnai nepakankamai aiðki. Autorës nuomone, muzikinio naratyvumo principø panaudojimas padëtø esmingiau suvokti ir pagrásèiau apèiuopti temos literatûros tekste specifikà, taip pat jos transformacijas kaip vienà ið pagrindø, sudaranèiø jo vidinæ formà. Vidinë forma yra analogiðka muzikos modeliams. Kartu tai galimybë atkreipti dëmesá á kitokius formos aspektus. Toks tyrimo poþiûris patikslintø intermedialumo teorijà ir praturtintø komparatyvistikos galimybes literatû- rologijoje. Straipsnyje remiamasi Eero Tarasti, Algirdo Juliaus Greimo, Gerardo Gennete‘o, Wernerio Wolfo, Ingos Jasinskaitës-Jankauskienës bei kitø mokslininkø darbais. Tyrimas atliekamas pasitelkus komparatyvistiná meto- dà. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: naratyvumas, muzika, literatûra, intermedialumas, transmedialumas, komunikacija, diskursas, transformacija, izotopija, forma, tema.

Áþanga tokiø moderniø ðiuolaikinio meno teorijø yra Wer- Muzikos ir literatûros ryðiai yra labai sudëtingi, nerio Wolfo intermedialumo koncepcija. Ji, nors daugiaaspekèiai. Jie labai intensyviai pradëti nag- dar formuojasi (Wolf 2002), yra daug ðiuolaikið- rinëti XX amþiaus viduryje (Calvin S. Brown, Ul- kesnë ir universalesnë nei iki ðiol vyravusi popu- rich Weisstein, Steven Paul Scher, Lawrence Kra- liarioji Steveno Paulio Schero muzikos ir litera- mer ir kt.). Artëjant minëto ðimtmeèio pabaigai, tûros ryðiø klasifikacija (Scher 1984). Taèiau dau- kai atsirado itin originalios meno formos ir susi- gelá Wolfo nubrëþtø laiko menø sàveikos, taip pat kûrë naujosios filosofinës bei metodologinës me- muzikos ir literatûros aspektø reikëtø nagrinëti no teorijos kryptys, muzikos ir literatûros sàvei- plaèiau, tikslinti ávairias ryðiø galimybes, formu- kos tyrinëjimai ágavo visiðkai kità lygmená. Viena luoti sàvokynà ir t. t. Vienas tokiø, kol kas dar R. Brûzgienë. MUZIKA IR LITERATÛRA: NARATYVUMO ASPEKTAS 75 nepakankamai aptartø intermedialumo teorijoje, cinio intermedialumo transmedialumo pogrupio bûtø naratyvumo konceptas. Já ðiame straipsnyje variantø. Tai intermedialumo plaèiàja prasme at- analizuosime muzikalumo poþiûriu, sieksime pa- ðaka, kai analizuojami skirtingø meniniø terpiø grindinio, nors ir glûdinèio potekstëje, straipsnio reiðkiniai yra analogiðki ir kai inter reiðkia ribø per- tikslo – iðsiaiðkinti ávairias formos, kartais super- þengimà tarp ðiø terpiø. Jis vyksta ne vieno kûri- modernios, bendras sudaromàsias muzikoje ir li- nio ar semiotinio komplekso viduje, bet yra skir- teratûroje (pvz., atvirosios, mobiliosios, aleato- tingø kûriniø ar semiotiniø kompleksø gretinimo rinës, momento, vadinamosios beformës formos rezultatas, iðreiðkiantis manifestavimo analogus ir ar beveik neapèiuopiamø struktûrø ir t. t.). Kal- skirtingø terpiø esminius struktûrinius panaðumus bëdami apie naratyvumà, akcentuosime bûtent ir atitikmenis. Taigi naratyvumui kaip transmedia- tuos jo muzikinius aspektus, kurie reikðmingi for- liai kategorijai yra bûdingas neistoriðkumas ir tam mø analizei ir tiktø svarbiausiems jø formantams tikras bendrumas konkreèiais istoriniais periodais. nusakyti. Bendrumas pasireiðkia formaliuoju poþiûriu (taip pat ir formos sudarymo principais, t. y. savitu, bû- dingu kiekvienai epochai pasaulëvaizdþio atspin- Apie naratyvumà dþiu komponavimo technikoje (Janeliauskas 2001, Kaip matyti ið Wolfo intermedialumo schemos, p. 147)). Naratyvumo transmedialumas turinio naratyvumo konceptas yra vienas ekstrakompozi- lygmeny pasireiðkia kaip tam tikros temos ir ar-

INTERMEDIALUMAS (plaèiàja prasme)

intrakompozicinis intermedialumas ekstrakompozicinis intermedialumas (intermedialumas siauràja prasme)

transmedialumas intermedialioji intermedialioji plurimedialumas(siginifikatai transpozicija referencija (viena priklauso daugiau nei vienai semiotinei sistemai) semiotinë sistema)

implicitinë eksplicitinë inter- inter- referencija referencija medialusis medialusis (intermedialioji (intermedialusis susiliejimas kombina- imitacija) tematizavimas) vimas

- muzikos ir - novelës - þodinio teksto - diskusijos apie muzikà - operos - operos þodinio teksto perkëlimas muzikalumas þodiniame tekste atlikimas tekstas naratyvumas á operà - programinë - muzikos vaizdavimas - variacijos muzikoje muzika þodiniame tekste ir þodiniame tekste 1 pav. Intermedialumo samprata ir sandara ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 76 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE chetipai, tokie kaip generacijø ir lyèiø konfliktai. niø ir technologiniø modeliø pasirinkimas leidþia Vadinasi, neistorinës naratyvumo kategorijos gali kurti unikalias reikðmës struktûras. Kartais komu- bûti „pripildytos“ ávairaus pobûdþio elementø, nikacinës struktûros konfliktuoja su reikðmës pvz., bendrøjø, „amþinøjø“ þmonijos archetipiniø struktûromis, o tai suvokiama kaip stilistiniø bei vaizdiniø ar konkreèiai istorinei epochai bûdingø kitokiø normø lauþymas. Apskritai Tarasti muzi- formaliø ir stilistiniø meninës raiðkos bûdø. Rei- kos kûriná traktuoja kaip kinetiná ávyká, kuris sklei- kia pabrëþti, kad visi minëti aspektai aktualûs ir dþiasi laike ir kurio specifikos esmæ sudaro muzi- literatûros kûrinio kompozicijai nagrinëti. Taigi kos atlikimo (raiðkos) ir imanentinio (turinio) ly- naratyvumo konceptas kaip transmediali katego- giø integracija á muzikinës komunikacijos proce- rija yra labai parankus atskiros meno srities spe- sà (1984, p. 18). cifikai suvokti. Tai leidþia, remiantis kai kuriais mu- Inga Jasinskaitë–Jankauskienë savo knygoje zikinio naratyvumo aspektais, atskleisti naujas li- Pagoniðkasis avangardizmas: Teoriniai Broniaus teratûros kûrinio formos muzikiniø analogø ana- Kutavièiaus muzikos aspektai iðkëlë labai svarbià lizës perspektyvas. Taèiau, màstydami apie litera- mintá, kad naratyvumo konceptas yra suvoktinas tûros teksto muzikalumà, turime nepamirðti, kad muzikoje ir kaip sistema, ir, svarbiausia, kaip pro- èia didelæ reikðmæ turi jo skambëjimas – ne vien cesas (2001, p. 96); anksèiau tai nebuvo akivaiz- tik kaip garsinë raiðka, bet ir kaip emocinë– dþiau suformuluota. Naratyvumas kaip struktûra kinetinë energija (prisiminkime garsiàjà Ernsto reiðkia atskirø daliø derinimà visumos poþiûriu, o Kurtho koncepcijà). procesualumas yra medþiagos atranka, jos iðdës- Kaip naratyvumas suvokiamas muzikoje? Èia tymas, pateikimas. Bûtent ðis naratyvumo aspek- bûtø pravartu prisiminti, kaip þymusis muzikos se- tas straipsnyje yra svarbesnis ir traktuotinas kaip miotikas Eero Tarasti traktuoja muzikos diskursà ko- galimybë praturtinti literatûros kûrinio vidinës for- munikacijos procese. Jis iðskiria ideologiná (tai mu- mos, t. y. proceso, analizæ. zikinës estetikos bei simbolikos pagrindas) ir tech- Gerrardas Genette‘as naratyvumà suvokia, nologiná (tai harmonijos, kontrapunkto, kompozici- pirma, kaip diskursà (ávykiø serija); antra, kaip ry- ðius tarp ávykiø; treèia, kaip patá pasakojimo aktà nës formos) modelá. Jø átaka muzikiniam diskursui (1980, p. 25-26). Naratyvo ir naracijos santykius (t. y. muzikos struktûroms) yra problemiðka; ji aið- mokslininkas grupuoja á tris grupes: 1) tai laikas kiausiai atsiskleidþia komunikaciniø struktûrø lyg- (juo nusakomas ávykiø sekos, istorijos laikas ir pa- menyje (Tarasti 1994, p. 16; taip pat þr. 2 pav.). sakojimo diskurse iðreikðtas laikas; 2) poþiûris, as- Ideologinis modelis pektas, arba bûdas, vadinami fokusavimu, kai pa- Technologinis modelis sakojimas suvokiamas per pasakotojo prizmæ; Raiðkos lygis ------Muzikinis diskursas 3) nuotaika, nuosaka, o ði suprantama kaip pasa- Imanentinis lygis Komunikacinës struktûros Reikðmës struktûros kojimo diskurso tipas, pasakotojo pasirinktas ir jo vartojamas. 2 pav. Muzikinis diskursas komunikacijos Anne’s Sivuoja-Gunaratman nuomone, nara- procese tyvumas muzikoje padeda atsakyti á klausimus, „kaip konkreèiame kûrinyje funkcionuoja muzi- Komunikacines muzikos struktûras iðreiðkia kos þenklø sistema, t. y. kaip organizuotas muzi- visos kompozitoriaus naudojamos muzikinës prie- kinis pasakojimas, kaip reguliuojama ir pulsuoja monës, skleidþianèios jo muzikines idëjas. Esteti- jo energija, kaip manipuliuojama laiku, kurios fi- R. Brûzgienë. MUZIKA IR LITERATÛRA: NARATYVUMO ASPEKTAS 77 gûros ar nefigûros (pvz., temos ar motyvai) suda- analizuojant ávairias transformacijas. Prisiminki- ro diskursà ir, jeigu taip yra, kas joms atsitinka me, pavyzdþiui, temø, kuriø formavimo principai muzikos eigoje, kaip jos plëtojamos ar galbût su- analogiðki ir literatûros menui, ávairovæ bei sudë- naikinamos“ (Jasinskaitë-Jankauskienë 2001, tingumà: temos bûna centralizuotos, necentrali- p. 96). Tokia muzikinë naratyvumo interpretacija zuotos, mikro ir makro temos, sudëtinës, vadina- itin aktuali tyrinëjant literatûros ir muzikos sàvei- mieji temø kaleidoskopai, kompleksai ir t. t. kà, pabrëþiant teksto procesualiuosius–energinius (Áîáðîâñêèé 1989). santykius. Skaitant kûriná ir nagrinëjant jo elementø transformacijas kaip procesualumo raiðkà, svar- Apie transformacijas bûs yra visi skaitymo kodai, kuriuos aptarë Ro- landas Barthesas (Hawthorn 1998, p. 164). Tai pro- Labai reikðmingas aspektas naratyvumo teorijai, airetinis (skaitytojo sugebëjimas kontroliuoti kû- o kartu ir literatûros kûrinio kompozicijos proce- riná), hermeneutinis, seminis, simbolinis (sudaran- sualumui suvokti yra transformacijø rûðys. Èia pra- tis sàlygas skaitytojui kurti simbolines reikðmes), vartu bûtø prisiminti ontologinius formø pagrin- referencinis (padedantis tekstualiai aiðkintis kul- dus, aptartus muzikos semiotiko Viktoro Karbu- tûros reiðkinius) (Barthes 1990, p. 19-20). sicky‘io straipsnyje „Antropologinës ir gamtinës Norëtøsi atkreipti dëmesá á tai, kad Greimo universalijos muzikoje“ (1997), kultûrologinius semiotikoje naratyviná pasakymà aktualizuoja Claude‘o Lévi-Strauss’o (1991), estetinius filoso- funkcija, o proceso potencialumà atskleidþia ak- finius Sussane‘os Langer (1980) ir nusistovëjusius tantas–subjektas. Naratyvinius pasakymus Grei- klasikinius muzikos modelius bei ðiuolaikinius formas apibûdina trimis kategorijomis: kaip subjek- mø sistemø pagrindus, kuriuose atsispindi koky- to ir funkcijos prieðinimàsi, dominavimà ir atri- biðkai nauji struktûrinës logikos principai, gene- bucijà (1989, p. 172). Galëtume pastebëti tam tik- tiðkai susijæ su muzikos proceso idëja ir su muzi- rus struktûrinius analogus ir muzikoje: pvz., temø kos dramaturgija, kuriuose apibûdinamos moder- plëtotës metodai (kartojimas, iðtisinë ir laisvoji plë- niøjø formø transformacijø tendencijos (Brûzgie- totë) ar kontrastø pobûdis (konfliktas, papildymo, në 2005). Pastaruosius bûtø prasminga dar papil- iðvestinis kontrastas) ir t. t. Reikia pabrëþti, kad dyti ir naratyvumo teorijos poþiûriu. muzikos mene vyrauja teleologinis, t. y. kryptin- Dinaminio augimo struktûra, sudaryta ið opo- gumo principas, kai vertës ágyjamos ir realizuoja- zicijø, gali turëti du transformacijos bûdus: per- mos, o ne prarandamos (vadinamoji virtualizaci- ëjimà kaip iðsipildymà ir moduliacijà. Tai atitiktø ja). Kita vertus, tai bûdinga ir kitiems laiko me- greimiðkosios transformacijos horizontalëje ir nams, kuriuose svarbus poetinis-metaforinis lyg- konversijos vertikalëje sampratà (transformacijos muo. Greimas iðskiria dvi modalizacijø rûðis ir dvi yra konjunktyvinës ir disjunktyvinës). Muzikinë modalizacijø klases: veiksmo modalumus, valdan- moduliacija (konversija vertikalëje) reikðtø statu- èius intencionaliuosius santykius, ir bûsenos mo- so, sistemos kitimà, o horizontalusis lygmuo ro- dalumus, valdanèius egzistencinius santykius. Mu- dytø tik pasislinkimà. Muzikoje su transformacija zikoje taip pat iðskiriami naratyviniai bûsenos ir galima sieti daug jos dariniø ir santykiø: klasiki- veiksmo pasakymai, kalbama apie subjekto inten- nëje ir romantinëje muzikoje transformacijos pro- cionalumà. Anot Tarasti, tai savotiðkos emociniø cesai daþniausiai siejami su tematika. Visa tai ak- bûsenø grandys, bendras þmogiðkas vertinimo bû- tualu ir literatûros kûrinyje naratyvumo poþiûriu das. Literatûros tekste modalumai irgi yra tam tikri ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 78 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE kinetinës energijos „neðëjai“ – kûrinio nuotaikos, ðitokios erdvës sampratos aspektø taip pat tam patoso ir t. t. Bûsenà daþnai iðreiðkia statiðka, ra- tikru mastu gali bûti panaudojami kaip vieni ið ga- mi, kontempliacinë muzika, o darymui bûdinga limø formos architektonikos ir procesualiosios for- dinamiðka muzika. Buvimo ir darymo modalumai mos sudaromøjø literatûroje. yra pagrindiniai, derinami su ðalutiniais (galëti, pri- valëti) ir t. t. Tonalioje muzikoje subjekto inten- Apie izotopijas cionalumas siekti objekto daþnai suvokiamas kaip nepastoviø garsø trauka á pastovius; tuomet „pa- Norint nustatyti teksto kompozicijà, kuri semioti- stovumas ir ramybë“ traktuojami kaip objektas, koje tapatinama su jo naratyvine sàranga, nepa- kurio siekiama. Tarasti teigimu, modalinë analizë kanka apibûdinti veiksmo pasakymus, bet reikia yra ávairiø lygiø teksto skambëjimo ir atlikimo mo- pasinaudoti izotopijos sàvoka, vartojama ávairiais dalumø iðsiaiðkinimas. Anot mokslininko, muzi- lygmenimis (pradedant semiotiniu kvadratu ir bai- kinës temos gali bûti modalizuotos endotaksiðkai giant figûratyviuoju lygmeniu) ir kuri, nors ir ne- ( t. y. viduje; tada galima kalbëti apie kinetinæ mo- pakankamai aiðki, bet, Greimo nuomone, bûtina. tyvo ar temos energijà Ernsto Kurtho poþiûriu, Izotopijos pagrindas – tam tikri diskurso elemen- kai ji yra suvoktina kaip modalumas „norëti“), ar tø pasikartojimai, teikiantys tekstui riðlumo; jie pa- egzotaksiðkai (iðoriðkai) – kaip „þmogiðki“ aktan- deda atlikti ávairiø lygmenø transformacijas. Izo- tai (Tarasti 1994, p. 41). Analogiðki tematikos su- topija yra pirmasis teksto segmentacijos kriteri- vokimo atitikmenys galëtø bûti literatûroje, kai pa- jus ir atskleidþia ávairius teksto prasmës lygius. Ta- brëþiama jos kinetinë energija arba kai ji anali- rasti skiria penkias izotopijø rûðis: abstrakèià gili- zuojama reikðmiø poþiûriu. àjà struktûrà (semiotinis kvadratas), teminæ, þan- Jasinskaitë–Jankauskienë pabrëþia, kad se- rinæ, faktûros, teksto strategijos izotopijà, kai te- miotinëje muzikos analizëje dar nëra pakankamai ma ar teminë idëja atskleidþiama vis kitais aspek- kalbama apie skirtumus tarp aktoriø ir aktantø, tais (1994, p. 10). nors ið tiesø juos galima atpaþinti ir nagrinëti at- Ivanka Stoїanova iðskiria aðtuonias muzikiniø skirai. Pavyzdþiui, klasikinëje muzikoje pagrindi- izotopijø rûðis, kurios papildo Tarasti pateiktàsias në tema daþniausiai ágyja naratyviná vaidmená, to- ir yra taip pat aktualios nagrinëjant literatûros kû- dël atlikëjø konversijai á naratyviná lygmená yra rinio muzikalumà (Stoїanova 1987, p. 461). Tai reikðmingos tos diskursyvinës figûros, kurios turi gramatinë (funkcinë) izotopija (kai muzikos for- aktantinius vaidmenis. Visa tai taip pat aktualu mos grindþiamos to paties gramatinio formalaus iðryðkinant temà ar jos teminá branduolá literatû- komponento kartojimu: cantus firmus, basso osti- ros tekste. nato, serijinë muzika, fuga, rondo ir pan.). Antro- Naracijos átampà sudaro objekto vertës sieki- joje, naratyvinëje (teleologinëje) izotopijoje esmi- mas, kuris kyla ið subjekto ar siuntëjo; bûtent jis nis dëmesys kreipiamas á faktûros pasikeitimus, „iðjudina visà naratyvinæ struktûrà“ ir átraukia ki- kartojant tà paèià teminæ medþiagà, pabrëþiamas tus dalyvius aktantus (Pavilionis 1989, p. 32). Ði procesualusis (genofaktûrinis) muzikos pobûdis, átampa, jos euforinës – disforinës transformacijos orientuojantis á kryptingà, t. y. teleologiná viso kû- yra analogiðkos ir literatûros tekstui. Muzikos se- rinio „klausymà“ – „perskaitymà“. Treèioji bûtø miotikoje erdvë suvokiama kaip iðorinë (regist- teminë izotopija, apibûdinanti temos transforma- rai, balsø suëjimas ir iðsiskyrimas) ir kaip vidinë cijas kûrinyje; ji yra viena naratyvinës izotopijos (susijusi su tonalumo centro sàvoka); kai kurie ið apraiðkø. Globalinë (figûrinë) izotopija daþniau- R. Brûzgienë. MUZIKA IR LITERATÛRA: NARATYVUMO ASPEKTAS 79 siai susijusi su minimalistiniais, heterogeniðkais sas parankus temø ir muzikos formø analogams ar muzikos kûriniais, kai remiantis opozicijos prin- apskritai ávairiems muzikalumo variantams tyrinë- cipu atliekama kaþkas panaðaus á montaþà ar kad- ti literatûroje. rø karpymà kino mene. Judëjimo izotopija bûdin- ga moderniajai muzikai, kurioje nëra aiðkaus di- Apibendrinimas ferencijavimo tarp garso ir triukðmo, dinamikos ir ritmo ir t. t. Ji grindþiama nenutrûkstamø gar- Naratyvumas yra vienas intermedialumo koncep- sø srautø judëjimu bei transformacijomis. Stoїa- cijos transmedialumo kategorijos pasireiðkimo va- novos teigimu, atviroji izotopija sietina su lanks- riantø. Jis gali bûti interpretuojamas neistoriðkai èiàja, mobiliàja polifonija, su ribotàja aleatorika, ir istoriðkai; antruoju atveju jis suvoktinas kaip tu- kai forma „pripildyta“ judëjimo (ðá klausimà gali- rintis bendrøjø turinio archetipø ir formaliøjø as- ma bûtø plaèiau paanalizuoti, remiantis ðiuolai- pektø. kiniø lietuviø muzikologø, pvz., Daunoravièienës Naratyvumas gali reikðti sistemà ir procesà. 2001, darbais). Pluriizotopija nurodo kelias kartu Muzikiniams literatûros kûrinio formos analo- egzistuojanèias izotopijas; o izotopijø grandinës gams nagrinëti yra svarbesnis procesualumas, pa- yra susijusios su kartojimais per tam tikrà atstu- sireiðkiantis ávairiomis transformacijomis, izoto- mà (pvz., rondo refrenai ar pan.). Akivaizdu, kad pijomis, modalumais ir kt. tokiø izotopijø muzikiniø analogø galima rasti ir Naratyvumo teorijos principø, taikomø muzi- groþinëje literatûroje, ne tik klasikinëje, bet ir ypaè, koje, panaudojimas literatûros tekste leistø iðryð- manyèiau, vaisingai moderniojoje. Taigi muzikinë kinti jo temø muzikinæ specifikà ir tiksliau apibû- izotopijos samprata itin perspektyvi komparatyvis- dinti klasikiniø muzikos formø analogus literatû- tikoje: izotopija yra viena svarbiausiø intermedia- roje bei ðiuolaikiniø moderniøjø sudaromàsias. liøjø menø aðiø, leidþianèiø atlikti ne tik skirtingø Toks literatûros kûrinio analizës aspektas pratur- teksto lygmenø, bet ir skirtingø meniniø terpiø kon- tintø paèià intermedialumo koncepcijà ir bûtø no- versijà bei transformacijas. Be to, kaip matyti ið pa- vatoriðkas bei perspektyvus komparatyvistikos me- teiktø izotopijos apibûdinimø, toks tyrimo rakur- todologijoje.

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Rûta Brûzgienë Gerard Genette, Werner Wolf, Inga Jasinskaitë-Jan- Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania kauskienë and others. The following conclusions ha- Research interests: comparativistics, music, literatu- ve been arrived at: re, form, Lithuanian literature. 1) narrativity is one of the manifestations of transmediality in the concept of intermediality of arts; it MUSIC AND LITERATURE IN THE PERSPEC- may be interpreted in non-historical as well as in his- TIVE OF NARRATIVITY torical sense; in the latter case, it should be understood as embracing general formal aspects and con- Summary tent archetypes; The paper aims at the discussion of the possibility 2) narrativity may point to system as well as pro- for the employment of the concept of narrativity in cess; thus, for the analysis of the musical analogues the analysis of the musical aspects of the form of a in the form of a literary work, the processuality is of literary work. The concept of narrativity is significant greater significance; it manifests itself in isotope, as a transmedial category in a wider modern concept transformations of modality, etc.; of intermediality of arts (Werner Wolf). On the other 3) an employment of the described concepts hand, narrativity has its specific expression in music. would allow for the discussion of the specificity of A novel perspective for the concept of narrativity co- musical thematics in literature as well as for the de- ming from the theory of music may turn to be fruit- velopment of the proper definitions of the musical ful in the comparative analysis of the analogues of a analogues of classical forms and generatrixes of the literary work’s formal aspects and adequate musical contemporary forms; such approach in literary ana- models offering modern concepts. For instance, such lysis would undoubtedly enrich the very concept of models might be useful in understanding the opera- intermediality and open up a new and promising dition of the thematic principles as possible formal rection in comparative methodology. components in a piece of fiction. The application of KEY WORDS: comparatistics, literature, music, the suggested methodological innovations would en- intermediality, transmediality, narrativity, transfor- rich the conventional approaches used in the com- mation, form, isotope, theme. parative analysis of the two mentioned arts, i.e. music and literature. The offered analysis is based on Gauta 2007 11 12 the works of Algirdas Julius Greimas, Eero Tarasti, Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 14 81

Loreta Ulvydienë Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: literary theory, methods of post-structuralistic analysis, intercultural communication, Biblical studies, theories of translation and interpretation, hermeneutics.

JOHN UPDIKE’S RABBIT REDUX: EPITOME OF HEIDEGGER’S DASEIN

With their up-to-the-minute present-tense narratives, their seamless blend of the “actual” and the imagery, and their sociologically exact references to pop culture and brand-name products, Updike’s Rabbit novels precisely document contemporary American life. Even more, employing the present tense narrative mode, Updike manages to convey Rabbit’s existential presence, what Martin Heidegger terms Dasein, or being-there-in-the-world. One of his favorite maxims was, indeed: “higher than actuality stands possibility”. Updike, likewise, depicts Rabbit’s own anxiety in Rabbit, Run as a feeling of entrapment between the irreconcilable possibilities of finitude and infinity, confinement and freedom, decision and potentiality. In Rabbit Redux Harry has the possibility to extend the boundaries of his household, to get rid of his own prejudice and learn, in Heidegger’s formulation, “being-in- the-world-with.” The author of the article focuses on one of the darkest, most lurid and political novel Rabbit Redux. Consequently, employing Heidegger’s perception of Dasein-with (Being-in-the-world-with) the author of this research strives at drawing a “Theopolitical” vision of the world presented by Updike. KEY WORDS: epitome, existential presence, Dasein, being-in-the-world-with, anxiety, self, solipsistic, theism, dialectical, Kierkegaardian singularity.

John Updike is widely known not only as one of Yuri Trifunov, Milan Kundera) and attempts to the most versatile authors of contemporary penetrate into, to employ his formulation, “the American literature but also as an author of nu- world called third” (Wole Soyinka, V. S. Nailpaul merous critical insights into diverse authors. His and Jonathan Raban). Not surprisingly John Hugging the Shore widens the perspectives of read- Updike’s own short stories and novels can be read ing Edmund Wilson and Vladimir Nabokov, Saul not only as chronicles of middle class society life Bellow, Kurt Vonnegut and John Cheever, Boris in contemporary America but also as a collection Nikolaevich Bugaev and Fyodor Dostoevski. He of allusions to Sioren Kierkegaard, Karl Barth, amply discusses “American masters” of writing Paul Tillich and Martin Heidegger whose works (Nathaniel Hawthorn, Herman Melville and Walt he has been reviewing since the time he started Whitman), introduces an American perspective writing for The New Yorker magazine. His Rabbit of both “Northern and Eastern Europeans” novels brought him fame and world wide recog- (Bertold Brecht, Knut Hamson and Bruno Schulz, nition. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 82 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Employing the present tense narrative mode, To understand oneself existentially means to Updike manages to convey his protagonist’s exis- project oneself into an actual potentiality of Be- tential presence, what Martin Heidegger terms ing-in-the-world, which is essentially one’s own. Dasein, or being-there-in-the-world. Heidegger “World” according to Greek conception indicates replaces the word “subject” with the word the “state”, the “how” in which the beings are “in “Dasein” or, translating literally this German ex- the whole” before any special kind of beings is pression, “being-there”. The polemical target of considered separately. “World” is that where to this terminological shift is, as the author himself Dasein transcends so as to be what it is (Heidegger confessed, the notion of conscience (Heidegger 1986, p. 26). According to Heidegger, the term 1986, p. 379-380). As we know, Heidegger con- “world” means originally the “how” in which the sidered that the fundamental question of philoso- things are “in the whole” as implicitly related to phy was the question of the meaning of Being. human Dasein. But what makes it possible to ask the question of Furthermore, Being-in-the-world is analyzed the meaning of Being at all? When can it be pos- as a unitary phenomenon. The “in” in this con- sible to ask the question? Where is the beginning? nection is of a nature entirely different from the This leads to the question of what kind of “being” “in” applied to any phenomenon that is human beings have. They are, as he implied, “vorhanden” (existent). If a thing is said to be “in” thrown into a world that they have not made but something else, this relationship is spatial. If a that consists of potentially useful things, includ- being of the kind of Dasein is said to be “in” some- ing cultural as well as natural objects. Because thing, the relationship is not meant to be prima- these objects and artifacts come to humanity from rily spatial, but means to “dwell”, to “sojourn”, to the past and are used in the resent for the sake of “stay” (Heidegger 1986, p. 27). In opposition to future goals, Heidegger posited a fundamental the modern category of the subject, Dasein’s be- relation between the mode of being of objects and ing is determined by the world and the horizon in of humanity and the structure of time. The indi- which we are always thrown. Dasein is by defini- vidual is, however, always in danger of being sub- tion (and not only accidentally) a “being-in-the- merged in the world of objects, everyday routine, world”. As a result, the way we project ourselves and the conventional, shallow behavior of the is to a large extent dictated by our context. At the crowd. The feeling of dread (Angst) brings the anthropological level, Heidegger’s philosophy individual to a confrontation with death and the consequently undetermines any claim to ultimate meaninglessness of life, but only in this universalism and any conception of man as a “sub- confrontation can an authentic sense of Being and stantial” being, endowed with some definite prop- of freedom be attained. erties and with a stable identity. Instead, he pre- Thus, Heidegger rejects the well-known de- fers to describe Dasein as an ability-to-be and as scription of human beings in terms of autonomous, an always unfinished project. One of his favorite unified and transparent subjects. In M. maxims was, indeed: “higher than actuality stands Heidegger’s philosophy human Dasein is charac- possibility” (Heidegger 1986, p. 38). Updike, like- terized in different modes. Being-in-the-world is wise, depicts Rabbit’s own anxiety in Rabbit, Run one of the characteristics of human Dasein which as a feeling of entrapment between the irrecon- is considered to be a fundamental constitution, a cilable possibilities of finitude and infinity, con- unitary structural whole and an innermost essence. finement and freedom, decision and potentiality. L. Ulvydienë. JOHN UPDIKE’S RABBIT REDUX: EPITOME OF HEIDEGGER’S DASEIN 83

Updike is direct, vigorous, hilarious, and coarse His story, though it abounds in unpleasant in- to the point of vulgarity. He is full of animal spir- cidents, generally leaves the reader with the strong its, and he tells the story not for the sake of mor- impression of reality. Updike likes virile men, just alizing but simply because it interests him, and as they are, good or bad, but detests shams of every his only concern is to reveal comprehensive as- sort. He never moralizes, though some of his pow- pects of quest for identity, endeavors to reach a erfully drawn scenes suggest a deeper moral les- higher state of existence and to become a human son, and he never judges even the worst of his being, finally, being without God. On the one characters tempering justice with mercy. hand, Updike’s protagonist seems to be aware of In Rabbit Redux Harry has the possibility to Heidegger’s postulations in his attempt to resist extend the boundaries of his household, to get rid the crowd with its shallow conformism and all of his own prejudice and learn, in Heidegger’s pervading emptiness. From time to time the main formulation, “being-in-the-world-with”. character of the saga needs to scrutinize his Rabbit expands the household to include Jill, selfhood, as from time to time Rabbit faces the a young runaway and former drug addict, and problems of self-identification as husband, father Skeeter, a black militant “outlaw”. Thirteen–year- and man, the same as with the questions of na- old Nelson flounders as sex, drugs, and violence tional identity. The paradox is that on the one pervade the home and all conventionality is dis- hand, he wants to be identified as an American carded, until finally the house is set on fire and and feels uneasy when others fail to do that. He Jill dies in the flames1 . feels different then, as if a stranger in a strange Clearly, Updike’s idea was to show Rabbit in world: his second novel being spiritually “washed-out”. He is exhausted. He no longer flees physically, Somehow, though he can’t put his finger on the difference, he is unlike the others custom- but he flees within, hoping to elude death and the ers. They sense it too, and look at him with hard other, not by running, but by standing absolutely eyes, eyes like little metal studs pinned into the still within a confining web of defenses. His loss white faces of young men sitting in zippered jack- of vital power is contrasted with, and perhaps bal- ets in booths three to a girl, the girls with orange hair hanging like wiggly seaweed or loosely anced against, the increase of energy, vision, and bound with gold barrettes like pirate treasure. authority in those around him – in women, blacks, [...] He had thought, he had read, that from shore and even children. It is rather difficult for Rabbit to shore all America was the same. He wonders, to conceive that he has to learn to live with oth- Is it just these people I‘m outside or is it all America? (30-31). ers, Greeks or Polacks (321), and the blacks, he has to defeat his exasperation, though, as he ob- On the other hand, on his way back in Rabbit, serves, the bus he takes “has too many Negroes” Run, he trembles lest somebody should identify (276). He thinks about them as a “strange race” him as Janice’s husband. He is afraid to meet his and worries about “His garden” (277), i. e., gar- wife and neighbors, even his parents: “he won- dens of America. Rabbit cannot understand ders where his son slept, what Janice has done, America’s policy that they are “trying to give where his parents and her parents hunted. [themselves] away to make little yellow people Whether the police know (37). happy” (305). These others have grown to fill the

1 In his imagery Updike goes from water in Rabbit, Run to fire in Rabbit Redux. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 84 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE vacuum created by Rabbit’s passivity and now of Rabbit, Redux (Vargo 1973, p. 157), Markle demonstrate autonomy. Rabbit on his turn refuses maintains that Rabbit, who was once a life–giver to live with others. Being a representative of himself, “has become one of the burnt–out cynics Heidegger’s conception of angst and its fear of – the washed–out, dissipated Americans in need nothingness, he seems reluctant to understand of a priest and life-giver” (1973, p. 149). Such a that “being-in-the-world is being-with-others. As priest or even more “The Black Jesus” – Skeeter Heidegger explains: “By ‘Others’ we do not mean comes to preach. Meanwhile, Skeeter’s actions, everyone else but me – those over against whom even though being despicable, also serve to illu- the “I” stands out” (Heidegger 1986, p. 154). In minate further the novel’s theopolitical vision. other words, they are rather those from whom, Updike uses specific historical facts – the moon for the most part, one does not distinguish one- shots, the sexual revolution, the drug explosion, self – those among whom one is too. This being black militancy, and the emergence of women’s there too with them does not have the ontologi- self-determination – both to comment on the state cal character of a Being-present-at-hand-along- of the nation and to provide a context for Harry’s ‘with’ them within a world. This ‘with’ is some- regeneration. Foremost among Updike’s themes, thing of the character of Dasein; the ‘too’ means a however, is the idea that as conventional religion sameness of being as circumspectively concernful has been abandoned, we have fallen pray to vari- Being-in-the-world. Heidegger goes on to say that ous embodiments of the Antichrist, a god of chaos, “‘With’ and ‘too’ are to be understood existentially, destruction, and despair. Just as in Rabbit, Run not categorically. By reason of this with-like Be- Harry had to contend with the tepid, ineffectual ing in the world, the world is always the one that I Christianity of the Reverend Mr. Eccles, he has share with Others. The world of Dasein is a within Rabbit Redux to respond somehow to the fa- world” (Heidegger 1986, p. 155). It is rather un- natical Skeeter Farnsworth, who announces him- expected and hard for Rabbit to conceive that the self as “the Black Jesus.” Harry participates, along whole situation has changed. Even his personal with his son Nelson and the runaway Jill, in life has turned upside down – before, Rabbit dic- Skeeter’s nightly “seminars” on the topics such as tated the terms of his relationships with women race, religion, and morality, while they partake of and “abandoned his partners when they failed to marijuana, the “sacrament” of the “Church of pay his price.” Now Jill and Janice set conditions, Skeeter.” Unlike Jill, Skeeter rises to the surface take new partners, and, along with Peggy and Mim, of revolution. Rabbit returns from work one day try to define their own sexuality. Rabbit has lost to find the black military installed in his home, touch with God as a result of Rebecca’s death, and when he asks what is going on, Skeeter tells but Janice and Jill now have religious experiences him, “Hell, man it’s revolution, right?” (445). and possess the gift of life that once distinguished Skeeter has pimped bail for drug dealing and Jill Rabbit. “Stupid” Janice and “dumb” Jill seem has offered him a haven to escape being “cruci- more insightful and articulate than Rabbit him- fied” by the white system of justice (449). Rabbit self. represents the system for Skeeter, who says, “He While unique in its circumstances, Rabbit’s is the Man” and indeed, the two radicals cooper- case nevertheless represents a perceptible social ate in initiating his re-education. Despite the fact phenomenon, i.e. passivity. If Edward Vargo views that he is “known far and wide for his lack of sym- this feature as the essential or rather central idea pathetic qualities,” Skeeter is also a charismatic L. Ulvydienë. JOHN UPDIKE’S RABBIT REDUX: EPITOME OF HEIDEGGER’S DASEIN 85 figure who radiates the vitality that Rabbit and Rabbit may be said to be wishing to understand his society have lost (446). Skeeter also has a com- his other-self. He understands that solicitude pelling vision of history. He explains that “there dwells proximally and for the most part in the are two theories of how the universe was done” deficient or at least the indifferent modes (in the (493), and he prefers the version that says that indifference of passing one another by), the kind “everything is expanding outwards”; “it does not of knowing-oneself which is essential and closest, thin out to next to nothingness on account of the demands that one become acquainted with one- reason that through strange holes in this nothing- self. And when, indeed, one’s “knowing-oneself ness new somethingness comes pouring in from gets lost in such ways as aloofness, hiding oneself exactly nowhere” (494). In fact, Skeeter might be away, or putting on a disguise, Being-with-one- the black Jesus Christ or the novel’s God of noth- another must follow special routes of its own in ingness. But few critics if at all have noticed that organon to come close to Others, or even to ‘see he might also be Rabbit’s other self. Like in Rabbit, through them’” (Heidegger 1986, p. 161). Skeeter, Run in Rabbit Redux Harry Angstrom is still as- thus, gives Rabbit lessons. He teaches him to see tonished that he exists. The difference is that he the world through his eyes. Harry once hated has to realize there are others and he has to learn, “Negroes” now he has to learn to make a step in Heidegger’s conception, the “Dasein-with, and towards them or to learn “Being towards others”. everyday being-with, as Being-with is an existen- The entity which is ‘other’ has itself the same kind tial constituent of Being-in-the-world” (Heidegger of being as Dasein. In being with and towards oth- 1986, p. 163). Rabbit is captured by his own anxi- ers, there is thus a relationship of Being from ety of being–there–in–the word full of chaos, Dasein to Dasein.” But it might be said, as drugs and blacks. Once again Updike expresses Heidegger’s philosophy suggests, that this rela- Heideggerian conception about the structure of tionship is already constitutive for one’s own the world. The structure of the world’s worldhood Dasein, which, in its own right, has an understand- is such that others are not proximally present-ating of Being, and which thus relates itself towards hand as free-floating subjects along with other Dasein: Things, but show themselves in the world in their The relationship-of-Being which one has to- special environmental Being, and do so in terms wards Others would then become a Projection of what is ready-to-hand in that world (2: 160). of one’s own Being-towards-oneself ‘into some- Thus, Skeeter proclaiming himself to be the Black thing else’. The Other would be a duplicate of the Self (1986, p. 162). Jesus “about to change the world” is the best example of Heidegger’s environmental Being. Rab- Updike assimilates this postulate. Conse- bit’s home is ready-to-hand in this world for him quently, Skeeter is introduced into the novel to to show himself and declare his truths and beliefs. reveal Rabbit’s visionary, his one side, as Rabbit On the other hand, Rabbit could be directly fol- is an existential character and any Dasein in lowing the Mousketeers’ advice from Rabbit, Run Heidegger’s existential philosophy “may be sub- to “know thyself.” And here we come to consult stituted for another at random, so that what can- Heidegger again, “Knowing oneself is grounded not be experienced in one’s own Dasein is acces- in Being-with, which understands primordially” sible in that of a stranger” (Heidegger 1986, p. (Heidegger 1986, p. 161). It follows then that ac- 283). Skeeter embodies for Rabbit all the traits cepting Skeeter into his house and letting him stay he would like to possess. But Rabbit’s other side ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 86 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE seems to be observing the situation unable to pro- when Rabbit reads Douglass’s emphatic prose: “A test as he is in the process of being “restored to man without force is without the essential dignity health” (one meaning of redux) and afraid to re- of humanity”, Skeeter remarks “Oh, you do make sist lest he should collapse again. He feels he must one lovely nigger” (512). Observing Skeeter Rab- stay stable. When he loses his job, for instance, bit feels fear because he has lost his own his boss, Pasajek tells him, “Everything moves Kierkegaardian singularity. Always the man in the faster nowadays”, to which Harry replies, “Except middle, Rabbit clings to need to identify himself me”(563). Elsewhere he characterizes himself as against a dialectical play of opposites. Moreover, an “old lump whose only use is to stay in place to Skeeter is especially attractive to Rabbit because keep the lumps on top of him from tumbling” he is a visionary. When Rabbit remembers Skeeter (436). On the other hand, Updike suggests that in Rabbit is Rich, he regrets that “a certain light Skeeter, Rabbit’s other self, reveals himself was withdrawn from the world, a daring, a prom- through violence and he is the force that should ise that all would be overturned” (649). The words shake Rabbit and make him alive again. Other- imply that Rabbit himself would have been glad wise, remaining passive he will be a dead Rabbit to be as strong with his Kierkegaardian singular- just as Jill – a dead flower child. Updike inten- ity as Skeeter – Rabbit’s other self, should have tionally bonds the two men. In Rabbit, Run Harry been. has got “the idea he’s Jesus Christ out to save the Ultimately, Updike seems to have been very world just by doing whatever comes into his head” tenacious not only in his efforts to create a his- (128). Skeeter also calls himself the new Jesus torical chronicle but also in his wish to turn Rab- (505). Two men also bond through shared inter- bit into a human being. Ten years later he pro- ests. Skeeter, like Rabbit, believes in the U.S. role ceeded with Rabbit is Rich and in another decade in the Vietnam War and shares his experiences. Rabbit at Rest. Obviously, the word ‘Rabbit’ was The two also bond when they play basketball to- intentionally maintained in the titles. It is the key gether. Rabbit and Skeeter have another shared to Harry’s identification. His nickname serves in interest in their antagonism toward women. We the tetralogy as a symbol. On the one hand, the know very little of Skeeter’s relations with women symbol of ‘rabbit’ (‘hare’) is mentioned in the early before he comes to Rabbit’s home, but he very Christian writings Physiologus: because of his short apparently hates them as much as, or more than, fore legs rabbit can easily run up the hill. In such Rabbit does. We do know that he feels rejected a way he can easily escape from his pursuers. by black women, for which he blames the white “When you are hounded by a dog or a demon try males who would not allow him to “be a man”. to find a rock…If he sees that man is running down Rabbit, likewise, is known to have earned the repu- the hill with earthly trivial round in his heart, it tation of laying blame on others. We leave Rabbit keeps persecuting him. But if the persecutors see in Rabbit, Run running and the “sky greets him” that the man is led by God’s hand the dog, as is (253). Moreover, Harry is Mr. Death as Ruth calls written in David’s psalm 34 retreats, those who him and he can be called Mr. Life for his vitality wish him evil and harm should back away and in Rabbit, Run. He embodies “yes” and “no”, white perish” (Biedermann 2002, p. 199-201)2 and black sides of human nature. And finally, On the other hand, Rabbit in Rabbit Tetralogy

2 The title of the place where Harry Angstrom lives, Brewer, near Mt. Judge (which is the abbreviation of mount Judge) makes the impression even stronger. L. Ulvydienë. JOHN UPDIKE’S RABBIT REDUX: EPITOME OF HEIDEGGER’S DASEIN 87 should have sloughed off his skin and should have contingencies and present tense urgencies. become a human being. However, the third novel Updike assimilates Heidegger’s ideas about the of the tetralogy implies the opposite. Pitifully, unheimlich sensation, existential anxiety, Dasein- Rabbit’s efforts to elude from middleness and to with or Being-in-the-World-With. reach a higher stage of existence fail. The extract The epigraphs that introduce each of Updike’s from Wallace Stevens’ poem “A Rabbit as King books, however, should alert the reader to the of the Ghosts” chosen as an epigraph for Rabbit need for sensitivity. Epigraphs highlight the di- is Rich, implies that there is nothing left from his rection the reader should take wishing to grasp earlier existence and attempts to elude and comprehend the essence. middleness and common sense of “ the they”: The title of Rabbit Redux suggests that Rabbit The difficulty to think at the end of the day, was restored to health or his former condition. When the shapeless shadow covers the sun But the following dialectic set of Rabbit is Rich And nothing is left except light on your fur… and Rabbit at Rest implies the opposite. Updike Wallace Stevens, “A Rabbit as King of the clearly demonstrates Rabbit’s failure to become Ghosts” (622). a human being in Rabbit at Rest when Harry by Obviously, Rabbit’s attempts to redux or re- mistake or somehow is eating parrot-food that cuperate, or to put it differently, his attempts to looks like “small rabbit turds.” This could imply become a human being failed. Updike himself that Rabbit is eating his own excrement, or even stresses Rabbit’s animal spirits: his own death. Though Harry’s movement towards Rabbit is an animal…in the first book he was death is clearly felt in both novels and Updike happy brainlessly working in Mrs. Smith’s gar- decides in Rabbit at Rest that it is time for him to den. Yes, he does pine after an animal existence leave this world Rabbit will be remembered in (ctd. in Plath 1997, p.63). Licks of Love: Short Stories and a Sequel, “Rabbit To conclude, as a novelist Updike has engaged Remembered” in 2001. Even more, Rabbit is in a form of expression that is closest to that of known to have always been in opposition with the the Biblical writers: the telling of stories rather others. If others demonstrated passivity, he ran, than preaching sermons or creating an academic when others were virile, he was passive. When he discourse. His theology comes out in the story, was alive he could hardly understand his being- rather than explicitly being stated. in-the-world-with-others. But when dead he man- Updike’s cosmos abounds in Heideggerian ages to be with others and to stir the rest of the ideas. Updike has chosen to cast this mega-novel family member’s lives. Rabbit is alive in every- in existential here and now, his use of the present body’s memories and it is through his quest for tense marks the tetralogy as a remarkable tour de force. He places his characters in so called “im- God, his existential angst and Heideggerian Dasein mediacy” or “world-historical actuality,” that is, that Rabbit confirmed his own importance and in the world of itself – our world – with all its immortality. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 88 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

References

HEIDEGGER, Martin, 1986. Being and Time. Transl. PLATH, James, 1997. Conversations with John Updike. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. San Francisco: Mississipi – Jackson: University Press of Mississipi. Harper Collins. UPDIKE, John, 1995. Rabbit Angstrom A Tetralogy. USA: MARKLE, Joyce, 1973. Fighters and Lovers: Theme in Everyman’s Library. the novels of John Updike. New York: New York University VARGO, Edward P., 1973. Rainstorms and Fire: Ritual in Press. the Novels of John Updike. Port Washington, N. Y.: Kennikat BIEDERMANN, Hans, ed. 2002. Naujas Simboliø Press. Þodynas. Vilnius: Mintis.

Loreta Ulvydienë Straipsnyje siekiama atskleisti J. Updike’o kûrybos Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva ypatumus pasitelkus M. Heideggerio filosofijà. Joje Moksliniai interesai: literatûros teorija, savosios èia–bûties ir Kito „subjektinis pobûdis“ poststruktûralistinës analizës metodai, tarpkultûrinë reiðkiasi egzistencialiai, t. y. kaip tam tikri bûties komunikacija, Biblijos studijos, vertimo teorijos bei bûdai. Pasauliðkai rûpimuose esiniuose Kiti jø taikymas, hermeneutika. vertinami kaip tai, kas jie yra – jie yra tai, kà jie veikia. Taèiau kartu parodoma, jog liuteronas J. Updike’as J. UPDIKE’O TRIUÐIS GRÁÞTA: M. nepritaria moralës, grindþiamos darbais, modeliui. HEIDEGGERIÐKOJO DASEIN PERTEIKIMAS Straipsnyje keliama mintis, jog J. Updike’as perteikia M. Heideggerio idëjà apie neautentiðkà Santrauka „egzistencijà“ arba „èia–bûtá–link mirties“ (Dasein– Johnas Updike’as Lietuvos skaitytojui þinomas kaip towards–death). Protagonisto nerimas ir bûtis romanø Kentauras ir Tekëk uþ manæs autorius. Tai paaiðkinimà atranda M. Heideggerio filosofiniuose vienas þymiausiø XX amþiaus amerikieèiø teiginiuose, jog „pasaulis tiesiogiai ir pirmapradiðkai literatûros atstovø, kûrëjas, poetas, kritikas bei atsiskleidþia tik bûtimi nerimastyje“. publicistas. Didþiausià pripaþinimà J. Updike’as REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: egzistencinë bûtis, pelnë keturiø romanø serija – tetralogija apie Hará èia–bûtis, èia–bûtis–link mirties, neautentiðka Angstromà (Harry Angstrom): Triuði, bëk (Rabbit egzistencija, solipsistinis, teizmas, dialektinis, Run, 1960), Triuðis gráþta (Rabbit Redux, 1971), Triuðis kierkegaardiðkasis savitumas. yra turtingas (Rabbit is Rich, 1981), Triuðis ilsisi (Rabbit at Rest, 1990). J. Updike’as sujungia dvi gana Gauta 2007 09 15 skirtingas koncepcijas – solipsizmà ir ðventumà. Priimta publikuoti 2007 09 27 89

Íàòàëèÿ Þíäèíà Äàóãàâïèëññêèé óíèâåðñèòåò Vienîbas iela 13-406, LV-5400 Daugavpils, Latvija Òåë.: (371–54) 22 994 E-mail: [email protected] Îáëàñòü íàó÷íûõ èíòåðåñîâ àâòîðà: çàèìñòâîâàíèÿ èç ðóññêîãî â íåìåöêîì ÿçûêå (îñîáåííî â ïðåññå è õóäîæåñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå), ôóíêöèè è ôîðìû ÿçûêîâûõ ïîâòîðîâ, ñëîâîîáðàçîâàòåëüíàÿ ñåìàíòèêà îòãëàãîëüíûõ äåðèâàòîâ, ãåíäåðíàÿ ïðîáëåìàòèêà â ëèíãâèñòèêå.

ÈÍÎßÇÛ×ÍÛÅ ÝËÅÌÅÍÒÛ Â ÏÐÎÈÇÂÅÄÅÍÈßÕ Â. ÊÀÌÈÍÅÐÀ

Ñòàòüÿ ñîäåðæèò àíàëèç èíîÿçû÷íûõ âêëþ÷åíèé èç ðóññêîãî è àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêîâ â íåìåöêèé ÿçûê. Ýòîò ïðèåì õóäîæåñòâåííîãî èçëîæåíèÿ õàðàêòåðåí äëÿ òâîð÷åñêîé ìàíåðû ïèñàòåëÿ Â. Êàìèíåðà. Â. Êàìèíåð, ðîäèâøèéñÿ â Ìîñêâå è ïåðååõàâøèé â 90-å ãîäû íà ïîñòîÿííîå ìåñòî æèòåëüñòâà â Áåðëèí, ñòàë îäíèì èç ñàìûõ óñïåøíûõ ïèñàòåëåé Ãåðìàíèè. Â. Êàìèíåð ïèøåò íà íåìåöêîì ÿçûêå èñòîðèè èç æèçíè ïðîñòûõ ëþäåé. Åãî ðàññêàçû, íàïèñàííûå ñ òîíêèì þìîðîì è óáåäèòåëüíîé äîñòîâåðíîñòüþ, ïîñâÿùåíû åãî äðóçüÿì è ðîäíûì â Ðîññèè, åãî ñåìüå, åãî ïðîøëîé æèçíè â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå è íàñòîÿùåé – â Ãåðìàíèè. Â ñâîèõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ àâòîð îõîòíî èñïîëüçóåò ðóññêî- è àíãëîÿçû÷íûå ýëåìåíòû, îðãàíè÷íî âïëåòàÿ èõ â òêàíü ïîâåñòâîâàíèÿ íà íåìåöêîì ÿçûêå. Ðóññêîÿçû÷íàÿ ëåêñèêà (ðóñèöèçìû) ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ â äàííîé ñòàòüå â ðóáðèêàõ: èìåíà ñîáñòâåííûå, ñîâåòèçìû, ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå çàèìñòâîâàíèÿ, ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå öèòàòû. Ñòàòüÿ çàâåðøàåòñÿ àíàëèçîì èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ àíãëèöèçìîâ / àìåðèêàíèçìîâ. Óïîòðåáëåíèå ðóññêîÿçû÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ èìååò â ðàññêàçàõ Â. Êàìèíåðà ðåòðîñïåêòèâíóþ íàïðàâëåííîñòü, àíãëèöèçìû / àìåðèêàíèçìû õàðàêòåðèçóþò åãî êàê ñîâðåìåííîãî æèòåëÿ Åâðîïû, îõîòíî ãîâîðÿùåãî íà àêòóàëüíîì äëÿ íûíåøíåãî âðåìåíè àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå. ÊËÞ×ÅÂÛÅ ÑËÎÂÀ: ðóñèöèçì, èìÿ ñîáñòâåííîå, ñîâåòèçì, ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå çàèìñòâîâàíèÿ, ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå öèòàòû, àíãëèöèçìû / àìåðèêàíèçìû.

В статье предпринимается попытка показать Несколько слов об авторе. В. Каминер языковую специфику произведений В. Ка- родился в Москве в 1967 году, в 1990 году после минера, выходца из СССР, ныне входящего в окончания московского театрального инсти- число лучших писателей Германии. Ма- тута переехал на постоянное место жительства териалом исследования служит сборник его в Германию, где стал популярным, читаемым рассказов “Helden des Alltags”. Интерес к этому автором. В. Каминер черпает сюжеты для своих произведению обусловлен тем, что носитель историй из будничных происшествий, вос- русского языка пишет свои произведения на поминаний, настроений. Лаконично, живо, немецком, используя также английскую иронично автор повествует о жизни своих лексику, что делает его рассказы чрезвычайно родных и близких, о судьбах своих друзей, о интересными для лингвистического анализа. своей предыдущей жизни в Советском Союзе ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 90 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

и о нынешней в Германии. Постоянный герой подгрупп: его рассказов – простой, легкоузнаваемый 1) имена собственные; человек, герой будней, которого можно 2) советизмы; встретить везде. Недаром свои истории 3) русскоязычные заимствования; В. Каминер предвосхищает цитатой В. Ленина: 4) русскоязычные цитаты. “Nicht der reaktionäre Professoer, der einfache Mensch ist unser Held“ (Kaminer 2004, s. 5). I. К наиболее употребительным руси- Живя в Берлине, он не перестает иденти- цизмам относятся имена собственные (nomina фицировать себя с Россией, о чем говорит хотя propria). Под именем собственным понимается бы такая его фраза: bei uns in Russland (у нас в слово или выражение, которое обозначает России). “Bei uns in Russland waren alle sanitären именно этого человека, это место или этот Einrichtungen schon vor einer Ewigkeit zu предмет. Hockklos mutiert” (Kaminer 2004, s. 127). Связь Убедительным представляется определение В. Каминера с Россией выражается в его nominа propria, данное Л. Гетце, Е. В. Б. Гесс- произведениях в широком использовании Люттихом: „Mit Eigennamen (nomina propria...) русской лексики. На каждой странице его werden Lebewesen, Gegenstände oder Ideen рассказа “Helden des Alltags”(«Герои повсе- bezeichnet, die nur einmal vorkommen und damit дневности») встречаются русские слова и unverwechselbar sind, also bestimmte einzelne выражения. Как и все современные люди, oder einmalige Menschen, Tiere, Pflanzen, Länder, В. Каминер часто использует английский язык. Städte, Berge, Seen, Meere, Schiffe, Institutionen, Таким образом, языковая специфика этого geistige und kulturelle Schöpfungen. Mit dem произведения состоит в употреблении трех Eigennamen werden sie aus der Menge anderer языков: немецкого, русского и английского. Individuen, Institutionen, Gegebenheiten oder Наиболее многочисленны на фоне немецкого Ideen herausgehoben: sie werden individualisiert языка как языка повествования русскоязычные bzw. identifiziert“ (Götze, Hess-Lüttich 1989, элементы, или русицизмы, передающие s. 173). национальный колорит оставленной родины. Вопрос о семантической дефиниции имен Термин русицизм обычно используется для собственных решается в лингвистике по- обозначения пристрастия ко всему русскому. разному. Так, некоторыми лингвистами имя Мы под русицизмом понимаем все языковые собственное рассматривается как единица элементы (не только заимствования из русского референции, не имеющая собственного значе- языка в другой язык) и структуры, которые в ния (Bergmann, Pauly, Stücker 2001, s. 185; сознании читателя осмысляются как русские Polenz 1972, s. 149). Другие же языковеды и вызывают ассоциации со всем русским и утверждают, что именам собственным значе- Россией. К русицизмам относятся, например, ние свойственно. О семантизации имен имена собственные, характерные для собственных позволяет судить предположение, употребления в России, такие имена способны что некоторые из них способны выступать в представлять культурологическую сторону качестве носителей национальной идентич- советской и российской действительности. В ности. Так, некоторые имена осознаются как сборнике рассказов “Helden des Alltags” еврейские, другие – как немецкие. Это проис- насчитывается 184 русицизма. Весь массив ходит благодаря коннотативной окраске этих русской лексики по степени употре- имен (ср. Presch 2002, s. 4). Массу значений бительности можно разбить на несколько приписывает именам собственным также Н. Юндина. ИНОЯЗЫЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯХ В. КАМИНЕРА 91

К. Виллемс. Он пишет о том, что необходимо derzeit bei fünfundvierzig Minuten различать референциальные, ассоциативные, (Kaminer 2004, s. 148). ситуативные, стилистические и другие праг- Сергей, Андрей и Дмитрий не являются по матические значения имен собственных, происхождению русскими именами, это которые характерны для специфических русифицированные формы от Сергиус (греч.), условий их употребления (ср. Willems, 1996, Aндреас (греч.) и Деметриус (греч.), при- s. 23). Слова К. Виллемса кажутся своеобраз- шедшие некогда с церковнославянской куль- ным продолжением мыслей Э. Ризель, которая турой и ставшие в высшей степени попу- рассматривает имена собственные как сущес- лярными русскими именами. (Так, например, твенный фактор формирования стилей нацио- в Москве, по данным Главного управления нального языка, так как они способны придать ЗАГСов Москвы, это одни из самых попу- сказанному бóльшую выразительность и лярных мужских имен у новорожденных. За убедительность (ср. Riesel 1959, s. 107). период с 16.03.2005 по 16.08.2005 ими были В статье анализируются следующие группы названы 867 мальчиков.) имен собственных: Рассказы В. Каминера изобилуют также 1. Антропонимы русскими ласкательными именами и ди- • Личные имена (Personennamen) минутивами. Часто диминутив является Личные имена в большом количестве типично русской формой, произведенной от представлены в “Helden des Alltags”. Благодаря нерусского имени, например, имя Катя, использованию антропонимов, характерных которое является диминутивной формой имени для советского периода и любимых и сегодня Кatharina4 (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, в России, явственно ощущается культурная s. 142). специфика рассказанных В. Каминером Подобная манера словоупотребления историй. объясняется тем, что В. Каминер показывает – Ihr Mann Sergej1 kündigte beim staatli- средства выражения, принятые на его родине. chen Rettungsdienst und gründete in Как известно, повседневное общение русских Moskau ein eigenes Unternehmen... людей отличает употребление большого (Kaminer 2004, s. 48). количества уменьшительно-ласкательных или – Deswegen musste ... mein Freund Andrej2 уменьшительно-уничижительных форм, что в ... seinen Videorecorder mehrmals aus dem меньшей степени характерно для западно- elften Stock werfen, bevor die Polizei ihn европейских языков. sicherstellen konnte (Kaminer 2004, s. 177- Unsere Freundin Katja hat einen spannenden 178). Beruf: Sie ist Kinderpsychoanalytikerin und – Der Rekord meines Freundes und Nach- erzählt uns laufend Geschichten aus ihrem barn Dmitrij3 bei der Parkplatzsuche liegt Arbeitsalltag (Kaminer 2004, s. 77).

1 Sergei, (auch Sergej): männl. Vornamme, russische Form von Sergius (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 223). 2 Andrei, (auch Andrej): männl. Vorname, russische Form von Andreas (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 51). 3 Dmitrij – russische Form von Demetrius (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 51). 4 Katja – aus dem Russischen übernommener weiblicher Vorname, Koseform von Jekaterina (Katharina) (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 153). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 92 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Личные имена, использованные в книге, телей, прежде всего читателей-гуманитариев. отражают разные периоды в жизни писателя. Крупнейший русский литературовед, писатель, Его жена, друзья и знакомые из «старой жизни» искусствовед, он тем не менее был известен в в Советском Союзе имеют имена, который СССР прежде всего интеллектуальной элите – каждый русскоговорящий человек использование его имени говорит об интеллек- воспринимает как типично русские: Ольга, туальных предпочтениях пишущего. Андрей, Сергей, Дмитрий, Катя и т. д. Особую доверительность придает этим 2. Этнонимы (имена наций, народов, именам употребление вместе с ними личного племен и других этнических образований). местоимения наш, наша или мой, моя: Mein Имена наций и народов относятся к наибо- Freund Andrej, unsere Freundin Katja, meine Frau лее убедительным средствам выражения Olga. национальной темы, так как содержат в себе Дети же писателя, выросшие в Германии, ценные исторические, лингвистические и чья связь с Россией уже не такая прямая и ассоциативные сведения. В анализируемом крепкая, как явствует из произведения, носят произведении это в первую очередь имя Russe нерусские имена: Себастьян, Николь. / Russen, которое можно отнести к разряду • Фамилии макроэтнонимов, т. е. обозначений крупных Референтами фамилий в книге В. Каминера этнических общностей. являются, в первую очередь, известные люди – Über Inder und Thailänder mögt ihr – ученые, писатели, деятели искусств. Эти Bescheid wissen, aber niemand von euch имена – ключи к пониманию национальной weiß, was wir Russen wirklich gerne истории. Такие имена иногда перестают быть essen... (Kaminer 2004, s. 26). просто именами и превращаются в имена- символы. И тогда они говорят нам больше, чем 3. Зоонимы может сказать обычное имя. Животные в книге В. Каминера носят – So sprach der Vater zu seinem Sohn und русские, а иногда древнерусские имена (не Majakowski zu uns (Kaminer 2004, s. 171). клички!), в чем выражается, вероятно, его – Der russische Kunsttheoretiker Schklows- ностальгия по России. kij erfand gern Geschichten, die er dann – Aber seitdem habe ich das Gefühl, dass unser als wahre Begebenheiten ausgab (Kaminer Chinchilla Dusja5 mich immer vorwurfsvoll 2004, s. 109). ansieht, weil ich ihr eine Filmkarriere versaut Каждое такое имя связано с определенной habe (Kaminer 2004, s. 62). системой представлений, имеет определенную – In unserer Wohnung gab es aber weder историческую коннотацию. Поэта В. Маяковс- Insekten noch Nagetiere, nur unsere Katze кого можно назвать символом советской Marfa6 , die man nicht einmal mit einer поэзии, имя его было известно практически Motorsäge von ihrem Lieblingsheizkörper каждому советскому человеку. Имя В. Шкловс- in der Küche trennen könnte (Kaminer кого апеллирует к более узкому кругу чита- 2004, s. 57).

5 Dusja – aud dem Russichen oder Serbischen bzw. Kroatischen übernommener weiblicher Vorname, russische Koseform von Avdotja, mundartliche Kurzform von Jevdokija (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 85). Parallel zu der Koseform „Dusja“ existiert im Russischen auch „Dusja“. 6 Marfa – weiblicher Vorname, russische Form von Martha (Duden Lexikon der Vornamen 1998, s. 174). Н. Юндина. ИНОЯЗЫЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯХ В. КАМИНЕРА 93

4. Топонимы – Dreißig Jahre unternahmen sie Berg- Под топонимами подразумеваются имена wanderungen und hatten schon ziemlich городов, деревень и прочих населенных мест alles in der Sowjetunion bestiegen, was (ойконимы), гор, горных вершин, горных höher war als eine Straßenlaterne (Ka- хребтов, холмов (оронимы), рек, озер, океанов miner 2004, s. 46). и других природных водоемов (гидронимы), а • Ойконимы (названия населенных пунк- также имена улиц, площадей, проспектов тов): (урбанонимы). Топонимы, будучи использо- – Am nächsten Tag wollte er schon wieder ванными в тексте, дают читателю сведения zurück nach Krasnojar (Kaminer 2004, s. 113). «географического» характера, посвящая его в Наиболее часто среди ойконимов встре- особенности рельефа, ландшафта описывае- чается имя Moskau, немецкий вариант Москвы мого пространства. В “Die Helden des Alltags” – родного города автора, в котором он провел топонимы находят широкое употребление, что свое детство и юность, где сформировались его свидетельствует о стремлении автора точно личность и характер. отобразить описываемые события. – Sie ... kauften zum Beispiel auf dem • Гидронимы (названия водных объек- Schwartmarkt in Moskau gebrauchte тов): Fallschirme, um sich daraus richtige – Ich half meinem Vater beim Angelnaus- Bergsteigerbekleidung zu schneidern werfen, hoffte jedoch, dass die Seligersee- (Kaminer 2004, s. 46). Fische intelligent genug waren, nicht • Годонимы (названия улиц): anzubeißen (Kaminer 2004, s. 19). – Nur die jungen Mütter rollten zu zweit oder • Макротопонимы (названия крупных zu dritt ihre Kinderwagen durch die Aka- природных или политико-административных demiker-Pawlow-Straße und sprachen географических объектов): über das unvermeindlich Böse im Leben: • Sibirien ist bestimmt eine harte Prüfung für Windpocken, Keuchhusten und Mumps die Jungs... (Kaminer 2004, s. 115). (Kaminer 2004, s. 151). • Оронимы (названия гор и возвы- Через употребление топонимов автор шенностей): создает картину географических реалий своей – Es war der doppelte Landesmeister der страны, позволяя читателю обогатить свои Sowjetunion im Alpinismus und Leiter des знания об описываемом автором объекте. Rettungsdienstes auf dem Elbrus (Kaminer 2004, s. 48). 5. Эргонимы – Drei Monate im Jahr saß er fortan in den Эргонимы – имена собственные, обозна- Bergen des Nordkaukasus (Kaminer 2004, чающие предприятия, фирмы, культурные s. 48). учреждения и организации, т. е. различные – Im Sommer aber bildeten sie mit einigen объекты функционального профиля. Gleichgesinnten eine Reisegruppe und Эргонимы индивидуализируют уникаль- fuhren in den Kaukasus, in die Karpaten ные объекты городского пространства и, таким und in den Ural (...) (Kaminer 2004, s. 46). образом, передают информацию о нацио- • Хоронимы (названия стран): нальной и культурной специфике опре- Наиболее частотно в рассказах В. Каминера деленного населенного пункта. В “Helden des представлены имена Sowjetunion und Russland. Alltags” отмечены эргонимы в основном ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 94 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

следующего типа – это наименования ВУЗов и ausdrücklich „zum Wodka“ heißen (Kami- учреждений. ner 2004, s. 35). – Den ganzen Winter über saßen sie im Данные имена говорят очень многое о Geologischen Institut und sortierten жизни бывших советских граждан. Интересно, irgendwelche Karten... (Kaminer 2004, s. 46). что названия специфически русских продуктов – Einmal kaufte er auf dem schwarzen Markt переведены на немецкий язык в книге Ками- eine besondere Optik, die aus dem wissen- нера – их перевод должен познакомить чита- schaftlichen Institut zur Erforschung des теля со своеобразной этнографией советской Universums stammte (Kaminer 2004, s. 174). жизни, фантазией советских производителей, придающих обычным продуктам потребления 6. Словесные товарные знаки романтические названия. Не будучи пере- Словесные товарные знаки имеют различ- веденными, они не сказали бы немецкому ные терминологические обозначения: номен- читателю много, не передали бы конкретных клатурные единицы, прагматонимы, прагмо- деталей советского образа жизни. нимы и т. д. Данный класс слов представляет собой особую категорию имен собственных, 7. Хрононимы мотивированных экстралингвистическими Именами собственными обозначаются не факторами и обозначающих разнообразные только индивидуумы, географические объекты классы товаров и изделий, т. е. это коммер- и продукты человеческого труда, но и вре- ческие наименования объектов человеческого менные отрезки и даты. К этому классу слов труда. В. Каминер называет в своих рассказах относятся так называемые темпоральные множество марок автомобилей, механизмов, имена собственные, локализирующие события книг, продуктов и т. д. во времени. Темпоральные имена собственные – Er hatte einmal drei alte Wolgas auseinan- в лингвистике обозначаются также как кален- der genommen und sich innerhalb eines дарные имена или хрононимы. Календарные Tages einen neuen daraus gebastelt, der имена, согласно Л. Гетце, Э. В. Б. Гесс-Люттих, sogar fuhr (Kaminer 2004, s. 148). занимают промежуточное положение между – Zu dieser Zeit kam der erste sowjetische именами собственными и именами нари- Videorekorder namens Elektronika auf den цательными: „Auf der Grenze zu den Gattungs- Markt (...) (Kaminer 2004, s. 177). namen liegen Kalendernamen...“ (Götze, Hess- – Zu Hause hatte ich die wertvolle Ausgabe Lüttich 1989, s. 174). Темпоральные имена der Sowjetischen Hochkunst aus dem Jahr собственные образуют обширную группу в 1947 im Bücherregal stehen (Kaminer рассматриваемом произведении. Темпоральная 2004, s. 26-27). лексика может быть разбита на два дальнейших – An diesen Tagen gehen wir ins Waldcafe, подкласса. В специальной литературе разли- essen dort ein Bauernfrühstück mit Nüssen чаются так называемые numerale Eigennamen und trinken Baikal-Schokolode mit Rum (нумеральные имена собственные или дати- (Kaminer 2004, s. 98). ровки), т. е. имена собственные в форме – Dort hat man vor kurzem ein Regal mit числительных и имена важных исторических russischen Lebensmitteln eingerichtet: событий (Sachverhaltsbezeichnungen) – эпох, Trockenfisch, Konfekt der Marke „Klump- войн (Harweg 1999). Благодаря вышепере- füßige Bärchen“, das Trockenbrot „Gute численным группам имен актуализируется и Nacht“ und eingelegte Butterpilze, die воссоздается атмосфера прошедших лет. Н. Юндина. ИНОЯЗЫЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯХ В. КАМИНЕРА 95

• Датировка – это индивидуальное собственное». “Sachverhaltsausdruck benennt название определенного временного пункта – sein Denotat weniger identifizierend als der “(...) individuelle Benennung von Zeitpunkten” Eigenname” (Harweg 1999, s. 7). Но так как эти (ср. Harweg 1999, s. 3). Э. Ризель также имена обладают идентифицирующей функ- упоминает «цифровой материал» (Ziffern- цией, мы оставляем их в зоне рассмотрения material), который рассматривается ею как имен собственных. Р. Гарвег относит к данному важное средство для воспроизведения реаль- классу обозначений имена эпох, веков, войн, ных событий (ср. Riesel 1959, s. 106-107). битв и т. д. (ср. Harweg 1999, s. 11-12). Такие Точная временная локализация, т. е. имена, называя глобальные изменения в жизни указание на датированное время в виде имени общества, придают тексту историческую числительного, необходимо в том случае, если достоверность. события должны быть названы предельно – Als junger Mann hatte er einmal an den точно. großen Feierlichkeiten anlässlich des Р. Гарвег квалифицирует в качестве «дати- fünfzigjährigen Jubiläums der großen ровок» в первую очередь полное указание дат sozialistischen Oktoberrevolution teil- (ср. Harweg 1999, s. 3), в данной статье в genommen (Kaminer 2004, s. 14). качестве «датировок» рассматриваются все – Ich wurde erst 1967 geboren und kam ganz временные указания в виде цифрового офор- woanders zur Welt: in Moskau, im Land мления. des real existierenden Sozialismus (Ka- – Die aktuelle Achtundsechziger-Debatte miner 2004, s. 119). beweist endgültig, dass wir uns in einer – Das verarmte Russland in den Zeiten der Zeitschleife befinden (Kaminer 2004, s. 119). Monarchie und des Bürgerkriegs sowie – Zum 23. Februar, dem Tag der Sowjeti- die menschenverachtenden Experimente schen Armee und der Flotte, der bei uns in des Stalinismus wurde in „Die sowjetische der Familie seit 1957 gefeiert wird, Hochkunst“ zusammengerührt (Kaminer bekamen meine Frau Olga und ich von 2004, s. 28). meinem Vater eine hochsensible elektro- Используя темпоральные имена Oktober- nische Waage geschenkt (Kaminer 2004, revolution, Sozialismus, Stalinismus, Monarchie, s. 157). der Bürgerkrieg, автор как бы документирует Темпоральное имя Achtundsechziger- события из жизни своей страны. Debatte до сих пор сохраняется в памяти многих людей, живших в СССР во времена II. Следующую группу русицизмов состав- стремительных политических событий. ляют советизмы, которые А. Иcкос, А. Ленкова День 23. Februar относился к популяр- определяют следующим образом: „Unter нейшим советским праздникам. Поэтому Sowjetismen müsste man nur solche Wörter данные имена можно прямо соотнести с verstehen, die im inneren Zusammenhang mit der понятием «жизнь советских людей» и рассмат- entgültigen Umgestaltung der ganzen gesell- ривать как русицизмы. schaftlichen Ordnung entstanden sind, die im Zusammenhang mit dem Aufbau des ersten • Имена исторических событий (Sach- sowjetischen Staates in der Welt und im Zu- verhaltsbezeichnungen) sammenhang mit seinem Leben stehen, wie: Данные имена, как и датировки, опо- Sowjet, Kolchos, Komsomol, Sowjetwirtschaft средованно соотносятся с понятием «имя usw.“ (Iskos, Lenkowa 1960, s. 98). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 96 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Термин «советизм» очень важен для – Die sozialistische Planwirtschaft hatte wieder предпринятого анализа. Влияние русского einmal versagt (Kaminer 2004, s. 177). языка в сфере идеологии и пропаганды на – Er fuhr nach Karlshorst und marschierte немецкий язык было особенно сильным в ГДР. dort in die Kaserne der Roten Armee В книге В. Каминера “Helden des Alltags” (Kaminer 2004, s. 169). обнаруживается большое количество идео- Х. Леманн определяет этот вид кальки- логически окрашенной лексики, которую автор рования как „dem Russischen nachgebildete употребляет в целях достоверной языковой adjektivische Fügungen“ (Lehmann 1972, s. 63). реконструкции жизни в СССР. Большое число В. Каминер с тонкой иронией отмечает, что советизмов в “Helden des Alltags” косвенно в новой России sozialistische Planwirtschaft указывает на тот факт, что В. Каминер значи- трансформировалась в freie Marktwirtschaft. тельную часть своей жизни прожил в бывшем – Auch die freie Marktwirtschaft hat die Советском Союзе. Эта лексика для него Toiletten in Russland nicht sauberer привычна и понятна. gemacht, dafür kann man aber jetzt fast – In der sowjetischen Schule werden wir überall auf dem Klo Radio hören (Kaminer Kinder über die gesellschaftlichen Werte 2004, s. 127). mithilfe eines Poems der berühmten К советизмам можно отнести слова, име- russischen dichters Wladimir Majakowski ющие интернациональное хождение, но aufgeklärt (Kaminer 2004, s. 121). получившие в русском языке советского Жизнь в Советском Союзе выработала периода социально детерминированные собственные языковые формы. Русский язык коннотации, напр., слово Kapitalist, соотно- советского периода отличался целым рядом симое с денотативным классом, члены которого специфических черт в сфере словообразования, символизировали эксплуатацию, жажду например, слоовообразованием сложно- наживы, хищничество. составных слов. Сложносоставные слова в – Die „Kapitalisten“ kletterten dann einen произведениях В. Каминера отчетливо пока- Berg ihrer Wahl hoch und freuten sich зывают эту тенденцию. riesig, wenn sie auf dem Gipfel ange- – Wir sehnten uns nach wilden Abendteuern und großen Heldentaten, die uns unser kommen waren (Kaminer 2004, s. 48-49). Arbeitsbezirk jedoch nicht bieten konnte Советизмы, которые В. Каминер использует (Kaminer 2004, s. 121). в своих рассказах, создавая иронический – Für die Jungs gab es im Kulturklub zwei колорит описания, призваны продемонс- Möglichkeiten eines naturkundlichen трировать арсенал бывшей некогда актуальной Schülerzirkels zu werden und Kaninchen zu в России идеологии, отношение к которой у füttern oder im Chor der jungen Pioniere автора часто выражается кавычками, в которые mitzusingen (Kaminer 2004, s. 121). берется советизм. Клишированные словосочетания типа junge Pioniere, Rote Armee, sozialistische Plan- III. Ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå çàèìñòâîâàíèÿ wirtschaft, являющиеся номинативным досто- 7 янием советского языка, также часто встре- – Keiner von uns wollte Prinz, Kosmonaut чаются у В. Каминера. oder Ballerine werden (Kaminer 2004, s. 131).

7 Kosmonaut der; -en, -en (gr. – russ); (bes. in Russland) Weltraumfahrer (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 294). Н. Юндина. ИНОЯЗЫЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯХ В. КАМИНЕРА 97

– Eine rettende Ideee war, für eine Woche ein IV. Àíãëèöèçìû / àìåðèêàíèçìû Haus auf dem Land zu beziehen, eine Употребление англицизмов Каминером Datscha8 (Kaminer 2004, s. 97). соответствует их современному функцио- – Mit dem Geld, das uns die Eltern für das нированию в немецком языке. Англицизмы Schulfrühstück gaben, fünfzehn Kopeken9 называют актуальные аспекты нашей жизни и pro Nase, konnte jeder von uns jeden Tag поэтому широко используются в разных сферах fünfzehn Schachteln Streichhölzer kaufen коммуникации. (Kaminer 2004, s. 122). – Die meisten Frauen haben inzwischen ihre – „Typisch Russen“, zeigten sie mit dem Fin- Babys12 geboren (Kaminer 2004, s. 92). ger auf mich, „sie kennen nur ihren – Gestern sah ich im Schaufenster eines Borschtsch10 mit Wodka11 und alles, was Spielzeugladens dieses Set13 für Klein- pikanter als eine Salzgurke ist, lehnen sie kinder im Sonderangebot (Kaminer 2004, ab“ (Kaminer 2004, s. 26). s. 131). Kosmonaut, Datscha, Kopeke, Borschtsch, – Ich war ein Profikiller14 und will ein neues Wodka – это те слова, которые в немецком языке Leben anfangen (Kaminer 2004, s. 8). сохранили русское звучание и помещены в – Die ersten Tage nach der Party15 versuchte словари иностранных слов, что дает основание ich, nicht an den Termin zu denken рассматривать их как иностранные слова, (Kaminer 2004, s. 26). заимствованные из русского языка. Означая в – Sie nennt es Soft-Shopping16 , weil man своем большинстве специфические русские dort sein leichtes Konsumfieber ohne große реалии и включаясь в речь персонажей, они finanzielle Verluste kurieren kann (Kaminer призваны воссоздать как национальный 2004, s. 56). колорит описываемого пространства, так и – Susanne hat also einen anstrengenden память персонажей об этом пространстве. Job17 (Kaminer 2004, s. 110).

8 Datscha die; -, -s oder -schen (russ; eigtl. „ (vom Fürsten verliehene) Schenkung“): russisches Holzhaus, Sommerhaus (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 120). 9 Kopeke die; -, -n (russ): russische Münze (=0,01 Rubel) (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 292). 10 Bortschtsch der; - (russ.): russische Kohlsuppe mit Fleisch (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 91). 11 Wodka, der; -s, -s (russ.; „Wässerchen“): russischer Trinkbrandwein (Duden Fremdwörterbuch 2002, s. 543). 12 Baby (engl.) – Säugling, Kleinkind (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 99). 13 Set (engl.) – Satz zusammengehörender, oft gleichartiger Dinge (Duden Fremdwörterbuch 2002, s. 740). 14 Killen (engl.) – töten; Killer – jmd., der in fremdem Auftrag jemanden tötet (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 399). 15 Party (lat., fr., engl., amerik.) – zwangloses Fest, gesellige Feier (im Bekanntebkreis, mit Musik und Tanz) (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 579). 16 Soft (engl.) – weich, sanft (Duden Fremdwörterbuch 2002, s. 478). Shop (engl.) – Laden, Geschäft (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 716). 17 Job (engl., amerik.) – Gelegenheitsarbeit; berufliche Tätigkeit, Stellung (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 373). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 98 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

– Sie brauchte außerdem weiße Jeans18 und и открыт для заимствований из английского von ihrer Mutter die Stretch-Stiefel19 mit языка (ср. Polenz 1972, s. 176). Plateausohlen (Kaminer 2004, s. 131). Проведенный анализ показывает, что – Ich kenne auch sonst niemanden in unserer языковая полифония является неотъемлемой Gegend, der sich von der Love-Parade20 частью писательской эстетики В. Каминера. bedroht fühlt (Kaminer 2004, s. 104-105). Культурно-специфические различия он пока- – Die sowjetischen Drogen-Freaks21 muss- зывает через различные языки. При помощи ten sich ihre Drogen selbst beschaffen... русского языка В. Каминер тематизирует свое (Kaminer 2004, s. 180). прошлое, при помощи английского – настоящее. Иногда В. Каминер прибегает к прямому Русский язык используется им для создания цитированию известных названий, брэндов или национального колорита, английский – для передачи интернационального духа эпохи фраз на английском языке. глобализации. Русицизмы встречаются в первую – The next winter will take us back (Kaminer очередь в тех фрагментах текста, где речь идет 2004, s. 75). о России и русских, их употребление характе- – An seiner Baschall-Mütze hing ein ризует ретроспективу писательского бытия, Mikrofon. „Blowing in The Wind“, „Uni- англицизмы часто звучат из уст его детей и versal Soldier“ und „Give Peace a молодого поколения, что говорит об их актуаль- Chance“ gelangen dem Mann hervorra- ности для нынешнего времени. Как бывший gend... (Kaminer 2004, s. 22). гражданин Советского Союза и носитель Используя англицизмы/американизмы, В. русского языка, писатель В. Каминер постоянно Каминер передает разговорную манеру обращается к использованию элементов русской миллионов современных людей. Эта лексика лексики, как современный человек и европеец не кажется столь экзотичной как русская, она – к использованию англицизмов и амери- по большей части уже давно и активно канизмов. В его рассказах органично пе- используется в немецком языке. П. фон Поленц реплетаются три языка, и в этом трехмерном отмечает, что немецкий язык традиционно языковом пространстве писатель В. Каминер находится под англо-американским влиянием чувствует себя уверенно и естественно.

18 Jeans (amerik.) – saloppe Hose aus Baumwollstoff (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 372). 19 Stretch (engl.) – elastisches Gewebe aus Strechgarn (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 746). 20 Love-Parade (engl.) – jährlich in Berlin stattfindender Umzug der Raver (Duden Fremdwörterbuch 2002, s. 315). 21 Freak (engl., amerik.) – jemand, der sich nicht in das normale bürgerliche Leben einfügt (Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch 1990, s. 263). Н. Юндина. ИНОЯЗЫЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯХ В. КАМИНЕРА 99

Èñòî÷íèê PRESCH, G., 2002. Namen in Konfliktfeldern. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. KAMINER, W., 2004. Helden des Alltags. München: POLENZ VON, P., 1972. Geschichte der deutschen Goldmann Verlag. Sprache. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter Verlag. RIESEL, E., 1959. Stilistik der deutschen Sprache. Moskau: Verlag für fremdsprachige Literatur. Ëèòåðàòóðà SCHIPPAN, Th., 2002. Lexikologie der deutschen BERGMANN, R.; PAULY, P.; STÜCKER, S., 2001. Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Einführung in die deutsche Sprachwissenschaft. Heidelberg: WILLEMS, K., 1996. Eigenname und Bedeutung. Universitätsverlag C. Winter. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag. GÖTZE, L.; HESS-LÜTTICH, W. B. E., 1989. Knaurs deutsche Grammatik. München: Droemer Knaur Verlag. Ñëîâàðè HARWEG, R., 1999. Studien zu Eigennamen. Aachen: Shaker Verlag. Duden Lexikon der Vornamen. Herkunft, Bedeutung und ISKOS, A.; LENKOWA, A., 1960. Deutsche Lexikologie. Gebrauch von mehreren Tausend Vornamen. 1998. Mannheim; Leningrad: Staatsverlag für Lehrbücher und Pädagogik des Leipzig; Wien; Zürich: Dudenverlag. Ministeriums für Bildungswesen der RSFSR. Duden Fremdwörterbuch. 2002. Mannheim; Leipzig; LEHMANN, H., 1972. Russisch-deutsche Wien; Zürich: Dudenverlag. Lehnbeziehungen im Wortschatz offizieller Wirtschaftstexte der Duden Das Fremdwörterbuch. 1990. Mannheim; Leip- DDR (bis 1968). Düsseldorf: Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann. zig; Wien; Zürich: Dudenverlag.

Natalija Jundina to his friends, relatives in Russia, to his family and Daugavpils University, Latvia all his past life in the Soviet Union and present Research interests: Russian loanwords in the Germany. The author tends to use different elements German language (especially in German press and of Russian and English while telling the story in literature), functions and forms of language German. The Russian lexis (Russian loanwords) is repetitions, word derivational semantics of verbs, examined according to the following division: proper gender issues in linguistics. names, sovietisms, Russian loanwords, Russian quotations. The article is concluded with the analysis ELEMENTS OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN THE of English (British and American) loanwords. The LITERARY WORKS OF KAMINER usage of Russian elements in the stories by Kaminer can be described as having retrospective Summary directionality whereas English loanwords The article analyses elements of other languages such characterize him as a contemporary inhabitant of as Russian and English appearing in the German Europe who is willing to use the English language. Language. This manner of literary writing is typical KEY WORDS: Russian elements, proper names, of the German writer Kaminer. The author was born sovietisms, Russian loanwords, Russian quotations, in Russia but moved to Berlin in 1990s and became English loanwords. one of the most successful writers in Germany. He writes stories about ordinary people in the German Gauta 2007 11 12 language. His stories distinguish themselves in subtle Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 01 humour, persuasive reliability and they are dedicated ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 100 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Âèêòîð Ãàëóøêî Ñàíêò-Ïåòåðáóðãñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé èíñòèòóò ïñèõîëîãèè è ñîöèàëüíîé ðàáîòû 12 ëèíèÿ Â.Î., ä. 13, 199178 Ñàíêò-Ïåòåðáóðã, Ðîññèÿ Òåë.: (7) 905 280 8785 Å-mail: [email protected] Îáëàñòü íàó÷íûõ èíòåðåñîâ àâòîðà: ôèëîñîôèÿ, ëîãèêà, ôèëîñîôñêàÿ ëèíãâèñòèêà.

Íàòàëèÿ Äàèíîâè÷à Äàóãàâïèëññêèé Óíèâåðñèòåò Vienîbas iela 13, LV-5400 Daugavpils, Latvija Òåë.: (371–654) 42 771 Å-mail: [email protected] Îáëàñòü íàó÷íûõ èíòåðåñîâ àâòîðà: ôèëîñîôèÿ ÿçûêà, ãåðìåíåâòèêà, ëèòåðàòóðî- âåäåíèå.

ÌÀÐÒÈÍ ÕÀÉÄÅÃÃÅÐ: ßÇÛÊ, ÑËÎÂÎ, ÁÛÒÈÅ

Âçãëÿäû Õàéäåããåðà íà ïðîáëåìû ÿçûêà ìîæíî ñóììèðîâàòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. ßçûê àêòèâåí â îòíîøåíèè ãîâîðÿùåãî; ÿçûê ÿâëÿåòñÿ âñåîáúåìëþùèì è ðåàëèçóåòñÿ â ïðîñòðàíñòâå áûòèÿ. Ýòè ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè îïðåäåëÿþò íåîáû÷íóþ ïðàêòèêó áåñåäû Õàéäåããåðà, ñ åãî âîâëå÷åíèåì ýòèìîëîãèè è ñîçäàíèåì íîâûõ ñëîâ. Ýòè îñîáåííîñòè ôèëîñîôèè ÿçûêà Õàéäåããåðà ïîäâîäèëè åãî ê ðåøåíèþ âîññòàíîâèòü îïðåäåëåííûå ïîíÿòèÿ èíòåðïðåòàöèîííîãî öèêëà â íîâîì îíòîëîãè÷åñêîì çíà÷åíèè. Õàéäåããåð áîëüøå íå ïîíèìàåò èíòåðïðåòàöèîííûé öèêë êàê ïðîöåññ èíòåðïðåòàöèè òåêñòà ÷åðåç åãî ÷àñòè. Îí ñêîðåå èíòåðïðåòèðóåò ÷àñòè ÷åðåç öåëîå. Ïî Õàéäåããåðó, ÿçûê åñòü ðå÷ü; ìû âûðàæàåì ñåáÿ â ðå÷è. Ëþäè ïîíèìàþò ìèð íà îñíîâå ñâîèõ æèçíåííûõ «ïðîåêòîâ», ñâîåãî ÿçûêà. Ó ÷åëîâåêà íåò íèêàêîãî äîñòóïà ê ìèðó âíå òàêèõ ôîðìàòèâíûõ «ïðîåêòîâ», âíå ÿçûêà. Ó Õàéäåããåðà íåäâóñìûñëåííî «ÿçûê ãîâîðèò» â «äîìå áûòèÿ» è îá ýòîì äîìå. Ìåòàôîðà Õàéäåããåðà «äîì áûòèÿ» ïðèçâàíà óñòðàíèòü àíòèíîìèþ ìåæäó «îáúåêòèâíûì» ñóùèì è «ñóáúåêòèâíûì» ìûñëèìûì. Õàéäåããåð – ôèëîñîô-ïîýò, ïîýòîìó îí èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî âûñîêî îöåíèâàåò ïîýçèþ, ñëîâî; ïîýòû, à íå ó÷åíûå èëè ïîëèòèêè, íàõîäÿòñÿ â àâàíãàðäå ÷åëîâå÷åñòâà. ÊËÞ×ÅÂÛÅ ÑËÎÂÀ: ôèëîñîôèÿ Õàéäåããåðà, ÿçûê, ïîíèìàíèå, áûòèå, ïîýçèÿ.

Интерес к проблеме языка и коммуникации доминирующих. Логико-семантические кон- объединяет самые различные течения. Разли- цепции (Рассел, Карнап, ранний Витгенштейн) чия в подходе к сущности и функциям языка основное внимание уделяли репрезента- во многом определялись стремлением обоб- ционному аспекту речевой деятельности, то щить и осмыслить разные навыки речевой есть способности речи передавать инфор- деятельности. В результате различные направ- мацию о некотором положении дел, независимо ления философии языка выделяли различные от способности человека формулировать или аспекты речевой деятельности в качестве воспринимать эту информацию. Герменевти- В. Галушко, Н. Даиновича. МАРТИН ХАЙДЕГГЕР: ЯЗЫК, СЛОВО, БЫТИЕ 101

ческие концепции, напротив, в основном Ф. Гельдерлин, Новалис, С. Георге, Р. М. Риль- уделяли внимание именно проблеме рецепции. ке, Г. Тракль. Лингвистическая философия (поздний Витген- Язык не может трактоваться как явление, штейн и его последователи) в основном порожденное человеком, человеческим созна- сконцентрировалась на проблеме активности нием. Напротив, язык – это сама объектив- говорящего. Творчество Хайдеггера может ность, в той же мере (точнее, в той же полноте), быть отнесено к герменевтической традиции. в какой объективно бытие. Провозглашенная в Герменевтика как направление оформилась «Письме о гуманизме» (1946) и повторенная в благодаря деятельности Х.-Г. Гадамера. Однако сборнике «Путь к языку» (“Unterwegs zur сам Гадамер неоднократно отмечал, что его Sprache”, 1959) знаменитая формула Хай- концепция сложились под влиянием работ деггера «язык есть дом бытия» как раз и Э. Гуссерля и М. Хайдеггера. Гуссерль за- утверждает такую объективность: язык перво- нимался преимущественно логическими начален, как первоначально бытие. Человек же проблемами, тогда как Хайдеггер много оказывается только посредником, через времени посвятил разработке оригинальной которого, в речи которого «сказывается» язык. теории (и практики) коммуникации. Язык Идеи лингвистической философии представ- выступает для Хайдеггера некоторой всеобщей лены и в его «Введении в метафизику» (“Ein- средой существования и некой сущностью, fuhrung in die Metaphysik”, 1935, 1953). проявляющейся через речь. Остановимся Язык осуществляет открывание всего подробнее на этом тезисе. сущего, по Хайдеггеру. И сам человек может Мартин Хайдеггер являясь классиком состояться как понимающий свое бытие только экзистенциальной философии и философской потому, что человеком говорит язык, именно так: герменевтики, был философом-поэтом. По не человек говорит языком, а язык человеком. мысли Хайдеггера, есть только одна область, в Язык не просто открывает потаенное: если бы которой бытие, или истина бытия, обнаруживает этим функция языка ограничивалась, то само себя. Эта область – язык. Именно в языке бытие, открытое словом и ставшее сущим, «находится» бытие, и именно язык дает воз- переставало бы быть «бытием», оно бы можность бытию явить сущее, потому что слово исчерпывалось словом, т. е. в процессе перевода языка в акте говорения делает невыговоренное посредством языка из области скрытого в явным, открытым, вводит его в область не- область явного бытие должно было бы убывать. сокрытого, непотаенного. Язык осуществляет Однако, по мысли Хайдеггера, этого не «сказ» («показ») или, что по Хайдеггеру, то же происходит и не может произойти, потому что самое, свершает истину бытия. язык, будучи «домом» бытия, выполняет обе Философию Хайдеггера можно назвать функции «дома»: свое содержимое он и являет, философией языкотворчества. Главная идея и закрывает (укрывает) одновременно. Эти две Хайдеггера – через язык придти к истокам функции можно представить также в одной – бытия, высветлить сущность бытия через синкретической: язык хранит бытие. сущность языка, ибо язык есть осознанное Суть такого «хранения» («открывания- бытие, рефлексия бытия, толкование его. закрывания») Хайдеггер объясняет следующим Источником понимания такого бытия для образом. Функцию слова можно описать двояко Хайдеггера является поэтическое творчество – через «сущее» (слово языка предъявляет во вторичном значении этого слова: древне- сущее) и через «бытие» (слово языка осущес- греческая и немецкая романтическая поэзия – твляет собою открытость бытия). Но оба эти ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 102 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

описания характеризуют единый процесс, тем, что сосредоточенной в языке двуслож- потому что «явить сущее» и «осуществить ности бытия и сущего соответствует сама открытость бытия» – это одно и то же. Сама структура человека, т. е. эта двусложность возможность определить слово через сущее и обнаруживает себя в человеке: ведь именно через бытие свидетельствует о том, что в слове человек есть такое сущее, которое понимает бытие и сущее предстают в нерасторжимом собственное бытие. Таким образом, человек единстве, которое, впрочем, отнюдь не означает оказывается захвачен двусложностью бытия и их слияния или же превращения одного в сущего, он соответствует (по Хайдеггеру, другое, – это именно единство, но не смещение. «ответствует») ей, т. е. отвечает ее требованию; В работе «Из диалога о языке» (1954) Хай- отвечает тем, что является носителем вести о деггер называет это единство «двуслож- ней – не может не быть им, так как в противном ностью» бытия и сущего. Слово сосредо- случае не может состояться как человек, т. е. точивает в себе эту двусложность. Оно не есть как понимающее свое бытие сущее. Не некий вектор от бытия к сущему. Но оно есть случайно Хайдеггер говорит о том, что человек напряжение встречи, взаимной принадлеж- находится в герменевтическом отношении к ности друг другу бытия и сущего. двусложности бытия и сущего. Являя сущее, слово не упраздняет бытие, По Хайдеггеру, современная эпоха почти но оставляет его в тени, позволяющей раз- полностью утратила способность расслышать личить свет, в котором явствует сущее. Слово, бытие, приблизиться к его истине. Эмпирический осуществляя открытость бытия, тем самым и мир вещей все больше и больше захватывает укрывает бытие. Поэтому бытие, его от- собою человека, и последний перестает быть крытость, не может быть исчерпано языком – подлинным человеком, т. е. таким, который несет оно всегда есть в языке и каждый раз вновь дает в своем сущем весть о бытии. о себе знать путем явления сущего. Неисчер- Единственной областью, которую, по мысли паемостью бытия объясняет Хайдеггер и Хайдеггера, эти катастрофические процессы еще невозможность свести смысл мира к некой не сумели захватить полностью, оказывается конечной формуле, конечному знанию (науч- искусство, в особенности поэзия. Именно здесь ной истины). Смысл мира есть всегда стано- язык все еще отвечает своему первоначальному вящийся смысл: он свершается всякий раз, назначению – открывать истину бытия, и именно когда бытие сказывается через язык и являет поэты, обладая наиболее тонким слухом, свою открытость в сущем. Бытие не может позволяющим им расслышать истину в слове, «кончиться», как не может «кончиться» язык. способны передать это слово миру. Слово языка, говорит Хайдеггер, это ни в В отличие от языка науки с его стремлением коем случае не знак; слово языка – это намек, а к однозначности, язык искусства, поэтический именно – намек на то, что сокрыто в открытом, язык, по самой своей природе многозначен, или т. е. намек сущего на бытие. Из такого символичен, т. е. в наибольшей степени определения слова естественно следует, что соответствует естественному языку, через путь к истине бытия намечается в языке. который свершается истина бытия. Поэтому в Язык дает о себе знать в речи, которая, в поэтическом языке как раз и может осущес- свою очередь, реализуется через говорящего, твляться процесс открывания-закрывания т. е. через человека, – «язык говорит людьми». истины. Хайдеггер охотно в своих работах Возможность же такой реализации (т. е. обращается к творчеству поэтов: он находит в реализации речи через человека) обеспечена нем подтверждение собственным мыслям о В. Галушко, Н. Даиновича. МАРТИН ХАЙДЕГГЕР: ЯЗЫК, СЛОВО, БЫТИЕ 103

языке как «доме бытия». Поэзия оказывается формы, т. е. этимологической сущности. Такие той нишей, в которой язык может «укрыться» словосочетания, как die Sprache spricht (язык и спастись от разрушительных тенденций «язычит»), die Welt weltet (мир «мирует»), der современной метафизической эпохи. Raum raumt (пространство «пространс- По мысли Хайдеггера, произведение ис- твует»), такие «синонимические» ряды как кусства всегда несет в себе больше того, что в Sein – Physis – Walten – Dasein – Dichten – Logos нем явлено, открыто. Произведение искусства не – Schein (бытие – природа – властвование – только говорит, но оно одновременно и молчит. сиюбытность – поэзия – логос – зримость) и То, о чем молчит произведение искусства – т. д. – представляют собой взаимное раскрытие молчит благодаря тому (или посредством того), (герменевтику) некоего скрытого в словах о чем оно же говорит, – это и есть сокрытое, смысла, раскрытие сущности одного слова потаенное в нем. Суть же понимания произ- через другое: так, сущностью языка является ведения искусства заключается в том, чтобы через только его способность говорить («язычить»). то, о чем искусство говорит, подойти к тому, о Сущностью мира является то, что он чем оно умалчивает; чтобы сквозь явленное, «мирует» (в немецком глаголе welten сокрыт сказанное прозреть не-сказанное. смысл «властвования»); бытие для Хайдеггера Произведение искусства, подчиняясь есть природа, властвование, сиюбытность, диалектике «открывания-сокрывания», всегда поэзия, логос, видимость-кажимость: и сияние, несет в себе тайну, и, согласно Хайдеггеру, и обман. Вещь вне слова не существует. задача понимания произведения состоит Последние слова из стихотворения С. Георге отнюдь не в том, чтобы эту тайну – «раскрыть», «Слово» (“Das Wort”) – “Kein Ding sei wo das «разгадать». Разгаданная, тайна перестает быть Wort gebricht” («Там вещи нет, где слова нет»), тайной, т. е. тем, что аккумулирует вокруг себя провозглашающие равенство слова бытию, – произведение искусства как таковое, и, декларируют параллелизм вещи и имени, следовательно, понимание как разгадка просто имеющий своим истоком Библию (Бог предос- упраздняет само произведение искусства. тавляет человеку право называть созданные Им Задача же истинного понимания состоит в том, вещи, дабы они закрепились и пребыли). Имя, чтобы обнаружить тайну произведения – не таким образом, есть, по Георге, сопутствующее разгадать ее и не отменить тем самым, а именно вещи ее толкование, герменевтика вещи обнаружить, рассмотреть, и только как тайну, (Гучинская 2002, с. 75). а не как загадку или секрет, которые могут быть Философия Хайдеггера завершает тради- раскрыты. Только такой подход к проблеме цию романтической герменевтики, к основным понимания может объяснить тот факт, что, во- понятиям которой можно отнести: фрагмент первых, произведение искусства никогда не как отражение целого; антиномичность в может быть окончательно понято, а во-вторых, осознавании мира; взаимодействие фило- истина бытия, которую хранит (т. е. открывает софии, богословия, поэзии и их рефлексивные и сокрывает) в себе произведение искусства, отношения друг с другом в постижении не может превратиться в окончательное знание. трансцендентного; признание поэзии методом Каждый раз при обращении к произведению толкования мира; метафора как инструмент искусств, эта истина вновь свершается. созидания романтического синтеза, т. е. Путь к истоку бытия лежит через поэти- символа («язык есть перезвон тишины» – “Die ческое собирание слов, через собирание Sprache spricht als das Gelaut der Stille”) родственных корней в поисках их внутренней (Heidegger 1960, s. 30). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 104 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

В процессе восприятия искусства, согласно и есть время. Вот почему нельзя «перенестись мысли Хайдеггера, происходит свершение в эпоху» интерпретируемого произведения. истины, природа которой такова, что к ней не Согласно Хайдеггеру, западная история не может быть применен критерий достовер- является триумфальным маршем к свету и ности. Хайдеггера интересует не критерий счастью. Напротив, она характеризуется достоверности, а условие, обеспечивающее постоянным упадком, начавшимся во времена возможность свершения истины, которое досократиков. Чем больше люди пытаются коренится в существе тех отношений, которые охватить существующее в своих теоретических возникают между интерпретатором и интер- понятиях и овладеть им с помощью техники, претируемым произведением. Только в том тем более они умудряются забыть то, что случае, если эти отношения носят подлинно является существенным. герменевтический характер, от них можно Проблема языка решается в философии ожидать и подлинного результата-свершения Хайдеггера герменевтически. Предшеству- истины. Здесь важно заметить, что «герме- ющее всякому знанию предпонимание коре- невтическое» для Хайдеггера значит не только нится в языке. Принципиально новое, что «толкующее», «истолковывающее», но прежде содержалось в хайдеггеровской трактовке всего – «несущее весть», «извещающее». То понимания, выразилось в открытии того, что есть результатом встречи интерпретатора и понимание — это скорее способ бытия, а не интерпретируемого произведения должна стать знания; таинство понимания, следовательно, в весть, открытие вести. большей степени онтологическая, чем эписте- Свершение истины бытия через произве- мологическая проблема (Bauman 1978, p. 148). дение искусства не может привести к какому- Все, что может быть помыслено и выражено то окончательному знанию. «Свершение», по в слове человеком, может быть помыслено и Хайдеггеру – это процесс, а не итог (субстан- выражено потому, что все это уже заранее есть тивация das Geschehen – от глагола geschehen в языке. Человеческая мысль, таким образом, – случаться, происходить, совершаться – задается языком, обусловливается им, поэтому, обозначает именно процесс, а не результат строго говоря, точка зрения человека на что бы действия; применительно к русскому переводу то ни было всегда уже предуготована точкой можно сказать, что существительное свер- зрения языка. В этом смысле позиция иссле- шение мотивировано не глаголом совер- дователя никогда не может быть признана шенного вида свершиться, а глаголом несо- абсолютно независимой: она непременно вершенного вида свершаться). выражает собою некоторую точку зрения, Принципиальная новизна хайдеггеровской заданную предпониманием. Обнаруживая, трактовки проблемы «интерпретатор – интер- открывая предпонимание, язык задает мысли претируемое», по сравнению с концепциями движение, которое все протекает в пределах XIX века, связана с тем, что внимание сосре- языка и посредством языка. доточено на произведении, а не на личности Резюмируя, отношение Хайдеггера к языку его автора. Человек полностью детермини- можно охарактеризовать следующими момен- рован временем, как бы ни стремился человек тами: рассмотрение языка как активного поставить себя вне времени. Отказаться от начала по отношению к носителям языка; истории для человека значило бы отказаться рассмотрение языка как тотального, все- от самого себя, от собственного бытия, объемлющего начала; рассмотрение языка поскольку, как показал Хайдеггер, бытие – это как пространства, в котором осуществля- В. Галушко, Н. Даиновича. МАРТИН ХАЙДЕГГЕР: ЯЗЫК, СЛОВО, БЫТИЕ 105

ется бытие и открывается истина. Эти мо- нашему мнению, определили и его решение менты во многом объясняют и необычную о возрождении понятия герменевтического дискурсивную практику самого Хайдеггера, круга в новом, онтологическом смысле – с его склонностью к этимологизированию и Хайдеггер понимает герменевтический круг словотворчеству. Именно эти моменты уже не как процедуру истолкования текста хайдеггеровской философии языка, по через его части, а частей – через целое.

Ëèòåðàòóðà

ГУЧИНСКАЯ, Н. О., 2002. Hermeneutica in nuce. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 1994. Работы и размышления Очерк филологической герменевтики. Санкт-Петербург: разных лет. Пер. А. В. Михайлова. Москва. Церковь и культура. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 1997. Введение в метафизику. Философия Мартина Хайдеггера и современность. Пер. Н. О. Гучинской. Санкт-Петербург. 1991. Ред. Н. В. МОТРОШИЛОВА. Москва. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 2002. Бытие и время. Пер. В. В. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 1991. Язык. Пер. и прим. Б. В. Мар- Бибихина; Изд. 2-е, испр. (1-е изд. 1999). Санкт- кова. Санкт-Петербург. Петербург. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 1993. Время и бытие: Статьи и BAUMAN, Z., 1978. Hermeneutics and social science. N.Y. выступления. Сост., пер., вступ. ст. и ком. В. В. Бибихина. HEIDEGGER, M., 1983. Einfuhrung in die Metaphysik. Москва. Frankfurt a. M. ХАЙДЕГГЕР, М., 1993. Феноменология. Герме- HEIDEGGER, M., 1960. Unterwegs zur Sprache. невтика. Философия языка. Москва. Pfullingen, Neske.

Victor Galouschko him to the decision to revive certain concepts of the Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Psychology and hermeneutic cycle in a new ontological meaning. Social Works, Russia Heidegger no longer understands a hermeneutic Research interests: philosophy, logics, philosophical cycle as a process of interpreting text through its linguistics. parts. He rather interprets parts through the whole. Natalija Dainovica According to Heidegger, language is a speech, Daugavpils University, Latvia and people express themselves in speech. People Research interests: philosophy of language, perceive world on the basis of their life “projects” hermeneutics, literature science. and their languages. Man has no access to the world beyond these formatting “projects”, beyond MARTIN HEIDEGGER: LANGUAGE, WORD, language. According to Heidegger, “language” is BEING unambiguously “speaking” in the “house of being” and about this house. His metaphor “house of being” Summary is important for delimiting the antimony between “objective” real and “subjective” conceivable. Summing up, Heidegger’s view of language can be Heidegger is a philosopher-poet; hence, his described as follows. Language is active in regard to exceptionally high evaluation of poetry and word; the language speakers; language is total and all- and poets rather than scientists and politicians who embracing; language is a space where being is are in the vanguard of humanity. realized and truth is revealed. These views to a great KEY WORDS: Heidegger’s philosophy, extent determine Heidegger’s unusual discourse language, understanding, being, poetry. practice, with his involvement with etymology and creation of new words. It is believed that these Gauta 2007 11 12 features of Heidegger’s philosophy of language led Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 04 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 106 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Nina Danylyuk Lesya Ukrainka Volyn State University of Lutsk пр. Соборностi 32-108, Луцьк UA-43026, Україна Tel.: (380–332) 71 13 48 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: the Ukrainian language and culture, interlinguistics, Esperanto.

SYMBOLIC WORDS IN THE UKRAINIAN FOLK POETRY TEXTS

The article is devoted to the analysis of the main group of symbols: archetypical, astral, vegetative, ornithological, etc. The symbolic meaning (significance) is interpreted as one or a few semantic features in the semantic structure of a word; they are called pragmatic or connotative elements of a meaning. According to the point of view of Potebnya, Afanasyev, Ohiyenko, Veselovskyi, many symbols in the folklore are the results of the old mythological thoughts. A symbol system of the Ukrainian folk poetry is very rich and polysemantic. The natural world is a source of the folk symbols. The symbolic words are the part of the ethnic language picture of the world which depends on the traditional mentality of the Ukrainians. KEY WORDS: the symbolic words, the symbol system, folk texts, the Ukrainian folk poetry.

The language of the Ukrainian folk poetry is a typical, astral, vegetative, ornithological and other. specific belles-lettres and aesthetic system of the In the monograph “The symbols of the national language. It has special phonetic, mor- Ukrainian language” (1996) Kononenko inter- phological, syntax, lexical and semantic features. preted a symbol as a semantic category which has Linguists characterize folk texts as traditional, a phonetic form, connected with some object variable and stereotypical. The symbolic words (denotator) and some concept (significator) take an important role in the folk poetry. (Êîíîíåíêî 1996, p. 23). Other researches whose Traditional symbols in the Slavic folk songs point of view we share consider that the symbolic were studied by F. Mikloshych, A. Afanasyev, M. meaning (significance) is one or a few sems in the Kostomarov, O. Potebnya, M. Sumcov, I. Ohi- semantic structure of a word; they are called prag- yenko, A. Veselovskyi and other scientists. The matic or connotative elements of a meaning. For language specific features of the poetic symbolic example, the main meaning of a notion a snow- system are investigated by contemporary Ukrain- ball tree is: “Plant of a honeysuckle family, with ian scientists such as S. Yermolenko, V. Kono- white flowers and red berries” (Plena vortaro de nenko, O. Simovich and others. But semantic traits Esperanto kun Suplemento 1964, p. 501). In the of symbols in the Ukrainian folk texts have not Ukrainian culture it has some additional prag- been completely described yet. Our article is de- matic features: positive attitude (“beauty; a cura- voted to the main group of the symbols: arche- tive plant”), emotionality (it evokes positive emo- N. Danylyuk. SYMBOLIC WORDS IN THE UKRAINIAN FOLK POETRY TEXTS 107 tions), figurative sense (metaphorical, symbolic), ferred to demons too” (Àôàíàñüåâ 1995, p. 94). stylistic colouring (it is mainly used in belles- In folk poetry there was a distinction between the lettres, folk, and partially it is used in everyday expressions clean, pure, quick spring water as a sym- speech), cultural elements (it is connected with bol of health, wellbeing and dirty cold water which folk traditions) (Äàíèëþê 2004, p. 3-6). was associated with a sickness, unhappiness and Potebnya and other scientists assumed that unfaithfulness. In the later texts the expressions many symbols in the folklore are the results of to cross the water, to throw a flower into the water the antique mythological thoughts. He wrote: have a general meaning “to overcome difficulties”, “Mythologity is conservated not only as a result “to break a border between people”. Very often a of its own stabilisation, but because it is used in young wife who lives in her husband’s family, a life circumstances and become a figure which is Cossack who fights far away from his home and constantly updating its meaning” (Ïîòåáíÿ 1985, alike want to cover this distance. For example, (in p. 242). Ukrainian) “Oj vizmu ja z rozhi kvitku Ta pushchu The most archaic are archetypical and astral na vodu: Plyvy, plyvy, z rozhi kvitko, Azh do moho symbols. They are often used in the calender po- rodu!” (Çàêóâàëà çîçóëåíüêà 1987, p. 257); (in etry. The words land, water, air, fire and those that English) “I will take a wild rose flower and throw it are semantically close to them are connected with into the water; Float, float, my flower, to my family”. the motive of the creation of our earth/universe The phrase to give some water to drink means to and every living substance. For example, a sym- express good attitude and affection. bol of water reflects a folk understanding and The word-concept land is a symbol of our perseption of water as “...one of the first elements planet, a mother that gives food, life, wealth and of the worldbuilding, a spring of life, and a means fruitfulness. This word has constant epithets such of magic cleansing. In addition to this meaning as sacred, dark, raw. This word is a part of a typi- water bodies are perceived as a border between cal phrase mother-land. For example, (in Ukrain- this world and the other one, a way to the world ian) Bo to zemlya je nasha mama, Zemlya svyataja of the dead, the place where demons and souls of nas na sobi trimaje...” (Колядки і щедрівки 1914, the dead dwell” (Ñëàâÿíñêèå äðåâíîñòè 1995, p. 28) (in English) “Because our land is our mother, p. 386). In the songs that are sung during the Ivan our sacred land that provides us…” Kupalo holiday it is said about bathing in the water In ancient folk poetry the name the Sun ob- (in the river or in the lake) and jumping over the tains a symbolic meaning “a father”, “a husband”, fire as a ritual of cleansing. As an example we give “a young man”, “a mother”; the Moon has the fol- a quotation in Ukrainian: “Na Kupala ta na Ivana lowing meanings “a father”, “a mother”; a star Ta kupavsja Ivan Ta j u vodu vpav…” (Фольклорні means “a mother”, “a wife”, “a young woman”, записи Марка Вовчка та Опанаса Марковича 1983, “a woman” etc. For example, (in Ukrainian) p. 117) which means: “On Ivan Kupalo holiday Ivan “Jasen misyats – pan hospodar, Krasne sontse – bathed and fell into the water...” zhinka joho, Dribni zirki – Joho dity” (Çîëîòîñëîâ Afanasyev underlined that in folklore texts 1985, p. 55); (in English) “The bright moon is a “Fire and water are light elements which do not master, the beautiful sun is his wife, small stars are carry any dirt: the first element burns it and the his children”. second one washes down and sinks the attacks of Animal and ornithological symbols are newer evil demons. At ancient times deseases were re- than the mentioned ones. Names of birds (mostly ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 108 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE the wild ones) are used as symbols in calendar that a young lady is married already and so on. and wedding songs. For example, pigeon, falcon, The phrases to cut the snowball tree branches, to eagle mean “man”,”a young man”, “a father”, “a cut the tree in wedding songs mean “to get ready sweetheart”; a female pigeon, a wild pigeon, a goose, for a wedding”. Due to the fact that a snowball a duck mean “a woman”, “a young woman”, “a tree is a symbol of love red berries are used to mother”, “a sweetheart”. As an example we can decorate a wedding cake (korovaj), a wedding tree give a quote from a wedding text: (in Ukrainian) and a bride’s wedding wreath. In addition to that “Vylyn, vylyn sizaja holubko, ta j na dvir, Piznaj, snowball tree berries are a symbol of virginity. In piznaj, sizaja holubko, a de tvij” (Весільні пісні 1988, the songs about marriage life bitter snowball tree p. 206) which in English means “Fly out, fly out, berries symbolize an unhappy destiny and fate of my greyish pigeon into the yard and find out where a wife. A snowball tree with many flowers or ber- your sweetheart is”. Very often the word cuckoo is ries stand for a mother with many children. For associated with a sad young woman, a woman in example, (in Ukrainian) “Jak u luzi kalinojka z general or a widow. Besides, this word can be a tsvitami, To tak ja z malenkymy ditkami” (Пісні symbol of a woman who does not take care of her родинного життя 1988, p. 128); (in English) “I’m children. with little kids like a snowball tree with many flow- The following names of plants are also used ers is on the meadow”. This nomination a snow- as symbols. For example, a snowball tree, a willow, ball tree appears in texts about a tragic death of a raspberry, cherry, a birch tree, a wild rose etc. mean young man and lady where it’s used as a symbol “a woman”, “a young woman”, “a mother”; an of grief and sadness. Up till now there is a tradi- oak, a maple and others stand for “a man”,”a tion to plant a snowball tree at the graveyards in young man”, “a father”. In wedding songs a beau- order to remember the dead. tiful couple is compared to raspberries and a snow- In present day folklore a snowball tree obtains ball tree berries. For example, (in Ukrainian) “Do a new meaning which is “parents’ home”, “a place shlyubu jdemo, Molodykh vedemo: chervoni, jak of birth”, “Ukraine”. This concept is often used kalyna, solodki, jak malyna” (Весільні пісні 1988, in the stylistic figure of parallelism: (in Ukrain- p. 169); (in English) “We are going to the altar, we ian) “Oj u luzi chervona kalina pokhylylasja, chohosj are taking the young couple : they are as beautiful as nasha slavna Ukrajina zasmutylasya. A my tuju snowball tree berries and as sweet as raspberries”. chervonu kalynu pidijmemo, A mi nashu slavnu We want to underline that the concept a snow- Ukrajinu hej, hej Rozveselymo!” (А ми тую червону ball tree in the folk texts has some symbolic mean- калину підіймемо 1992, p. 43); (in English) “Oh, ings. It names a young woman in general, but with there is a snowball tree bent on the meado ; somewhy some nuances in different expressions: if a snow- our glorious Ukraine became sad. We will raise that ball tree is in blossom it means that a young lady tree and will make our Ukraine merry and glad”. is getting ready to get married ; if a snowball tree More detailed information about the cultural and is in blossom too early it means that a young lady symbolic meanings of plant and animal symbols is getting married being too young; if snowball tree can be found in the dictionary “Ukraine in Words” berries are not red it means that a young lady is (2004) (see: Україна в словах 2004, p. 551-678). not ready to get married; if there are no berries in It is necessary to point out that a symbol sys- a snowball tree it means that a young lady lost her tem of the Ukrainian folk poetry is very rich and sweetheart; if a snowball tree trunk is cut it means polysemantic. For example: sun, moon, pigeon, N. Danylyuk. SYMBOLIC WORDS IN THE UKRAINIAN FOLK POETRY TEXTS 109 falcon, eagle, oak are the symbols of a young man, natural world is a source of the Ukrainian folk man, husband, father, sweetheart; star, female pi- symbols. geon, snowball tree, willow, cherry are the symbols The symbolic words are a part of the ethnic lan- of a young woman, woman, wife, sweetheart and so guage picture of the world which depends on the tra- on. This fact proves the validity of the words by ditional mentality of the Ukrainians. That is why it is Potebnya who said that “folklore figures have sev- necessary to treat them not only as stylistics figures, eral meanings but very broad usage”. but as results of the culture and historical evolution of Many scientists rationally emphasized that the the nation, which are reflected in the language.

References

Plena vortaro de Esperanto kun Suplemento. 1964. Paris: Колядки і щедрівки. 1914. Зібрав В. ГНАТЮК. SAT. Львів: НТШ. T. 1. А ми тую червону калину підіймемо. 1992. КОНОНЕНКО, В., 1996. Символи української Луцьк: МП Вімпекс. мови. Івано-Франківськ: Плай. АФАНАСЬЕВ, А. Н., 1995. Поэтические Пісні родинного життя.1988. Київ: Дніпро. воззрения славян на природу: в 3 тт. Москва: ПОТЕБНЯ, О., 1985. Пояснення малоруських і Современный писатель. T. 1. споріднених пісень. In: O. ПОТЕБНЯ Естетика і Весільні пісні. 1988. Київ: Дніпро. поетика слова. Київ: Мистецтво. ДАНИЛЮК, Н. О., 2004. Культурологічна Славянские древности: Этнолингвистический лексика в сучасній українській мові та її словарь: в 5 тт.. 1995. Москва: Международные лексикографічне опрацювання. In: Наукові записки отношения. T. 1. НУ «Києво-Могилянська академія». Філологічні Україна в словах. Уп. Н. ДАНИЛЮК, 2004. Київ: науки. Київ. T. 34, 3-6. Просвіта. Закувала зозуленька. 1987. Київ: Дніпро. Фольклорні записи Марка Вовчка та Опанаса Золотослов: Поетичний космос Давньої Русі. Марковича. 1983. Київ: Наукова думка. 1988. Київ: Дніпро.

Nina Danylyuk konotaciniais reikðmës elementais. Remiamasi Lesios Ukrainkos Valstybinis Volynës universitetas O. Potebnios, A. Afanasjevo, I. Ohiyenko, A. Ve- Lucke, Ukraina selovskio ir kitø mokslininkø poþiûriu, teigianèiu, kad Moksliniai interesai: ukrainieèiø kalba ir kultûra, dauguma simboliø folklore yra senoviniø mitologiniø interlingvistika, esperanto kalba. minèiø rezultatas. Simboliø sistema ukrainieèiø folkloro poezijoje SIMBOLINIAI ÞODÞIAI UKRAINIEÈIØ yra labai turtinga ir polisemantinë. Gamtos pasaulis FOLKLORO POEZIJOS TEKSTUOSE tampa folkloro simboliø ðaltiniu. Simboliniai þodþiai yra etninës kalbos pasaulio ásivaizdavimo dalis, Santrauka priklausanti nuo tradicinio ukrainieèiø mentaliteto. Straipsnyje analizuojamos pagrindinës simboliniø REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: simboliniai þodþiai, þodþiø grupës: archetipiniai, astraliniai, vege- simboliø sistema, folkloro tekstai, ukrainieèiø tatyviniai, ornitologiniai þodþiai ir kiti. Simbolinë folkloro poezija. þodþiø reikðmë (svarba) yra interpretuojama kaip vienas ar keli semantiniai bruoþai þodþio semantinëje Gauta 2007 11 12 struktûroje. Jie yra vadinami pragmatiniais ar Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 08 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 110 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Saulë Juzelënienë Kauno technologijos universitetas Gedimino g. 43, LT-44240 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 32 29 92 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: kognityvinë lingvistika, leksinë semantika, teksto lingvistika, diskurso analizë.

Rita Baranauskienë Vilniaus universitetas Muitinës g. 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: sintaksinë semantika, funkcinë gramatika, diskurso analizë.

LINGVISTINIØ DISKURSO TYRIMØ RAIDA

Lietuviø lingvistikoje trûksta moksliniø darbø, kuriuose bûtø analizuojamas diskursas lingvistiniu aspektu, to- dël straipsnio autorës nutarë apibendrinti uþsienio mokslininkø atliktus tyrimus ir nurodyti diskurso tyrimo galimybes bei perspektyvas. Ðiame straipsnyje aptariama diskurso samprata, nurodomi diskurso tyrimo aspektai, diskurso rûðys, nagrinëjama diskurso struktûra. Straipsnyje daugiausia remiamasi B. Johnstone’o, A. Kibri- ko, P. Parðino, W. Chafe’o, D. Shiffrino, T. van Dijko ir kt. darbais. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: diskursas, lingvistinë diskurso analizë, diskurso struktûra, diskurso tyrimo metodai.

Ávadas èius diskursà lingvistiniu aspektu, iðanalizuoti dis- Ávairiø tyrëjø darbuose diskursas apibrëþiamas kurso struktûrà, apþvelgti lingvistinio diskurso ty- kaip ðneka, tekstas, dialogas, stilius, kalbinë veik- rimo metodologijà. la ar kalbëjimo bûdas, turintis vienokià ar kitokià Ðiuolaikinëje lingvistikoje diskursas supranta- prasmæ. Diskursà analizuoja ávairûs mokslai: ling- mas kaip artimas tekstui, t.y. apimantis tekstà kaip vistika, literatûrologija, semiotika, sociologija, psi- kalbinës veiklos rezultatà ir dinaminæ kalbinæ veik- chologija, teologija, pedagogika, istoriografija, fi- là. Diskursas kaip bet koks komunikacinis aktas losofija, etnologija, vertimo teorija ir praktika, ko- apima du pagrindinius — kalbëtojo (adresanto, munikacijos mokslai, politologija, antropologija. autoriaus) ir adresato — vaidmenis, todël sieja- Nors diskursas – tarpdalykinio tyrimo objektas ir mas ir su dialogu. Taigi diskursà sudaro du pa- visi ðie mokslai já tiria savaip, taèiau kai kurie ið jø grindiniai komponentai: teksto kûrëjas ir teksto lemia ir lingvistinius diskurso tyrimo aspektus. To- suvokëjas, todël diskursà kaip kalbinæ veiklà gali- dël ðiame straipsnyje siekiama apibrëþti diskurso ma analizuoti dviem aspektais, t.y. diskurso kûri- sampratà, aptarti lingvistinës diskurso analizës mo ir diskurso suvokimo aspektu. kryptis, nurodyti svarbiausius mokslininkus, tirian- Diskurso analizës terminà pirmà kartà 1952 m. S. Juzelënienë, R. Baranauskienë. LINGVISTINIØ DISKURSO TYRIMØ RAIDA 111 pavartojo Z. Harrisas. Diskurso analizë kaip sa- su viena ið amerikieèiø sociologijos krypèiø — et- varankiðka mokslinë disciplina susiformavo apie nometodologija, kurios ðalininkai atsisako perne- 1970 m. Tuo metu buvo iðspausdinti svarbûs Eu- lyg gausaus teoretizavimo, aprioriniø schemø nu- ropos teksto lingvistø (T. A. van Dijk (1977, 1980); statymo ir renkasi empirinës medþiagos analizæ. Discourse Studies (1997), W. Dressler (1973) ir kt.) Tirdamas buitiná dialogà, siekdamas suprasti dia- bei amerikieèiø mokslininkø (P. Longacre (1976), logo dalyviø socialinæ sàveikà, mokslininkas turi T. Givon (1979, 1983), W. Chafe) darbai. Iki ðiol tai vertinti kaip tos etninës-kultûrinës grupës at- iðleista dar daugiau darbø, taip pat þinynø ir moky- stovas, kaip „paprastas þmogus“. Vienas ið pagrin- mo priemoniø (D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, H. E. Ha- diniø ðios krypties darbø, kuriame pagrásti buitinio milton Handbook of Discourse analysis (2001); dialogo tyrimo metodai, yra H. Sackso, E. A. Sche- B. Johnstone Discourse analysis (2002); Ñîâðåìåííàÿ gloffo ir G. Jeffersono straipsnis „A Simplest Sys- àìåðèêàíñêàÿ ëèíãâèñòèêà. Ôóíäàìåíòàëüíûå tematics for the Organisation of Turn-Taking for íàïðàâëåíèÿ (2006); Ï. Ïàðøèí, A. Áàðàíîâ Conversation“ (1974). Ðiame ir kituose darbuose, ßçûêîâûå ìåõàíèçìû âàðèàòèâíîé èíòåð- kuriuose tiriamas buitinis dialogas, buvo atkreip- ïðåòàöèè äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè êàê ñðåäñòâî tas dëmesys á iki tol maþai lingvistø analizuotus âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîçíàíèå (1986) ir kt.). dalykus, pavyzdþiui, dialogo replikø sekà, pauzes Mokslinë lingvistinë diskurso analizë susifor- ir jø reikðmæ dialoge, tam tikras dialogo replikø mavo tik paskutiniaisiais deðimtmeèiais, vis labiau poras, pavyzdþiui, klausimas – atsakymas, sveiki- ásigalint nuomonei, kad kalbos reiðkiniø negali- nimas – atsakymas á sveikinimà, kvietimas – kvieti- ma adekvaèiai suvokti ir apraðyti netiriant jø var- mo priëmimas ir pan. Paðnekovo reakcija á tam tosenos, t.y. visø diskurso aspektø. Taip diskurso tikrà replikà gali bûti adekvati ir neadekvati, pvz., analizë tapo ir lingvistiniø tyrimø aspektu. kvietimo priëmimas bûtø suprantamas kaip adek- Galima iðskirti dvi pagrindines mokslinio dis- vati paðnekovo reakcija. Neakdekvaèià reakcijà, kurso tyrimo tradicijas. Pirmiausia tai etnoling- t.y. kvietimo nepriëmimà rodo pauzës, nutylëjimai, vistiniai diskurso tyrimai, susijæ su ávairiø kalbø atsisakymo motyvacija. Dar vienas buitinio dialo- sakytiniø tekstø áraðais ir analize. Þymiausias ðios go analizës reiðkinys – korekcija (repairs), t.y. repli- krypties atstovas amerikieèiø etnolingvistas F. Bo- kos, tikslinanèios anksèiau pasakytus dalykus. Svar- as ir èekø lingvistinë mokykla, tirianti komunika- bus dëmesys kreipiamas ir á dialogo makrostruk- cinæ teksto organizacijà. Ðios mokyklos pagrindi- tûrà, neverbalinius veiksnius (kalbëjimo ritmika, nis atstovas V. Mateziusas. gestai, á paðnekovà nukreiptas þvilgsnis). Informaciná srautà savo darbuose analizuoja Lingvistinës diskurso analizës kryptys amerikieèiø lingvistas W. Chafe’as. Darbe Discour- se, Consciousness and Time (1994) apibendrina- Populiariausios lingvistinës diskurso analizës kryp- mi ankstesniø tyrimø rezultatai. Ðiame darbe re- tys: buitinio dialogo analizë (conversation analysis), miamasi gausia empirine medþiaga — anglø ðne- informacinio srauto tyrimas (information flow), kog- kamosios kalbos tekstynu. Chafe’o supratimu, kal- nityvinë diskurso ir gramatikos sàveikos teorija, eks- bos vartojimà daugiausia lemia sàmonë (conscio- perimentiniai diskurso tyrimai, diskurso gramati- usness), kuri vienu metu sutelkiama á koká nors ka, sisteminë funkcinë gramatika, suvokimo stra- vienà tikrovës fragmentà. Tokia koncentracija reið- tegijø tyrimas, sociolingvistiniai, psicholingvistiniai kia, kad informacija yra aktyvuojama. Autorius tyrimai ir kt. Tikslinga aptarti bent pora ið jø. skiria tris informacijos aktyvacijos lygmenis: akty- Buitinio dialogo analizë (kartais vadinama po- viàjà (þinomà, duotàjà), pusiau aktyviàjà (buvusià) kalbio analize (conversation analysis) yra susijusi (informacija, kuri anksèiau buvo aktyvi ir vis dar ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 112 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE yra aktuali kalbamuoju momentu) ir neaktyviàjà visa tai, apie kà kalbama tame diskurse, taèiau ne (naujà) informacijà. Pagal tai nurodomos trys re- visi topiko elementai vienu metu yra aktyvuoja- ferentø grupës. Referentai, þymintys ið konteksto mi. Tokia topiko samprata paaiðkina diskursà. þinomà, duotàjà informacijà, paprastai reiðkiami Kalbiniame lygmenyje topikai sudaro stambesnius ávardþiais arba nuline referencija (þr. tekste to- negu informaciniai vienetai diskurso fragmentus, liau), o reiðkiantys naujà arba buvusià informaci- vadinamuosius epizodus. jà – tikriniais daiktavardþiais. Informaciná srautà analizuoja ir amerikieèiø Vienas ið svarbiausiø W. Chafe’o tyrimo re- kognityvinës lingvistikos atstovas R. Tomlinas (Co- zultatø yra tas, kad sakytinis diskursas realizuoja- herence and Grounding in Discourse 1987, Discour- mas ne kaip vientisas srautas, o tam tikrais kvan- se Relations and Cognitive Units 1987). Didþiausià tais, kitaip tariant, tam tikromis teksto atkarpo- dëmesá autorius skiria ðioms informacinëms ka- mis. Tie kvantai sutampa su viena predikacija ir tegorijoms: temai (topikui) ir þinomai/ naujai in- vadinami intonaciniais vienetais. Kiekvienas in- formacijai. Ðias sàvokas jis siûlo vadinti kognity- tonacinis vienetas atspindi sàmonës koncentraci- viniais terminais: temà (topikà) – dëmesio centru, jà kalbëjimo momentu. O pauzës ir kiti prozodi- þinomà informacijà – sàmonës aktyvacija. Viena- niai elementai rodo kalbanèiojo sàmonës koncen- me ið savo darbø R. Tomlinas apraðo eksperimen- travimà nuo vieno tikrovës fragmento prie kito. tinio tyrimo metodus, kuriais naudojantis galima Anglø kalboje toká informaciná vienetà vidutinið- nustatyti kognityvines prieþastis, lemianèias grama- kai sudaro keturi þodþiai. Prototipinis informaci- tiná pasirinkimà. R. Tomlinas sukûrë animaciná fil- nis vienetas sutampa su clause ir ávardija ávyká ar- mà, sudarytà ið epizodø, kuriuose vaizduojamos ba bûsenà. Galimi ir ðalutiniai informaciniai vie- dvi viena link kitos plaukianèios þuvys, vëliau viena netai: nebaigti, klaidingi pasakymai, dviejø ar ke- ið jø suëda kità. Eksperimento vadovas dëmesio liø paðnekovø kalbëjimas vienu metu. Tirdamas centru pakaitomis nurodo tai vienà, tai kità þuvá. diskurso struktûrà, W. Chafe’as nustatë, kad in- Priklausomai nuo to eksperimento dalyviai saki- formaciniam vienetui bûdingas vienas naujos in- nio veiksniu pavadina tà þuvá, kurià eksperimento formacijos elementas, t. y. vienas naujas referen- vadovas parenka kaip esanèià dëmesio centre. Pre- tas arba vienas naujas ávykis. W. Chafe’as, aiðkin- dikatas gali bûti aktyvus arba pasyvus pagal tai, ar damas ðá teiginá, nurodo kognityvinæ prieþastá, t.y. þuvis kalbos akte turi agento ar patiento funkcijà þmogaus sàmonëje vienu sàmonës koncentracijos (t.y. ji suëdë kità þuvá ar buvo jos suësta). metu gali bûti aktyvuojamas tik vienas informaci- nis elementas. Ðis autoriaus teiginys yra vienas ið Diskurso rûðys, struktûra svarbiausiø diskurso analizës rezultatø. ir tyrimo metodai W. Chafe’as taip pat iðtyrë, kad daþniausiai kaip sakinio veiksnys pasirenkamas referentas, nu- Pagal informacijos teikimo bûdà skiriamos dvi rodantis þinomà informacijà (81% visø tirtø atve- diskurso rûðys: sakytinis ir raðytinis diskursas. Sa- jø), þymintis buvusià informacijà (16%) ir naujà kytiniam diskursui bûdinga fragmentacija: teks- informacijà (3%). tà skaido intonaciniai prozodiniai elementai, su- W. Chafe’as analizuoja dar vienà svarbø dis- tampantys su paprastosiomis predikacijomis kurso elementà – topiko sampratà (yra ir kitø ðio (clause), pauzës. Raðytiniame diskurse predika- termino sampratø). Autoriaus supratimu, topikas cijos integruojamos á sudëtinius sakinius ir ki- yra susijusiø informaciniø elementø (referentø, tas sintaksines konstrukcijas. Be to, sakytinio ávykiø, bûsenø, esanèiø pusiau aktyvioje sàmonë- diskurso atveju adresantas ir adresatas siunèia je) kompleksas, kitaip sakant diskurso topikas yra ir gauna tekstà tuo paèiu metu ir toje paèioje S. Juzelënienë, R. Baranauskienë. LINGVISTINIØ DISKURSO TYRIMØ RAIDA 113 erdvëje; emocijos, mentaliniai procesai reiðkia- uostà), bilieto pirkimu ir t.t.). Apie 1970 m. tokia mi gestais, vartojamos ir kitos neverbalinës prie- schematizuota patirtis imta vadinti ir kitais termi- monës. Raðytiniame diskurse tokio tiesioginio nais: freimu (Minsky 1975), skriptu (Shank, Abel- kontakto tarp adresanto ir adresato nëra, todël son 1977) arba scenarijumi (Sanford, Garrod 1998). daþnai vartojamos pasyvinës konstrukcijos. Freimas siejamas su statine struktûra, o skriptas ar- Tiriant diskursà svarbu iðanalizuoti ir jo struk- ba scenarijus — su dinamine, nors M. Minsky’is tûrà. Galima skirti du pagrindinius struktûros lyg- siûlë vartoti freimo terminà abiem atvejais. menis — makrostruktûrà ir mikrostruktûrà. Anali- Diskurso mikrostruktûra — tai jo dalijimas á zuojant makrostruktûrà skiriami stambûs diskurso minimalias sudedamàsias dalis, t.y. predikacijas, fragmentai: apsakymo epizodai, straipsnio paragra- arba clause1. Sakytiniame diskurse ðiems minima- fai, dialogo replikø grupës. Ðiuos fragmentus vie- liems vienetams artimi intonaciniai vienetai. Tai- nà nuo kito skiria leksinës priemonës (o, taigi, pa- gi diskursas yra minimaliø vienetø grandinë. galiau, be to, viena vertus, kita vertus ir pan.), pau- Analizuojant diskurso struktûrà svarbu aptarti zës sakytiniame diskurse ir grafinës skyrybos prie- ir jo struktûros sudedamøjø daliø sàsajas, kitaip monës raðytiniame diskurse. Atskiriems fragmen- sakant, diskurso prasminá riðlumà, vientisumà. tams bûdinga teminë, referentinë, laiko, ávykiø, erd- Makrostruktûros lygmeny diskurso prasminá rið- vës vienovë. Diskurso makrostruktûrà daugiausia lumà lemia tema, arba topikas. Diskurso tema pa- yra analizavæ T. van Dijkas, T. Givonas ir kt. prastai suprantama kaip propozicija arba infor- Makrostruktûros samprata geriausiai yra ap- macijos sankaupa. Mikrostruktûros riðlumas — tarta T. van Dijko darbuose. Tyrëjo supratimu, tai tai santykiai tarp minimaliø diskurso vienetø ir jo adresato suvokiamo diskurso turinio apibendrin- daliø. Gali bûti skiriami keturi tokiø santykiø ti- tas apraðas. Makrostruktûrà sudaro makropropo- pai (daugiausia bûdingi sakytiniam diskursui): re- zicijø seka, kurià lemia tam tikros makrotaisyk- ferentiniai, erdvës, laiko ir ávykiø. lës, arba principai: nereikðmingos informacijos Analizuojant diskursà, svarbu aptarti ir tai, (sutrumpinimas, sutraukimas, o gal atmetimas, at- kaip diskursas veikia gramatiná, leksiná ir fonetiná ranka), keliø vieno tipo propozicijø apibendrini- kalbos lygmenis. mas, keliø propozicijø sutraukimas (sujungimas) Gramatinëmis priemonëmis laikytina veiksma- á vienà. Makrostruktûra sudaro prasmingà teks- þodþio nuosakø, laikø, veikslø derinimas, þodþiø tà. Makrostruktûra atitinka ilgalaikës atminties tvarka, sakiniø struktûra. Pavyzdþiui, þodþiø tvar- struktûrà, t.y. informacijà, ilgai iðliekanèià þmo- kà lietuviø kalboje galima paaiðkinti, remiantis niø, iðgirdusiø ar perskaièiusiø tam tikrà diskur- praneðimo komunikaciniais veiksniais, pobûdþiu: sà, atmintyje. Makrostruktûra yra viena ið diskur- „kas iðkeliama kaip praneðimo iðeities taðkas (tai so suvokimo strategijø. Dar 1932 m. amerikieèiø sudaro temà) ir kaip tema apibûdinama, kas apie psichologas F. Bartletas knygoje Atmintis (Remem- jà pasakoma (tai sudaro remà). Pateikiant sakiná bering) paþymëjo, kad verbalizuodami patirtá þmo- kaip praneðimo temà bei remà, ið konteksto gali- nës remiasi tam tikrais stereotipiniais tikrovës vaiz- ma geriau iðskirti tai, kas tame praneðime svarbiau- diniais arba foninëmis þiniomis. Jas autorius va- sia, kas labiausiai akcentuojama. Temos ir remos dina schemomis (kelionës arba iðvykos schema su- kaitaliojimas reguliuoja minties slinktá bei jos reið- sijusi su atvykimu á autobusø ar traukiniø stotá (oro kimà tolesniame tekste“ (Valeckienë 1998, p. 12).

1 Terminas clause vartojamas uþsienio lingvistikoje. Jis apima vientisiná sakiná ir dëmená. Lietuviø kalbotyroje tokio termino nëra. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 114 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Diskurso kontekstas lemia ir leksiniø priemo- vienas ið aktualiausiø diskurso analizës ir leksi- niø vartojimà, t.y. jø referentiná pasirinkimà. Ðios kografijos tyrimo objektø. Minëtini ðie darbai: priemonës paprastai vartojamos teksto temos da- D. Shiffrino Discourse Markers (1987); U. Lenko lyje ir reiðkiamos ávairiais indeksais: vardu ar pa- Marking Discourse Coherence: Functions of Dis- varde, giminystës laipsniu (sesuo), kitomis koky- course Markers (1998); G. Redekerio Ideational binëmis charakteristikomis (dailininkas, kalvis, and Pragmatic Markers of Discourse Structure dràsuolis), ávairiais sinonimais, konkurentais (plg. (1990); S. W. Smitho, H. J. Andreaso Actually and Sirtautas, Grenda 1988, p. 190), pvz., asmuo gali other Markers of an Apparent Discrepancy Between bûti ávardytas tikriniu vardu Jonas, substitutais po- Propositional Attitudes of Conversational Partners etas arba ávardþiu jis. Indeksai tekste ne tik sieja (2000); Anna-Brita’os Stenstrom An Introduction sakinius ar didesnes teksto atkarpas, bet suteikia to Spoken Interaction (1994). papildomos informacijos, pvz., substitutas poetas Diskursas padeda paaiðkinti ir daugelá foneti- turi identifikuojamàjà funkcijà, nurodo ankstes- kos reiðkiniø, pvz., silpnesná ar stipresná kirèiuoto nës temos tapatumà (plg. Sirtautas, Grenda 1988, þodþio skiemens pabrëþimà, intonacijos, pauzës p. 190). Kartais vartojama ir nulinë referencija, ir kitø prozodijos elementø parinkimà ðnekamo- kai asmuo diskurse neávardytas, pvz., Jonas manë, joje kalboje. Kiekvienas prozodijos elementas per- kad ø [= Jonas] gali dirbti ðá darbà). Toká pasirin- teikia tam tikrà diskurso semantikà: pasakymo in- kimà lemia referento aktyvacija kalbanèiojo at- tonacija pabrëþiama nauja, svarbi informacija, ky- mintyje: kai referentas maþai aktyvuotas, vartoja- lanti intonacija þymi nebaigtà pasakymo mintá, mos tikrinio daiktavardþio formos, kai referentas minties tæstinumà. „Intonacija gali [...] atlikti ape- aiðkiai aktyvuotas, vartojamos redukuotosios for- liacinæ funkcijà (bûdingas skiemenø pailginimas, mos (ávardis arba nulinë referencija). kirèiuotø bei nekirèiuotø skiemenø ir priegaidþiø Vartojamos ir kitos leksinës diskurso priemo- supanaðëjimas), reikðti ávairiausias emocijas (stip- nës – konektoriai, þymintys diskurso struktûrà, kal- rus balsiø ilginimas ir lepinimas rodo nuoðirdø ar bëtojo, adresato mentalinius procesus, pvz., vadi- apsimestiná meilumà, balsiø delabializacija ir prie- nasi, taigi, kita vertus, tiksliau pasakius, þinoma, balsiø ilginimas didelá pyktá), fonosemantinæ funk- aiðku, ðtai; supranti, þinote, kad. Tokiomis priemo- cijà (þemu tonu tariami þodþiai reiðkia didumà, auð- nëmis laikytini „sinonimai, konkurentai, hiponi- tu tonu – maþumà). Labai svarbi intonacijos paskir- mai, hiperonimai (berþas – medis), antonimai, pe- tis – ávairiø skatinimo tipø: liepimo, praðymo, pata- rifrazë, þodþio ir jo ðaknies kartojimas, áterpiniai, rimo ir smulkesniø jø atmainø – raiðka. Liepiamieji modaliniai þodþiai, skaitvardþiai, prieveiksmiai sakiniai daþniausiai tariami trumpiau, staigiau, kiek [...]. Tiek prie leksiniø, tiek prie gramatiniø prie- aukðtesniu tonu; praðymà (ypaè maldavimà) rodo moniø priklauso ir ávairûs jungikliai: ávardþiai, da- kiek didesnis skiemeniniø garsø ilgumas, þemesnë lelytës, jungtukai“ (Sirtautas, Grenda 1988, p. intonacija“ (Pakerys 1995, p. 310-315). 189). Konektoriai glaudþiau sieja teksto mintis, Yra ávairiø diskurso tyrimo metodø, susijusiø patá tekstà daro suprantamesná, konkreèiau api- su skirtingomis tyrimo kryptimis. Buitinio dialo- bûdina sakiniø ryðius, pavyzdþiui, áterpiniø ir mo- go analizë ir W. Chafe’o darbai remiasi natûralia daliniø þodþiø siejimas þymi sakytø minèiø san- empirine diskurso medþiaga. Analizuojant buiti- traukà (vadinasi, taigi), minèiø eilæ (pirma, antra), ná dialogà apibendrinama, remiantis pasikartojan- prieðtaravimo ryðá (kita vertus, prieðingai), pasitai- èiais, dominuojanèiais modeliais. W. Chafe’o tyri- symà (tiksliau pasakius), prisiminimà (beje) (plg. mams bûdingas introspekcijos metodas. R. Tom- Sirtautas, Grenda 1988, p. 189). Leksinës diskur- lino darbø empirinæ medþiagà sudaro ne natûra- so priemonës palyginti maþai tyrinëtos, todël yra lûs, o eksperimentiniai duomenys, kurie apiben- S. Juzelënienë, R. Baranauskienë. LINGVISTINIØ DISKURSO TYRIMØ RAIDA 115 drinami, remiantis statistiniais testais. Diskurso kiná, temos ir remos dalykus; kvantus (intonaci- specialistai pastebëjo, kad analizuojant sakytiná nius vienetus), laiko kategorijà. diskursà svarbi ne tik verbalinë, bet ir neverbali- në raiðka: pauzës, prozodiniai elementai, juokas, Apibendrinimas nebaigtos dialogo replikos ir t.t. Sakytinio diskurso transkripcijos principai yra nagrinëjami dau- Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad pastaruoju me- gelio tyrëjø darbuose (P. Have Doing Conversa- tu lingvistinë diskurso analizë vis labiau ásitvirtina tion Anglysis (1999); I. Hutchby, R. Wooffitt Con- kaip savarankiðka mokslo kryptis. Leidþiami dis- versation Anglysis (1998); E. A. Schegloff Goffman kurso analizei skirti leidiniai: TEXT & TALK: „An and the Analysis of Conversation (1988)). Dar vie- Interdisciplinary Journal of Language“, „Discour- na svarbi metodinë diskurso tyrimo naujovë yra se & Communication Studies”, „Discourse and ta, kad tiriant diskursà vis daþniau naudojamasi Society: An International Journal for the Study tekstynais. Nuo 1970-øjø metø diskurso tyrimus of Discourse and Communication in their Social, pradëta sieti su kompiuterine lingvistika. Beje, á Political and Cultural Context“, „Discourse Stu- daugumà su diskurso analize susijusiø idëjø pir- dies: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study mieji dëmesá atkreipë kompiuterinës lingvistikos of Text and Talk, Discourse Processes“. Daugiau- specialistai (B. Grosas, J. Hobbsas ir kt.). Reikëtø sia diskurso problemos analizuojamos JAV Kali- pastebëti, kad formaliosios lingvistikos atstovai ne- fornijos universitete Santa Barbaroje (W. Cha- labai domisi diskurso problemomis. Viena ið prie- fe’as, S. Tompsonas ir kt.), Kalifornijos universi- þasèiø yra ta, kad sudëtinga formaliai apraðyti dis- tete Los Andþele (E. A. Schegloffas), Oregono kursà. Vis dëlto kai kurie generatyvinës gramati- universitete (T. Givonas, R. Tomlinas ir kt.), Dþor- kos (vokieèiø logikas H. Kampas (Kamp, Reyle dþtauno universitete sociolingvistiniø tyrimø cen- 1993)) ir formaliosios semantikos lingvistai anali- tre (D. Schiffrinas), Europoje Amsterdamo uni- zuoja diskurso elementus, pvz., referencijos reið- versitete (T. van Dijkas).

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Saulë Juzelënienë from other approaches to language study. Topics of Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania interest of linguistic discourse analysis include the Research interests: cognitive linguistics, lexical se- definition of discourse, examination of the various mantics, text linguistics, discourse analysis. levels or dimensions of the spoken and written dis- Rita Baranauskienë course, such as intonation, lexicon, grammar, stra- Vilnius University, Lithuania tegies, turns and other aspects of interaction. The Research interests: syntactic semantics, functional attention was drawn to the ideas, stated in the works grammar, discourse analysis. of Johnstone, Kibrik, Parðin, Chafe, Shiffrin, van Dijk, etc. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC KEY WORDS: discourse, linguistic analysis of DISCOURSE ANALYSIS discourse, the structure of discourse, methodology of discourse investigation. Summary

The article reveals the basic approaches to linguistic Gauta 2007 11 12 discourse analysis. Much importance is attached to Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 08 specifying what makes discourse analysis different 117

Vilma Linkevièiûtë Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities Muitinës g. 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 24 77 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: discourse, translation, cognitive linguistics.

KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

Nowadays discourse is a very popular phenomenon not only in linguistics but also in other scientific and particularly social fields. Discourse analysis developed from a variety of disciplines: sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. Thus, it takes different theoretical perspectives and analytic approaches. Discourses affect our views on all things; in other words, it is not possible to escape discourse. Discourse analysis has established many forms but currently the most important is Critical Discourse Analysis. There are many CDA methods though O’ Halloran’s mystification analysis is one of the most modern and original as it depicts how a lack of information affects human perception. The article presents a thorough study of newspaper articles according to the chosen method and its results. KEY WORDS: discourse, Critical Discourse Analysis, mystification analysis, transitivity, passivisation, nominalisation.

Mystification analysis is one of the CDA meth- texts. The methodological basis for the research ods. In this study mystification analysis is based is taken from the Comparative Analysis. on O’Halloran’s assumptions. According There are some key concepts in mystification O’Halloran (2003, p. 2) there are many CDA tech- analysis: transitivity, passivisation and no- niques for uncovering language mystification and minalisation. manipulation. “Analysis of mystification in news The first concept – transitivity “refers to the text is situated in the interpretation stage of CDA grammatical system by which ideational meaning since the latter is concerned with the analysis of is represented in the clause, and the type of proc- the relationship between readers and the texts ess (for example, material action, mental, rela- being read” (2003, p. 2). tional, verbal) and the type of participants (for Hodge and Kress’s investigations are very sig- example, agent, affected, senser, phenomenon, nificant for mystification analysis in CDA. verbiage) which accompany the process” (2003, Halliday’s is no less important because mystifica- p. 17). Syntax and semantics are the central ele- tion in CDA is interpreted via use of Halliday’s ments in this concept. Syntax defines subject and metalanguage. object in news texts, semantics relates specific se- The aim of this article is to demonstrate the mantic roles to the subject and object. Different importance of mystification analysis for the com- semantic roles create the action in news text, they prehension of facts, presented in the newspaper help to describe the event informatively. Usually ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 118 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE subject and object perform different semantic mystifies the nature of that event. This happens roles. If the subject and object are not clearly de- due to the fact that the nature of the event be- fined or the distribution of semantic roles is also comes absent. misty, there arise misunderstandings and the mys- Fowler and Kress (1979, p. 25) point out that tification takes place. there are two effects of nominalization: the first The second concept is passivisation. Passives one is objectification – the rendering of a process in English texts create distance between the writer as an object; the second – lexicalization – the pro- and the reader. Besides they make the text more vision of words and phrases to code new concepts formal as human participants may be omitted. or consolidate the existing ones. Passivisation is popular not only in news texts, it is Nominalization is close to passivisation in one used in scientific researches, essays, articles, re- more way – it creates distance between the reader ports and documents. According to O’Halloran and the event. According to various researches (2003, p. 18) the textual function is also impor- this is appreciated by the reader. tant in passivisation because it allows removing These three concepts lead to factual absences information that is implied. This function is very but according to O’Halloran (2003, p. 20) not all important in newspaper articles as it allows the absences in a text are absences in discourse of journalist to be concise and at the same time com- readers. There can be superordinate goal absence, prehensive. But there are cases when information instrument absence, subordinate goal – action is understood by the author though the reader is absence, causal consequent absence. not acquainted with it and cannot comprehend The mystification analysis will be carried out the information correctly. These cases lead to comparing and analyzing articles taken from the mystification. Another example of mystification UK newspapers – The Express, The Sun, The Ob- is removal of human participants. Sometimes it server and The Guardian. becomes vague who performed some action or The Express and The Sun on 25 March 2005 participated in some event. describe the same tragic event – the murder of a The third concept is nominalization. It “refers young girl. The Express gives a brief review of the to the process where a verb or another part of accident and The Sun, as it is a representative of speech such as an adjective is changed into a noun” tabloid press, presents a wide description of the (2003, p. 18). In nominalization agents are re- same accident. Nevertheless, both articles are full moved from clauses. This concept leads to crea- of various absences, which lead to mystification. tion of absences. Like in passivisation, in Firstly, the readers, especially those who do nominalization it is usually impossible to deter- not know the fact that a girl is missing, may be mine who performed some action, who is respon- confused by the headlines of the articles – The sible for one or another event. Nominalisation can Express “Body in Joanne hunt ‘was strangled’”, be used to express different views upon the same The Sun “Jo’s body found in woods”. It is not clear event, e.g., two newspapers write about the same what and whose body was strangled, who is event but with the help of nominalization respon- Joanne, what does The Express mean by Joanne sibility is passed over to different persons in dif- hunt and why if there is a name, there proceeds ferent newspapers. This process also creates mys- no surname what is approved by the etiquette. tification. The effect of nominalization can be best The headline is full of absences and misun- envisaged in comparative investigation. derstandings which make the understanding of the According to O’Halloran (2003, p. 18) subject, described in the article, difficult and the nominalization objectifies the described event and reader, even if he is already acquainted with the V. Linkevièiûtë. KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES 119

accident, does not perceive what he is going to readers are not sure that the information is ac- read about. tual, they may not know who to blame for inaccu- The Sun’s headline is more informative but at racies or who to cite if the information is used in the same time it is more familiar because there some other context. The first three paragraphs of stands abbreviation of the name – Jo. It is difficult “Body in Joanne hunt ‘was strangled’” are in- to decide what the real name of the ‘body’ is, is it formative and comprehensive. a man or a woman. Alastair Taylor, the reporter, In “Jo’s body found in woods” even the first does not present information that he knows well line is full of absences – THE body of murdered and he is being rude at the same time. He does Joanne Nelson was found yesterday – after an amaz- not have the right to call the dead girl, as if she ing flash of instinct by a police chief. was his friend. Besides, such an abbreviation is an The first absence emerges when the readers insult for her family. meet the name Joanne Nelson. The lacking in- The next case of mystification has been found formation is – how old she is, what she did in her in the photo and its description, published by The life. Sun. The second absence is the lack of information where the body was found. The readers are usually interested in the actual place of the accident. But in the beginning of the article under analysis there is not a smallest hint in what part of the world the tragic accident happened. As a contrast to The Sun are The Express lines – A post-mortem examination carried out on a body believed to be that of missing Jobcentre worker Joanne Nelson revealed the cause of death as strangulation. Detectives investigating the murder of the 22- year-old found the body concealed in woodland one mile north of the village of Brandsby, near Malton, Figure 1. “Tragedy ... Joanne with Dyson, North Yorkshire. who is accused of murder”, The Sun These lines shortly but clearly describe the situation and provide all the necessary information. In the photograph the readers see a smiling The third absence in the first line of “Jo’s body girl and a smiling man. From the description the found in woods” is mentioning of a police chief readers find out that the girl is Joanne who is dead but again not defining his personality. The read- now, but there rises a question – what was the re- ers are not informed as to his name and surname, lationship between Joanne and Dyson – were they city or country where he works. This absence leads friends, neighbours, relatives or lovers. Only in to distrust of presented information as the read- the last lines of the article the readers find out ers do not know if they can rely on the source of that Paul Dyson was Joanne Nelson’s boyfriend. information or not. Another case of mystification is present in The The third paragraph in The Sun’s article con- Express article – it lacks the journalist name. This tains absence related to location, which again leads absence may lead to distrust on the part of the to mystification as to where the accident happened readers. If the journalist name is not written, the – He walked 150 yards through woodland with De- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 120 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE tective Constable Phil Gadd and found the hidden makes the readers doubt if they can trust the in- body of tragic Joanne, 22. formation presented. Here the woodland is mentioned but again it According to O’Halloran, the absences may is not clear in which corner of the world the ac- be also divided into superordinate goal absence, tion takes place. Only in the third paragraph the instrument absence, subordinate goal – action ab- age of the victim is mentioned but it is not already sence, causal consequent absence. relevant in this context. In the analysed articles, the superordinate goal One more case of location absence can be may be treated from two aspects – one aspect may found in the middle of the article – A police spokes- be that the superordinate goal was not achieved – man said last night: “They decided to take a look. the girl has not been found alive, but on the other They went through and walked in some woodland – hand, the goal was achieved – the body of the miss- and then incredibly after a few minutes found the ing girl was found. body concealed in undergrowth. There is an instrument absence in “Jo’s body The name of location is not mentioned any- found in woods” because Alastair Taylor does not where in the text but the map is given in the mid- mention what happened to Joanne Nelson and dle of the article, which is a big misunderstanding how she was murdered. There is no instrument – what motivates the map being in the middle but mentioned. not in the beginning of the article, is it easier and The Express article is more informative than more economic to draw a map than just to write the article presented in The Sun – A Humberside the name of the location? Police spokesman said Professor Milroy concluded that the cause of death was manual strangulation. The Express “Body in Joanne hunt ‘was strangled’” also contains subordinate goal – action absence. From the previous information it is evident that the body has already been found, the per- former and the way of the murder are disclosed but the subordinate actions carried out by the police lead the reader to mystification – Police officers will now be conducting a slow and detailed search of the area and forensic officers will be examining the area also. The purpose of the described actions seems Figure 2 “Location map”, The Sun irrelevant but this may be caused by the journalist who left the information, he knows well, out. Both articles – “Body in Joanne hunt ‘was Causal consequent absence is also present in strangled’” and “Jo’s body found in woods’” lack both articles because it is not clear why did Paul names when the police spokesmen, spokeswomen Dyson murdered his girlfriend and the tabloid and officers are mentioned – A Humberside Po- readers always want to find out even the smallest lice spokesman said; A police spokeswoman said detail of every action or event. (The Express), A police spokesman said; A senior From the point of view of transitivity there are officer said (The Sun). no absences – Joanne Nelson is affected and Paul As it has already been mentioned above, giv- Dyson is agent. ing just position without the name and surname There are more cases of passivisation in The V. Linkevièiûtë. KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES 121

Express “Body in Joanne hunt ‘was strangled’” through a controversial package of economic re- than in The Sun “Jo’s body found in woods”. The forms opposed by the French. first article keeps the distance between the reader, Tony Blair talks about the backing in Europe the writer and the presented events, thus it sounds but the readers are not informed who or what is more formal. The language of the second article this backing. Probably it is a backing consisting of is a mixture of active voice and direct speech, one country or even more but the reader is lead which enables the reader to feel like participating into mystification by this absence. This absence is in the presented events. complemented by two more sentences – Reopen- Cases of passivisation can also lead to mystifi- ing a diplomatic rift with Paris, he said it would have cation – Miss Nelson was reported missing from her been a “grave error” to scrap the British-backed serv- home in Hull on Valentine’s Day and a huge search ices directive designed to open up a large part of the has been under way since then. (The Express). European economy to competition. The removal of human participant misleads the Mr Blair said that no one country would have a reader – who reported that Joanne was missing – veto on the reforms, declaring: “It is a debate in which her parents, friends, the police or the media? we have allies.” There are no cases of nominalization creating The underlined phrases add more ambiguity mystification in these articles. to the understanding of the article. Usually read- The results of analysis of these two articles ers skip through the newspaper in order to find present paradox. The tabloid press gives wider new information, thus the texts should be easy to information and more facts about the event but understand, but perception and interpretation of at the same time, there are more cases of mystifi- the latter article requires some extra knowledge. cation in it, which lead to misunderstanding of the The other absence is a phrase – a controver- text. sial package of economic reforms opposed by the Another group of articles are taken from The French. The political correspondent Ben Russel Express and The Sun, they present the same topic does not provide the reader with background in- – a quarrel over EU reforms between Tony Blair formation on what kinds of reforms are being in- and Jacques Chirac. troduced. In this case The Express chooses a clear and The Sun presents this information in a more simple headline – “Blair attacks Chirac over EU mystical way – Both face humiliating defeats in ref- reforms”. The headline of the article published in erendums on the EU masterplan. But Mr Blair can The Sun is already a case of mystification – “Blair get off the hook if France votes No in May. says: I’ll nail Chirac”. Looking at the latter head- The lack of extra information about the refer- line, the readers face the obscurity – what are the enda and defeats would be very useful because reasons for Blair’s disfavour to Chirac and what the information presented in the sentence above consequences of this word fight will be. is incomprehensive and misleading even for the Both articles are full of absences and misun- reader who is interested in the EU apparatus, laws derstandings, which make texts almost and actions. Another case of mystification is the incomprehensive. phrase – Mr Blair can get off the hook. It is not clear The first line of “Blair attacks Chirac over EU what the journalist has in mind. This statement has reforms” contains two absences – Tony Blair has negative connotations; besides, the readers may get hit back at the French President, Jacques Chirac, confused and misinterpret Blair’s actions. over plans to modernise the European economy, The other example of mystification emerges insisting Britain has the backing in Europe to push in The Express when Ben Russel introduces direc- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 122 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE tives but does not explain anything about those Ben Russel in The Express finishes his article directives does not present or even name them – with one more example of mystification – Mr Blair Chirac claimed victory this week after EU leaders insisted that Britain’s rebate was not formally de- agreed to his demand for the directive to be redrafted. bated at the meeting. But Mr Blair played down the changes, saying it was Earlier the journalist described the European “inevitable” amendments would be made to the draft Council meeting but there are no clearly expressed directive. connections between that meeting and the meet- The journalist writes that Tony Blair played ing described in the end. Thus, the readers do not down the changes and talked about the amend- know how many meetings there were, who par- ments but again he introduces neither changes nor ticipated in them and what the results were. amendments. Nic Cecil also finishes his article “Blair says: Mystification is caused by the sentence – I’ll nail Chirac” with a case of mystification – The Downing Street insisted Britain had the support from PM also vowed to force through the laws in a battle new EU states to push the measure through, dis- between France and Germany against a British alli- missing opponents as “in the minority” as well. ance with new EU members from Eastern Europe. There is no explanation who the opponents Firstly, he introduces a new participant – Ger- are – whether they are EU members or the mem- many into the fight between France and Britain. bers of Parliament. Nic Cecil has not mentioned Germany before thus In describing Chirac’s fear of breaking work and the readers have to make their own conclusions service barriers for other members of EU, that Germany is an ally with France. Secondly, mystifications emerge in both newspapers – But the the readers meet a concept of British alliance with planned legislation is unpopular in France where it has new EU members again and are not informed raised fears that East European firms could undercut about its constitution and aims. domestic companies (The Express); Studies show it There is a superordinate goal absence in both could bring at least 600,000 new jobs in the EU and articles – the readers do not know the real goals add £27billion to the European economy (The Sun). and intentions of Blair and Chirac. From The Express point of view, it is not clear The instrument is also absent in the fight be- why the East European firms would be a threat to tween France and Britain – there are no ways in- France. It is not explained if this threat is a result dicated how Blair is going to nail Chirac and how of lower prices or better quality and services. Chirac is going to accuse Blair. The main instru- The Sun bases its information on the studies ment at the moment is their words. but does not indicate the source and the topic, The subordinate goal – action absence is re- thus the readers may distrust this information, too. bate. It is not the main goal of the fight and it is The Express reports that – The Conservative not clear what measures are going to be taken. leader Michael Howard told MPs in the House of The real consequences are not described thus Commons yesterday that Mr Blair was “a complete the readers do not know the results of these de- failure” in the EU negotiations and taunted the bates. They can only predict the consequences. Prime Minister over M. Chirac’s call for an end to This means that causal consequent absence is also Britain’s budget rebate. present in the articles. There are neither reasons nor references in Transitivity in these two articles may be inter- the article as to why Tony Blair is a complete fail- preted in two ways – from the British point of view ure, what PM’s actions made Michael Howard to Chirac is affected and Blair is the agent but from call the head of the government so offensively. the French point of view these roles are reversed. V. Linkevièiûtë. KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES 123

In “Blair attacks Chirac over EU reforms” and But again it is not clear what the fathers’ rights “Blair says: I’ll nail Chirac” active voice prevails, are. The readers know the human rights, but they thus, the passivisation has no impact on the crea- surely have not heard about fathers’ or mothers’ tion of mystification. rights. Nominalization also does not play any part in The second paragraph provides more infor- mystification cases that have been found in the mation about the protesters – And officials fear articles. the pair – who are dressed as monks – plan to stay The analysis of “Blair attacks Chirac over EU on the famous landmark until tomorrow. reforms” and “Blair says: I’ll nail Chirac” refor- D. Masters presents the pair, describes their mulates the conclusion that there are more ab- appearance but does not give important informa- sences in the tabloid press because the above per- tion – who are these men, how old are they, what formed analysis indicates that there were more are their professions. This lack of information cases of mystification in The Express than in The causes one more case of mystification. Sun. Thus, the conclusion may be made that the There the readers find the superordinate goal mystifications depend not on the type of newspa- absence – they know what these men protest about per but on the style of the journalist. but the main goal is indefinite. Another text that been chosen for the analy- The instrument is not absent in the text be- sis is the mystification itself. Dave Masters in The cause it is used in a form of the protest. Sun presents the article “St Paul’s dad protest”. There is no subordinate goal – action absence From the headline it is not clear what the topic in the article because no other events or actions of the article is. The only idea that comes to the are described. readers mind while looking at the photograph is The causal consequent absence is present in that St Paul had more than one father and that “St Paul’s dad protest” because the readers do not they protest. know what the consequences of this protest would be; the journalist does not inform them about the actions on the part of the government. In this case the protestors can be both – agents and affected, this is not clearly defined by the journalist and, thus, causes mystification. The passivisation and nominalization do not play any part in creating mystification in the investigated text. The last issue that has been chosen for the study of mystification is a sore point in Great Brit- ain, i.e. teenager delinquency. This problem is represented by The Observer and The Guardian. Figure 3 “Demo ... pair on famous cathedral”, Both newspapers present the same topic but The Sun they treat it from different points of view. The Observer’s home affairs editor Martin Bright fo- From the first line it becomes clear that there cuses his attention on the society’s attitude towards are two fathers who protest about their rights – teenagers, whereas Sophie Goodchild from The TWO fathers’ rights protesters scaled St Paul’s Ca- Guardian describes legal actions that should be thedral today in an Easter weekend stunt. taken in order to stop the delinquency. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 124 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

The first example of mystification can be ob- is not presented – it remains a secret if he/ she is served in the headlines of both newspapers – an educational, financial, foreign affairs or Crime czar: stop calling children ‘yobs’ (The Ob- healthcare adviser. server) and Youth justice chief’s plea for offenders Though the first paragraph of The Observer (The Guardian). The reader may become con- clarifies the topic of the article, it contains another fused because he/ she is not acquainted with the two examples of mystification – The government’s concepts – crime czar, yobs and does not know their chief adviser on youth crime has called on politi- definitions. Besides, it is not evident who the crime cians and the media to stop calling children ‘yobs’ czar is and why this person declares the proposi- and warned that Britain risks demonising a generation to stop calling children yobs. Thus the topic tion of young people. of the article becomes incomprehensible and in- The first example is closely related to the sub- triguing. title as it concerns the government’s adviser. The The headline presented in The Guardian is first sentence provides the readers with informa- even vaguer – it presents no information as to who tion that the person is not an ordinary but the chief the offenders are, what and why they offended adviser. The field of his/ her interest is also intro- and what kind of plea is requested for them. This duced – adviser on youth crime but, despite all this headline is just a trivial statement that conveys no information, the mystification emerges. The state- particular sense for the reader. ment lacks the name of the adviser as the reporter The next case of mystification emerges in The is supposed to introduce names of all the described Observer’s subtitle – Britain risks demonising a persons. whole generation, says government adviser. This The second case presents the word – ‘yobs’. sentence lacks specific information about the The sense of the word in conversational English demonizing, the name and the field of interest of is – a hooligan. Thus, it becomes evident that the the government adviser. In this case when the main focus of the article is going to be on the de- headline is incomprehensible, the subtitle may linquency but the comprehension is impeded by indicate that the topic of the article is related to the inverted commas. There is a general rule that religion and some special rituals because inverted commas introduce a different sense of demonizing as such is mentioned. The following the word or expression from the direct one. In assumptions may proceed from the statement – Crime czar: stop calling children ‘yobs’ the differ- in Great Britain there exists a sect that intends to ent or the opposite sense is not presented thus imprecate upon the British; there is a fortune – the reader may become confused if the ‘yobs’ is in teller who is going to demonise the British Isles inverted commas because it is a conversational with the help of black magic. The misunderstand- term or because it has some other meaning. ing is solved in the first paragraph of the article – The first paragraph of the article in The Guard- it becomes evident that demonizing implies youth ian introduces two examples of mystification as crime. well – Young offenders on community service who The subtitle contains another case of mystifi- help clean up neighbourhoods should have their cation which is related to government adviser. As names commemorated on special plaques, accord- it has already been mentioned, this phrase lacks ing to the Government’s youth justice chief. information indicating the name of the adviser Firstly, neither the young offenders are pre- thus it is not clear if the presented information is sented, nor the degree of their crimes is indicated. reliable. The presented facts may be also mislead- This fact is of crucial importance as it forms the ing because the particular position of the adviser opinion and attitudes of society towards the teen- V. Linkevièiûtë. KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES 125

ager offenders. If it is not a felony, the society may ment as the inverted commas in the first sentence be merciful and willing to welcome the teenager convey a different meaning of the same phrase. into their environment, but if it is a felony, the The whole third paragraph of Crime czar: stop members of society may insist on a more serious calling children ‘yobs’ is a mystification itself. punishment. “We use the word ‘yob’ without distinguishing Secondly, there again no name is introduced between very young children – who haven’t chosen – the Government’s youth justice chief. The read- their parents, their neighbourhoods or their circum- ers would profit if they were provided with infor- stances and can’t walk away from them – and young mation concerning the chief‘s name. adults”, he said. “I don’t think the word ‘yob’ should The second paragraphs in each of the news- ever be used in relation to young children” (The papers – The Observer and The Guardian also con- Observer). tain cases of mystification. This paragraph provides the reader with the In an interview with The Observer, Professor Rod definition of very young children and young adults Morgan, chairman of the Youth Justice Board, said but this information is irrelevant as every person this country was throwing out contradictory messages can distinguish between children and adults ac- about its attitude to children (The Observer). cording to their background knowledge. This sentence expresses the idea that Britain Besides, this paragraph contains another ex- presents contradictory attitudes towards children. ample of mystification – “I don’t think the word These attitudes are not introduced in any para- ‘yob’ should ever be used in relation to young chil- graph of The Observer. It becomes evident that dren”. The statement introduces the idea that only there are various attitudes though they are not young children can not be called yobs but the ar- presented nor described in detail thus the reader ticle lacks explanation why this term could only is not provided with a thorough coverage. be applied to young adults. Rod Morgan, who chairs the Youth Justice The following idea presented by Martin Bright Board, said the public should be made aware of the introduces a concept of ‘quick fix’ policies. “very valuable” work that young offenders carry out. He urged politicians to stop announcing ‘quick In an interview with this paper, he said public confi- fix’ policies rather than getting to grips with the crisis dence needed to be restored by showing people the of youth custody, which has seen a 90 per cent in- good work that young offenders carried out (The crease in recent years (The Observer). Guardian). Neither in this paragraph nor anywhere else Firstly, Sophie Goodchild introduces a phrase in the article the concept of ‘quick fix’ policies is “very valuable” work that young offenders carry out. defined or explained. It is not evident for the The Guardian introduces the phrase by inverted reader what the policies are and what the rela- commas. Again the actual meaning of “very valu- tionship is between them and youth delinquency. able” is not disclosed and the reader becomes Michael Howard referred during the debate fol- puzzled if the reporter has the crimes or really lowing the state opening of parliament last week to good work of the offenders in mind. This misun- the need to tackle ‘yob culture’ and school discipline, derstanding is emphasised in the second sentence while last year Tony Blair referred from the dispatch by containing a phrase – the good work that young box in the Commons to dispersal orders which al- offenders carried out. In this case the phrase – good lowed action to be taken “against gangs of yobs” work is not written in the inverted commas thus (The Observer) . indicating that work was truly good and valuable Total confusion emerges reading the above but the mystification is not eliminated by this state- presented paragraph. The position and the role ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 126 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE of Michael Howard are not obvious. On the other The Education Secretary, Ruth Kelly, announced hand, it is obvious that this person is of a special a task force last week to tackle classroom disruption importance because he introduced his ideas to the (The Observer). Solution of the class disruption parliament. This episode may raise the ideas for problem is presented as the method of crackdown. the reader that Michael Howard is a member of Once again, the introduction of some new con- parliament but these are only assumptions that cept creates a case of mystification. The goal of may be incorrect. the method is evident though there is an informa- The second part of the sentence presents an- tion gap as to the measures which could be taken other mystification example – orders which allowed in order to tackle class disruption. action to be taken “against gangs of yobs”. The or- Secondly, the class disruption is not defined ders are introduced by the reporter and the jour- and its reasons are not explained. This evident nalist explains the reader that these orders allow shortage of information again leads towards mys- actions against teenager criminals but at the same tification and hinders the comprehension of this time the lack of detailed information is evident in particular article and the topic itself. the statement. It lacks evidence about the nature Both articles present actual teenager crimes of the orders and the action, presentation of par- and their consequences. These facts are compre- ticular orders and the detailed description and hensively covered by The Observer while The explanation of the anti – delinquency actions. Guardian‘s article contains series of mystifications. Both articles – Crime czar: stop calling children George Watson, aged 46, is fighting for his life ‘yobs’ (The Observer) and Youth justice chief’s plea after a brutal attack by a gang of five youths outside for offenders (The Guardian) contain paragraphs a Chinese take-away in North Shields. In another introducing crackdown – Morgan’s comments incident, police are hunting youths who hurled a come after myriad announcements from the gov- lump of wood through the windscreen of a car tak- ernment aimed at showing the public that it is ‘crack- ing women to a funeral in Cheshire on Wednesday ing down’ on bad behaviour (The Observer); His (The Guardian). comments follow widespread calls for a crackdown This paragraph creates a very slight case of on Britain’s yobs, which have grown after a spate of mystification which nevertheless is significant as violent and unprovoked attacks, including one on a well. The first victim is fully introduced – George father of four who suffered serious head injuries on Watson, aged 46. The description of the following Thursday night (The Guardian). incident lacks such kind of consistency – a car tak- In both examples the introduction of crack- ing women to a funeral. In this case the women downs evokes mystification. The first impression mentioned are not introduced. The reasons for is that both reporters – Martin Bright and Sophie such kind of incoherence are not evident and Goodchild want to defend the government from hinder the thorough reading and deconstruction the society, i.e. accusation for the outbreak of de- of the presented text. linquency. They present the situation as if the gov- The other misunderstanding causing mystifi- ernment takes actions against this phenomenon cation describes Tony Blair‘s call for action – Ear- but the information is not elaborate. lier this month, Tony Blair called for people to show In the following paragraph of The Observer the “more respect” towards others and their communi- reporter tries to clarify this misunderstanding by ties (The Guardian). introducing one method of a crackdown tech- Once again the expression as presented in in- nique, while The Guardian leaves this topic verted commas – “more respect” makes obscure unaired. what Prime Minister had in mind. Naturally, the V. Linkevièiûtë. KIERAN O’HALLORAN’S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS IN NEWSPAPER ARTICLES 127

implication is that the head of the government ut- The articles under investigation have two tered this expression having its real sense in mind superordinate goals – the children must not be but the doubts arise, when the reader sees it in in- called yobs and the government should take im- verted commas. The Prime Minister produced mediate measures in order to prevent teenager these words orally and they were recorded by the delinquency. reporter who added some specific shade on her own The instrument absence is evident in both ar- part thus creating a case of misunderstanding. ticles because no actual measures for the preven- The reasons for teenager delinquency are de- tion of teenager crimes are introduced. scribed in The Observer – Morgan said: “What chil- The subordinate goal – action absence indi- dren and young people are really unhappy about are cates society‘s attitude towards young criminals the overwhelmingly negative images of them in the as not a single detailed point of view is described. media”. This statement lacks evidence, the more The causal – consequent absence can be also so that the negative influence of media is discussed traced in Crime czar: stop calling children ‘yobs’ very broadly in all types of media – TV, newspa- (The Observer) and Youth justice chief’s plea for pers, radio but the actual information is not pre- offenders (The Guardian) because the reasons for sented anywhere. The same happens to the phrase the crime outburst are not studied nor presented – negative images of them in the media. On one by the reporters. hand the reporter provides a cause for the out- After the thorough analysis has been carried burst of delinquency but on the other she does out, the following conclusions can be made: not introduce nor describes those images and According to O’ Halloran’s approach to CDA, again, she creates mystification. the lack of information and various absences cre- The final lines of The Guardian present the ate mystification in newspaper articles. Absences final cases of mystification – He cautioned against in the headlines confuse the reader because they increasingly draconian punishments that would lead do not perceive the actual topic of the article. Lack to an increase in children in custody and create new of journalist’s name above the article causes read- “career criminals”. er’s distrust as to the presented information. Firstly, Sophie Goodchild introduces a con- Mystification analysis helps to deal with mis- cept of draconian punishments. It is evident that understandings, which can make the comprehen- the corporal punishment is discussed but the pression of the article impossible. The removal of hu- entation of the punishment lacks particular informan participants in the article misleads the re- mation what kinds of punishments are disputed. ceiver of discourse. This actual gap results in Youth justice chief’s plea In O’ Halloran’s CDA approach not only texts for offenders’ incompletion. but also the photographs are of a crucial impor- Secondly, a new term is presented – “career tance in the deconstruction of mystification. Maps, criminals”. This expression is ambiguous as it is used in the article, also help to cope with mystifi- not evident if it is related to career or crimes. “Ca- cation. reer criminals” can be interpreted as those who In the mystification approach CDA indicates can do anything in order to achieve the desired the goal, reasons and consequences of discourse. position or as those who offend constantly and CDA helps to present and analyse the same the term criminal can be treated as their special- events from different point of views. ity or position. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 128 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Sources References

The Express. Available from: www.theexpress. co.uk FAIRCLOUGH, N., 1995. Critical Discourse Analysis: The [Accessed 10.11.2007]. Critical Study of Language. London: Longman. The Guardian. Available from: www.theguardian. co.uk FOWLER, R.; KRESS, G., 1979. Critical Linguistics. In: [Accessed 10.11.2007]. R. FOWLER et al., Language and Control. London: The Independent. Available from: Routledge. www.theindependent.co.uk [Accessed 10.11.2007]. O’HALLORAN, K., 2003. Critical Discourse Analysis and The Observer. Available from: www.theobserver.co.uk Language Cognition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. [Accessed 10.11.2007]. TITCHER, S. (ed.), 2002. Methods of Text and Discourse The Sun. Available from: www.thesun.co.uk [Accessed Analysis. London: Sage. 10.11.2007].

Vilma Linkevièiûtë analitinius poþiûrius. Diskursai daro poveiká viskam, Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva kitaip tariant, neámanoma iðvengti diskurso. Moksliniai interesai: diskursas, vertimas, kognityvinë Diskurso analizë turi ávairias formas, taèiau lingvistika. svarbiausia ið jø yra kritinë diskurso analizë. Taip pat KDA pasiþymi ávairiais metodais, taèiau O‘Hallorano KIERANO O’HALLORANO KRITINË mistifikacijos analizë yra viena ið moderniausiø ir DISKURSO ANALIZË LAIKRAÐÈIØ originaliausiø, kadangi ji parodo, kaip informacijos STRAIPSNIUOSE trûkumas veikia þmogiðkàjá suvokimà. Straipsnyje pateikiama iðsami laikraðèiø analizë, atlikta ðiuo Santrauka metodu, ir jos rezultatai. Diskurso analizë yra paplitæs reiðkinys ne tik REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: diskursas, kritinë kalbotyroje, bet ir kitose mokslinëse ir ypaè diskurso analizë, mistifikacijos analizë, tran- socialinëse disciplinose. Diskurso analizë susikûrë zityvumas, pasyvizacija, nominalizacija. ið tokiø disciplinø kaip sociolingvistika, antropologija, sociologija ir socialinë psichologija. Dël ðios Gauta 2007 11 12 prieþasties ji gali turëti skirtingus teorinius ir Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 21 129

KALBA IR VISUOMENË / LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Daiva Aliûkaitë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: sociolingvistika, perceptyvinë dialektologija, liaudies lingvistika, kognityvinë lingvistika, ekolingvistika.

TARMIŲ YPATYBIŲ VERTĖ KULTŪRINIU POŽIŪRIU: LYDUOKIŲ ŠNEKTA

Straipsnyje tiriama skiriamøjø tarmiø ypatybiø vertë kultûriniu poþiûriu. Skiriamosios ypatybës straipsnyje suprantamos áprasta lietuviø dialektologijoje reikðme – tai ypatybës, skirianèios tarmes, patarmes tarpusavyje. Skiriamøjø ypatybiø vertë straipsnyje apibendrinama aiðkinantis rytø aukðtaièiø anykðtënø Lyduokiø ðnektos ypatybiø dabartá, t. y. ávertinant rytø aukðtaièiø apskritai bei rytø aukðtaièiø anykðtënø skiriamøjø ypatybiø esamybæ, palyginant vyriausiosios ir jauniausiosios kartos garsø sklaidà. Toks indukcinis sprendimas – remtis tik vienos ðnektos duomenimis – uþtikrina tik pirmines prielaidas dël tarmiø ypatybiø kultûrinës vertës apskritai, kita vertus, gauti duomenys yra pagrindas bendrosioms hipotezëms dël tarmiø ypatybiø kultûrinës vertës formuluoti. Straipsnyje, remiantis tiriamàja tarminio kalbëjimo medþiaga, daromos iðvados, kad tarminis tapatumas suskaido tik vyriausiosios kartos kalbinio tapatumo teritorines ribas. Savo vartojamu kodu vyriausieji ðnektos bendruomenës nariai iðreiðkia aiðkø dialekto identitetà. Skiriamøjø rytø aukðtaièiø anykðtënø ypatybiø nebuvimas jauniausiosios kartos kalbësenoje: pirma, prieðina ðnektos bendruomenës narius tarpusavyje, antra, neleidþia patikslinti ir apskritai nustatyti jaunosios kartos kalbinio (taigi ir kultûrinio) identiteto, treèia, implikuoja klausimà – su kuo sietinas (kultûriniu poþiûriu) jaunosios kartos dialektas, kaip esamas variantas kvalifikuotinas. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: skiriamosios ypatybës, garsø sklaida, tarminis kalbëjimas, vertë, vyriausioji ir jauniausioji karta.

Ávadinës pastabos kalbos“ konceptas pirmiausia susijęs su tarimu (žr. Tarminio kalbėjimo ir bendrinės kalbos skirtumai Kontra 2002, p. 206). Taigi kiekvienos šnektos išryškėja, kaip pasakytų perceptyvinės dialek- garsų sistema yra šnektos kuriamoji medžiaga, ir tologijos atstovai, jau garsų sklaidoje (dėl termino pirmiausia garsynai skiria kalbos bendruomenes1. plačiau žr. van Bezooijen 2002, p. 14). Ir „gražios Tam tikrų garsų, kurių nėra gimtosios šnektos (ar

1 Plg. M. Saville-Troke, apibendrindama visus kalbos bendruomenei mokslinëje tradicijoje priskiriamus poþymius, nurodo, kad kalbos bendruomenës nariais gali bûti laikytini tie: 1) kurie dalijasi ta paèia kalba ir / arba tie 2) tarp kuriø daþnos interakcijos ir / arba tie 3) kuriems bûdingos vienodos kalbëjimo taisyklës ir kalbos aktø (kalbos rezultatø) interpretacijos ir / arba tie 4) kuriems bûdingos vienodos nuostatos dël kalbos vartojimo ir vertybës, susijusios su kalba ir kalbos vartojimu, ir / arba tie 5) kuriems bûdinga vienodos sociokultûrinës sampratos ir prielaidos dël kalbëjimo ávykiø (1982, p. 17-18). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 130 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE tarmės) sistemoje, reikia mokytis kaip užsienio (t. y. 12-16 metų3 ) ir vyriausiosios (t. y. 60 ir kalbos (plg. Zinkevičius 1966, p. 20). Taigi tiek daugiau metų4 ) kartos Lyduokių šnektos atstovų alofonai, tiek prozodiniai elementai padeda skirti tekstai ir pavieniai posakiai. ne tik gimtakalbius nuo negimtakalbių, bet ir Kaip yra pažymėjęs P. Trudgillis, homoge- skirtingų tarmių, šnektų atstovus tarpusavyje ir niškas dialektas yra tik mitinis konceptas (1983, netgi tos pačios tarmės ar šnektos skirtingų kartų p. 7), tad kiekviena kad ir mažos teritorijos šnekta atstovus tarpusavyje. Taigi skirtinga garsų reali- iš esmės yra nevienalytė. Bendruomenę galima zacija yra objektyvus kriterijus, siekiant lokalizuoti smulkinti pagal įvairias opozicijas, pavyzdžiui, prabilusį subjektą gyvenamosios vietos ar kilmės vietinis ↔ atvykėlis, jaunas ↔ senas, išsila- požiūriu. vinęs ↔ neišsilavinęs, vyras ↔ moteris ir t. t. Šio straipsnio tikslas – patyrinėti skiriamųjų Tarminį diskursą įprasta sieti su vyriausios tarmių ypatybių vertę kultūriniu požiūriu. Skiria- kartos atstovais. Tokį teiginį suponuoja tiek teo- mosios ypatybės straipsnyje suprantamos įprasta rinės įžvalgos (plg. Zinkevičius 1966, p. 22; Lie- lietuvių dialektologijoje reikšme – tai ypatybės, tuvių kalbos tarmės 1970, p. 7; Markevičienė 1999, skiriančios tarmes, patarmes tarpusavyje. Skiria- p. 9; Chambers, Trudgill 1998, p. 29-30), tiek mųjų ypatybių vertė straipsnyje apibendrinama tekstai tarmių chrestomatijose, kituose šaltiniuose aiškinantis rytų aukštaičių anykštėnų Lyduokių (plg. žr. Lietuvių kalbos tarmės 1970; Markevičienė šnektos2 ypatybių dabartį, t. y. įvertinant rytų 1999, 2001; Lietuvių kalbos tarmių chrestomatija aukštaičių apskritai bei rytų aukštaičių anykštėnų 2004 ir t. t.), tiek atskiroms tarmėms, šnektoms tirti skiriamųjų ypatybių esamybę šnektoje, lyginant skirtuose darbuose naudojama empirinė medžiaga. vyriausiosios ir jauniausiosios kartos garsų sklaidą. Tačiau, kaip pažymi L. Milroy ir M. Gordonas, Pažymėtina, kad toks indukcinis sprendimas – įvairių amžiaus grupių atstovai gali būti tiriami kaip remtis tik vienos šnektos duomenimis – užtikrina skirtingų laikų atstovai (2003, p. 35). tik pirmines prielaidas dėl tarmių ypatybių kultū- Tradiciniai informantų parinkimo kriterijai rinės vertės apskritai. Kita vertus, tikimasi, kad (pavyzdžiui, NORM5 kriterijus), apribodami in- gauti duomenys gali būti pagrindas bendrosioms formantus pagal amžiaus, gyvenamosios vietos, įžvalgoms, hipotezėms dėl tarmių ypatybių kultūri- socialinių kontaktų, išsilavinimo, lyties ir kt. po- nės vertės formuluoti. žymius, gali užtikrinti vienodesnio šnektos varianto Tiriamąją medžiagą sudaro 2003-2005 metais aprašą. Tačiau taip užfiksuojamas tik gabaliukas diktofonu SONY TCM–459V įrašyti jauniausiosios regione funkcionuojančio varianto. Reikia pripa-

2 Lyduokiø punktas þymimas 410 numeriu (þr. Zinkevièius 1966; Lietuviø kalbos atlasas 1982; Lietuviø kalbos tarmiø chrestomatija 2004 ir kt.). 3 Toks amþiaus kontingentas (dël termino þr. Prakapienë 2007, p. 46-47) pasirinktas sàmoningai – tai mokyklinio amþiaus vaikai, kurie gali bûti laikytini tam tikra mokykline ðnektos bendruomene bendroje ðnektos bendruomenëje. 4 Kadangi jauniausiai ðios grupës informantei 60 metø, o vyriausiam grupës informantui – 96 metai, ðios grupës informantus galima bûtø suskirstyti á dvi kartas: iki 70 metø (ið esmës II pasaulinio karo karta) ir virð 71 metø (tai yra XX amþiaus pradþios karta). Tarp ðiø kartø, vertinant galimas gyvenimo patirtis (plg. vyriausieji informantai patyrë gyvenimà prieðkario Lietuvoje), aprioriðkai tikëtini ðiokie tokie nevienodumai. Taèiau perklausius ir ávertinus jø tekstus, galima daryti iðvadà, kad ðios grupës informantai negali bûti prieðinami kaip ryðkesnio ir ne tokio ryðkaus tarminio kodo vartotojai. Tarp vienos ir tarp kitos amþiaus grupës atstovø pasitaiko nenuoseklumø, taèiau patys vyriausi ðnektos atstovai nëra statistiðkai nuosekliausi ðnektos ypatybiø turëtojai. Ypatybiø sklaida labiau atskiro ideolekto poþymis. Taigi ðiø amþiaus grupiø informantai apibendrinti kaip viena vyriausioji karta ir prieðprieðinami ðnektos bendruomenës objektyviai jauniausiajai kartai. 5 Akronimas – NORM – apibendrina tokià informantø charakteristikà: nonmobile, older, rural male = sëslus, vyresnio amþiaus, ið kaimo vyras (þr. Chambers, Trudgill 1998, p. 29). D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 131

žinti, kad dviejų, tam tikra prasme, opozicinių kartų Kirčiuotas, AkademinisLT2000, Palemonas kalbinių duomenų lyginimas taip pat neatskleidžia rašmenys. visuminio šnektos vaizdo, tačiau reikšmingiausia Skiriamøjø rytø aukðtaièiø ypatybiø tokiame tyrime yra tai, kad atspindima praeinanti dabartis šnektos esamybė, taip pat paliudijama potenciali šnektos ateitis. Kiekviena izoglosė suskaido vientisą lokalinį vie- Pažymėtina, kad terminai vyriausioji karta ir netą į tam tikrus smulkesnius, vienaip ar kitaip žy- jauniausioji karta straipsnyje vartojami okaziona- mėtuosius vienetus. Taigi prabilusį žmogų pagal liai. Paprastai dialektologų darbuose jaunesniąja tam tikras jo kalbos ypatybes galima lokalizuoti karta gali būti laikoma ir pagal amžių nuo geografiškai, t. y. gyvenamosios vietos arba bent vyresniosios nedaug nutolusi karta (plg. Urbana- kilmės požiūriu. Kaip pažymi V. Savoniakaitė vičienė 2005; Tuomienė 2005 ir kt.). (2003, p. 123), Aukštaitijos provincijoje matyti tam Atliekant tyrimą ir rengiant straipsnį, buvo lai- tikros visuomenės gyvenimo, bendruomenės po- komasi Kalbotyros projektų praktinio vadovo (Wray žiūrio į „savąją“ kultūrą tendencijos, tarp jų ir aukš- ir kt. 2005, p. 156) rekomendacijų, teigiančių, kad taičių kaip kalbančių aukštaitiškai suvokimas ir ver- trumpiausi vieno informanto tekstai turi būti ne tinimas8. Skiriamosios rytų aukštaičių ypatybės trumpesni kaip 5 minutės6. Sukaupta medžiaga yra Lyduokių šnektos atstovų kalboje padeda priskirti šios kur kas gausesnė, taigi vienos ar kitos ypatybės šnektos bendruomenės atstovus Rytų Aukštaitijai. pasikartojimai tik paliudija ypatybės gyvumą. Iš tiriamosios medžiagos išaiškėjo, kad re- Prieš pereinant prie garsyno analizės, pabrėž- miantis pagrindinėmis skiriamosios rytų aukštaičių tina, kad nesiremiama objektyviais instrumen- ypatybėmis tik vyriausiosios kartos Lyduokių tiniais ir audiciniais tyrimais, taigi apibendrinimai šnektos atstovų tapatybę galima tikslinti taip: formuluojami remiantis empirinio klausymosi lietuvis ⇒ rytų aukštaitis, kadangi jie: 1) miš- duomenimis. Transkribuojant iš kelių „girdimų“ riuosius dvigarsius –an, –am, –en, –em verčia garso variantų intuityviai pasirenkamas tinkamiau- –un, –um, –in, –im; 2) vietoje nosinių ą, ę turi u,, sias. Teiginiai iliustruojami keliais pavyzdžiais7 . i,. Jauniausiosios kartos atstovams šios ypatybės Iliustraciniai pavyzdžiai surinkti kompiuterinio visai nebebūdingos (arba kol kas nebūdingos?9). tarminės rašybos ženklų rinkinio Fontra rašme- Taigi, paisant vien šių ypatybių, jauniausiosios nimis (Skirmantas, Girdenis 1998, p. 107-121), kartos atstovų jau negalima laikyti lygiaverčiais taip pat naudoti ir TimesDialect, AkademinisLT Aukštaitijos kultūros dalyviais (plg. Kavolis 1993,

6 Plg. A. Wray, K. Trott ir A. Bloomerio parengtame Kalbotyros projektø praktiniame vadove (2005) teigiama, kad pakanka 3–5 minuèiø teksto vienai ar kitai kalbos ypatybei (iðskyrus pokalbiø analizæ) tirti, kadangi paprastai ypatybës kartojasi. 7 Paþymëtina, kad straipsnyje labiau stengiamasi iliustruoti vyriausiosios kartos kalbëjimà, o parodant jauniausios kartos ypatybes, ypaè tais atvejais, kai garsø realizacija sutampa su bendrinës kalbos variantu, apsiribojama keliais pavyzdþiais. Taigi neiðlaikoma pavyzdþiø proporcija, taèiau tokia iliustravimo strategija pasirinkta tikslingai, siekiant ryðkinti ðnektos tarminius faktus, t. y. objektyvius skirtumus nuo bendrinës kalbos. 8 Taip pat galima palyginti Þ. B. Ðaknio kartografinio tyrimo „Aukðtaitijos jaunimo subregioninis tapatumas“ rezultatus. Tyrëjas teigia, kad dauguma Ðiaurës ir Ðiaurës rytø Lietuvos jaunø respondentø turi aiðkø subregioninio tapatumo jausmà, netgi gyvenantieji ribiniuose regionuose turi aiðkià aukðtaièio ir Aukðtaitijos gyventojo savimonæ ir pabrëþia, kad svarbiausias etnografiniø regionø skiriamasis ypatumas yra tarmë (2005, p. 20-22, 70, 71). 9 Straipsnyje daroma prielaida, kad ilgainiui minëtosios ypatybës priklausomai nuo socialiniø kultûriniø aplinkybiø gali iðryðkëti. Galimas scenarijus aptariamas toliau straipsnyje. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 132 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE p. 60-68). Skiriamųjų rytų aukštaičių ypatybių lepðu.kY lepðu.kY # lepðu.ku ai,davam # išlyginimas10 tarp jaunųjų bendruomenės atstovų, prisi.mdavam kû,jesna ##//‘Ta¤ gi kai viena vertus, paliudija bendrinės kalbos galią Pupìlio raistê melioråcija dar nebùvo tarminio kalbėjimo atžvilgiu, kita vertus, atskiria praºjus, po beržiùkais lepšiùkai lepšiù- šnektos kartas. kai, lepšiùkų e¤davom, prisémdavom Taigi vyriausiosios kartos Lyduokių šnektos kójasna (=į kojas).’ (Br. L. A. – 1941 m.). atstovams, kaip ir visiems rytų aukštaičiams, Jauniausioji karta tautosilabinius mišriuosius būdingas mišriųjų dvigarsių –an, –am, –en, –em dvigarsius –an, –am, –en, –em išlaiko sveikus, vertimas –un, –um, –in, –im11. Pavyzdžiui: nepakitusius, pavyzdžiui: (1) a\da.\gi\kur nuvaþæ.va #/nuvaþæ.va (1) nu\tÀi ir\jisÀi, atsibu.dû. paskui, # visi apsdai,re tinai ape\gri,èu # ape\visKs þmû,nes pama.te isigan,dû. # galvû,jû. kum.pus12 ## ‚‘O dãr gi ku» nuvažiåvo, kað\èe per\paba,isa ## ‚‘Nâ tai ir jisa¤ nuvažiåvo, apsida¤rė tena¤ apie grýčią, atsibùdo pasku¤, visí žmónės pamåtė, apie visùs kampùs13 .’ (A. K. N. – išsiga¹do, galvójo, kâs čia per pabãisa.’ 1935 m.14 ); (G. G. – 12 m.); r i u u i (2) að/piË,rzgundu #/kû,je(s)/suti.na/ma.na (2) i , inÀ , b .vû. ið\tikr ,ju/m .rus # u i smulkei(s)/spagÀis/# tËi,( ) bÀi.su\gi bet\paska , inÀ , prisikë ,lë. p i i tËip ## ‚‘Âš pérsgandau (=persigandau), su\paðvesta ,seis peNke ,s ## ‘I» jina¤ bùvo kójos sutíno mâno smulkia¤s spuoga¤s, iš tikr‹jų mírus, bet paskia÷ jina¤ prisi- k¸lė su pašvęsta¤siais penkia¤s.’ (K. K. – ta¤p baisù gi, ta¤p...’ (Br. N. B. – 15 m.); 1935 m.); (3) kar,tÀis þmû,nes atei,na # papra.ðû. (3) tadu ku.nigçs par\pa-- klebani.Ii iðkæ.pt # ir\tÀi,p namuose i.ðkepa in,riNge pa.maldam lYIki,t va(t)\tinû,I ## ant\ðveÒ,èu prû,gû.s # ant\sulauktu.vu ‘Tâda kùnigas par po-- kleboníjoje i¹- kû.ku, # ant\gimta.denu ## ‚‘Ka»tais rengė (=árengė) pamaldóm laikôt vat žmónės ate¤na, papråšo iškêpt, ir ta¤p (=štai, va) tena¤.’ (Br. N. B. – 1935 m.); namuosê ant šve¹čių prógos, ant iË i a (4) ti\gi kY\pup .le/rÀ .sti/# meler .cije/ sulauktùvių koki‹, ant gimtådienių.’ u Ë u da\neb .va/pra ,jus pa\berþ .kYIs/ (E. G. – 13 m.).

10 Vadinamasis dialektø iðlyginimas – tai reiðkinys, kai priklausomai nuo kalbos bendruomenës iðsisklaidymo, kalbos bendruomenës nariø mobilumo, kitø socialiniø bei demografiniø veiksniø supanaðëja skirtingi dialektai, arba dialektai supanaðëja su bendrine kalba (þr. Kerswill 1994, p. 12, 161; Williams, Kerswill 1999, p. 141-162; Kerswill 2003, p. 224-225; Hinskens ir kt. 2005, p. 11). Nors mokslinëjë literatûroje terminas iðlyginimas pirmiausia aktualizuotas tiriant dialektø kontaktø dël migracijos ir kt. veiksniø klausimus (þr. Kerswill 1994), taèiau ávertinus per paskutiniuosius 30-50 metø iðryðkëjusá 1) erdviná artumà ir realø mobilumà, kuris yra prielaida ðnektø ypatybëms sumiðti bei 2) kvazimobilumà, – net ir niekur neiðvykæs ið ðnektos ploto þmogus neiðvengiamai patiria kitoká kalbëjimà, pirmiausia bendrinës kalbos, per radijà, televizijà, kuris lemia ðnektos ir bendrinës kalbos ypatybiø sumiðimà. Tad ði kategorija [iðlyginimas] tinka ir reiðkiniams lokaliuose plotuose, t. y. vienos ðnektos plote, apibendrinti. 11 Paþymëtina, kad siauro pirmojo dvigarsio sando kokybë gali bûti kiek kitokia, pavyzdþiui, on, Ën, om, Ëm — bûdinga panevëþiðkiams (apie tai tiksliau ir plaèiau þr. pavyzdþiui, Lietuviø kalbos tarmiø chrestomatija 2004, p. 173-174). 12 Èia ir visame straipsnyje pavyzdþiai iliustruoti kalbamajai ypatybei paryðkinami pusjuodþiu ðriftu, kai kuriais atvejais, norint atkreipti dëmesá, kalbamasis garsas apibrëþiamas kvadratëliu. 13 Èia ir kitur pavyzdþiuose atkuriamas bendrinës kalbos kirèiavimas. 14 Paþymëtina, kad èia ir toliau visame straipsnyje skliausteliuose nurodoma informanto vardo ir pavardës pirmosios raidës bei gimimo metai (vyriausiosios kartos informantø) arba metai (jauniausiosios kartos informantø). D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 133

Kalbant apie vyriausiosios kartos infor- (2) cu.kra/jis/duonas/priDevi.na/let\jædY../ mantus, pasakytina, kad tiriamąja medžiaga suDevi.na kat\ju/ta,msus,msus/(būtų) ## paliudijama, jog sveiki mišrieji dvigarsiai visada ‘Cùkro jís, dúonos pridžiovína, lêt (=net) išlaikomi vadinamosiose išimtyse (plačiau žr. juoda¤ sudžiovína, kad jau tamsus.’ (Br. Zinkevičius 1966, p. 96-97), t. y. sąlygiškai N. B. – 1925 m.); naujuose, iš bendrinės kalbos atėjusiuose (3) kumeli,s ta(þþ) þve,Nge # a\privaþuû.va žodžiuose; intarpiniuose veiksmažodžiuose, duÛgu. þinY.\gi arklu, ti\uûnçs nu kumeli,s veiksmažodžiuose, kurių šalia esamojo laiko en, þvi.Nge ## ‘Kumelýs tâs žvéngia, o priva- em kiti laikai turi in, im; antrinės kilmės galūnėse, žiåvo daugia÷, žina¤ gi, arkliÿ, ta¤ ånas pavyzdžiui: (=jis) na kumelýs žvéngia.’ (K. K. G. – (1) a\bijû,jæm kat\sa.kam ki\sprû,ks ta(s) 1915 m.). sandeli,s ti\ir\mum/ uþgrus ir\neras/ Reikšminga tai, kad tokie nenuoseklumai niekçs ale Ë-- nieka ## ‘O bijójom, kad, apibendrintini ne kaip nereguliarūs pavieniai såkom, kai sprõgs tâs sãndėlis, ta¤ ir atvejai, bet jau įgiję tendencijos vertę, kadangi mu§ (=mus) užgriùs, âle (=bet) ė toks maišymas būdingas tiek patiems vyriau- niìko.’ (Br. N. B. – 1935 m.); siems, tiek visiems kitiems šios grupės (vyriau- (2) tY.kkti\be,rnçs be,rnç(s) supran.ti vaþæ.va siosios kartos) atstovams. Vadinasi, kalbant apie rû,zu ## ‘Ta¤ tę (=ten) bérnas, suprantí, šią ypatybę, galima daryti prielaidą, kad Ly- važiåvo rózu (=kartu).’ (Br. V. – 1907 m.); duokių šnektos atstovų kalbinių priemonių re- (3) saku. # a.tminu ka(t)\du.jini paliku. pertuare pastaraisiais dešimtmečiais jau vyko kure.nantis ## ‘Saka÷, åtminiau, kad tarminių ypatybių išlyginimas. Vertinant šios ob- dùjinę palika÷ kūrìnantis.’ (U. B. G. – jektyvios skirties esamybę, galima kalbėti bū- 1925 m.); tuoju laiku, kadangi šiaip ar taip vyriausioji karta (4) kÀi\darbû,veten savû. uþei.nu daþnÀi # tËi atstovauja ir praėjusiam laikui. Vienoks ar kitoks ir\nË,r jæku, piktu.mu # susitin,kam kodavimas tampa savaiminiu palaipsniui, o tai, pa.kalbam ## ‘Kai darbóvietėn (=į kad visi informantai nuosekliai nebesiaurina darbovietę) sâvo užeinù dažna¤, ta¤ ir nºr kalbamųjų mišriųjų dvigarsių arba tai siaurina, jokiÿ piktùmų, susiti¹kam, pâkalbam.’ tai nesiaurina ir kasdienio diskurso žodžiuose (A. Š. – 1936 m.). (pavyzdžiui, la,qgu ‘langą’, va,ndenu ‘van- Tačiau galima teigti, kad sveikų mišriųjų deniu’), yra svarus argumentas šios ypatybės iš- dvigarsių išlaikymas nebesusijęs tik su paminėtomis lyginimą laikyti XX amžiaus antrosios pusės, išimtimis. Taigi nors vyriausiosios kartos šnektos pabaigos reiškiniu. bendruomenės narius, fiksuojant pagrindines Antroji skiriamoji rytų aukštaičių ypatybė – skiriamąsias rytų aukštaičių ypatybes jų kalboje, šaknies ir galūnės nosinių balsių ą, ę siau- galima gana nesunkiai priskirti rytų aukštaičiams, rinamas – taip pat būdinga tik vyriausiosios pažymėtina, kad daugumos jų kalbėsenai bendrinė kartos atstovams. Tarp jauniausiosios kartos kalba taip pat padariusi poveikį. Vartojami ir sveiki informantų tokių atvejų tiriamoji medžiaga ne- tautosilabiniai mišrieji dvigarsiai. Kartais net tas pats paliudija. pateikėjas, pasakodamas vieną istoriją, nėra Vyriausiosios kartos atstovai vietoje lau- nuoseklus. Pavyzdžiui: kiamų šnektos [u,] ar [i,] taip pat dažnokai ištaria (1) tadu i.ðminam raq,kam ## ‘Tadâ íšmi- [a,] ir [e,]. Taigi ir šiuo atveju vyksta išlyginimas. nam ra¹kom.’ (F. P. P. – 1925 m.); Lyginant su mišriųjų dvigarsių išlaikymu, [a,] ir ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 134 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

[e,] yra retesni, tačiau ir jie ne sporadiški variantai skrìbą (=pro skrebą), íšmušė jãm iš tarp šnektos atstovų. Vienos istorijos (net ra¹kų ė t± šãutuvą ir ir ja÷ ir lêt (=vos) pagrečiui esančiuose sakiniuose) maišyta garsų nepab¸go.’ (A. K. N. – 1935 m.); sklaida leidžia įžiūrėti tam tikrų kodų maišymo15 (3) ai,dava kavalieris pas\mer,,gu # Ài,dava požymių. Kiekvienu atveju, įvertinant visą jis Ài,dava ## ana jû, neki,zdava # informanto sukurtą tarminį diskursą (pagal garsų narË,dava ki.ta ## ‚‘E¤davo kavaliìris sklaidos visumą), kodų maišymas – tarminis (=kavalierius) pas me»gą, e¤davo, jís kalbėjimas versus bendrinė kalba yra akivaizdus. e¤davo, anâ (=jí) jõ nek³sdavo, norø- Įvertinant tarminio teksto kūrimo aplinkybes16, davo kíto.’ (K. K. G. – 1915 m.); galima pridurti, kad turimais atvejais ne (4) nugu ,zdina #ju\megû ,ju kalbinės–socialinės aplinkybės lemia kalbėtojo kY\paskam,bina ## ‚‘Nug±sdino, jau maišytą kodą. Galima teigti, kad vyksta savai- miegójau, kai paska§bino.’ (Br. L. A. – minė kodų kaita (taip pat žr. Aliūkaitė 2006, 1941 m.); p. 13), t. y. kalbėtojui abu kodai yra būdingi ir (5) nu\ju atuû.suke\ju kÀip\rai,ke gi\ju sudaro bendrą jo kalbinių priemonių repertuarą, tuo(s) su,narus guû,l\kÀip #/ guûl\tu, taigi abu kodai ir reiškiasi nepriklausomai nuo ir\tu, tu, tu, sau,zgisli # bintuoje ## ‘Nâ aplinkybių. Turima medžiaga leidžia daryti jau atåsukė (=atsukë) ja÷ ka¤p re¤kia prielaidą, kad kalbėtojai nekontroliuoja savo gi ja÷ túos sçnarius, gãl ka¤p, gãl t± ir kalbėjimo, nepritaiko savo kodo – tiesiog jiems t± t± t± sa÷sgyslę, bintúoja.’ (Br. būdinga tokia raiška, t. y. iš dalies jau pusiau L. A. – 1941 m.); tarminis kalbėjimas. Tokią prielaidą galima (6) nu\ti ti\tadu ði.ta atË,je # acpruû.ða\ju daryti remiantis jau kalbėta tautosilabinių þmû,nes ## matY.\kÀip kÀip\bu,na mišriųjų dvigarsių maišymo tendencija bei a, e giviË.nimi ## kÀi(p)\bu,na giviË.nimi ## sklaida vietoje laukiamų tarmės u ir i. ‚‘Nâ tai tadâ šíta atºjo, atsipråšo ja÷ Taigi apibendrinant pasakytina, kad kir- žmónės. Mata¤, ka¤p ka¤p b¾na gyvì- čiuotoje pozicijoje vyriausiosios šnektos atstovai nime. Ka¤p b¾na gyvìnime.’ (K. K. G. – taria [i,] ir [u,]; kai reiškiasi bendrinės kalbos 1915 m.); įtaka, tariami [e,] ir [a,]; nekirčiuotoje pozicijoje (7) paskY. ir\ku.nigçs bu.va atvaþe.vis ## paprastai realizuojami atitinkami trumpieji ‘Pasku¤ ir kùnigas bùvo atvažiåvęs.’ alofonai. Pavyzdžiui: (F. P. P. – 1925 m.); (1) u,þalus nupjæ,uni # [juokiasi] vir- (8) ri,ta su\patu.msu iðvaþuoji ## ‚‘Rôtą su ðu,nes ata.veþi èæ vat ## ‘¡žuolus nupjãu- patãmsiu išvažiúoji.’ (Br. V.– 1907 m.); ni, viršænes, atåveži (=atveži) čiâ, vât.’ (9) viena rû,za mË.s vaþ uû.vam (Br. V. – 1907 m.); pra\krekðlus ## muû.tam vÀiku.kçs (2) piË.trç /banu.lis kYp\lÆ,kæ par\ði.tu.tu/ s ra,uda ## puû.kluÛsem kû. ## turË,juÛ par\vienu skriË.bu # i.ðmuðe jû,mið\ruq,ku ru.bli # turË,juÛ vienu ru.bli # ir\tu, Ë\tu, ða,utuvu ir––ir\ju ir\let nepabË,ga ## puû.meèu ## ‚‘Vîeną rózą (=kartą) va- ‘Pìtras Baniùlis kaip lºkė per šítą per

15 Bendrinë kalba ir tarminis kalbëjimas laikomi skirtingais kodais. Straipsnyje laikomasi nuostatos, kad kodas – neutralus, be emociniø konotacijø terminas, apibendrinantis tiek kalbà, tiek kalbos variantà (dël tokios koncepcijos taip pat þr. Wardhaugh 2006, p. 88-96). 16 Áraðymo situacijos buvo kasdieniðkos, informantai nebuvo ásitempæ. D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 135

žiåvom pro Krekšliùs. Måtom, vaikiùkas (6) dabar\të,tis/ai,rijû.I/iðvaþæ,ves rãuda. Paklãusėm kõ. Turøjau vîeną usidi.rpt/## ‘Daba» tºtis A¤rijoj išvažiåves rùblį, turøjau vîeną rùblį, ir t± pâmečiau.’ užsidírbt.’ (E. G. – 13 m.). (A. K. N. – 1935 m.); Taigi ir ši ypatybė taip pat jauniausiosios (10) piemenis pa.jæma/va.bala.bala/#/iN.kiða/ kartos Lyduokių bendruomenės narius atskiria smí.lgu.lgu/uðpakalin/# ir\pala,iDe/## ‚‘Pîe- nuo vyriausiosios kartos atstovų. menys pâima våbalą, i¹kiša (=ikiša) smílgą užpakali¹ (=į užpakalį) ir pa- Skiriamosios anykðtënø ypatybës dabartis léidžia.’ (Br. N. B. – 1925 m.). Jaunieji šnektos bendruomenės informan- Pagrindinės skiriamosios rytų aukštaičių ypa- tai visada vartoja [a,] ir [e,], nekirčiuotoje po- tybės padeda lokalizuoti kalbėtoją Rytų Aukštai- zicijoje realizuojami trumpieji arba pusilgiai alo- tijoje, o skiriamoji anykštėnų ypatybė rotininka- fonai [a], [e], [a.], [e.]. Pavyzdžiui: vimas / ruotininkavimas gali patikslinti kalbėtojo tapatybę taip: lietuvis⇒ rytų aukštaitis⇒ (1) ðei,p mû.ki,klû.I labÀi,aktivei, me.s daliva,ujem ir\mum, ira sa,ligû.s sa.vû. # anykštėnas. Vyriausiems Lyduokių šnektos sa.vû. më,kstama. dali,ka. pasiriNkt ## bendruomenės nariams būdingas ruotininka- ‘Šia¤p mokýkloj laba¤ aktyvia¤ mìs daly- vimas, keliuose tekstuose užfiksuota ir rotininka- vãujam, ir mùms yrâ sçlygos sâvo sâvo vimo atvejų. Tarp jauniausių Lyduokių šnektos m¸gstamą dalýką pasiri¹kt.’ (R. N. – 14 m.); atstovų skiriamoji rytų aukštaičių anykštėnų (2) pû\tû, da,r ki.ta. diena. pama.tË. kÀip\jie ypatybė nepaliudijama. Taigi priskiriant kultū- vë,l\ku,rË. la.uþa. ## ‚‘Po tõ dãr kítą diìną rinę skirties vertę šiai ypatybei, galima teigti, kad pamåtė, kaip jiì vºl kærė lãužą.’ (M. S. – tik vyriausiąjį kartos atstovą galima charakte- rizuoti taip: lietuvis⇒ rytų aukštaitis⇒ anykštė- 13 m.); nas. Kaip pastebėjo G. Massini–Cagliari: (3) tai\va idri.bû. i\piena. # nemû.kë,jû. „Kiekvienas kalbėtojas būtinai yra savo gimto- jisÀi, plau,kt ## ‘Tai vâ – įdríbo į pîeną, sios kalbos „poliglotas““ (2004, p. 16)17, todėl, nemok¸jo jísai pla÷kt.’ (G. G. – 12 m.); atpažindamas kitaip kalbančius, juos vertina, (4) jisÀi, kekviena. diena. rite veþû,je vaikus identifikuoja, priskiria jiems tam tikrų bruožų. i\mû.ki,kla. # ir\ma.ne kar.tu pa.jema ## Vadinasi, žinant kalbines anykštėnų charakte- ‘Jisa¤ kiekvîeną diìną rytê vežiója vaikùs ristikas, jauniausiosios kartos atstovų jau nebe- į mokýklą ir manê kartù pâima.’ (G. G. – galima atpažinti kaip anykštėnų. 12 m.); Tarp vyriausiųjų informantų taip pat fiksuotas (5) IisÀi, tenÀis/uþ\visu /daugæ,usei mû.kë,jû. s nenuoseklumas. Ne visais atvejais ir vyriausio- /tÀi\ji, pe,rke.lË./i\aukðèæ,use.//kla.se.se./## sios kartos informantai verčia kirčiuotą negalū- ‘Jisa¤ tena¤s už visùs daugiãusiai mokøjo, ninį a. Be to, pažymėtina, kad diftongizacija taip tai jñ pérkėlė į aukščiãusią klãsę.’ (E. G. – pat nenuosekli. Kai kuriais atvejais užfiksuota 13 m.); kodų kaita. Be to, įdomu pastebėti, kad vyriausias

17 Taip raðo mokslininkë, tyrusi kalbinæ situacijà Brazilijoje (analizavusi portugalø kalbos ir 200 kitø gyvuojanèiø kalbø, tarp kuriø yra 170 vietiniø kalbeliø-dialektø, santykius), kiekvienas gimtakalbis, iðmokæs savo kalbà, iðmoksta skirti ir kalbos variantus, kiekvienas kalbëtojas bûtinai yra gimtosios kalbos „poliglotas“, be to, gimtakalbis þino, kurie posakiai priklauso jauniems asmenims, kurie tinka tik neoficialioms situacijoms ir t. t. (Massini-Cagliari 2004, p. 3-23). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 136 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE informantas Br. V. (1907 m.) iš esmės visai (7) ti\bu.va salafa.nus # að bu,dava nelabializavo kirčiuoto a. Pridurtina, kad tais kapu.stus baèku.ten intiesu ## ‘Tę (=ten) atvejais, kai pagrindinė skiriamoji rytų aukštaičių bùvo salofånas (=celofanas), aš bædavo anykštėnų ypatybė nesireiškia, paprastai tariamas kopūstùs bačkùtėn (=į statinaitę) intiìsiu pusilgis [a.]. Pavyzdžiui: (=įtiesiu).’ (Br. N. B. – 1925 m.); (1) suû.ka # kur,gi tavi, biesus neðû,je ## ‚‘Såko, (8) nu\ti\vû,t~#~pa.jime.jime\ti~# û,t\va #~gusa.rase ku»gi tavê biìsas (=velnias) nešiója’ riIkË,je tarna,ut~# û. ## ‘Na tai vât pâėmė (U. B. G. – 1925 m.); tę, òt va, husåruose reikøjo tarnãut, õ.’ (2) ka(t)~guû,l18 nebu.va ni~tu, grHÐèu | (Br. V. – 1907 m.). nebu.va nerû.da tu, kur–– kur–– Jaunieji šnektos bendruomenes nariai išlaiko kur~panakvû,t \ ‘Kad gál nebùvo nei tÿ bendrines kalbos a. Pažymėtina, kad realizuojami grýčių, nebùvo, nerãdo tÿ, kur kur kur ilgasis [a,] ir pusilgis [a.] alofonai. Net tas pats panakvót’ (K. K. G. – 1915 m.); jaunasis informantas ne visada taria vienodo (3) pra.ðû.m sË,stis [kreipiasi į klausėją ir ilgumo garsus. Kokio nors leksinio ar morfolo- toliau tęsia savo pasakojimą] ## vi.skÀs ginio žymėtumo, kuriais atvejais tariami ilgesni labY. grÀit bu.va ## vi.lniI gi.me ## balsiai, apibendrinti negalima. Tarimas labiausiai tik\nuvaþuû.va vi.lnun\ir tik\spË,ja nu- priklauso nuo informanto atsipalaidavimo, kalbė- vaþuot ## ukmergë.\ti acisuû.ke # bijû,ja ## jimo natūralumo. Pavyzdžiui: nu\ti vi.lniI\ti vi.skÀs narmalu labY. (1) ir\ten, acira.da kitu, pleði.ku gauja bu.va ## ‘Pråšom s¸stis. Vískas laba¤ gre¤t ne\tik rû,njes ir, ## ‘Ir te¹ atsirådo kitÿ bùvo. Vílniuj gímė. Tik nuvažiåvo Víl- plėšíkų gaujâ, ne tík Rónjos i».’ (V. L. – niun (=į Vilnių) ir, tik sp¸jo nuvažiúot. 13 m.); Ukmergº atsisåkė, bijójo. Na t³ (=ten) (2) þÀi.Du su\kû.mpu.teru # namu, da,rbus Vílniuj ta¤ vískas normalù laba¤ bùvo.’ darau, # ma,mÀi kar,tÀis pa,dedu ## (O. R. – 1936 m.); ‘Žaidžiù su kompiùteriu, namÿ dãrbus (4) að tiktY. virðun/# uû.nÀs.nÀs/ tiktY pi.rma/ dara÷, måmai ka»tais pâdedu.’ (M. S. – mani,s #/pruû.liNke ## ‘Âš tikta¤ viršu¹, 13 m.); ånas (=jís) tikta¤ pírma man³s, prâlenkė.’ (3) tÀi, nu. nuda.þû.m smë,li. ir\klijuojem (Br. L. A. – 1941 m.); visÀi,(p) paveikslu.kus ## ‘Ta¤ nudåžom smºlį (5) a\tinû,I kYp\tvuû,rtÀs ir\luNgiË.lis # ir klijúojam visa¤p paveiksliukùs. ’ (J. P. – nu nu\kY.p par\guû.lu kY\bu.na luNgiË.li ## 15 m.); ‘O tena¤ kaip tvãrtas ir langìlis, nâ na (4) ir\jie//# tie ðeimû,s/narei,/turë,jû.\jie ka¤p per gålą b¾na langìlis.’ (Br. L. A. – ka,tina. vardu mu.se ## ‘Ir jiì, tiì 1941 m.); šeimõs naria¤ tur¸jo jiì kåtiną, vardù (6) nuvaþuodava pirðlÆ,sna # pa––/ Mùsė.’ (G. G. – 12 m.). pastati,dava uû,rkli iN\kiema #/ Prie skiriamųjų rytų aukštaičių anykštėnų ir\inei,dava/gri,èen/## ‘Nuvažiúodavo ypatybių galima priskirti ir kamieno kirčiuoto e piršløsna (=pirštis), pa– pastatôdavo ãrklį siaurinimą. Vyriausiosios kartos Lyduokių ant kiìmo ir įne¤davo (=įeidavo) grýčion šnektos atstovai nėra absoliučiai nuoseklūs, šioje (=į gryčią).’ (A. K. N. – 1935 m.); pozicijoje turimi keli alofonai. Kartais tariamas

18 Paþymëtina, kad visi informantai linkæ labiau dvibalsinti tautosilabiniuose miðriuose dvigarsiuose. D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 137

[Ë.], tačiau dažniausiai vyriausiosios kartos vėl kariåvo užu Žélvos, ta¤ mât tena¤ atstovai linksta diftongizuoti ir realizuojamas patogí vietâ, kas t³ perkænas júos žíno.’ alofonas [iË.]. Tačiau kaip ir aptartų garsų atveju, (Br.V. – 1907 m.); ir čia ryški bendrinės kalbos įtaka. Vietoje šnektos (5) vakari sute .mus atvaþæ .va # [iË.] ar bent [Ë.] turimas [e.]. Vadinasi, ir šiuo atveju du mÀi,ðu vË.l nupir,ka ## ‘Vakarê su- galima kalbėti apie išlyginimo procesus. tìmus atvažiåvo dù ma¤šu vºl nupi»ko.’ Žmonės dėl įvairių socialinių veiksnių keičia (Br.V. – 1907 m.). savo tarties įpročius. Galima daryti prielaidą, kad Jaunieji informantai e nesiaurina. Paprastai lemiamos įtakos turi jau minėtas kvazimobilumas – kirčiuotoje pozicijoje ištariamas pusilgis arba il- 19 bendrinė kalba per TV ateina į namus . Nors kai gasis variantas. Pavyzdžiui: kurių tyrėjų pabrėžiama, kad kalbiniai įpročiai kinta (1) kÀip\sakau, ðiena ve... þam # pas\gi,vulus 20 tik per realias interakcijas , tačiau kitais veiksniais vaþuojem # dar.þus nu.jimam sû.di.nam ## sunku paaiškinti kad ir vyriausio, gana sėslaus ‘Ka¤p sakia÷, šiìną vìžam, pas gôvulius informanto Br. V. realizuojamą tik dėl kirčio važiúojam, daržùs nùjimam, sodínam.’ pailgėjusį ir nesiaurintą [e.]. Pavyzdžiui: (E. G. – 13 m.); (1) bû,ba kû.\neduû.re # ir\mu.ðe ir–– (2) û\pû\tû, jinÀi, iðvaþæ.vû. i\kelû,ne. sli- ir, nu\gi ir\piË.ðe # ir\ba.re ## ‘Bóba ko dinë,ti ## ‘O po tõ jina¤ išvažiåvo sli- nedårė – ir mùšė, ir i» nâ gi ir pìšė, ir din¸ti.’ (R. N. – 14 m.); bårė.’ (A. K. N. – 1935 m.); (3) i\da\liduokese na.mas de.ge # ir\þmû.gus (2) þmû,nes insi.plaðe dË,l\tû. # þu,ri[kað\èe dar\su.dege ## ‘I da (=ir dar) Lyduõkiuose padari,ta # biË.tvarke # supjæ,ustita tû,I nåmas dìgė, ir žmogùs dar sùdegė.’ merga,ite visa # kû,jes nupjæ,utas # (G. K. – 14 m.); ruq,kas nupjæ,utas ## ‘Žmónės insíplėšė (4) ge.ras mû,kita.jæs bu.vû. # gai,la (=įsiplėšė) dėl tõ, ži¾ri kâs čiâ padarôta – kat\iðvaþæ,va ## ‘Gìras mókytojas bùvo, bìtvarkė, supjãustyta tój mergãitė visâ, ga¤la, kad išvažiåvo.’ (V. L. – 13 m.). kójos nupjãutos, ra¹kos nupjãutos.’ (K. K. G. – 1915 m.); Apibendrinimai ir baigiamosios pastabos (3) sargeliene da(r)\ru.sY saka # ri.–– ri.ga/gari,t ## kÀip èe iðei,na # ri.ga/ gari,t # Taigi, apibendrinant pateiktą informaciją dėl klÀi–– klaji.mçs/diË.ga ## ‘Sargėlîenė dar skiriamųjų rytų aukštaičių ir rytų aukštaičių rùsui såko: – Ry-- Rygâ garôt (=dega)! anykštėnų ypatybių buvimo / nebuvimo vyriau- Ka¤p čiâ iše¤na, Rygâ garôt, klai-- klojímas siosios ir jauniausiosios Lyduokių bendruomenės dìga.’ (Br. N. B. – 1925 m.); narių kalboje, teigtina, kad: (4) uð\treju./me.tu/.tu/vË,l/karæ.va/uþu\þe,lvas,lvas/#/ 1) remiantis skiriamųjų ypatybių išlaikymu ti\ma(t)\tina,I/patû.gi/vieta/kas\ti vyriausiosios kartos atstovai laikytini perku,nçs juo(þ) þi.na ## ‘Už trejÿ mìtų tikraisiais Rytų Aukštaitijos atstovais,

19 Plg. A. M. Carvalho straipsnyje „I Speak Like the Guys on TV: Palatalization and the Urbanization of Uruguayan Portuguese“ (Carvalho 2004, p. 127-151) pristatomas dvikalbiame mieste (Urugvajaus ir Brazilijos pasienyje) atliktas tyrimas. Raðoma, kad kalbëjimo bûdas yra veikiamas urbanistinës orientacijos: grupës renkasi toká kalbëjimo modelá, kuris girdimas TV. 20 Plg. L. Bauerio, P. Trudgillio sudarytoje knygoje Language Myths (Kalbos mitai) pateikiamas J. Chamberso straipsnis TV Makes People Sound the Same (Chambers 1998, p. 123-138), kuriame iðsakomi argumentai prieð TV (ir kitø medijø) átakà kalbëjimui. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 138 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

tikraisiais pietų anykštėnais. Pagrindinės (pvz., Carvalho 2004, p. 127-15121; Casesnoves skiriamosios ypatybės jų kalboje paliudija Ferrer, Sankoff 2003, p. 50-6422; Underwood geografinę kilmę ir regioninę kultūrinę 1988, p. 406-42723 ir kt.), identitetas yra lemiantis informantų priklausomybę; veiksnys parinkti vieną ar kitą kodą24. Laikantis 2) remiantis skiriamųjų ypatybių neišlai- tokio požiūrio, galima būtų teigti, kad jaunieji kymu jauniausiosios kartos atstovai informantai nelaiko savęs rytų aukštaičiais negali būti laikomi tikraisiais Rytų Aukš- anykštėnais, tiksliau, – nemano, kad svarbu (šiuo taitijos atstovais, tikraisiais pietų anykštė- atveju kalba) parodyti, iš kur jie yra, todėl nais. Vadinasi, negalima objektyviai, t. y. atsisako tarminio kalbėjimo. Tačiau toks kalbiniais duomenimis pagrįsti jau- apibendrinimas būtų per griežtas ir kiek niausiosios kartos informantų kilmės ir skubotas25. Be to, identitetas konstruojamas, regioninės kultūrinės priklausomybės. keičiamas, tikslinimas pokalbyje ir kodų kaita Vieta susijusi su identiteto dėmeniu, taigi ta kaip tik liudija jo dinamiškumą, dialogiškumą aplinkybė, kad jaunųjų šnekos atstovų neįmanoma (plg. Schilling-Estes 2004, p. 163-19526 ). susieti su daugiau mažiau apibrėžta Aukštaitijos Visgi remiantis kalbiniais duomenimis vieta, suponuoja klausimą dėl jaunosios kartos galima pažymėti, kad tarminis tapatumas kalbinio (ir kultūrinio) identiteto vertės. suskaido tik vyriausiosios kartos kalbinio Kaip pažymima kai kurių tyrėjų darbuose tapatumo teritorines ribas27. Savo vartojamu

21 Plg. kaip paþymi mokslininkë, þmonës, siekdami susitapatinti su atitinkama grupe, renkasi jai bûdingà variantà (tirtuoju atveju – variantà, girdimà per TV) (Carvalho 2004, p. 127-151). 22 Plg. tyrëjai, analizuodami kalbos parinkimo veiksnius Valencijoje, remdamiesi nuostatø tyrimu, paþymi, kad pagrindinis veiksnys parenkant ispanø ar vietinæ kalbà vietovëje, yra identitetas, kuris straipsnyje labiausiai siejamas su regioniniu solidarumu (plaèiau þr. Casesnoves Ferrer, Sankoff 2003, p. 50-64). 23 Plg. mokslininkas straipsnyje anotuoja tyrimo „Teksaso identiteto indeksas“, atlikto Teksaso universitete, rezultatus. Tyrimo esmë – identifikacijos klausimais iðsiaiðkinti respondentø susitapatinimà su teksasietiðka bendruomene, kuriai bûdingas atitinkamas dialektas (plaèiau þr. Underwood 1988, p. 406-427). 24 Pirmasis mokslininkas, pasiûlæs kalbos teorijà, pagrástà identiteto veiksniu, buvo britas R. Le Page. Tyrinëdamas vaikø kalbà daugiakalbëse kultûrose, kur asmuo gali rinktis tarp keliø kalbos sistemø, jis sukûrë „Identiteto veiksniø teorijà“ (“Theory of Acts of identity”). Bandydamas paaiðkinti, kaip vaikai neklysdami pasirenka savàjà kalbà vietoj kurios nors kitos, vartojamos toje visuomenëje, R. Le Page tvirtino, jog individai ieðko savos tapatybës. Kiekvienas susikuria savo verbalinæ sistemà, atsiþvelgdamas á grupes, su kuriomis norëtø bûti identifikuotas. Be to, kaip paþymëjo mokslininkas, komunikacijos dalyviø nuostatos savo kalbëjimo atþvilgiu koreliuoja su nuostatomis kitø kalbëjimø atþvilgiu; atsakingas ir adekvatus vertinimas sietinas su pastangomis tinkamai ávertinti kitaip kalbantá, prognozuoti jo (kito) tapatumà (plaèiau þr. Le Page 1974). 25 Kaip matyti iš pateikiamų pavyzdžių, kai kurios kitos (ne skiriamosios) tarminės ypatybės (pavyzdžiui, a) trumpinami nekirčiuotos pozicijos i, ir u, (plg. ma,n/ pati.kû./jû,s/kniga/þidrasis/sis/dvi.ratis/## ‘Mãn patíko jõs knygâ „Žydrâsis dvíratis“.’ (D. D. – 16 m.); b) trumpieji balsiai i ir u kirčiuotoje pozicijoje ilginami (plg. ir\tas kar,pis tada ji, parplukdi.nû. namû, ## ‘Ir tâs ka»pis tadâ ji parplukdíno namõ.’ (M. S. – 13 m.); c) kartais informantų realizuojami trumpieji alofonai [e] ir [a] arba pusilgiai alofonai [e.] ir [a.] vietoj ie, uo ir ė, o nekirčiuotoje pozicijoje (plg. ma,ude.mes # visur, # i\atrakcijû.nus vaþæ.vû.m ## ‘Mãudėmės visu», į atrakcionùs važiåvom.’ (E. G. – 13 m.), ir\ið\kaðkur,/acira.dû./ma.þa(þ)/þmagelu.kas #/maþdau,(k)kÀi(p)\pade.lis/ gal\dar\net\maþe.snis/##/‘Ir iš kažku» atsirådo måžas žmogeliùkas, mažda÷g kaip puodìlis, gal dar net mažêsnis.’ (G. G. – 12 m.) ir kt.), jaunųjų informantų kalboje išryškėja. 26Plg. Mokslininkë N. Schilling–Estes (JAV) tiria, kaip du kalbëtojai keliakalbëje aplinkoje vartoja kalbinius iðteklius identitetui kurti, formuoti ir perkurti. Tyrëja neneigia, kad viena vertus, reikðmingos iðankstinës kalbinës ir socialinës struktûros, taèiau, remdamasi informantø pokalbiø analizës duomenimis, tvirtina, kad identitetas yra dinamiðkas, daugiaaspektis pokalbio rezultatas (þr. Schilling-Estes 2004, p. 163-195). 27 Taèiau pridurtina, kad ir ðiuo atveju tikslumas nebeuþtikrinamas, kadangi tarminës skirtybës keièiamos bendrinës kalbos garsais. D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 139 kodu vyriausieji šnektos bendruomenės nariai apibūdintinas kaip tam tikros kultūros narys vien išreiškia aiškų dialekto identitetą28. Pridurtina, todėl, kad jis kaµba kaip kiti tos kultūros nariai kad dialekto identiteto (ar tarminio tapatumo) (dalyviai). Vadinasi, dialekto identitetą galima kategorija reikšminga tik analitiniam kalbėjimui vertinti kaip kultūrinį identitetą. apie šnektos bendruomenės sąmoningumą, patys Apibendrinant Lyduokių šnektos esamybę respondentai neabejotinai neteikia tam ypatingos pagal pagrindines skiriamąsias rytų aukštaičių reikšmės. Teiginį pagrįsti galima kad ir fiksuotais anykštėnų ypatybes, prisimintinas E. Sapiro kodų kaitos atvejais tarminis kalbėjimas versus kalbinio identiteto modelis: „Jis kalba kaip mes“, bendrinė kalba. Ir vyriausiosios kartos infor- vadinasi „Jis yra vienas iš mūsų“, kuriuo remian- mantai yra inertiški šnektos kaitos (išlyginimo), tis galima išryškinti vyriausiosios kartos ir nulemtos ekstralingvistinių priežasčių, „vykdy- jauniausiosios kartos tapatumo skirtis, ne tik tojai“, kitaip jie „palaikytų“ šnektos vienaly- kalbines, bet ir kultūrines (žr. 1 pav.). tiškumą. Tačiau vertinant teoriniu požiūriu, Pagal aptartąsias šnektos ypatybes įvertinus vyriausiųjų Lyduokių šnektos bendruomenės esamybę, galima formuluoti dvejopas prielaidas narių negalima susieti su lietuvių bendrinės dėl skiriamųjų šnektos ypatybių išlikimo: kalbos bendruomene. Kaip matyti iš pavyzdžių, 1) tiek pagrindinės rytų aukštaičių skiria- vyriausiųjų lyduokiečių kalbėjimas akivaizdžiai mosios ypatybės, tiek skiriamoji anykš- žymėtasis (objektyviais skirtumais) bendrinės tėnų ypatybė Lyduokių šnektoje negrįž- kalbos požiūriu. Kaip tautinė kalba reprezentuoja tamai išnyks; tautą, išryškindama skirtumą su kitų tautų 2) ilgainiui jauniausiems šnektos atstovams atstovais, pabrėždama tarpusavio bendrumą, taip tarminė garsų raiška galėtų tapti įprasta. šiuo atveju konkreti šnekta išryškina skirtumą Pirmąją prielaidą galima grįsti intensyvia tar- su kitų šnektų atstovais, pabrėžia bendruomenės minių ypatybių išlyginimo tendencija, kurią narių tarpusavio bendrumą. Pastebėtina, kad lemia objektyvios ekstralingvistinės aplinkybės, lingvistinėje perspektyvoje kiekvienas subjektas t. y.:

Vyriausioji karta Jauniausioji karta

RA identitetas Skiriamosios RA ypatybės – + ??? RAa identitetas Skiriamosios RAa identitetas – + ypatybės

1 pav.29 Vyriausiosios ir jauniausiosios kartos kalbinis identitetas

28 G. A. Martínezo terminas (þr. Martínez 2003, p. 39). 29 Paveiksle naudojami ðie trumpiniai: RA – rytø aukðtaièiai, RAa – rytø aukðtaièiai anykðtënai. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 140 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

1) švietimo vienakalbiškumas – nekalbant (t. y. iš dalies integruotą mokymą). Tokį sce- apie tai, kad mokytojai dalykininkai kalba narijų galima interpretuoti dvejopai: bendrine kalba (ar tik įsivaizduojama 1) kaip dirbtinį tarmės palaikymą, savotišką bendrine kalba), ir lietuvių kalbos pamo- konservavimą; kose tarminiam ugdymui dėmesys neski- 2) kultūrinės vertės aspektu – tarminio, re- riamas30 ; gioninio sąmoningumo diegimas, ir objektyvių 2) mobilumo ir kvazimobilumo intensy- konkrečios šnektos ypatybių nušvietimas jau- vumas, kuris sudaro palankias sąlygas najai kartai gali suteikti antrąjį langą į pasaulį negimtatarmei kalbinei patirčiai. Dėl (plg. Girdenis 2001, p. 373). kelionių ir tariamų kelionių TV bei inter- Taigi, kaip kalbėta šiame straipsnyje ir netu jaunosios kartos socialinis–kultūrinis atspindėta 1 paveiksle, pagrindinių rytų aukštai- kontekstas iš esmės yra visiškai „išvietin- čių anykštėnų ypatybių nebuvimas jauniausiosios tas“. Toks kontekstas labai imperatyvus, kartos kalbėsenoje: t. y. diktuoja visas elgsenos, tarp jų ir 1) priešina šnektos bendruomenės narius kalbėjimo, madas. tarpusavyje, Siekiant, kad tarminė garsų raiška ilgainiui 2) neleidžia patikslinti ir apskritai nustatyti jauniausiems šnektos atstovams taptų įprasta, jaunosios kartos kalbinio (taigi ir kultū- kasdienių aplinkybių nebepakanka. Kodų (iš rinio) identiteto, kartos į kartą ir t. t.) perimamumas, kaip matyti, 3) implikuoja klausimą – su kuo susietinas pagrindinių skiriamųjų ypatybių nebeužtikrina. (kultūriniu požiūriu) jaunosios kartos Vadinasi, sąmoningo šnektos ypatybių palaiky- dialektas, kaip esamas variantas kvalifi- tojo, tam tikra prasme dvikalbio – bendrinės kuotinas. kalbos ir šnektos – atstovo galima tikėtis sukūrus Vadinasi, skirtis vyriausiosios kartos dialek- atitinkamą kalbinio prusinimo modelį, kuris tas / jauniausiosios kartos dialektas reikalauja apimtų ir kalbinio apskritai kultūrinio sąmonin- konceptualaus patikslinimo, kurio skiriamųjų gumo ugdymą, ir tarminio, regioninio sąmonin- tarminių ypatybių analizė negali užtikrinti. Tam gumo diegimą, ir objektyvių konkrečios šnektos reikia atlikti kitų ypatybių išsklaidą. Tai būtų jau ypatybių nušvietimą lietuvių kalbos pamokose kito tyrimo uždaviniai.

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30 Plg. universalioje kalbø teisiø deklaracijoje skelbiama, kad kiekvienam turi bûti garantuojama teisë vartoti gimtàjà tarmæ (kalbà) oficialiose situacijose, ir iðmokti gerai abi, t. y. gimtàjà tarmæ / kalbà ir oficialiàjà kalbà (þr. Phillipson 1992, p. 96). D. Aliûkaitë. TARMIØ YPATYBIØ VERTË KULTÛRINIU POÞIÛRIU: LYDUOKIØ ÐNEKTA 141

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Daiva Aliûkaitë the basis for the general assumptions in the context Vilnius University, Lithuania of the cultural significance of dialectal distinctions. Research interests: sociolinguistics, perceptional The author arrived at the conclusion that the dialectology, folk linguistics, cognitive linguistics, dialect identity deformed the territorial boundaries ecolinguistics. of language identity solely in the case of the oldest generation of dialect users. By the use of clear code CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIALECTS: the oldest members of the discussed dialectal THE LYDUOKIAI ACCENT community do express their distinct dialect identity. However, the absence of differential features in Summary speech of the members of the youngest generation, The paper aims at the analysis of differential firstly, it causes the confrontation between the characteristics of dialects in the perspective of representatives of this particular accent; secondly, it culture. The differential features are understood in does not allow for the specification and the tradition of Lithuanian dialectology: they are the determination of language identity and, features that distinguish dialects and subdialects. consequently, cultural identity of the youngest The significance of such features has been generation; thirdly, it implies the question whether generalized on the basis of one of East Highland its language might be qualified at all and, if so, with Anykðtënai dialects, i. e. the Lyduokiai accent, as it what should be related from the cultural point of is used at present. An attempt has been made at the view. comparison of the spectrum of sound utterance in KEY WORDS: differential features, spectrum of the case of oldest and youngest generations. No sound utterance, dialectal speech, the oldest and doubt such an inductive solution, i. e. the youngest generation. concentration on a single accent, guarantees only the initial assumptions with regard to the cultural Gauta 2007 06 01 significance of dialectal characteristics in general. Priimta publikuoti 2007 07 09 On the other hand, the obtained results may form 143

Lina Baèiûnaitë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370) 61 14 37 23 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: onomastika, kalbos kultûra, matematinë lingvistika.

ÈEKIÐKËS PARAPIJOS TØ PAÈIØ GYVENAMØJØ VIETØ VARDØ FLEKSIJØ VARIANTIÐKUMAS IKI SUNORMINIMO IR PO JO

Remiantis baþnytiniu archyvu, straipsnyje apþvelgiamos Èekiðkës parapijos (Lietuva) gyvenamøjø vietø vardyno formavimosi tendencijos 1920-1949 m. Iki beveik visiðko vardyno sunorminimo XX ir XXI a. sandûroje gyvenamøjø vietø vardø raðybos variantiðkumui daugiausia átakos turëjo tai, kad kunigai, vikarai ar raðtininkai dar ir XX a. viduryje iðgirstus pavadinimus uþraðydavo taip, kaip juos vartodavo vietiniai gyventojai. Nors 1920-1949 m. baþnytiniø metrikø knygose uþraðyti vietovardþiai ortografiðkai yra jau daugiau ar ma- þiau taisyklingi, o jø fleksijos nurodo skaièiø ir giminæ, taèiau daþnai to paties oikonimo variantai bûna ir moteriðkosios, ir vyriðkosios giminës, ir vienaskaitiniai, ir daugiskaitiniai. Standartizuoti (sunorminti) ir dabar mûsø vartojami gyvenamøjø vietø vardai nevisada sutampa su senuo- siuose raðtuose uþfiksuotais ar vietiniø gyventojø vartojamais oikonimais. Vieno ið kalboje turimø vietovardþiø variantø áteisinimas, pripaþinimas ir laikymas norminiu neturëtø prieðtarauti istoriniam (kaip vartota iki sunorminimo) ir gyvosios kalbos (kaip vartojama po norminio varianto pateikimo) kriterijui. Apie kai kuriø vietovar- dþiø normas ið viso negalima kalbëti, kadangi tie oikonimø variantai nëra pateikti jokiame þinyne ar þodyne, o jø realø egzistavimo faktà árodo tik raðytiniai ðaltiniai. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: vietovardis, Èekiðkës parapija, baþnytiniai archyvai, norminimas, fleksijø va- riantiðkumas.

ferencijos. Valstybës lygiu vietovardþiø normini- Ávadas mà koordinuoja Valstybinë lietuviø kalbos komi- Dabar pagal techniná organizaciná tvarkomàjá reg- sija, kuri nustato Lietuvos vietovardþiø oficialias lamentà GKTR 1.02.01:2004 „Geografiniø pava- lytis ir kitø kalbø vietovardþiø vartojimo princi- dinimø vartosena þemëlapiuose“, patvirtintà Na- pus, etniniø þemiø lietuviðkus tradicinius vieto- cionalinës þemës tarnybos prie Þemës ûkio mi- vardþius ir jø formas. Institucijø lygiu gali bûti nisterijos Generalinio direktoriaus K. Maksvyèio atliekami konkretûs valstybës lygiu norminamø ásakymu Nr. 1P–15, 2004–02–03, vietovardþiø nor- vietovardþiø darbai, pvz.: geografiniø pavadini- minimas koordinuojamas tarptautiniu, valstybiø mø vartosenos detalizavimas atsiþvelgiant á þe- ir institucijø lygiu. Tarptautiná vietovardþiø nor- mëlapio tipà, paskirtá, oficialios kalbos (lotynið- minimà koordinuoja Jungtiniø Tautø Organizaci- ko ir nelotyniðko pagrindo) raðmenis, tarptauti- jos Geografiniø pavadinimø standartizavimo kon- nes kartografavimo ir lotynizacijos taisykles. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 144 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Visi onomastikos rinkimo ir norminimo dar- dël paèiø gyvenamøjø vietø dydþio bei visuoti- bai buvo pradëti dar tarpukaryje, kai Kazimie- nio, kultûrinio ir paþintinio reikðmingumo (Vie- ras Bûga ið gyvosios kalbos ëmë kaupti tikriniø tovardþiø þodynas 2002, p. 5). Ne visos baþnyti- þodþiø kartotekà (Zinkevièius 1992, p. 137-142), niuose metrikuose uþfiksuotos Èekiðkës para- kuri dabar saugoma Lietuviø kalbos instituto pijai priklausiusios teritorijos (ypaè buvæ vien- Vardyno skyriuje. Ði kartoteka vis papildoma bei kiemiai ir maþesni kaimai) dabar yra apgyven- skaitmeninama pagal „Tarmiø ir etniniø vieto- dintos, taèiau jø vardai ðnekamojoje kalboje dar vardþiø iðsaugojimo 2001-2010 m.“ programà yra vartojami. (Valstybinës lietuviø kalbos komisijos 2005 m. veik- Gyvenamøjø vietø vardø fleksijø variantið- los ataskaita). kumo ir norminiø lyèiø nustatymo tyrimas atlik- Ðio straipsnio tikslas yra suregistruoti ir iden- tas taikant istoriniø duomenø analizës metodà. tifikuoti Èekiðkës parapijos (vidurio Lietuva) Tyrimui reikalingi duomenys buvo rinkti ið pir- 1917-1949 m. tø paèiø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø miniø ðaltiniø ir lyginti su dabartiniais, kadangi fleksijø variantus, surinktus ið Èekiðkës Ðvè. Tre- „vienas ið pagrindiniø istoriniø tyrimo uþdavi- jybës baþnyèios archyvo ir ávertinti dabartinës jø niø yra nustatyti praeities ávykiø prieþastingu- norminës lyties tikslingumà. mà“ (Kardelis 2007, p. 247). Toponimai Lietuvoje daugiausia yra tiriami Atlikto tyrimo pagrindu galima dar kartà per- etimologijos (Blaþienë 1999; Deltuvienë 2001, þiûrëti dabar laikomø norminiais variantais kai 2006; Kiseliûnaitë, Simutytë 2005; Maciejauskie- kuriø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø lytis ir papildyti në 2002b; Taluntytë 2003; Vanagas 2004; Zinke- ðio kraðto vardyno registrà keliais gyvenamøjø vièius 2005) ir darybos (Bartkutë 2008; Bilkis vietø vardais. 1998; Deltuvienë 2006; Endzelytë 2005; Mickie- në 2001; Razmukaitë 1998, 2008) bei ortografi- Bendrieji baþnytinio archyvo bruoþai jos (Garliauskas 2004; Palionis 2003) poþiûriais. Vietovardþiø norminis kirèiavimas ir raðyba at- Baþnyèios metrikø knygos – tai istoriniai ðalti- sispindi vietovardþiø þodynuose (Vietovardþiø niai, kuriuose gausu toponimø, antroponimø, gy- kirèiavimo þodynas 1994; Vietovardþiø þodynas venimo realijø, pilietinës savimonës, groþiniø 2002; Lietuviðki tradiciniai vietovardþiai 2002; Va- tekstø pavyzdþiø. „Maþdaug XVI a. antroje pu- nagas 2004). Toponimikos vartojimo pakeitimus sëje Lietuvos kanceliarijos sistemoje atsirado dar skelbia Valstybinë lietuviø kalbos komisija. viena labai didelë ðaltiniø grupë – baþnyèiø met- Standartizuoti (sunorminti) gyvenamøjø vie- rikø knygos. Tai buvo naujas dalykas LDK. Tose tø vardai kartais ið viso nesutampa su senuosiuo- knygose buvo nenutrûkstamai fiksuojami lietu- se raðtuose uþfiksuotais ir dabar vietiniø tos te- viø oikonimai ir antroponimai“ (Garliauskas ritorijos gyventojø vartojamais oikonimais. Vie- 1998, p. 135). Kadangi Èekiðkëje baþnyèia buvo no ið kalboje turimø vietovardþiø variantø átei- pastatyta tik XVIII a. pradþioje, tai ankstesnë sinimas, pripaþinimas, laikymas norminiu netu- baþnytiniø knygø analizë ið viso negalima. At- rëtø prieðtarauti ðiems kriterijams: istoriniam liekant tyrimà, nesinaudota tais Èekiðkës para- (kaip vartota iki sunorminimo) ir gyvosios kal- pijos kanceliariniais raðtais, kuriuose uþfiksuo- bos (kaip vartojama po norminio varianto pata parapijos veikla, klebonijos ûkinë plëtra, pateikimo). Apie kai kuriø vietovardþiø normas ið mokslø ir politiniø atsiðaukimø tekstai. viso negalima kalbëti, kadangi tie oikonimø va- Ðvietimo ir konfesijos sàsajos Lietuvoje yra riantai nëra pateikti jokiame þinyne ar þodyne labai glaudþios, nes bûtent su Romos katalikø L. Baèiûnaitë. ÈEKIÐKËS PARAPIJOS TØ PAÈIØ GYVENAMØJØ VIETØ VARDØ FLEKSIJØ ... 145 tikëjimu plito raðtas, kultûra, naujovës. Senàjá Telkimosi apie nacionalinæ valstybæ laikotarpiui baltiðkà tikëjimà pakeitusi krikðèionybë (1387 m. bûdinga nepriklausomybës gynimas, kova prieð Lietuvos krikðtas, 1413 m. Þemaièiø krikðtas) vi- uþsienio agresijà, nacionaliniø visuomeniniø ins- sam laikui tapo svarbi visuomeninë institucija. titucijø kûrimas. Baþnyèia pritarë valstybinei po- Romos katalikø tikybos iðpaþinëjai buvo ir yra1 litikai nacionaliniø interesø klausimu ir pakeitë gausiausia konfesinë bendruomenë Lietuvoje, ne tik kanceliarijos dokumentø kalbà, bet ëmë kuriai artima vakarietiðka pasaulëþiûra ir pasau- propaguoti ir lietuviðkas apeigas. Èekiðkës pa- lëvoka. rapijos baþnytinës knygos nuo to laiko visada pil- Èekiðkës parapijos tø paèiø gyvenamøjø vie- domos tik lietuviðkai. tø vardø variantiðkumo iki sunorminimo ir po Kiekvienoje knygoje buvo uþraðytas skirtin- jo tyrimo medþiagà sudaro septynios vien lietu- gas gyvenamøjø vietø vardø skaièius. KR 1917- viðkai (1920-1949) raðytos ir dvi pramaiðiui lie- 1923 identifikuoti 73 skirtingi oikonimai, o jø va- tuviðkai, vokiðkai ir lotyniðkai (1917-1924) raðy- riantø 161. Ðiuose metrikuose („Geburts- und tos knygos: krikðtø (KR) gyventojø suraðymo Taufregister der römisch-katolischen Kirchen (GS), uþsakø (UR), santuokø (SR) ir mirimo gemainde in Czekiszki, Kreis Ianow“) yra 300 (MR) registracijos metrikai, Sutvirtinimo sak- lapø (dreihundert Blätter), visi jie priraðyti. Kiek- ramento (SS) ir Pirmosios Komunijos sàraðø viename lape yra po tris áraðus. Metrikuose in- (PKS) knyga. formacija pateikiama keliomis kalbomis: lotynið- Baþnyèios knygø (metrikø) áraðai – tai trum- kai, vokiðkai ir lietuviðkai. Ji suskirstyta á kelias pi tekstai, kuriuose glaustai apraðytos kokios dalis. Pirmiausia raðomas eilës numeris (Lfd./ nors baþnytinës apeigos: krikðtas, tuoktuvës, lai- Nr.). Kiekvienais metais numeracija pradedama dotuvës. Ðiø apeigø tekstø ir metrikø formø pa- ið naujo. Toliau suraðoma visa informacija apie vyzdþiai suraðyti apeigynuose, kurie vadinti agen- naujagimá (Des Neugeborenen/ nati): gimimo da- domis (Agenda) arba ritualais (Rituale Sacra- ta (Geburtsdatum/ dies nativitatis); gimimo vieta mentorum) (Garliauskas 2004, p. 13). (Geburtsort/ locus nativitatis) – ið ðios grafos ir Baþnyèios metrikuose be gyvenamøjø vietø buvo iðraðyta daugiasia gyvenamøjø vietø var- vardø dar yra paraðyti asmenvardþiai, datos, api- dø; lytis (Geschlect/ genus); vardas (Vorname/ no- bûdinta socialinë gyventojø padëtis, ligø, nuo ku- mina); pavardë (Familienname/ cognomen); ar riø miræ þmonës, pavadinimai, áraðo autorius ir gimë teisëtoje santuokoje (Die Geburt war jo pareigos, ávairios, taèiau nedaþnos, pastabos. (un)ehelich/ natus (a) (il)legitime). Kita dalis ára- ðo yra skirta áraðyti vaiko tëvø (Die Eltern des Kindes/ parentes nati) (tëvo (des Vaters/ patris) ir Lietuviðkai raðyti Èekiðkës parapijos motinos (der Mutter/ matris)) vardams ir pavar- metrikai dëms (Vor– und Familienname/ nomen et cogno- Lietuvos Respublikos tautinës savimonës raidoje men); padëèiai ar profesijai (Stand oder Beruf/ galima iðskirti du etapus: tautos konsolidavimo- condicio vel professio); gyvenamajai vietai (Woh- si (1918-1926) ir pilietinës brandos (1926-1940). nort/ locus habitationis) – ðios grafos áraðai ir yra

1 Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybës 2001 m. balandþio mënesá pirmà kartà po Nepriklausomybës atkûrimo surengë visuotiná gyventojø ir bûstø suraðymà. Apdorojus ðio suraðymo duomenis paaið- këjo, kad Lietuvoje Romos katalikø yra 79% (2 752 447) visø gyventojø (Lietuvos gyventojai pagal tikybà. Statistikos departamento prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybës informacija). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 146 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

ðio darbo objektas; religijai (Religion/ religio). vardai bei pavardës (Vor– und Zuname/ nomen Dar viena áraðo dalis yra apie vaiko áregistravi- et cognomen). Ðiam tyrimui reikalinga medþia- mà (Die Anmeldung des Kindes/ relatio): kada tai ga buvo rinkta ið grafos, kurioje nurodyta jau- padaryta (Wann angemeldet?/ dies relationis) – nøjø gyvenamoji vieta, padëtis arba profesija áraðyta krikðto data; kas tai padarë (Durch wen (Wohnort, Stand oder Beruf/ locus habitationis, angemeldet?/ a quo relatum est) – daþniausiai pa- condicio vel professio). Taip pat gyvenamøjø vie- siraðo (arba tik pliusiukus paraðo) kûdikio të- tø vardø yra ir ten, kur suraðyta jaunøjø tëvø var- vas; kas patvirtino dokumentais (Durch wen be- dai, padëtis arba profesija ir gyvenamoji vieta urkundet?/ a quonam recepta) – áraðyta kunigo (Namen, Stand oder Beruf und Wohnort der El- pavardë. Likusi informacija yra paraðyta prie ára- tern/ nomina, condicio vel professio, locus habi- ðo apie krikðtynas (Die Taufe des Kindes/ baptis- tationis parentum). Kiti áraðai yra apie tuoktuves ma nati): krikðto data (Datum der Taufe/ dies bap- (Die Trauung/ celebratio matrimonii). Èia pa- tismatis); kur krikðtynos vyko (Wo hat die Taufe raðyta, kada buvo skelbti uþsakai (Wann wurden stattgefunden?/ ubinam baptisatus?); kas atliko sie aufgeboten?/ quando proclamati?), kada ávy- krikðto apeigas (Durch wen wurde die Taufe vol- ko jungtuvës (Tag der Eheschliessung?/ dies ce- lzogen?/ a quonam baptisatus?) – visada áraðyta lebrationis matrimonii), kur ávyko jungtuviø ce- ta pati kunigo, kuris áregistravo kûdiká, pavar- remonija (Wo fand die Eheschliessung statt?/ lo- dë; krikðtatëviø vardai, pavardës, gyvenamoji cus celebrationis matrimonii), kieno buvo sutuok- vieta ir socialinë padëtis (Der Taufzeugen Vor– ti (Durch wen wurde sie vollzogen?/ a quonam co- und Zunamen Wohnort und Beruf/ patrinorum pulati?). nomen et cognomen locus habitationis et condi- SS 1920-1929 buvo rasti 72 vietovardþiai, ið cio). Ðioje grafoje daþnai yra paraðyta net po du kuriø tik trys turëjo po du variantus. Ðioje knygo- skirtingus gyvenamøjø vietø vardus. je yra suregistruoti tie, kurie priëmë Sutvirtinimo 1917 m. buvo pakrikðtyta 86 naujagimiai, Sakramentà 1920 m. birþelio 3, 4 ir 5 dienomis, 1918 m. – 109, 1919 m. – 137, 1920 m. – 149, 1924 m. rugpjûèio 16 ir 17 dienomis, 1929 m. bir- 1921 m. – 176, 1922 m. – 162, 1923 m. – 76 (pas- þelio 14 ir 15 dienomis. 1920 m. buvo áregistruo- kutinis áraðas yra geguþës 13 d.). tas 1231 þmogus. Registracijos metu buvo nuro- Ið SR 1917-1924 iðraðyta 60 vietovardþiø, o dyta pavardë, vardas, ið kur jis ir kokio amþiaus jø variantø 114. Ðiuose metrikuose („Register (jauniausiam 5 metai, o vyriausiam – 46). der Eheschliessungen der römisch–katolischen 1924 (áregistruoti 175 þmonës) ir 1929 (áregist- Kirchen Gemainde in Czekiszki, Kreis Ianow“) ruoti 87 þmonës) metø registracijoje dar buvo santuokos registracijos áraðai taip pat raðyti ne nurodyti tëvø vardai ir pavardës bei sutvirtini- viena kalba. Knygoje yra 150 lapø (hundertfünfzig mo tëvai. Blätter), taèiau priraðyti tik 99. Kiekviename la- KR 1923-1939 skirtingø identifikuotø vietovar- pe yra po tris áraðus. dþiø uþraðyti 84, o jø variantø 148. Ðioje knygoje Kiekvienais metais vidutiniðkai buvo sutuo- („Krikðto metriku juodraðtis nuo 20/ V 1923 m.“) kiamos 37 poros: 1917 m. – 21, 1918 m. – 24, ið viso yra 226 lapai, ið jø priraðyti – 182. Kiek- 1919 m. – 45, 1920 m. – 52, 1921 m. – 37, 1922 m. – vienais metais vidutiniðkai buvo 149 krikðtai: 48, 1923 m. – 41, 1924 m. – 28. 1923 m. – 97 (numeracija pradëta nuo 77), Visa pateikiama informacija yra sugrupuo- 1924 m. – 175, 1925 m. – 182, 1926 m. – 156, ta. Pirmiausia buvo suraðyti jaunojo (des Bräuti- 1927 m. – 157, 1928 m. – 180, 1929 m. – 154, gams/ Sponsi) ir jaunosios (der Braut/ Sponsae) 1930 m. – 151, 1931 m. – 162, 1932 m. – 145, L. Baèiûnaitë. ÈEKIÐKËS PARAPIJOS TØ PAÈIØ GYVENAMØJØ VIETØ VARDØ FLEKSIJØ ... 147

1933 m. – 133, 1934 m. – 121, 1935 m. – 130, klauso (M. dr. (Marijos draugija – aut.), K. Cen- 1936 m. – 132, 1937 m. – 116, 1938 m. – 111, tro (Caritas – aut.), Tret. org. (Tretninkai – aut.), 1939 m. – 8 (paskutis áraðas yra padarytas sausio Ang. S. (Angelø Sargø draugija – aut.), At. org. 18 dienà). (Ateitininkai – aut.), Mot. dr. (Moterø katalikiø GS 1927 uþfiksuota 60 gyvenamøjø vietø var- draugija – aut.), Ðv. Sakr. (Ðv. Sakramento – aut.), dø, o jø variantai buvo 69. Ðioje knygoje yra 137 Mot. Tr. dr. (Moterø Tretninkiø draugija – aut.)), lapai, kuriuose suraðyti Èekðkës parapijos gyven- kokie ðeiminiai santykiai, kiek þemës turi. tojai: nurodoma, kiek ðeimø gyvena tame kai- Ið PKS 1938-1948 iðrinkti 58 vietovardþiai, me; miestelyje, dvare, suraðomi visi ðeimai pri- kurie turëjo 71 variantà. Ðie metrikai nëra kny- klausantys þmonys (vyras, þmona, vaikai, tarnai); ga, bet segtuvas, kuriame susegti atskiri lapai su nurodoma gyventojø tautybë (be lietuviø dar ga- vaikø, priëmusiøjø Pirmàjà Komunijà, sàraðais. na daug buvo lenkø ðeimø). Pirmasis sàrðas ásegtas apaèioje, o vis naujesni MR 1927-1939 skirtingø oikonimø buvo 70, segami ant senesnio. Èia paraðytos vaikø pavar- o variantø 95. Ðie metrikai yra mirimø registra- dës, vardai, gyvenamosios vietos vardas, ið ku- cijos juodraðèiai. Metrikø lapai nenumeruoti. rios jie kilæ, amþius, mokymosi ávertinimas. Juose kiekvienais metais buvo áregistruojama be- Lietuviðkai raðytø metrikø gyvenamøjø vie- veik po tiek pat mirusiøjø: 1927 m. – 37 (pirma- tø vardai atskleidþia pagrindines oikonimø nor- sis áraðas padarytas liepos 1 dien¹), 1928 m. – 78, minimo ir uþraðymo tendencijas. 1929 m. – 108, 1930 m. – 76, 1931 m. – 76, 1932 m. – 66, 1933 m. – 54, 1934 m. – 72, 1935 m. – 75, Gyvenamøjø vietø vardø rinkimas 1936 m. – 66, 1937 m. – 72, 1938 m. – 57, 1939 m. ir norminimas – 1 (áraðas padarytas sausio 4 dienà). UR 1931-1949 47 skirtingi gyvenamøjø vie- Lietuviø kalbos instituto Vardyno skyriaus kar- tø pavadinimai turëjo 61 variantà. Ðioje knygoje totekai pradþià davë K. Bûgos ir jo pagalbinin- puslapiai nenumeruoti, daugelis uþsakø áraðø ið- kø vardyno duomenø rinkimas ið gyvosios kal- braukta (dël to galima manyti, kad tai yra juod- bos. Per pirmàjá vardyno duomenø rinkimo raðtis), prie kai kuriø áraðø yra paþymos: sutuok- tarpsná buvo surinkta apie 16 700 ið visø dabar ta, suriðti, atestatas, sugriuvo. kartotekoje esanèiø daugiau nei 600 tûkstanèiø Ið 120 lapø, ið kuriø 80 buvo priraðyta, GS vietovardþiø (Maciejauskienë 2002a, p. 57). 1933 po vienà kartà uþraðyti 37 gyvenamøjø vie- Antrasis vardyno rinkimo etapas prasidëjo tø vardai, kadangi puslapio viduryje paraðius oi- su „1934 m. iðleista K. Alminauskio sudaryta in- konimo pavadinimà, jis prie kiekvienos ðeimos strukcija vietovardþiø rinkëjams. 1934 m. sausio nebuvo kartojamas. Ðioje knygoje suregistruoti 28 d. ávykusiame Lietuvos Respublikos vidaus Èekiðkës parapijos gyventojai (2347 vyrai ir 2343 reikalø ministerijos Pavardþiø ir vietovardþiø ko- moterys). Èia nurodoma: pavardë, vardas, am- misijos posëdyje (dalyvavo A. Salys, I. Ðeinius, þius, ar vaikai priëjæ pirmosios iðpaþinties ir Ko- A. Survila, kun. P. Veblaitis ir J. Talmantas, pir- munijos, ar suaugusieji yra praktikuojantys ka- mininkavo J. Balèikonis) buvo nutarta, jog bûti- talikai, kokiom nekatalikiðkom organizacijom na suraðyti visos Lietuvos gyvenamøjø vietø var- priklauso (ðaul. org. (Ðauliai – aut.), Taut. org. dus, nustatyti bendrinës kalbos vartosenai tin- (Tautininkai – aut.), J. ûk. (Jaunasis ûkininkas – kamas autentiðkas jø formas“ (Bilkis, Daraèkai- aut.), Ûk. rat. (Ûkininkø ratelis – aut.)), kokioms të). Vietovardþiø rinkimo, kuris labai intensy- katalikiðkoms organizacijoms ir brolijoms pri- vus buvo nuo 1935 iki 1938 m., tvarka ir nurody- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 148 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE mai rinkëjams ið esmës nepakito iki mûsø die- tralingvistiniai dalykai taip pat labai svarbûs, at- nø. Visi surinkti vietovardþiai vëliau buvo sutvar- siþvelgiant á vietovardþiø norminimà, remiantis kyti – sukirèiuoti, nustatytos gyvenamøjø vietø gyvojoje kalboje vartojama lytimi. vardø norminës lytys – ir átraukti á bûsimà dau- Norint ávertinti dabar jau norminës oikoni- giatomá norminamàjá „Lietuvos vietovardþiø þo- mo lyties autentiðkumà, galima remtis senaisiais dynà“ (Maciejauskienë 2002b, p. 104). Dël isto- raðtais, kuriuose gausu tos gyvenamosios vietos riniø aplinkybiø Vilniaus kraðto vietovardþiø rin- vardø uþraðymø. Tyrimui pasirinkti tik lietuvið- kimu rûpinosi Lietuvos mokslo draugija kartu kai raðytø metrikø vietovardþiai, nes jø jau nebe- kaupusi ir tautosakos, ir etnografijos medþiagà. reikia adaptuoti, tai yra perraðyti lietuviðkais rað- Ðià surinktà kartotekà tikrino lituanistai, kurie menimis pagal apytikslá tarimà ið lotyniðkus rað- nustatinëjo lietuviðkas þemëvardþiø lytis ir pa- menis vartojanèiø kalbø (lotynø, lenkø) su lietu- rengë spaudai „Vilniaus srities vietovardþius“, viðka galûne, arba transkribuoti, tai yra perraðyti kurie taip ir nebuvo iðleisti (Sinkevièiûtë 2006, lotyniðkais raðmenimis pagal apytikslá tarimà su p. 497-498). lietuviðka galûne nelotyniðko pagrindo raðmeni- Treèiasis vietovardþiø rinkimo etapas sietinas mis vartojanèiø kalbø (senoji slavø, rusø). su XX a. ðeðtojo deðimtmeèio pabaiga, kai ypaè Taip pat labai svarbu yra tai, kad ið lietuvið- kai pildytø ar raðytø baþnytinio archyvo metrikø aktyviai rinkti Klaipëdos kraðto ir Pietryèiø Lie- rinkti gyvenamøjø vietø vardai buvo uþraðyti kaip tuvos gyvenamøjø ir negyvenamøjø vietø vardai. tik tuo metu, kai pradëti pirmieji vardyno nor- Tiek treèiojo, tiek ketvirtojo (nuo 1976 iki 1986 m.) minimo darbai. Tikëtina, kad vardyno standar- vietovardþiø rinkimo etapø metu Lietuviø kalbos tizavimas ne ið karto galëjo ásitvirtinti raðytinëje instituto Vardyno skyriaus kartoteka buvo ne tiek Baþnyèios kalboje, kadangi ði institucija pasiþymi gausinama naujais joje neegzistavusiais vardais, konservatyvumu, todël daugelis inovacijø jos ne- kiek tikslinama, papildoma tø paèiø gyvenamøjø pasiekë arba pasiekë þymiai vëliau. Be to, kance- vardø variantais. Tai buvo paskutinis masinis var- liarinë Baþnyèios raðtø kalba buvo labai susijusi dyno rinkimas ið gyvosios kalbos. su gyvàja ðnekamàja kalba, nes raðtininkai, vika- Dabar sukauptos kartotekos medþiaga yra rai ar klebonai uþraðydavo tà informacijà, kurià apdorojama taikant moderniàsias technologijas jiems suteikdavo dël apeigø á juos kreipæsi gyven- ir dar kartà ávertinama norminimo poþiûriu. Vi- tojai, pavadinantys vienà ar kità teritorijà taip, si ðie pakeitimai atsispindi Lietuviø kalbos insti- kaip buvo ápratæ vartoti kasdienëje savo kalboje. tuto kaskart vis atnaujinamame „Vietovardþiø Dël jau minëtø prieþasèiø, kai kuriø Èekið- þodyne“ internete. kës parapijos baþnytinio archyvo tø paèiø gyve- Gyvenamosios vietos vardo norminimas – tai namøjø vietø vardø fleksijø variantai skiriasi gi- vieno ið kalboje turimø vietovardþiø variantø átei- mine ir skaièiumi. sinimas, pripaþinimas, nustatant bendrinës kalbos vartosenai tinkamas autentiðkas jø formas. Autentiðkos gyvenamosios vietos vardo for- Tø paèiø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø fleksijø mos (kirtis, ilgieji/ trumpieji balsiai, giminë, skai- variantiðkumas èius) nustatymas ið gyvosios kalbos dabar beveik Lietuviø kalboje „vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos neámanomas, nes daþnai dël globalizacijos pro- reikðmës formaliai þymimos daiktavardþiø links- cesø toje teritorijoje gyvenantys þmonës nëra vie- niø galûnëmis“ (DLKG 1994, p. 65), o „daikta- tiniai gyventojai, o prieðingai, yra pakankamai vardþiø priklausymas prie vienos kurios giminës neseniai apsigyvenæ atvykëliai ne tik ið kito re- reiðkiamas morfologiðkai – kamieno ypatumais, giono, bet ir priklausantys kitai tarmei. Ðie eks- linksniø galûnëmis“ (DLKG 1994, p. 63). Tas L. Baèiûnaitë. ÈEKIÐKËS PARAPIJOS TØ PAÈIØ GYVENAMØJØ VIETØ VARDØ FLEKSIJØ ... 149 pats gyvenamosios vietos vardas po sunormini- liarviðk–ës (SS 1920-1929); Pesliðk–iai (KR 1917- mo gali bûti tik vienaskaitos (Sg.) arba tik dau- 1923; SS 1920-1929; KR 1923-1939; MR 1927- giskaitos (Pl.) formos, tik vyriðkosios (m) arba 1939; PKS 1938-1948), Piesliðk–iai (KR 1923- tik moteriðkosios (f) giminës. Dabar lietuviðka- 1939; MR 1927-1939) – Pesliðk–ës (SR 1917- me vardyne yra pateikiama keletas norminiø to 1924) – Piesliðk–is (GS 1927; GS 1933); Radvi- paties kamieno variantø, taèiau tie vietovardþiai liðk–iai (SR 1917-1924; SS 1920-1929; KR 1923- tikrai yra skirtingose Lietuvos vietose arba uþ da- 1939; PKS 1938-1948) – Radviliðk–is (SS 1920- bartinës Lietuvos Respublikos ribø (egzonimai). 1929; GS 1927; KR 1923-1939; MR 1927-1939; Iki dabartinio vardyno standartizuotø lyèiø PKS 1938-1948), Radvyliðk–is (PKS 1938-1948); buvo vartojama keletas skirtingø vardø toms pa- Raudon–ë (SS 1920-1929; GS 1927; KR 1923-1939; èioms gyvenamosioms vietoms pavadinti, todël, MR 1927-1939; UR 1931-1949; PKS 1938-1948) – renkant vardyno duomenis, neaiðku, kuris ið tuo Raudon–is (KR 1917-1923; KR 1923-1939) – metu gyvojoje kalboje vartojamø variantø galë- Raudon–iai (KR 1917-1923); Uþdulinsk–is (GS jo bûti uþraðytas. Ið 105 skirtingø nuo 1917 iki 1927) – Uþdulinskyn–ë (KR 1923-1939) – Uþda- 1948 m. Èekiðkës baþnyèios metrikuose uþraðy- linsk–iai (MR 1927-1939); Vaiciuliðk–iai (KR tø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø 17 (16%) ið jø turëjo 1917-1923), Vaièiuliðk–iai (MR 1927-1939) – Vai- po keletà fleksijø variantø: Bagdoniðk–is (GS ciuliðk–ës (SS 1920-1929), Vaièiuliðk–ës (GS 1927; KR 1923-1939; MR 1927-1939) – Bagdo- 1933); Venclaviðk–is (SS 1920-1929; GS 1927, niðk–ë (PKS 1938-1948); Baltriðk–ë (SS 1920- MR 1927–1939; GS 1933) – Venclaviðk–iai (KR 1929) – Baltriðk–is, Baltriðk–ës (KR 1923-1939) 1917-1923; SS 1920-1929; KR 1923-1939), Ven- – Baltriðk–iai (KR 1923-1939); Burbiðk–iai (SS slaviðk–iai (KR 1923-1939) – Venclaviðk–ës (PKS 1920-1929; KR 1923-1939; PKS 1938-1948) – 1938-1948), Vencloviðk–ës (PKS 1938-1948); Za- Burbiðk–is (MR 1927-1939) – Burbiðk–ës (UR beliðk–iai (KR 1917-1923; SR 1917-1924), Za- 1931-1949); Burlokyn–ë (SS 1920-1929; GS 1927; bieliðk–iai (SS 1920-1929; KR 1923-1939; PKS KR 1923-1939; UR 1931-1949) – Burliokiðk–iai 1938-1948), Zubieliðk–iai (PKS 1938-1948) – Za- (SS 1920-1929); Butvilon–iai (SS 1920-1929) – beliðk–ë (KR 1917-1923) – Zabieliðk–is (GS 1927, Butvilon–is (KR 1923-1939); Geguþën–ai (KR MR 1927-1939). 1923-1939; UR 1931-1949; GS 1933; PKS 1938- 4 (25%) gyvenamøjø vietø vardø (ið 16 iden- 1948), Geguþyn–ai (MR 1927-1939; UR 1931– tifikuotø su skirtingomis fleksijomis) dabartinë 1949) – Geguþin–ë (KR 1923-1939); Guèkamp– norminë lytis nei karto nebuvo uþraðyta nuo is (KR 1917-1923; SR 1917-1924; SS 1920-1929; XX a. antrojo deðimtmeèio pabaigos iki XX a. GS 1927; KR 1923-1939; MR 1927-1939; UR vidurio Èekiðkës parapijos baþnyèios archyve. Tai 1931-1949) – Guèkamp–iai (KR 1917-1923; SR árodo, kad vietiniai gyventojai vartojo kitokià oi- 1917-1924; SS 1920-1929; MR 1927-1939); Juod- konimo lytá nei dabar yra pateikiama þodynuo- miðk–is (KR 1917-1923; MR 1927-1939; PKS se ar þinynuose. 6 (37%) standartizuotø oikoni- 1938-1948) – Jodmiðk–iai (KR 1917-1923; KR mø uþraðytos lytys sutampa su rastomis metri- 1917-1923), Jodemiðk–iai (SR 1917-1924); Jur- kuose. Pirmojoje lentelëje pateikti gyvenamøjø diðk–iai (SS 1920-1929; PKS 1938-1948) – Jur- vietø vardø norminiai kirèiuoti variantai ne vi- diðk–is (MR 1927-1939); Lelerviðk–is (KR 1917- sada sutampa su vietiniø gyventojø ir dabar var- 1923, GS 1927) – Lelerviðk–iai (SR 1917-1924; tojama lytimi, kadangi per Èekiðkës parapijà ei- MR 1927-1939; PKS 1938-1948) – Lelerviðk–ës na kirèio sàlyginio atitraukimo izofona (Zinke- (SS 1920-1929; GS 1933; PKS 1938-1948), Le- vièius 1994, p. 26). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 150 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

1 lentelë. Tø paèiø gyvnamøjø vietø fleksijø variantai

Sg., m Pl., m Sg., f Pl., f Bagdõnišk–is (!)12 Bagdõnišk–ė

~~ ~ ~ Baltrišk–is Baltrišk–iai Baltrišk–ė Baltrišk–ės (!) Bùrbišk–is Bùrbišk–iai Bùrbišk–ės (!) Butvilón–is Butvilón–iai (!) Gegužėn–' ai (!) Gegužin–ė Gegužyn–ai Gùčkamp–is (!) Gùčkamp–iai Jodmišk–iai Jodemišk– Júodmišk–is (!) Jodemišk–iai iai Jùrdišk–is (!) Jùrdišk–iai (?)23 Lelérvišk–ės (!) Lelérvišk–is Lelérvišk–iai Leliarvišk–ės Peslišk–iai Peslìšk–ės Pieslišk–is Pieslišk–iai Péslišk–ės (!) Radvìlišk–is (!) Radvìlišk–iai Radvylišk–is Raudõn–is Raudõn–iai Raudõn–ė (!)

Uždulinsk–is Uždalinsk–iai Uždulinskyn–~ ė (!) iai (!) ės Vaiciulìšk– Vaiciulišk– Vaičiulišk–iai (?) Vaičiulišk–ės Venclavišk–iai Venclavišk–ės Venclávišk–is (!) Venslavišk–iai Venclovìšk–ės (!) Zabelišk–iai ~ Zabelišk–iai Zabielìšk– Zabielišk–is Zabielìšk–iai (!) Zabelišk–ė iai (!) Zubielišk–iai Zubielišk–iai

2 (!) – vietiniø gyventojø dabar ðnekamojoje kalboje vartojamas variantas. 3 (?) – neuþraðyta Lietuvos TSR administracinio–teritorinio suskirstymo þinyne (I dalis) 1974 ir Lietuvos TSR administracinio–teritorinio suskirstymo þinynas (II dalis) 1976, taèiau rastas Lietuvos apgyvendintos vietos. Pirmojo visuotinojo Lietuvos gyventojø 1923 m. suraðymo duomenys 1925, p. 62-65. L. Baèiûnaitë. ÈEKIÐKËS PARAPIJOS TØ PAÈIØ GYVENAMØJØ VIETØ VARDØ FLEKSIJØ ... 151

14 skirtingø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø buvo su- riantiðkumas, atsiskleidþiantis renkant egzista- rinkta su vienaskaitos vyriðkosios giminës flek- vusiø arba tebegyvø oikonimø lytis ið baþnyèios sijomis, ið jø 3 (21%) dabar laikytini norminë- archyvo, patvirtina, kad vardyno norminimo dar- mis. 4 (29%) oikonimø pavadinimai vartojami bai trunka ilgai, o standartizuotos lytys gali bûti ðnekamojoje kalboje bûtent ðia lytimi ir tik keièiamos dël autentiðkesnës formos arba vieti- 2 (14%) vietovardþiø uþraðyti variantai, normi- niø gyventojø vartosenos. nës lytys bei vartojimas ðnekamojoje vietiniø gy- ventojø kalboje sutampa. Tikëtina, kad oikoni- Iðvados mas Butvilonis galëjo bûti uþraðytas vienaskaita tik dël tarmei bûdingo ilgøjø balsiø trumpinimo. Remiantis Èekiðkës parapijos baþnyèios archy- 15 skirtingø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø buvo suvo 1917-1949 m. medþiaga, buvo surinkta ir iden- rinkta su daugiskaitos vyriðkosios giminës flek- tifikuota 16 skirtingø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø sijomis, ið jø 6 (40%) dabar laikytini norminë- fleksijø variantø (nuo dviejø iki keturiø skirtin- mis. 4 (27%) oikonimø pavadinimai vartojami gø galûniø: vienaskaitos vyriðkoji giminë, dau- ðnekamojoje kalboje bûtent ðia lytimi ir tik giskaitos vyriðkoji giminë, vienaskaitos moterið- 2 (13%) vietovardþiø uþraðyti variantai, normi- koji giminë, daugiskaitos moteriðkoji giminë). nës lytys bei vartojimas ðnekamojoje vietiniø gy- Tarpukariu visoje Lietuvoje ið gyvosios kalbos ventojø kalboje sutampa. pradëtø rinkti ir vëliau dar keliais etapais rinktø Po 6 skirtingus gyvenamøjø vietø vardus bu- oikonimø lytys sudaro Lietuviø kalbos instituto vo surinkta su vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos mo- Vardyno skyriaus kartotekà, kuria remiantis ir bu- teriðkosios giminës fleksijomis. Rasta tik po 1 vo standartizuojami gyvenamøjø vietø vardai, da- vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos moteriðkosios gimi- bar jau paskelbti þinynuose ir þodynuose. Raðyti- nës vietovardá, kurio uþraðytas variantas, normi- niø ðaltiniø medþiaga rodo, kad tiek iki vardyno në lytis bei vartojimas ðnekamojoje vietiniø gy- norminimo, tiek ir po jo gyvenamøjø vietø vardai ventojø kalboje sutampa. dar buvo vartojami ávairiai, taèiau vyravo vyrið- Tik 1 oikonimas (Baltriðk–is, Baltriðk–iai, kosios giminës lytys, kurios ir tapo normine lyti- Baltriðk–ë, Baltriðk–ës) buvo paraðytas ir su vie- mi, nors vietiniø gyventojø iki ðiø dienø (tik 6 vienaskaitos, ir su daugiskaitos vyriðkàja bei mote- tovardþiø gyvojoje kalboje vartojama forma su- riðkàja fleksija. 7 skirtingø gyvenamøjø vietø var- tampa su standartizuota lytimi) gali bûti kalboje dø variantus sudaro uþraðymai ir su vienaskai- vartojama ir moteriðkosios giminës forma. Kadan- tos, ir su daugiskaitos vyriðkosios giminës galû- gi vardyno norminimo darbai vyksta nuolat, tai nëmis bei su vienaskaitos moteriðkosios giminës galima dar kartà ávertinti esamø (o ypaè nebeeg- (3 oikonimai) arba daugiskaitos moteriðkosios zistuojanèiø) oikonimø standartizuotas lytis ir nu- giminës (4 oikonimai) lytimis. „Nëra aiðku, ar spræsti, ar palikti dabartiná variantà. Taèiau bet oikonimø perëjimas á kità paradigmà yra dës- kokie keitimai yra susijæ su daugeliu ekstraling- ningas, ar tai yra oikonimø norminimo klaidos“ vistiniø dalykø (naujø planø ir þemëlapiø rengi- (Razmukaitë 2008, p. 67). mas, pakoreguotø þinynø ir vietovardþiø þody- Tø paèiø gyvenamøjø vietø vardø fleksijø va- nø perleidimas, kelio þenklø keitimas, etc.). ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 152 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Ðaltiniai

DLKG – Dabartinë lietuviø kalbos gramatika, MR 1927-1939 – Mirèiø registracijos metrikai. 1994. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijø leidykla. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. GS 1927 – Gyventojø suraðymo knyga. Èekið- PKS 1938-1948 – Priëmusiøjø Pirmàjà Komu- kës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. nijà sàraðai. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios ar- GS 1933 – Gyventojø suraðymo knyga. Èekið- chyvas. kës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. SR 1917-1924 – Santuokø registracijos metrikai. KR 1917-1923 – Krikðtø registracijos metrikai. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. SS 1920-1929 – Priëmusiøjø Sutvirtinimo Sak- KR 1923-1939 – Krikðtø registracijos metrikai. ramentà sàraðai. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas. archyvas. UR 1931-1949 – Uþsakø registracijos metrikai. Èekiðkës Ðvè. Trejybës baþnyèios archyvas.

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Lina Baèiûnaitë dicate number and gender, however, the variants of Vilnius University, Lithuania the same oikonym are often found both feminine Research interests: onomastics, culture of the Lit- and masculine, singular and plural. huanian language, mathematical linguistics. Standardized place-name titles are not always the same as indicated in the old annals and as used VARIANTS OF FLEXIONS OF THE SAME in the form of oikonyms by local people. Legitima- PLACE NAMES OF ÈEKIÐKË PARISH UNTIL ting, accepting, standardizing of one of the place- STANDARDIZATION AND AFTER IT name variants in the language should not come into conflict with the following criteria: historical (appli- Summary cation before the standardization) and colloquial (ap- Based on church annals, the article unfolds the ten- plication after providing the standardized variant). dencies of place-name onomastics in development It is impossible to talk about any place-names stan- of the Èekiðkë Parish (Lithuania) from 1920 to 1949. dards since those oikonym variants are not provi- Before the standardization of onomastics orthog- ded in any manual or dictionary and their real exis- raphy of place-names, titles were mainly influen- tence is proved only by written sourcebooks. ced by the fact that priests, vicars or scribes recor- KEY WORDS: place-names, Èekiðkë Parish, ec- ded data from the primary sources without any in- clesiastical annals, standard, variants of flexions. termediaries. Even though place-names written down in church Gauta 2007 11 12 annals are more or less regular and their flexions in- Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 25 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 154 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Danguolë Satkauskaitë Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas Muitinës g. 12, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370) 68 63 87 20 El. paðtas: [email protected] Moksliniai interesai: leksikologija, semantika, pragmatika, þiniasklaidos diskursas, tekstynø lingvistika, verbalinë ir neverbalinë komunikacija.

LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios

2001 m. rugsëjo 11-àjà JAV ávykdyti teroro iðpuoliai sukrëtë visà pasaulá, pakeitë ne tik pasaulio politikà bei ekonomikà, bet ir kalbà. Straipsnio tikslas – atskleisti, kokius leksinius pokyèius ðis ávykis lëmë vokieèiø kalboje. Tyrimo objektas – lingvistinis rugsëjo 11-osios diskursas ir jo reikðminiai þodþiai bei þodþiø junginiai: „der 11. September“ („Rugsëjo 11-oji“), „Antiterrorkrieg“ („karas su terorizmu“), „Schläfer“ („potencialus teroristas“), „Dschihad“ („dþihadas“), „Mudschahed “ („mudþahedas“) bei „Gotteskrieger“ („Dievo karys“). Jø pasirinkimo kriterijai: teminë svarba, tipiðkumas bei vartojimo daþnumas nagrinëjamame diskurse. Ðie leksiniai vienetai analizuojami remiantis tekstynu, sudarytu ið vokiðkos spaudos, bei lyginant vokieèiø kalbos þodynuose pateiktà informacijà. Arabø kilmës þodþiai „Dschihad“ ir „Mudschahed“ vokieèiø kalboje buvo ir anksèiau, taèiau ásigalëjo tik po rugsëjo 11-osios ávykiø. Be to, susiaurëjo ir supaprastëjo jø reikðmë. Sudurtinis þodis „Antiterrorkrieg“ – neolo- gizmas, sukurtas po rugsëjo 11-osios. Nagrinëjant jo vartojimà pastaraisiais metais pastebëta, kad jo reikðmë iðsiplëtë. Leksemai „Schläfer“ bûdinga verstinë reikðmë. Savaip þodynà praturtina „der 11. September“ – ið ben- driniø þodþiø junginio tapæs tikriniu vardaþodþiu. Dël objektyvaus aktualumo rugsëjo 11-osios diskurso reikðminiai þodþiai vartoti labai daþnai ir neretai kritið- kai, todël ðie nauji þodþiai bei naujos reikðmës labai greitai ásitvirtino vokieèiø kalboje. Ypatingà vaidmená èia atliko þiniasklaida. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: lingvistinë diskurso analizë, reikðminiai þodþiai, rugsëjo 11-oji, vokieèiø k. leksika.

Ávadas tis semantiniais kriterijais ir reikalingà praktinei Apie 1980-uosius metus ið sàvokø analizës meto- analizei atlikti. dø kritikos bei Michelio Foucault darbø (1971, Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo Vokietijoje pasi- 1973, 1974) iðsirutuliojo lingvistinë diskurso ana- rodë nemaþai darbø, skirtø dviem diskursams: na- lizë, kuri papildo ir iðpleèia sàvokø analizæ. Dis- cionalsocialistø kalbai bei buvusiø VDR ir VFR kurso tyrëjø pagrindinis tikslas – analizuoti dides- kalbos skirtumams tirti. Vëlesniems lingvistinio nius semantinius darinius, neapsiriboti vieno þo- diskurso tyrimams átakos turëjo aplinkosaugos, fe- dþio ar vienos sàvokos raidos tyrimu (Busse, Her- minizmo bei taikos judëjimai: imigracijos diskur- manns, Teubert 1994, p. 7). Pati sàvoka diskursas sas, moterø lygiø galimybiø, atominës energijos, ðiame metode reiðkia tekstynà, sudarytà remian- NATO, aplinkosaugos ir kiti diskursai. Rugsëjo D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 155

11-osios diskursas iki ðiol dar nebuvo nagrinëtas pasinaudojæ jais kaip bombomis, susprogdino lingvistiniu aspektu, todël ðis tyrimas naujas ir ak- svarbiausius JAV pastatus: Pasaulio prekybos cen- tualus. tro dangoraiþius Niujorke bei Pentagono pastatà Va- Straipsnio tyrimo objektas – rugsëjo 11-osios ðingtone. Þuvo daugiau kaip 3000 þmoniø. Reaguo- diskurso reikðminiai þodþiai ir jø junginiai, kurie dami á ðiuos teroristø iðpuolius, JAV ir jos sàjungi- ðiame diskurse atlieka ypatingà vaidmená. Nagri- ninkai pradëjo du karus: Afganistane bei Irake. nëjamø leksiniø vienetø pasirinkimo kriterijai: te- Diskursas ðiame tyrime suvokiamas kaip te- minë svarba, tipiðkumas bei vartojimo daþnumas mos poþiûriu susijusiø tekstø visuma (Busse, Te- nagrinëjamame diskurse. Be to, svarbus kriteri- ubert 1994 p. 14). Rugsëjo 11-osios diskursas trak- jus yra ir metakalbiniai pasakymai, apraðantys þodá tuojamas kaip sudëtinë terorizmo diskurso dalis. ar jo vartosenà. Skiriant didesná dëmesá autentið- Analizuojamas tekstynas sudaro atskirà rugsë- kiems metakalbiniams pasakymams, galima pa- jo 11-osios diskurso dalá. Ðis diskursas svarbus to- siekti objektyvesniø diskurso analizës rezultatø dël, kad jo atsiradimà lëmë ávykis, kuris dël savo (Burkhardt 1998, p. 105). masto, þuvusiøjø skaièiaus ir ekonominiø bei po- Tyrimo tikslas – atskleisti 2001 m. rugsëjo litiniø pasekmiø priskiriamas aktualiausiems ir 11 dienà JAV ávykdyto teroro iðpuolio poveiká vo- opiausiems tûkstantmeèiø sandûros ávykiams. Be kieèiø kalbos leksikai. Analizuojamà tekstynà su- to, rugsëjo 11-osios teroro aktai buvo tartum ki- daro Manheimo vokieèiø kalbos instituto suda- tø teroro iðpuoliø áþanga (pavyzdþiui, Madride rytas „Cosmas II“ (versija 3.4.1.4)1. Kadangi ðis 2004 m. kovo 11-àjà ar Londone 2005 m. liepos tekstynas ðiuo metu apima tekstus ið spaudiniø, 8-àjà). Todël ðis diskursas bei jame vartojami iðleistø dar iki 2001 m. rugsëjo 11 d. (tik Ðveicari- reikðminiai þodþiai nepraranda savo aktualumo jos laikraðèio „St. Galler Tagblatt“ numeriai ir ðiandien. átraukti iki 2001 m. gruodþio mën. bei Vokietijoje Be to, istorinæ ðio diskurso reikðmæ papildo ir leidþiamo „Mannheimer Morgen“ iki 2003 m. bir- visuomenës diskusijø ðia tema intensyvumas. Dël þelio mën.), taip pat buvo analizuojamas ir Leip- visuotinio susidomëjimo ðiuo ávykiu ir ypatingo mi- cigo universiteto sudarytas tekstynas2, kuriame yra nëtos temos aktualumo tampa svarbu iðanalizuo- pavyzdþiø daugiausia ið spaudos, leistos po ti rugsëjo 11-osios diskurso reikðminius þodþius ir 2001 m. Ðiø tekstynø medþiaga buvo papildyta pa- lingvistiniu poþiûriu. èios autorës surinktais pavyzdþiais ið Vokietijoje, Austrijoje bei Ðveicarijoje leidþiamos periodinës Rugsëjo 11-osios diskurso reikðminiai 3 2001–2006 metø spaudos . þodþiai Pagal tam tikras temas sudarytø diskursø konteks- Rugsëjo 11-osios diskursas te didþiulæ reikðmæ turi svarbiausi þodþiai (Böke 2001 m. rugsëjo 11 d. kaip manoma Al Qaeda va- 2002, p. 265). Þodþiai, kurie istorinëje raidoje at- deivos O. bin Ladeno suorganizuoti teroristai palieka svarbiausià vaidmená, vadinami þodþiais-ðû- grobë keturis civilinius lëktuvus su keleiviais ir, kiais (vok. Schlagwörter), reikðminiais þodþiais

1 Prieiga: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/kt/projekte/korpora/archiv.html 2 Prieiga: http://www.wortschatz.uni-leipzig.de 3 „St. Galler Tagblatt“, „Frankfurter Rundschau“, „Züricher Tagesanzeiger“, „Mannheimer Morgen“, „Die Zeit“, „Stern“, „Frankfurter Allgemeine“, „Der Spiegel“, „Tiroler Tageszeitung“, „Kleine Zeitung“, „Salzburger Nachrich- ten“, „Neue Züricher Zeitung“, „Neue Kronen-Zeitung“, „Die Presse“, „Vorarlberger Nachrichten“, „Oberösterrei- chische Nachrichten“, „Die Welt“. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 156 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

(vok. Schlüsselwörter), reikðminëmis sàvokomis keliø leksemø, turi denotacinæ reikðmæ, nes var- (vok. Schlüsselbegriffe) arba pagrindiniais þodþiais tojamas (ir) kaip bendrinis daiktavardis, o grama- (vok. Leitvokabeln). Jie traktuojami kaip diskur- tinës apibrëþtumo bei skaièiaus kategorijos èia ne- so struktûrà sudarantys bei diskursø kryptis nuro- atlieka skiriamosios funkcijos (pavyzdþiui, paly- dantys elementai (Busse, Teubert 1994, p. 22). ginti vokieèiø kalbos þodá die Wende). Reikðminiais þodþiais (Schlüsselwörter) vadinami Taèiau iðvardytos gramatinës savybës nëra bû- þodþiai, kurie itin bûdingi tam tikram istoriniam dingos ir visiems kitiems ávykiø pavadinimams. Pa- laikotarpiui, krypèiai arba judëjimui, ir socialinë- vyzdþiui, nors ir sudaryti ið keliø leksemø, þodþiø je arba dvasinëje istorijos raidoje atlieka svarbø junginiai der Dreißigjährige Krieg (Trisdeðimtmetis vaidmená (Fritz 1998, p. 97). karas), die Französische Revolution (Prancûzijos re- Tirti pasirinktø rugsëjo 11-osios diskurso reikð- voliucija), der Westfälische Frieden (Vestfalijos tai- miniø þodþiø svarbà skatina ir tai, kad kai kurie jø ka) ir kiti yra tinkami ávykiø pavadinimø pavyz- yra átraukti á „2001 Metø þodþiø“ („Wörter des dþiai. Jie taip pat kilæ ið bendriniø daiktavardþiø, Jahres 2001“) sàraðà: der 11. September, Antiter- todël vis dar iðlaiko denotacinæ informacijà. Skir- rorkrieg und Schläfer arba neteiktinø, kritikuoti- tumas tik tas, kad jø tikrinës savybës lengvai pa- nø þodþiø sàraðà („Unwörter des Jahres 2001“): stebimos, nes ðie junginiai beveik nebevartojami Gotteskrieger. Kiti du straipsnyje nagrinëjami þo- bendrine reikðme. Der 11. September, prieðingai, dþiai – Dschihad ir Mudschahed – taip pat vartojamas ir kaip ávykio pavadinimas, ir kaip ben- reikðmingi rugsëjo 11-osios diskurse. Leksema drinis daiktavardis, nurodantis datà. Dschihad, ir kaip jos atitikmuo daþnai vartojamas Nustatant der 11. September funkcijas, labai þodþiø junginys Heiliger Krieg (Ðventasis karas), ta- svarbus substitucijos metodas. Kai þodþiø junginá po þodþiais-ðûkiais, tai atspindi jø daþnas vartoji- der 11. September (Rugsëjo 11-oji) galima pakeisti mas laikraðèiø straipsniuose bei jø antraðtëse, taip fraze Terroranschläge in den USA (teroro iðpuoliai pat apeliuojanti ar polemiðka vartosena. Taèiau JAV) ar panaðiomis frazëmis, tada kalbama apie ðiø svetimos kilmës leksemø semantika ir vartoji- ávykio pavadinimà, pavyzdþiui, sakiná „Die Welt ist nach dem 11. September 2001 kein sicherer Ort mas daugeliui vartotojø, kalbanèiø vokieèiø kal- mehr, so viel ist gewiss“4 (Welt 14.09.2001) gali- ba, dar nëra visai aiðki. Tai dar kelios prieþastys, ma pakeisti á „Die Welt ist nach den Terro- skatinanèios iðsamiau iðtirti ðias leksemas. ranschlägen vom 11. September in den USA kein sicherer Ort mehr…“5. Vien datos funkcijà turi Rugsëjo 11-oji (der 11. September) tik junginys am 11. September (2001) ((2001-øjø) Der 11. September vokieèiø kalboje, September the rugsëjo 11-àjà), reiðkiantis konkretø tam tikro ávy- 11 arba 9/11 anglø kalboje arba Rugsëjo 11-oji lie- kio laikà. Ðiuo atveju galima substitucija junginiu tuviø kalboje jau ðeðerius metus nebëra vien tik am Tag der Terroranschläge (teroro iðpuoliø dienà). data. Ðis bendrinis þodþiø junginys tapo tikriniu, Tekstyne pasitaiko panaðios substitucijos atvejø, ávardijanèiu istoriná ávyká. Þinoma, tam galima kai sinonimiðki junginiai vartojami tame paèiame prieðtarauti, argumentuoti, kad vokieèiø der 11. sakinyje, pvz.: „Allein am Tag der Terroranschläge, September neatitinka daugelio tikriniams daikta- dem 11. September, war die Swiss-Re-Aktie um vardþiams keliamø reikalavimø. Jis sudarytas ið 17,3% getaucht“6 (St.GT 18.09.2001).

4 Po 2001 m. rugsëjo 11-osios pasaulis jau nebëra saugi vieta, tai aiðku. (Pavyzdþius vertë autorë). 5 Po rugsëjo 11-osios teroro iðpuoliø JAV pasaulis jau nebëra saugi vieta... 6 Vien jau teroro iðpuoliø dienà, rugsëjo 11-àjà, Swiss-Re akcija nukrito 17,3%. D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 157

Þinoma, der 11. September nëra vienintelis pa- kankamas, bet neteikiantis papildomos informa- vadinimas 2001-øjø metø teroro iðpuoliams Ame- cijos. Tà referuoja junginys dem 11. September. To- rikoje ávardyti, nors daugelis istoriniø ávykiø pa- dël galima teigti, kad junginys kaip ávykio pavadi- vadinimø turi ðià iðskirtinæ savybæ. Rugsëjo nimas jau visiðkai ásitvirtinæs vokieèiø kalboje. 11-osios ávykiams pavadinti vartojama ne tik da- Dar vienas indikatorius, rodantis leksemos ar ta, bet ir kiti þodþiai: (Terror)anschlag/ anschläge, sintagmos ásitvirtinimà kalboje, yra jos vartojimas (Terror)angriff(e), Ereignis(se), Attentat(e) des/ vom palyginimuose. Jei kalbos vartotojai koká nors kal- 11. September (2001) – (2001 m.) Rugsëjo 11-osios bos elementà vartoja kitam paaiðkinti, tai akivaiz- iðpuolis/ iðpuoliai, ávykiai, pasikësinimas ir kiti. Ta- du, kad pirmàjá jie laiko visiems suprantamu, nes èiau yra ir kitø istoriniø ávykiø, kuriø referencijai paprastai tai, kas neþinoma, aiðkinama tuo, kas vartojama keletas pavadinimø, pvz.: vietoj datos þinoma (Beckmann 2001, p. 142). Itin daug paly- der 17. Juni (Birþelio 17-oji) daþnai pasakoma Ju- ginimø su rugsëjo 11-àja atsirado po 2004 m. kovo niaufstand (Birþelio sukilimas), vietoj der 20. Juli 11-àjà ávykdytø teroro iðpuoliø Madride, pvz.: „Die (Liepos 20-oji) vartojami Attentat auf Hitler (Pasi- Bombenanschläge von Madrid sind Europas Ver- kësinimas á Hitlerá) bei Staatsstreich (Valstybinis per- sion des 11. September in Amerika“9 (Welt versmas). 22.03.2004). Nors buvo bandymø ir ðiuos teroro Kitas poþymis, rodantis, kad der 11. Septem- iðpuolius pavadinti data (juolab, kad jie ávykdyti ber yra ávykio pavadinimas, – aiðki referencija be taip pat vienuoliktà, nors ir kito mënesio, dienà), metø, vietos ar ávykio pobûdþio nuorodø. Ið 185 taèiau der 11. März kaip ávykio pavadinimas vo- pavyzdþiø, iðrinktø ið 2003 m. dienraðèio „Man- kieèiø kalboje neprigijo. Minëti ávykiai labiau þi- nheimer Morgen“ (t.y. po dvejø metø nuo teroro nomi die Anschläge von Madrid (Madrido iðpuo- iðpuoliø JAV), tik 80 pavyzdþiø paminëti ir metai liai) pavadinimu. Taigi, iðsamiau panagrinëjæ pa- (11. September 2001), daugiau kaip pusëje visø pavadinimus die Anschläge vom 11. September in den vyzdþiø (105) metø nëra. Taèiau tai netrukdo su- USA (Rugsëjo 11-osios iðpuoliai JAV) ir die prasti tekstà. Be to, daugeliu atvejø apskritai nëra Anschläge vom 11. März in Madrid (Kovo 11-osios nurodyta jokiø kitø aplinkybiø – vietos, bûdo ar iðpuoliai Madride) arba die Anschläge von Madrid panaðiai, kurios padëtø suprasti, apie kà kalba- am 11. März (Madrido iðpuoliai kovo 11-àjà), pama, pvz.: „Der Senatsvorsitzende, der den Pro- stebime, kad pirmajame pavadinime didþiausià se- zess souverän und verbindlich im Ton, aber hart mantiná svorá turi data, o antrajame – vietovardis, in der Sache geführt hat, lässt am letzten Tag kei- be to, maþesná semantiná svorá turinèio elemento nen Zweifel daran, dass das Verfahren mit dem daþnai visai atsisakoma, plg.: „In Italien dürften Netzwerk der El Kaida ebenso wenig zu tun hat die Anschläge von Madrid größere Auswirkun- wie mit dem 11. September7. Zugleich lobt er die gen auf den Index zum Verbrauchervertrauen ge- ruhige und sachliche Gerichtsatmosphäre, die habt haben als die Terroranschläge vom 11. Sep- auch auf die pflichtbewussten Verteidiger tember 2001, berichtete das Isae-Institut“10 (FAZ zurückgehe“8 (MM 11.03.2003). Kontekstas pa- 26.03.2004).

7 Èia ir kituose pavyzdþiuose iðryðkinta autorës. 8 Senato pirmininkas, procesui vadovavæs neðaliðkai ir draugiðku tonu, bet tvirtai laikæsis pozicijos, paskutinæ dienà net neabejoja, kad procesas nei su Al Qaeda, nei su rugsëjo 11-àja nieko bendra neturi. Kartu jis giria ramià ir dalykiðkà teismo atmosferà, kurià be kita ko kuria ir atsakingi gynëjai. 9 Madrido iðpuoliai – tai europinë rugsëjo 11-osios Amerikoje versija. 10 Italijoje Madrido iðpuoliai turëjo labiau paveikti vartotojø pasitikëjimà negu 2001 m. rugsëjo 11-osios iðpuoliai, praneðë Isae institutas. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 158 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Vokieèiø kalboje yra daugybë ávykiø pavadi- aus. Sie wiesen alle Banken in den beiden Ländern nimø, turinèiø savo struktûroje vietovardþiø. Vie- an, das Vermögen von 25 Terrororganisationen tovardis gali eiti sudurtinio þodþio (ávykio pavadi- einzufrieren“11 (St.GT 05.11.2001). nimo) dalimi (der Vietnamkrieg – Vietnamo karas, Taigi galima iðskirti dvi leksemos Antiterror- das Berlinabkommen – Berlyno sutartis), paþymi- krieg reikðmes. Siauràja prasme ji þymi po 2001 m. niu (der Wiener Kongress – Vienos kongresas, das rugsëjo 11-osios teroro iðpuoliø Jungtiniø Ame- Schengener Abkommen – Ðengeno sutartis) arba rikos Valstijø vykdomus karinius atsakomuosius prielinksnine konstrukcija (der Vertrag von Rapal- veiksmus prieð teroro organizacijà Al Qaeda, va- lo – Rapalo sutartis). Taip pat pasitaiko ávykiø pa- dovaujamà Osamos bin Ladeno, bei prieð Talibø vadinimø, sutampanèiø su toponimu (Pearl Har- reþimà Afganistane. O plaèiàja prasme leksema bor – Pearl Harboras, Hiroshima – Hirosima, Na- Antiterrorkrieg pavadina kovà su teroristinëmis or- gasaki – Nagasakis, Tschernobyl – Èernobilis). Tik ganizacijomis bei juos remianèiais reþimais ne tik nedaugelis ávykiø pavadinimø sudaryti su data ginklu, bet ir diplomatinëmis, ekonominëmis, ju- (plg. jau minëti der 17. Juni 1953 ir der 20. Juli ridinëmis priemonëmis (Der Brockhaus in drei 1944). Tikriausiai ðiuo principu buvo remtasi ir Bänden 2004, p. 111; Der Brockhaus in einem pavadinant Madrido ávykius. O rugsëjo 11-osios at- Band 2003, p. 43; Meyers Großes Handlexikon veju datos pasirinkimà galima paaiðkinti nebent A-Z 2003, p. 41). tuo, kad tà dienà buvo ávykdytas ne vienas teroro Spaudoje ði leksema daþniau raðoma su brûkð- iðpuolis, o pagrobti keturi lëktuvai, kurie visi nu- neliu, t. y. Anti-Terror-Krieg, nes taip aiðkiau ma- krito ir suduþo skirtingose vietose. Vadinasi, nëra toma morfeminë jos struktûra. Taèiau ðiam sudur- vienintelio miesto ar vietovës, galinèios „suteikti“ tiniam daiktavardþiui vis labiau ásitvirtinant vokie- ávykiams savo pavadinimà. èiø kalboje, ryðkëja tendencija abu daiktavardþius raðyti kartu, t. y. Antiterrorkrieg. Antiterrorkrieg (Karas su terorizmu) Nepaisant daþnos minëto sudurtinio þodþio vartojimo kritikos, ypaè dël komponento Krieg Leksema Antiterrorkrieg sukurta jau po 2001 m. (karas), ðis reikðminis þodis neátikëtinai greitai rugsëjo 11-osios ávykiø, JAV atsakomiesiems ka- prigijo vokieèiø kalboje. Galima netgi teigti, jog ro veiksmams prieð talibus ir Al Qaeda Afganis- jis tapo nauju terminu, ávardijanèiu naujà karo tane ávardyti. Ðia reikðme Antiterrorkrieg vartoja- rûðá, panaðiai kaip terminas der Kalte Krieg (ðal- mas 2001-2002 metais. Kai JAV pradëjo karo tasis karas). veiksmus Irake, þodþio Antiterrorkrieg referencija iðsiplëtë, juo vadinami jau nebe su konkreèiu prie- Schläfer (potencialus teroristas) ðu susijæ karo veiksmai, t. y. veiksmo objektas ne- bëra fiksuotas. Pastebimas reikðmës iðsiplëtimas Didþioji dauguma vokieèiø þodynø nurodo tik ir karo pobûdþio atþvilgiu. Randama nemaþai pa- dvi ðios leksemos reikðmes: miegantysis ir mie- vyzdþiø, kuriuose kalbama ne tik apie ginkluotà gapelë. Taèiau ið daugelio analizuoto tekstyno kovà, bet ir apie kovà su terorizmu ekonominë- pavyzdþiø galima matyti, kad ðiuolaikinëje vo- mis, diplomatinëmis, teisinëmis ir kt. priemonë- kieèiø kalboje vartojamos ir kitos leksemos mis, pavyzdþiui: „Die USA und Großbritannien Schläfer reikðmës: mirusysis, tingus, pasyvus; ne- weiten ihren Anti-Terror-Krieg an der Finanzfront kompetentingas þmogus bei potencialus pirkëjas,

11 JAV ir Didþioji Britanija karà su terorizmu pleèia finansø fronte. Visiems abiejø ðaliø bankams liepta áðaldyti 25 teroristiniø organizacijø turtà. D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 159

todël ðias reikðmes vertëtø átraukti á dabartinës 11-osios (Duden. Deutsches Universalwörterbuch vokieèiø kalbos þodynus. 1996, s. 3363). Ádomu pastebëti, kad abu þodþius Rugsëjo 11-osios diskurse ypaè svarbi reikð- þodynai priskiria þargonui. më – potencialus teroristas. Kaip teigia Oksfordo Naujesniuose þodynuose leksema Schläfer jau anglø kalbos þodynas (The Oxford English Dic- tiesiogiai siejama su rugsëjo 11-osios ávykiais, aið- tionary 1989, p. 681), anglø kalboje nuo XX a. pra- kinama, kad ji nuo 2001 m. rugsëjo 11-osios þymi dþios slaptam agentui ar dar laukianèiam savo uþ- teroro organizacijos nará, kuris gyvena nekrentantá duoties ðnipui pavadinti buvo vartojama leksema á akis gyvenimà ir rengia teroro iðpuolá (Paul 2002, sleeper. Kaip skolinys Sleeper netrukus pradëtas p. 846). vartoti ir vokieèiø kalboje. Beveik tuo pat metu Leksemà Schläfer pradëjus vartoti metafori- vokieèiø kalbos þodis Schläfer, iki tol vartotas tik ne reikðme ðnipas, agentas, potencialus teroristas, reikðmëmis miegalius bei miegapelë, pradëtas var- reikëjo jà kaip nors paþenklinti, atkreipti skaity- toti minëta skolintine reikðme, taigi abi leksemos tojø dëmesá á kol kas dar neáprastà reikðmæ bei jà kurá laikà ta paèia reikðme vartotos paraleliai, pa- paaiðkinti. Siekiant ðio tikslo, pasitelkta ortogra- vyzdþiui: „Vor allem aber hatten sie sich selbst so- finë priemonë – kabutës, taip pat leksinës-sintak- wie ein reichhaltiges Arsenal an Semtex und an sinës priemonës: prieveiksmiai, paþyminiai, aiðki- anderen Explosivstoffen für den Tag X in England nanèià funkcijà atliekantys priedëliai. Iki 2001 m. installiert. Als sogenannte „Sleepers“, als uner- rugsëjo 11-osios bei visus 2001 metus Schläfer kannte Bereitschaftstrupps, hielten sie sich bereit, spaudoje raðomas beveik vien tik su kabutëmis. um im Herzen der britischen Hauptstadt zuzus- Panaðià funkcijà atlieka ir bûdvardis sogenannt chlagen […]“12 (ZT 13.02.1996). „Hasi war ein (vadinamasis), kuris arba pakeièia kabutes, arba „Schläfer“. Er war von seinem arabischen (libys- vartojamas kartu su jomis – taip dar labiau sustip- chen?) Auftraggebern nach Berlin eingeschleust rinamas raðanèiojo atsargumas, tam tikras atsiri- worden, für den „Fall der Fälle“, zu einem da- bojimas, kritiðkas taip þymimo þodþio vertinimas, mals noch nicht festgesetzten Zeitpunkt. [...] Ha- pvz.: „Italien gehört zu den bevorzugten Ländern si ist ein Mitglied der palästinensischen Terrorg- für verdeckt operierende Terrorzellen und ruppe von Abu Nidal, die an vielen Orten im Na- Rückzugsräume für sogenannte „Schläfer““14 hen Osten und in Westeuropa ihre Attentäter po- (St.GT 06.11.2001). stiert hat“13 (Zeit 25.04.1986). Taèiau ir kabutës, ir bûdvardis sogenannt tik Vokieèiø kalbos vienakalbiuose þodynuose pir- parodo, kad jais þymimas þodis vartojamas ne- miausia pasirodë skolinys Sleeper, kuriam priskir- áprasta, kalboje dar neásitvirtinusia reikðme. Þo- tos dvi reikðmës: pirmosios klasës miegui atverèia- dþio Schläfer semantikai atskleisti pasitelkiami si- ma lëktuvo sëdynë ir kur nors pasiøstas ir ilgà laikà nonimai, parafrazës, kurie sakinyje eina priedë- neaktyvus agentas (Duden Fremdwörterbuch 1990, liu, ðalutiniu paþyminio sakiniu arba net atskiru s. 724). Vokiðkasis Schläfer reikðme agentas þody- sakiniu, pvz.: „Die, die ihn kannten, charakteri- nuose pasirodë taip pat dar iki 2001 m. rugsëjo sieren ihn als durchschnittlichen und wenig

12 Pirmiausia jie Anglijoje ásikûrë patys bei sukaupë didþiulá Semtex ir kitø sprogmenø arsenalà. Kaip vadinamieji „sleeperiai“, neatpaþinti budintys bûriai, X dienà jie buvo pasirengæ atakuoti paèià britø sostinës ðirdá […]. 13 Hasi buvo potencialus teroristas. Arabø (libiø?) uþsakovai já dël visa ko tuomet dar nenumatytai datai atsiuntë á Berlynà. [...] Hasi – palestinieèiø Abu Nidal teroro grupuotës, daugelyje Artimøjø Rytø ir Vakarø Europos vietø laikan- èios savo teroristus, narys. 14 Italija – viena mëgstamiausiø slaptai veikianèiø teroristø grupuoèiø ðaliø bei vadinamøjø „sleeperiø“ atsitrauki- mo vietø. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 160 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE auffälligen Menschen – typisch für einen Schläfer, Þurnalistai stengësi kuo tiksliau perteikti foneti- einen Terroristen im Wartestand“15 (Welt ná aspektà, taèiau neþinojo, kaip tai atlikti. Daþ- 18.09.2001). „Die Täter waren nicht, wie zunächst niausiai pasitaikantys raðybos variantai: Dschihad, da und dort vermutet worden war, autonom han- Jihad ir Djihad. delnde „Schläfer“, die jahrelang ein unauffälliges, Semantiniu poþiûriu paþymëtina, kad dauge- gut integriertes Leben geführt hatten, bis sie ei- lis musulmonø skiria dvi dþihado rûðis: maþàjá ir nes Tages von aussen den Auftrag zum Handeln didájá dþihadà. Didysis dþihadas suprantamas kaip erhielten“16 (NZZ 09.09.2002). „Das größere Pro- visiðkas savæs nugalëjimas, taurëjimas ir dvasinis blem sind die „Schläfer“. Dies sind Extremisten, pakilimas. Maþasis dþihadas reiðkia ginkluotà ko- die sich zur Tarnung dem hiesigen Lebensstil an- và ir gali bûti taikomas tik tam tikrais atvejais (Po- gepasst haben, um irgendwann als Terrorist „ak- hly, Durán 2001, p. 18-19). tiviert“ zu werden“17 (MM 26.09.2001). Vokieèiø kalboje leksema Dschihad daþniau- Tokiø kalbos indikatoriø, þyminèiø, kad lek- siai verèiama junginiu Heiliger Krieg (Ðventasis ka- sema Schläfer vartojama neáprasta, kalboje nepri- ras). Tekstyno pavyzdþiø analizë leidþia teigti, kad gijusia reikðme, bei jà paaiðkinanèiø, itin gausu var- daþnai abu pavadinimai vartojami tame paèiame tojimo pradþioje, t. y. maþdaug iki 2002 metø. Mi- sakinyje, kuriame þodis Dschihad yra pagrindinis, nëtø indikatoriø nebuvimas pastaraisiais metais o Heiliger Krieg eina priedëliu arba atvirkðèiai, pvz.: rodo, kad metaforinë reikðmë visiðkai ásitvirtino „Die radikalislamische Untergrundorganisation vokieèiø kalboje. Taip pat akivaizdu, kad vokiðka- Jihad (Islamischer Heiliger Krieg) hatte sich am sis Schläfer visiðkai iðstûmë anglø kalbos skoliná Samstag zu dem Anschlag bekannt“18 (TT Sleeper. Galima sutikti su Peterio Brauno teigi- 09.11.1998). „Die radikalislamische Untergrun- niu, kad saviems þodþiams pirmenybë teikiama dorganisation „Islamischer Heiliger Krieg (Dschi- pirmiausia dël jø aiðkumo, o skoliniø morfologi- had)“ hatte sich am Samstag abend zu dem At- në bei semantinë struktûra daugeliui kalbos var- tentat bekannt“19 (SN 09.11.1998). totojø atrodo nemotyvuota (1998, p. 192). Daugelis vokieèiø kalbos þodynø Dschihad taip pat aiðkina kaip ir Heiliger Krieg (Duden in zehn Dschihad (dþihadas) Bänden 1999, s. 875; Duden. Deutsches Univer- Arabø kilmës leksema Dschihad á vokieèiø kalbos salwörterbuch 2001, s. 402; Duden. Deutsches þodynus átraukta jau XIX a. pabaigoje (Meyers Universalwörterbuch 2003, s. 402), bet daþnai þo- Konversations-Lexikon 1895, Brockhaus’ Konver- dynuose kabutëmis (Wahrig Universalwörterbuch sationslexikon 1898), ir tai turëtø rodyti, jog ji pri- Rechtschreibung 2003, s. 303; Das neue Wis- gijusi vokieèiø kalboje. Taèiau nors ðis þodis var- sen.de-Lexikon 2002, s. 211), bûdvardþiu soge- tojamas ilgai, jo raðyba ir semantika nevienoda. nannt (vadinamasis) (Meyers neues Lexikon in

15 Já paþinojæ apibûdina kaip vidutiná, á akis nekrintantá þmogø, tai bûdinga potencialiam, savo uþduoties belaukian- èiam teroristui. 16 Nusikaltëliai nebuvo, kaip ið pradþiø manyta, savarankiðkai veikiantys potencialûs teroristai, puikiai prisitaikæ prie visuomenës ir metø metus gyvenantys nekrintantá á akis gyvenimà, kol vienà dienà gavo ásakymà veikti. 17 Didesnë problema – potencialûs teroristai. Tai ektremistai, kad nekristø á akis - prisitaikæ prie vietiniø gyvenimo bûdo, o kada nors „aktyvuojami“ kaip teroristai. 18 Radikaliø islamistø pogrindinë organizacija Jihad (islamiðkasis ðventasis karas) ðeðtadiená vakare prisiëmë atsa- komybæ uþ iðpuolá. 19 Radikaliø islamistø pogrindinë organizacija „Islamiðkasis ðventasis karas (dþihadas)“ ðeðtadiená vakare prisiëmë atsakomybæ uþ iðpuolá. D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 161 acht Bänden 1962, p. 741) arba ávairiø kalbiniø gai supranta kaip vienaskaitinæ, atsiranda dau- priemoniø deriniu atsiribojama nuo þodþiø gru- giskaitos variantø, sudarytø pridedant galûnæ -s, pës Heiliger Krieg. pavyzdþiui: Mudjahedins, Mudschaheddins. Taèiau, Diskusijos dël Dschihad ir Heiliger Krieg sino- ásitvirtinant taisyklingoms formoms, pastarieji nimiðkø santykiø vyko dar iki 2001 m. rugsëjo nyksta ið vartosenos. Tekstyne tokiø formø pasi- 11-osios. Heiliger Krieg kaip ekvivalentas neretai taiko iki 1999 m. kritikuojamas, kartu pateikiamos alternatyvos, Kaip matyti ið vokiðkos spaudos pavyzdþiø, sà- pvz.: „Dschihad bedeutet nicht Heiliger Krieg, voka Mudschaheddin daþniausiai aiðkinama arba sondern islamischer Widerstand oder Kampf“20 verèiama þodþiu Gotteskrieger (Dievo kariai), ku- (SN 19.08.1993). „«Dschihad» ist erst durch Ter- ris Cosmas tekstyne pasirodo dar vëliau negu Mud- rorgruppen jüngster Vergangenheit auf seine Be- schaheddin – 1992 m. Daþniausi leksemos Mud- deutung „Heiliger Krieg“ eingeengt worden. Der schaheddin sinonimai: Gotteskrieger, Dschihadi ir Islam bezeichnet „Dschihad“ ursprünglich mit der Dschihadisten. Kitos leksinës priemonës, aiðkinan- «umfassenden Anstrengung und dem Bemühen èios ðá arabø kilmës þodá bei iðreiðkianèios raðan- 21 für den Glauben»“ (Presse 07.01.1998). èiojo vertinimà, yra ðios: Heilige Krieger (ðventi ka- Taigi junginys Heiliger Krieg tik tada gali bûti riai), Widerstandkämpfer (pasiprieðinimo kovoto- þodþio Dschihad sinonimas, kai kalbama apie gin- jai), Freiheitskämpfer (laisvës kovotojai), Glau- kluotà dþihadà (t.y. apie maþàjá dþihadà). Taèiau benskämpfer (tikëjimo kovotojai) ir kt. ðiuo metu Dschihad tradiciðkai klaidingai tebever- Þodis Mudschahed vokieèiø kalboje iðpopu- èiamas arba tebeaiðkinamas þodþiø junginiu Hei- liarëjo per Afganistano ir Sovietø Sàjungos karà liger Krieg. Abu pavadinimai reiðkia radikaliø isla- (1979-1989). Mudþahedais vadinti musulmonø ko- mistø teroro iðpuolius. Todël galima teigti, kad vo- votojai, kovojæ su 1979 m. sovietø invazija á Afga- kieèiø kalboje ðio þodþio reikðmë susiaurëjo. nistanà. Juos moraliðkai, taip pat ir ginklais rëmë JAV, nes Afganistano kovotojai buvo jø sàjungi- Mudschahed (mudþahedas) ninkai, kovodami prieð bendrà prieðà per ðaltàjá Pirmieji pavyzdþiai ið vokiðkos spaudos, kuriuose karà. Mudþahedai buvo vertinami kaip laisvës ko- pavartota leksema Mudschahed, pasirodë 1985 m., votojai, ginantys savo tëvynæ nuo uþgrobëjø. Tei- o á þodynus ji átraukta dar vëliau. Dël neilgos var- giamà Mudschahed konotacijà þymi anaforiðkai tojimo trukmës ir vokieèiø kalbai nebûdingos fo- vartojami sinonimiðki þodþiai, pvz.: „Seit dem Ab- neminës struktûros ðio arabø kilmës þodþio raðy- zug der Roten Armee 1989 und dem Sturz des ba labai ávairuoja (Mudschaheddin, Mudjaheddin, kommunistischen Regimes […] waren in Afgha- Mujahedin). Taip pat nevienodos ir gramatinës for- nistan die islamischen Freiheitskämpfer unter mos – vienaskaitos kilmininko linksnis sudaromas sich. Die Machtkämpfe zwischen den verschiede- be galûnës arba su galûne -s. Taip pat ávairuoja ir nen Fraktionen dieser „Mudjaheddin“ […]“22 daugiskaitos formos. Kadangi kai kurie vartoto- (VN 29.04.1998). jai, kalbantys vokieèiø kalba, daþniausiai vartoja- Nuo JAV karo su Afganistanu (2001 m. pa- mà daugiskaitos formà Mudschaheddin klaidin- baigoje) nagrinëjamos leksemos konotacija Vaka-

20 Dþihadas reiðkia ne ðventàjá karà, o islamiðkà pasiprieðinimà arba kovà. 21 Dþihado kaip „ðventojo karo“ reikðmæ tik neseniai susiaurino teroristø grupuotës. Islamas dþihadu tradiciðkai vadina visapusiðkas pastangas tikëjimui. 22 1989 pasitraukus Raudonajai armijai ir nuvertus komunistø reþimà […], islamo kovotojai uþ laisvæ Afganistane kovojo tarpusavyje. Kovos tarp skirtingø mudþahedø frakcijø […]. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 162 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE rø spaudoje ávairuoja. Didþiausia dalis tuometi- vokiðkos spaudos rodo, kad sudurtinis þodis Got- niø Osamos bin Ladeno vadovaujamø mudþahe- teskrieger daþniausiai eina minëtojo Mudschahed- dø, kuriems kariná iðsilavinimà suteikë bei ginklais din priedëliu ir iðskiriamas kableliais arba brûkð- rëmë JAV, stojo prieð savo rëmëjus. Per JAV karà niais. Kartais leksema Gotteskrieger raðoma su Afganistanu, o vëliau ir su Iraku ðie mudþahe- skliausteliuose arba kabutëse. dai tapo prieðais, tiksliau – teroristais. Aiðkiai ne- Panagrinëjus leksemà Gotteskrieger „Cosmas“ igiamà þodþio Mudschahed konotacijà parodo tekstyne, matyti, kad ji pradëta vartoti tik 1992 kontekstas, pvz.: „Die Sicherheitsbehörden gehen metais. Be to, paþymëtinas labai daþnas jos varto- davon aus, dass „Deutschland im Zielspektrum jimas kabutëse: ið 239 pavyzdþiø „Cosmas“ teks- des islamistischen Terrorismus“ steht und nicht tyne 78 atvejais vartojamos kabutës, tai sudaro mehr nur als Rückzugs- oder Ruheraum für Mit- 33 %. Viena ið prieþasèiø galëtø bûti ta, kad ðis glieder Al Qaidas und der Netzwerke arabischer þodis ið pradþiø buvo traktuojamas kaip neolo- Mudschaheddin gilt. Deutsche Innen- und Sicher- gizmas. Neologizmai gana daþnai raðomi kabutë- heitsexperten fordern deshalb neue Konzepte für se, jomis paþymimi leksikone dar neásitvirtinæ þo- den Kampf gegen die terroristische Bedrohung“23 dþiai. Kalbant apie kitus neologizmus, pastebima (Welt 18.01.2004). tendencija, kad daþniau vartojant leksemà, kabu- èiø atsisakoma (pavyzdþiui, aptartos leksemos Ankstesnë teigiama leksemos Mudschahed ko- Schläfer vartojimas reikðme ðnipas, agentas, poten- notacija greièiausiai perimta ið arabø kalbos, nes cialus teroristas). Todël keista, kad vartojant þodá pirmiausiai taip save vadino patys mudþahedai. Gotteskrieger yra atvirkðèiai – kabuèiø maþdaug Teigiamà konotacijà ðis þodis kaip referencija á sa- nuo 2001 m. vis daugëja. Greièiausiai kabutëmis ve patá ar savo grupës narius iðlaikë iki ðiol, plg.: norëta parodyti, kad raðantys ne visiðkai sutinka „Diejenigen, die die Operation durchführten, wa- su ðiuo þodþiu ir lyg atsiriboja nuo jo. Juk po rug- ren wohl bekannte junge Männer aus den Rei- sëjo 11-osios ávykiø ásiplieskë karðtos diskusijos hen unserer Brüder, der Mudschaheddin. [Ein dël ðios leksemos tinkamumo. Kaip jau minëta Vertrauter Osama bin Ladens]“24 (Welt áþangoje, þodis Gotteskrieger netgi buvo átrauktas 23.08.2004). á 2001 m. neteiktinø þodþiø sàraðà argumentuo- Taigi galima teigti, kad leksema Mudschahed, jant, kad joks tikëjimas negalás pateisinti karo ar kaip ir morfologiðkai bei semantiðkai susijæs Dschi- teroro iðpuoliø (Unwort des Jahres 2002.02.25.). had, ásitvirtino vokieèiø kalboje. Tà rodo vieno- Ádomu paþymëti, jog Gotteskrieger vartotas ir dëjanti raðyba, nusistovëjusios morfologinës for- anksèiau, t. y. dar iki 2001 m. rugsëjo 11 d. (ypaè mos bei aiðki semantika. daþnai 1998-1999 m.), taèiau tada nesulaukë nei ypatingo kalbininkø dëmesio, nei kritikos. Tik po Gotteskrieger (Dievo kariai) rugsëjo 11-osios teroro iðpuoliø suabejota ðios lek- Kaip jau minëta, leksema Gotteskrieger daþnai var- semos tinkamumu. Tikriausiai dël ðios kritikos tojama kartu su arabø kilmës leksema Mudscha- Gotteskrieger pradëtas vartoti reèiau ir kol kas dar hed(din), kad paaiðkintø pastaràjà. Pavyzdþiai ið neátrauktas á vokieèiø kalbos þodynus.

23 Saugumo tarnybos mano, kad á Vokietijà nusitaikë islamistø teroristai ir ji jau nebëra vien Al Qaedos nariø ir arabø mudþahedø prieglobsèio ðalimi. Todël Vokietijos vidaus reikalø ir saugumo ekspertai reikalauja naujø priemoniø kovoti su teroro grësme. 24 Operacijà vykdë gerai þinomi jauni vyrai ið mûsø broliø, mudþahedø, gretø. [Artimas Osamos bin Ladeno draugas]. D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 163

Iðvados pas, potencialus teroristas. Skoliná ið anglø kalbos Sleeper ir vokieèiø kalbos þodá Schläfer paraleliai Atsakyme á klausimà, kokius vokieèiø kalbos þo- ðia reikðme anksèiau vartojo tik saugumo tarnybø dyno pokyèius lëmë rugsëjo 11-oji, galima kon- darbuotojai. Po rugsëjo 11-osios vokieèiø kalboje statuoti keletà tendencijø. nebevartojamas skolinys Sleeper, o leksemos Savitai þodynà praturtino der 11. September, Schläfer reikðmë potencialus teroristas plaèiai pa- ið bendrinio þodþiø junginio tapæs tikriniu. Kitaip plito ir átraukta á naujausius þodynus. nei kiti ávykiø pavadinimai (pvz., Trisdeðimtmetis Rugsëjo 11-osios ávykiai ir kova su terorizmu karas, Prancûzø revoliucija), kurie jau nebevarto- paspartino ið arabø kalbos kilusiø þodþiø Dschi- jami kaip bendriniai þodþiø junginiai ir lengvai at- had ir Mudschahed ásitvirtinimà vokieèiø kalboje. paþástami kaip pavadinimai, der 11. September var- Nors ðios leksemos vokieèiø kalboje buvo jau prieð tojamas ir kaip bendrinis, t. y. datà þymintis þo- 2001 m. rugsëjá, bet dël reto vartojimo daugeliui dþiø junginys, ir kaip tikrinis. kalbos vartotojø buvo paprasèiausiai neþinomos. Leksema Antiterrorkrieg sukurta tik po rugsë- Paþymëtina, kad Dschihad ir Mudschahed ágijo jo 11-osios ávykiø ir pirmiausia reiðkë JAV bei jos neigiamà konotacijà. sàjungininkø karinius veiksmus prieð Afganista- Sudurtinis þodis Gotteskrieger vartotas dar iki nà. Iðsiplëtus kovai su terorizmu, kai antruoju tai- 2001 m. rugsëjo ávykiø, taèiau tada nesulaukë ypa- kiniu tapo Irakas, iðsiplëtë ir Antiterrorkrieg reikð- tingo kalbos vartotojø dëmesio. Po rugsëjo më. Ðiuo metu ðis þodis reiðkia ne tik konkreèius 11-osios leksema pradëta vertinti kritiðkai, argu- karinius veiksmus, bet ir ávairias kitas kovos su te- mentuota, kad joks tikëjimas negalás pateisinti ka- rorizmu formas, pavyzdþiui, kovà ekonominëmis ro ar teroro iðpuoliø. Neigiamà vertinimà rodo ar teisinëmis priemonëmis. metakalbiniai komentarai spaudoje bei tai, kad Rugsëjo 11-osios ávykiai padëjo greièiau ási- þodis vartojamas reèiau, neáprastai daþnai þymi- tvirtinti leksemos Schläfer reikðmei agentas, ðni- mas kabutëmis, jo nëra þodynuose.

Ðaltiniai

FAZ – dienraðtis „Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung“, St. GT – dienraðtis „St. Galler Tagblatt“, St. Galenas (Ðvei- Frankfurtas (Vokietija). carija). MM – dienraðtis „Mannheimer Morgen“, Manheimas TT – dienraðtis „Tiroler Tageszeitung“, Insbrukas (Austrija). (Vokietija). VN – dienraðtis „Vorarlberger Nachrichten“, Forarlber- NZZ – dienraðtis „Neue Züricher Zeitung“, Tageszeitung, gas (Austrija). Ciurichas (Ðveicarija). Welt – dienraðtis „Die Welt“, Hamburgas (Vokietija). Presse – dienraðtis „Die Presse“, Viena (Austrija). Zeit – savaitraðtis „Die Zeit“, Hamburgas (Vokietija). SN – dienraðtis „Salzburger Nachrichten“, Zalcburgas ZT – dienraðtis „Züricher Tagesanzeiger“, Ciurichas (Ðvei- (Austrija). carija).

Literatûra

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Danguolë Satkauskaitë economics but also the language. The aim of this Vilnius University, Lithuania paper is to discuss lexical changes that were deter- Research interests: lexicology, semantics, pragma- mined by these terror acts. The research object is tics, the discourse of the media, corpus linguistics, the discourse of September 11th and its keywords: verbal and non-verbal communication. der 11 September (September 11th), Antiterrorkrieg (war on terror), Schläfer (sleeper), Dschihad (jihad), LEXICAL-SEMANTICAL CHANGES IN THE Mudschahed (mujahid) and Gotteskrieger (God’s GERMAN LANGUAGE AFTER SEPTEMBER fighters). The criteria of choosing them were the- 11, 2001 matic significance, typicality and frequency of usage in the analyzed discourse. For the analysis of the abo- Summary ve mentioned lexical items, the corpus of German The terror attacks of September 11th, 2001 have shoc- press was used comparing to the information of va- ked the world and changed not only the politics and rious dictionaries and lexicons. D. Satkauskaitë. LEKSINIAI-SEMANTINIAI VOKIEÈIØ KALBOS POKYÈIAI PO 2001 m. RUGSËJO 11-osios 165

The words of Arabic origin jihad and mujahid tember has changed from an appellative to a pro- have been used in the German language before Sep- per name. tember 11th. However, they have been established The keywords of the discourse of September 11th only in consequence of the discourse of the Sep- were used very frequently and sometimes critically. The- tember 11th. Besides, the meaning of these words refore, these new words and new meanings have been has been contracted and got a pejorative connota- established in the German language very quickly. The tion. The compound Antiterrorkrieg is a neologism mass media played a leading role in this process. that appeared after the September 11th. Its mea- KEY WORDS: linguistic discourse analysis, key- th ning has been expanded in the short period of its words, September 11 , German lexis. usage. The lexeme Schläfer is a loan-translation from English. The function of the phrase der 11 Sep- Gauta 2007 11 12 Priimta publikuoti 2008 02 07 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 166 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Vĕra Barandovská-Frank Institute of Cybernetics Kleinenberger Weg 16 D-33100 Paderborn, Deutschland Tel.: (49–5251) 64 200 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Research interests: Latin, Romance languages, planned languages, interlinguistics generally.

LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE – ‘HOBBY LINGUISTICS’

Language-construction has a long history in science fiction. As early as 1518, the language and alphabet of Utopia, by Thomas More, were well known; more recently, Elfish by J.R.R. Tolkien and Klingon from Star Trek, the latter actually attaining the status of a real language. In avant-garde poetry, the language creations of Dadaism and Futurism are well known. Psychiatrists take an interest in the language-play of children and mentally ill adults, who often invent private worlds (e.g. Thetis in the novel Daughter of Science by Car Osten). The same activity, though, has been for many years an intellectual pastime of perfectly sane people too. The publishing opportunities offered by the Internet have made the hobby of language-construction both easier and more widespread: ‘conlanging’ has achieved great popularity and a large following. There are, as well as the Conlang sites of individuals and families, internet communities of private languages, with their own republics, empires, even settlers, emigrants and refugees. Linguistics views these language-creations in various ways. On the one hand, they do not belong alongside to live ethnic languages, because in fact they do not aspire to compete with them; on the other hand, however, they enrich literature, theatre, film and internet culture. Hobby linguistics, clearly, is an interdisciplinary phenomenon, involving linguistics, literature, cultural studies, psychology, perhaps religion and other fields. It helps to develop an interest in world languages and cultures, history and geography, and contributes to better understanding of the interface between language and civilisation. KEY WORDS: language-construction, fiction, language-play, conlanging, interdisciplinarity.

Introduction www.langmaker.com/ml0101.htm#bm1). His por- tal ‘Langmaker’, containing half a million pages “Some people build model airplanes, some craft of text with about 3000 constructed languages, is model trains and some ... well, they invent model one of many that serve hobby linguists. A number languages. Model languages can be everything of internet-users mention in their web-biographies from a few words of made-up slang to a rigor- that their hobby is language-construction. It is con- ously developed system of interrelated imaginary sidered an entirely natural pastime: typically they tongues.” This is a quotation from an internet present their invented languages to fellow magazine, ‘An introduction to the hobby of model hobbyists, discuss, criticise, improve, as well as languages’ by Jeffrey Hennings (http:// destroy and redesign them. V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 167

Hobby-languaging is clearly a widespread phe- Paolo Albani and Berlinghiero Buonarroti nomenon, nowadays accepted as unexceptional. (Albani-Buonarroti 1994), authors of the most re- Does it belong only to the ordinary, consumerist cent encyclopaedia in book form of invented lan- internet culture (which, for the most part, is not guages, provide in a detailed overview (p. 12-13) highly regarded), or does it have some value for a vast array of hobby languages, as a distinct cat- linguistics, literature and perhaps other disciplines? egory of invented languages, for purposes of play It should be understood that the pastime of cre- or simply self-expression. In this category belong ating languages is not an invention of the Internet children’s languages (for example, twins some- Age; it has long been a feature of utopian and sci- times invent their own quasi-language, incompre- ence fiction literature, among others. As early as hensible to others), the language of writer-eccen- 1518, the language and alphabet of ‘Utopia’, by trics (e.g. Raymond Queneau, André Blavier), lan- Thomas More, were famous; in 1564 Gargantua guages invented by spiritualist mediums (for ex- and Pantagruel (François Rabelais) encountered ample, Hélène Smith was famous around 1897), the languages of the Antipodeans, Alternans, languages of extra-terrestrials (e.g. Antipodean, Utopians and Fidentians; in 1726 Jonathan Swift Dragorian, Mercurian, Lingua Selentica, Venu- had Lemuel Gulliver learn several fictional lan- sian, Yilané and others), and finally hundreds of guages; in 1806 the land of ‘Albur’ and the lan- art-languages, which have an even vaster range guage of the Alburians were discovered in the cen- of subdivisions, especially literary (in fantasy, sci- tre of the Earth ...... there are dozens of examples. ence-fiction, puzzles and experimental literature), In the twentieth century there appeared, among poetry, picture, cinema, theatre and comic catego- others, Interkosmo, used from 1961 in the science ries. Let us examine some examples of such crea- fiction series ‘Perry Rhodan’, Nadsat in the book tions from the past and in present-day websites to ‘A Clockwork Orange’ by Anthony Burgess (1962, find their connection with linguistics and other film 1971), and a current hit is Simlish of the Sims sciences. in the computer game by Will Wright (2000). The best-known examples of made-up languages are 1. From language-play to fictional worlds the Elfish language and alphabet of J.R.R. Tolkien in the novel ‘Lord of the Rings’ (1954-1955, films The usual psychological-psychiatric term for a ten- 2004-2005) and the Klingon language, created in dency to construct languages is ‘language-play’. 1985 by Marc Ockrand for the film series ‘Star It can include a wide range, from pure language- Trek’. None of these languages, although created play for artistic, especially poetic, purposes, to by language experts, were intended for use by peo- semantically meaningful expressions. Psycholo- ple, but by fantasy creatures in fantasy worlds. The gists like to explain it as, among other things, the Sims clubs or Elfish clubs, the textbooks, diction- effect of the subconscious and of euphoria. Play aries and institutes of Klingon language, which in elements were used in avant-garde poetry by, for the meantime have been operating across the example, Christian Mongernstern, Velimir world, came into existence almost accidentally, Chlebnikov, Vladimír Holan, and most of all spontaneously, unintentionally, and became part among the dadaists and impressionists in the first of a self-sustaining cult and hobby. These exam- quarter of the last century: Tristan Tzara, Hugo ples are however only one of the places where Ball, Richard Huelsenbeck, Francis Picabia, hobby-languages are to be seen. Marcel Duchamp et al. Here is at least one typical ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 168 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE example of a purely playful creation, a fragment works are full of language experiments – he really from a poem by Hugo Ball (1886-1927), founder was a master of Latin and Greek terminology, but of the poetic ‘Cabaret Voltaire’ in Zurich, 1916 created his own Czech expressions, for example (http://www.peak.org/~dadaist/English/Graph- ‘čujba’ for aesthetics. The noun-cases in his trans- ics/gadjiberi.html): lation are: zovák (nominative), plodák (genitive), Gadji Beri Bimba dajec (dative), žalák (accusative), volák (vocative), gadji beri bimba glandiri laula lonni cadori mísťák (locative), stroják (instrumental). We see gadjama gramma berida bimbala glandri that in the case of Hron, it wasn’t a matter of sim- galassassa laulitalomini ply play, but of a proposed linguistic terminology, gadji beri bin blassa glassala laula lonni created in accordance with language conventions cadorsu sassala bim gadjama tuffim i zimzalla binban gliga (http://www.atuka.org/index.php/article/ wowolimai bin beri ban articleview/22/1/). o katalominai rhinozerossola hopsamen Perhaps the most complex example of hobby laulitalomini hoooo… linguistics, touching on both language and literature, is the work of the ‘Czech Tolkien’, Dr. Jan In the case of Velimir Chlebnikov and Aleksei Lukeš (1912-1977), doctor, writer, designer, com- Krus^ c^ onych, out of play emerged a futuristic lan- poser, neolinguist and author of 16 artificial language called ‘Zaum’ (zaumnyj jazyk, 1913): it es- guages, known by the pseudonym ‘Car Osten’ capes from grammatical rules, syntactic prescrip- (http://lege.cz/toCP1250.en/osten.htm). Lukeš tions, semantic conventions and stylistic norms, studied medicine in Prague, worked as a doctor, in to express emotions and natural feelings. Accord- 1952 was officially declared mentally ill and in ing to Zaum-adepts, emotional and poetic language the medical literature became known as ‘the mys- corresponds to primitive, original human experi- terious patient of prof. Stuchlík’. He himself diag- ences and become the subject of an autonomous, nosed his hobby as mental illness, which he called fantasy philology. It follows that such inventions ‘cosmophrenia’. He wrote poetry and prose from cannot be considered merely as linguistic creations, childhood, about the year 1925 began to construct amenable to linguistic analysis; rather, they belong artificial languages, of which the most elaborate to the province of psychology, aesthetics and lit- was Ishi, said to have 10,000 words and its own erature. script, written from right to left. Lukeš described In the Czech literature of past centuries, for his own beloved language as “the creation of a example, renowned for his strange word-creations mentally ill wonder-child” (výtvor psychopa- was prof. Jakub Hron Metánovský (1840-1921), tického wunderkinda). He himself translated into who taught mathematics and physics but was at this fictional language, during his military serv- the same time poet, philologist (particularly of Slav ice, part of the ‘Czech Instructions for Junior Of- languages), scientist and inventor. His language ficers’ (Československý služební řád pro creations were not merely artistic, but had their poddůstojníky) and the driving instruction book own particular meaning. Best known was his philo- (Učebnice pro autoškoly). One can imagine how sophical work ‘Libomudrovna’ (= philosophy) much he enjoyed his brand of mockery of such which appeared in three volumes in the years 1910, tedious, humourless, compulsory reading. From 1914 and 1920, and his patented invention, the his (as yet unpublished) planned language there unspillable inkwell, ‘Buňát nezkotitelný’. His have survived fragments of grammar, textbooks V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 169 and dictionaries, as well as the texts of mythologi- tinct Quad. In the north of Thetis were used cal and religious works from the fictional planet Barnum and Stehut, in the south Kimbel and Thetis. As well as other languages from this planet Sumout, each with its own script. Among Eastern (Quad, Barnum, Rish and others) he also proposed, languages the best known was Alamirr; among in 1945, a political language, ‘PRAGUE’ as the the native languages used on the continent future language of a Peace International and a nu- Wurfean, most prominent was the H^ alim language. meral pasigraphy ‘Kodo’. He wrote dozens of ep- Likifsac^ el was spoken on the northern island Patka ics, novels and poems, technical works in psychol- and, among the Minekawa natives in Idawa, Lih^ er. ogy, operas and symphonies. His works are full of The dead language Rish, preserved for religious delicate paradoxical humour, satirising the com- reasons by the scattered Rish peoples, was the lan- munist regime (for example, his last symphony is guage in which was written the holy book Ashrat, called ‘Communistica’ and opens with the shoot- which prof. Milhar has brought in the spaceship ing of Aurora). So it may be taken that the au- alongwith many other documents, for example thor’s mental illness at that time served as a pro- manuscripts of old poems, mythic tales and the tective device. like. Also preserved were maps, geographical and Lukeš’s greatest work, for which he is com- political, coins, stamps, tickets and routes from pared with Tolkien, is the 11-volume epic ‘Daugh- Thetis – all this Lukeš elaborated for his novels. ter of Science’ (Dcera vědy), describing the last As well as the ‘Daughter of Science’ already men- decades of existence of the planet Thetis, which tioned, a novel ‘Pěšky napříč Marmokojem’ (‘On exploded in the year 1934. Professor Chwich foot through Marmokoj’) and a story Milhar decided, after collision with a comet was ‘Chaverazoljane’ were also located on Thetis. In forecast, to leave Thetis in a spaceship, taking with the case of Lukes, we are talking about highly com- him his assistant and daughter, Dahorjane Sedeno. plicated creativity and inventiveness. At the time, The spaceship crashes on Earth near the summer- his work was considered the work of a psychiatric house of Lukes/Osten. Only Dahorjane survived patient, which today seems mistaken, even absurd. the disaster. Osten saves and later marries her. On the internet are to be found many similar, of- Dahorjane not only learns Czech, but teaches her ten less well worked-out creations, deliberately, husband her language, Ishi, which was on Thetis confidently and self-evidently the work of hobby- as important as English on Earth, and tells him all linguists. about her homeland. I should also mention the best-known Czech Ishi was used in Ishuria and in the Empire of fictional language, Ptydepe, from the satirical com- both Hesperides, situated in the northern hemi- edy by Václav Havel ‘Vyrozumění’ (‘Memoran- sphere of Thetis. Similar to Ishi is the Minekar dum’), 1965. The author of the language is Václav language, spoken in the most industrially advanced Havel’s brother, Ivan. It’s about a bureaucratic lan- state in the southern hemisphere, the Minekar guage, into which all official documents must be Union. There was also a dialect Nishi, similar to translated. The teacher of this language explains: Ishi and spoken on the Banquet Islands “Ptydepe, as you know, is a synthetic language, (Maimatefia wades), on the sea-route from constructed on a strictly scientific basis, with a Hesperides to Minekar. All three languages used completely logical grammar and an exceptionally the standardised Ishi script. This script was used comprehensive vocabulary. It is a language abso- also for Tobol, which had evolved from the ex- lutely precise, capable of expressing far more pre- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 170 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE cisely than any ordinary language, the subtle nu- list of artificial languages, “Constructed Languages ances of important official texts. The result of this List”, dates from 1998. During the relatively short precision is of course the exceptional complexity life of the internet not only have there appeared and difficulty of Ptydepe”. The meaning of words dozens of specialist portals for hobby linguistics in a natural language is often pliable, while in (Geofiction Club, Elfling, Ideolengua, Slavicon- Ptydepe every word has strictly one meaning, there lang, Romance Conlang, Zompist, Uchronia, are neither homonyms nor words differing by only Kalusa, World-Building, Sampa, Aleppe, Artificial one or two letters. The fundamental characteristic Language Forum, Invisible Lighthouse, of Ptydepe is redundancy, achieved through the Conculture List, among others), but there has fact that 60% of the letters in every word must be evolved a detailed terminology, published among totally different. The alphabet has 26 letters. There other places in Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/ exist 11,881,376 combinations of five letters, and wiki/conlangs). The general expression conlangs of combinations with 60% differentiation (i.e. 3 (constructed languages) embraces all constructed unalike letters) there are 432. For example the word languages, including languages primarily auxiliary ‘sand-martin’ in Ptydepe consists of 329 letters. (Auxlangs, Auxiliary Languages). This is well By contrast, the more general a word, the shorter. captured by the following description from http:// For example, ‘something’ in Ptydepe is ‘gh’. The encyclopedia. thefreedictionary.com/language: shortest word of all is ‘f’, which has no meaning An artificial or constructed language (known and is held in reserve for the expression ‘anything colloquially as a conlang among aficionados), is at all’, if this were ever to appear in official docu- a language whose vocabulary and grammar were specifically devised by an individual or small ments. The word ‘hurrah’ in Ptydepe is frnygko group, rather than having naturally evolved as jefr dabux altep dy savarub goz terexes. Other ex- part of a culture as with natural languages. Some amples: “Hayfazut gyp andaxe. Ejch tu zep. Notut. are designed for use in human communication Lagorys nabarof dy Ilja Breisky cef o abagam” ; (usually to function as international auxiliary lan- “Ra ko hutu ely trebomu emusche, vdegar yd, stro guages), but others are created for use in fiction, linguistic experimentation, secrecy (codes), or for renu er gryk kendy…” (http://www. the experience of doing so. Conlangers differ on theaterleitertheater.org/index.php?site=3p), (http:/ whether linguistic creation of the latter kind is to /slovnik-cizich-slov.abz.cz/web.php/slovo/ be considered an art or a hobby. These languages ptydepe). This language is quite consciously cre- are sometimes associated with constructed worlds. ated as satire, criticising socialist bureaucracy. Its Hobby-languages belong to a conlangs-sub- value thus lies more in the field of social critique, group artlangs (artistic languages), which are sub- sociology and political science, than in the field of divided thus: linguistics, particularly as it doesn’t involve an fictional – alternative – micronational – per- independent, functioning literary text. sonal – jokelangs – language games.

2. Hobby-languages in the Age 2.1 Individual language hobbyists on the of the Internet internet As stated at the outset, language-construction as a The fabulous planet Thetis with ten languages, hobby moved on to an altogether different scale conceived by an unknown Czech author more than with the advent of the internet. The oldest internet fifty years ago, would be a commonplace in the V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 171 age of the internet. For example, http://www. to be a bird of good omen; adradel graywizard.net/Conlinguistics/amman_iar/ [n] (pl edraidel) uncle/aunt (epicene); adradelan [n] (pl adredilan) maternal un- amman_iar.htm is the website of a US mathemati- cle; adradelîel [n] (pl adradilil) cian and computer scientist David Bell, who ex- paternal aunt, more commonly amilil (see under plains that for several years he has been working AMIL); adran [n] (pl edrain) father; on his make-believe country Ámman and its two adrannis [n] (pl adrennis) pater- main languages. First of all came the map of nal uncle if younger than father; adrannon [n] (pl adrennöin) paternal uncle if older than father; adrar [n] (1) parenthood; without names, because they were to get their (2) the characteristics , condition of a parent; names from a language yet to come. Then four adrellis [n] (pl adrillis) maternal groups of people took up residence in Ámman. aunt if younger than mother; adrellon [n] (pl adrillöin) maternal aunt if older than were sea-folk. Áldrost lived in the woods. Nárdhost mother; adrîel [n] (pl edril) mother, more commonly amil … lived on a great plain in the south-east and Órdhost in the mountains. The fifth group Rándhin were On the internet are to be found many such sites nomads, living in the southern desert. Their lan- with fictional countries, planets and societies, at guage remained closest to the old language various stages of development. Some contain a Vulányal. The author first planned to develop from fully detailed description of fictional countries and the old tongue five independent languages, con- their inhabitants, others only basic information forming to the lifestyles of the five peoples. Later about the users, but a thoroughly worked-out lan- he constructed only one language, that of the guage, e.g.: http://www.frontiernet.net/~scaves/ Nárdhost people, which spread throughout the west teonaht.html of Sally Caves, a professor of Eng- and serves as an international language, like Eng- lish in the State University of New York. Having lish in our world. Some time in the middle ages, learned several languages and discovered websites there arrived on the coast of Ámman, seafarers about fictional languages, she launched the lan- from Dunedain, and their language influenced the guage Teonaht. It is a language of Teons from the local standard language, Ámman iar. The second, country Teonea (Teon + hea, ‘land’), which from as yet not completely worked out main language time to time emerges from the sea, most often the is called Forendar. Black Sea or Caspian Sea. The Teons may come Ámman iar (Amman language) is relatively from the Caucasus. Etymologists surmise that the simple, agglutinative and consisting of computer- name ‘Teon’ derives from the verb ‘to flee’, be- generated words. It has nouns, adjectives, pro- cause they flee and distrust other people. They are nouns, verbs, adverbs, particles, interjections and ‘somewhat different’ from us, having each twelve qualifiers. The nouns have nine cases. Verbs have fingers and toes. For that reason, their number sys- two tenses (past and not-past) and are transitive or tem is based on 24. The Teons can change the col- intransitive. They have two conjugations. The syn- our of their eyes. In the painting by Ms Caves they tax is simple (subject-verb-object). There is still are in traditional 17th-century costume. Their fa- no complete text, but there is a detailed Ámman vourite heraldic animal is a rampant cat. iar - English dictionary. Here is part of it: Teonaht includes many dialects but there is a

adar [n] (pl edair) (1) parent; (2) pa- standard form, used in daily papers, which is pre- tron, protector, guardian; (3) an owl, considered sented in detail on the page in question. NB: the ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 172 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE language isn’t static, i.e. it evolves continually. In sive, reflexive and possessive aspects, alienating principle it has an Indo-European character, but it and non-alienating. There are modal verbs and has OSV (object-subject-verb) word-order, which auxiliary verbs, as well as gerundive constructions, is extremely rare. Invariably, the verb is at the end progressive, passive, potentive and aptitive. The of the sentence. There are definite and indefinite verbs express tense and aspect by prefixes added articles, which precede the noun: blar lihhohza; to the pronoun, for example ‘I ate’, Ry ennyvel ilhhohza ryttepron (‘loud the wind; the wind I becomes Elry ennyve. feel’). Nouns have two kinds of nominative: ‘agent’ As well as a detailed grammar, there is also a (A) and ‘experiencer’ (E). The former is found Teonaht-English dictionary: mainly with transitive verbs: Il mabbamba(O) le abbya, -n, /a’bi@/; n. DIVINE WILL, GOD’S betõ (S) htesa (‘The ball (O) the boy (S) chases’). WILL, GOD’S WAY; DIVINE PATH; PREDES- The latter occurs most often with intransitive verbs: TINATION. aco, -n, /’atSo/; n. FAULT, VICE, Li betõ (S) tabllysan (‘The boy (S) weeps’). Tamol BAD HABIT; SIN; SHAMEFUL THING. acodel, /’atSodEl/; adj. SHAMEFUL, VICIOUS, (O) li betõ (‘A child (O) the boy (S) [is]’). The FAULTY. ad, /ad/; 3rd pers. plur. acc/dat. pron. object may be either direct or indirect (preposi- THEM. adwe, /’adwe/; alternative form: 3rd pers. tional): Kyam (DO) euil zef (IO) le betõ (S) vergo plur. acc/dat. pron. THEM. adme, /’adme/; stat. (‘A book (DO) to the man (IO) the boy (S) gives’) prep. AMONG, WITHIN, IN THE MIDDLE OF. admy, /’admi/; mot. prep. AMONG, WITHIN, [‘The boy gives a book to the man’]. Other cases INTO THE MIDST OF. ahdken, /’aðkEn/; verb, are analytical. The plural ending is –n: ytanney, ni, abs. form of -ndi.DIE. La nantry dely ahdken, ytanneyn, ‘foot, feet’; fanttear, fanttearn, ‘dance, “her mother died, her mother is dead.” ahdkkendi, dances’; pyttela, pyttelan, ‘colour, colours’. The /að’kEnd@/; verb, ni inf. BE DEAD. ahdkkendo, /að’kEndou/; verb. nom. A DYING, A DEATH, possessive ending is –id: tohda betõid, ‘cat of a DEMISE. ahdkent, /’aðkEnt/; verb. adj., DEAD, boy, a boy’s cat’. The language originally had a MUTE. ahstaf, /’aStaf/; n. RAISIN, CURRENT. gender category but this disappeared in the course ahuo!, /’ahjou/; expl., takes voc., HAIL; a greet- of evolution and there remains only natural gen- ing used ordinarily with or by God or ods: ahuo Yrlo, “Oh Lord”; Ahuo Marua, “Hail Mary.” ai, / der. The male and female names of animals are ai/; 3rd pers. sing. nom. inan. pronoun. IT. aiba, / specially listed. There are also ancient nouns ’aib@/; sing. dem. adj. THIS. aibba, /ai’ba/; sing. Nenddeylyt, from a traditional dialect, which have dem. adj. THIS. aid, /aid/; 3rd pers. sing. neuter special classes to indicate things, animals etc. They inan. poss. pron. ITS. are irregular and have special endings. The sys- As is apparent from these two examples, the tem of pronouns, including reflexive pronouns, is hobby-linguist authors, who often have consider- worked out in similar detail: Le nantry la mesõl able linguistic expertise, display linguistic crea- ely ke, send etsa il ouar ely tralttrama (‘The mother tivity, resulting in a ‘complete’, usable language. saw her daughter and greeted her’ – each greeted More often than not, it is constructed not for use the other). Even more complex is the system of among people but from the outset intended as the verbs. There are three main categories: -rem, -ned language of a fictional people. In this case, the lan- and -ndi, each in volitive, involitive and ambi- guage itself is a minor element, necessary to fully volitive form. Present, past and future tenses have characterise the invented world, to the description both simple and continuous forms, in ordinary, and functioning of which the author usually de- perfect and inchoative aspects; there are semi-pas- votes even more care and energy than to the lan- V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 173 guage itself. The quality of such creations, then, is Binertglobakläi Jameld Zolidaton (the World not only linguistic but also artistic, aesthetic and Jameld Association). The back numbers of the literary. magazine, minutes of meetings, notices of meetings and gatherings of Jameldans are to be found 2.2 Languaging communities on the internet in the internet archive, as well as blogs, photo- Thanks to the internet, any user may launch their galleries, travel journals and advertisements in or created language, including its virtual user-com- about Jameld (the search engine Google gives 651 munity. If other internet-users so choose, they join results). and further develop, whether just the language, or The most famous example of collective internet the language community as well. language-fiction is the Talossan language (from This, to cite an example, is the case with Glheþ Talossán, see for example http://en. Jameld, constructed in 1982, “for personal amuse- wikipedia.org/wiki/Talossan_language), created ment and education” by James Campbell, as a new about 1980 by the American Robert Ben Madison Germanic language, cognate to Dutch, Frisian and for the kingdom founded by him. The word German, alongwith a fictional neo-German cul- ‘Talossa’ comes from Finnish and means ‘in the ture and community: house’, because it was born in Madison’s bedroom. About the development of the language: the Ar- Jameld jist an artalangui, an langui tes wä chaic Period of the language was 1980-1981. This dessini – int te kase eri, vor personlauk yanohit was a sort of pidgin with a basic vocabulary (nouns, und birighta , und vor untersoken was jist maklauk und wau langui funkton int an familiari pronouns, numbers, conjunctions) from French and böyayibin (wj. és an wénsemi lith ew te Ger- Spanish, with an influence from Portuguese gram- mani languifamil, biwandi met Nederaz, Fris mar. A specimen of the language from this period: und Dét az). T’artalangui jist jund an ram vor “Talossa nostreu c’estas almostemente uneu noveu an embrioni fiktivi kultür und ans rëzlaami landeu,” said Kingeu Robert I todayeu. Uneu humör tes wä bui böya iet. noveu Mapeu d’Talossa c’estas in “l’Libreu (Original translation: ‘Jameld is a constructed language, which has been designed – in this case d’Talossa,” a showar qu’l’s-changeux in Talossa for personal amusement and enlightenment, and haveu estescu muy mucheux. “Havemos reachescu to explore the possibilities and workings of lan- nostreu goaleu nationaleu, i estamos happyeux,” guage within a familiar environment – viz. as an said l’Kingeu. imaginary member of the Germanic language family, related to Dutch, Frisian and German. It In 1981 began the Pre-classical Period. The is also the framework around which an embry- language received some exotic traits from the onic fictional culture and some astonishingly finno-ugrian languages (a case system) and from lame humour have been assembled.’) northern European languages. A specimen: “Qiñeu In 2001 appeared a ‘Jameld Microphrasebook’, Diktatga, Talossaux Armeux havè changeascù c’ks. as well as a Jameld-English and English-Jameld L’Qiñeu c’è pensescù l’ideaga plâcescù c’Armeux dictionary of around 6000 words, a grammar and över l’flageu anstatt l’Symboleu Ben’u. C’armeux phonetics, republished in 2005. Between 1992 and sà più bueneu lookînd als l’primeu.” 1997 there was an internet magazine, Zolid Mat- The Classical Period of Talossan was 1981- ters, whose name is preserved in the name of the 1983, when the language was freed from finno- homepage (www.zolid.com/zm/), of the approxi- ugrian influences and strove to be more of a ro- mately thirty-strong language community te mance language. There appeared a grammar and ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 174 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE dictionary with 1700 words. A specimen: Sverðeu cultural and political activity for national identity: d’Kérénzt fâçara os ideologiî formáus. L’Dûceu “Üc, c’è vräts, el Talossán entra’l atx del fütür. És dëllâ Partiá Sverðeu d’Kérénszt, Ben Madison, så rapidamînt, acest entréia!” començara în viensâs ziuâs lâ discertação formál The Modern Period lasted 1986-1990, when a d’”L’Vej d’Sverðeu d’Kérénszt,” l’plán formál és two-volume English-Talossan and Talossan-Eng- ofiçiál dëlla noastrâ Partiá. Acest llibriteu estara lish dictionary was produced, and a textbook for l’aßinmêteu grült pëlla Claßeu regesc “Þistoriá self-learners. Robert Madison wrote long articles Mondiál.” and poems in Talossan. The literary period began. In the Post-classical Period, 1983-1985, the The Talossan province of Vuode acquired its an- language’s romance character was reinforced by them, to the tune of the Marseillaise: the addition of elements from Rumanian and ‘N regeu xhust és volînd ben për dToct, Romansch. The archaic ending, -çau, for exam- O tent creat ‘n provînçù. ple, from Portuguese, changed to –ziun. CÚG, La Acest päts c’esteva liv’rescù, Comità për l’Útzil del Glhîmbâ (‘Committee on Más vuit-séifet vid’va ‘n cînxh the Use of the Language’) was created: “Bunâ, Más vuit-séifet vid’va ‘n cînxh Citaxhiéns, videtz që’ paßa! aici-st noastrâ pîmalaiset ‘ezitoriál’ îlla glhîmbâ Prîndetz për zefençar tú phäts Talossán, come comandescù par l’Regeu. Zespäts L’Apîntat o fäts’ci qët o volt, la nataschâ-d CÚG, på-l 29 Novîmbár 1983, la Contrâ bhen és contrâ tradiziuns CÚG rescherscheva l-problüm phonetic Talossán, Vuode volt vivar, ár phäts å liverar! és est prideascâ ànonçar l-list sovînd della Avînt, avînt, la vhoce cînt’: phoneticâ dellâ glhîmbâ.” El vell, eða la mhoart! The kingdom had more inhabitants, so they The period 1990-1994 is named Neo-classi- began to create historical studies, discovering that cal: at that time the language tended to return to the ancestors of the Talossans lived in Europe, in its ethnic origins, the two-volume Treisoûr del the Gaulish town of Tolossa (Toulouse). But later, Glhetg Talossán (‘Treasure of the Talossan Lan- archaeologists discovered that the proto-Celtic in- guage’) was published, several poems appeared, habitants of western Europe came from north Af- articles and translations, such as this from the Bi- rica, where there is a Berber tribe, Talesinnt, the ble: “Txec, ün servesc da Dïeu és del Segñhôr Iésu- most ancient ancestors of the Tolossans. For that C’hrïost, àls dudësch tribâs dal tvistraziun: Dïeu reason, the language too crossed into the Celto- t’alegra! En consideretz come la pür aleretzâ, Berber Period: the word for ‘language’ became quândevri dals diviársen tentaziuns voi the celtic el glhep. A specimen: “Açest editoriál ec’hperistent.” promptescù isch par áis evînts reçînts în an Oriînt- In 1994 the dominant political party of pro- Çentrál. Come voi säpetzi d’ospréi an Zeclaraziun gressive conservatives changed its name to els à shinistrà, eu sînt contra an idéa da therorizim”. Tamoráes da Fiál (‘Warriors of Destiny’). The In 1985-1986 followed the Pre-modern Period, word tamoráes comes from the Berber and in fact the language returned to a classic form inspired soon a group of citizens launched an initiative by Romansch and Occitan. The English-Talossan which culminated in an official state declaration dictionary was published with 4300 words and a that Talossans are a nation related in some way to book ‘History of the Kingdom of Talossa’. The Berbers. An historical work ‘The Berber Project’ ‘Talossa National Party’ was founded, and started recounted the entire genealogy, how Talossan had V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 175

split away from Latin during the Roman colonisa- developing the language, creating literature and tion of north Africa and how the inhabitants later culture. Information about important events, es- fled to America. pecially political, diplomatic and cultural occa- In the final, Stabilisation Period, dominated sions, is distributed through the internet. by the internet, Talossan became a living (spoken As can be seen on the website http://www. and written) language. In 1996 appeared the sec- kingdomoftalossa.net/, the country sits by the ond, revised edition of the grammar La Scúrzniâ Talossa Sea, consists of the provinces Atatürk Gramáticâ del Glheþ Talossán. The first speakers (where the capital Abbavila is located), Cézembre, of the language formed a group, Ladintschen. As Mussolini, Vuode, Florenciâ, Maricopa and well as several websites, there was established Maritiimi Maxhestic. Each province has its own Telaragñhâ Mondiál, an internet radio channel in constitution, flag, administration and all such spe- Talossan. Two others followed, Las Penetrontâs cifics, all events in particular provinces are de- by Robert Madison and Rádieu Ladintsch by Tho- scribed in detail on the internet, and updated. Also mas Leigh. In 1998 appeared the second, enlarged in the empire is the Antarctic penguin-province edition of Treisoûr del Glheþ Talossán and Cor- La Teritôriâ Antárctic da Pengöpäts. It too has its pus Scriptionum Talossanarum, documenting the own flag, coat of arms and customs. Because this entire development of the language. In 1999 was province is very big and has no neighbours, one published a work on the history of the country, Ár can more easily practise there the national sport, Päts (‘Our Country’). CÚG, La Comità për l’Útzil car-skating, which occurs every year on the 25th del Glheþ (‘Committee on the Use of the Lan- of February. guage’) continued to look after the language. Its In addition one finds precise information about most famous members, in Talossan Rôibeard the state flag, coat of arms, anthem, motto, popu- Donatüs, Chirischtôval Lauramáintsch and Tomás lar customs and traditions, national songs, national Gariçéir, write many articles in and about Talossan. holidays, famous places of pilgrimage (for exam- The language is used in the Kingdom of Talossa ple, a Greek restaurant in the province of (El Regipäts Talossán), founded by enthusiasts Florenciâ), major historical events, official sports from Wisconsin, later joined by sixty citizens from clubs, especially basketball, national cinema and Canada, Europe, South America, Asia and Africa television, famous people, customary dishes and (http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/talossa/). The specialities (couscous) etc. The major political constitutional monarchy is ruled by King Louis I1. parties are the conservative Parti Conservatïu Because he is a minor, the Regent is Dr. Gregory Fidistà, the unilateralist Parti del Movamáintsch Rajata, appointed in 2005 in accordance with Fortúpt és Vienslaterál and the revolutionary La Talossan law. For the legislative, judicial and ex- Mha Nheagrâ (‘Black Hand’) – their composition, ecutive functions, royal appointments have been aims, ideology and activities are described in de- created. All citizens are nobles, eminent citizens tail. In the same detail one can read about the his- receive honours and special titles (Cnecht, Barôn, tory of the state, become acquainted with its con- Conta, Düc). They ‘serve their nation’, using and stitution, laws etc.

1 His full title is: ‘Louis by the Grace of God, King of Talossa and of all his Realms and Regions, King of Cézembre, Sovereign Lord an Protector of Pengöpäts and the New Falklands, Head of the Unorthodox Church, Defender of Faith, Leader of the Armed Forces, Viceroy of Hoxha and Vicar of Atatürk. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 176 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Alas, the Talossans don’t live in total peace. Haden Elgin for her literary series ‘Native After twenty years, during which the Talossan lan- Tongues’. She also founded a Science Fiction Po- guage, culture, civilisation, politics and diplomacy etry Association and publishes two web-maga- were developed, there occurred ideological and zines. political quarrels and differences of opinion. The discontents simply emigrated from the website of Discussion and Conclusions the Kingdom and in 2004 founded the Republic (La Repúblicâ Talossán), with its own website At the outset we posed the question, whether lan- (http://www.talossa.com/), no less detailed than guage-construction as a hobby belongs in the field that of the Kingdom. Their national project is a of interest of Linguistics which, broadly defined, web-based Talossan-English and English-Talossan studies languages. Linguists will no doubt object, dictionary, with already 28,000 words. There also that their discipline is really concerned with ‘natu- exists La Icastolâ, a school of Talossan at the ral human languages’; however one standardises, Talossan Academy of Arts and Sciences, founded regulates or shapes them, it is about means of com- in 2005 by decision of the parliament of the Re- munication between people. For that reason, one public. Their very professional internet magazine should treat the phenomenon known as ‘language’, Qator Intríns, carries news of life in the Republic, of which there are hundreds of definitions, with including drawings and photographs. In addition great care. In old linguistics textbooks (e.g. Erhart there are several websites of other émigré 1984, p. 7) it is stated explicitly that “linguistics Talossans, living in diaspora, for example the con- studies natural languages, constructing artificial servative ‘Talossan Émigré Community’ at http:// languages or mathematical codes is no part of its my.execpc.com/~talossa/, and in exile preparing remit”. Even contemporary definitions from Wiki- the restoration of the old empire. pedia say the same: “Linguistics is the scientific Communal hobby-languaging is a new cultural study of the systematic qualities of natural lan- phenomenon, unique to the internet. The Elfish guages” (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik). languages of J.R.R. Tolkien were known, from On websites about linguistic topics, however, 1955, only to readers of his novels: the web-based there are links which lead to ‘constructed lan- organisation ‘Elvish Linguistic Fellowship’ (http:/ guages’. The English Wikipedia (http://en. /www.elvish.org), founded in 1990, has several wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language) offers hundred members throughout the world, subscrib- an historical overview without taking the trouble ers to the periodicals ‘Vinyar Tengvar’ and ‘Parma to differentiate their purposes, speaking in the same Eldalamberon’. There one reads: “ Everything breath about Klingon as about modern Hebrew and began with a leaf caught in the wind, and it be- Esperanto, all peppered with the Sapir-Whorf came a tree, and the tree grew, putting out numer- Hypothesis. To clarify matters, it is drawn to our ous branches and spreading the most fantastical attention that “the synonym ‘planned language’ is roots.” This poetic description applies to web com- sometimes used to refer to international auxiliary munities generally, whether Talossa mentioned languages, and by those who may disagree with above or, for example, the virtual community The the more common term ‘artificial’ ”, and adds: Láadan Language Community (http://www. “Outside the Esperanto community, the term ‘lan- sfwa.org/members/elgin), who use the language guage planning’ refers to prescriptive measures Láadan, created by the ‘internet icon’, Suzette taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 177 even natural languages may be artificial in some Even if one doesn’t know particular languages, respects”, noting that, on the internet “… a com- projects or persons and is only searching for gen- munity of conlangers has developed, which has eral information, there is much of interest to be its own customs”. No distinction is therefore made found which, without the internet, one would not between planned languages, artificial languages know about, because it has never been published and international auxiliary languages but, on the in book form, or never published abroad. Thanks other hand, hobby linguists are deemed a separate to the efficacy of search engines and of links from category. To avoid total confusion, I propose to particular websites, not only useful information, leave planned languages (artificial languages/ aux- but also historic documents are readily available. iliary languages/ universal languages/ ‘conlangs’ Second: the internet serves as a personal store and serving or intended for human intercommunica- publishing house. An individual, launching a tion) in the field of interest and research of project, need search for neither publisher nor cus- ‘Interlinguistics’, which has already for some time tomers and readers. He can, according to need and been avidly engaged with them. One should try wish, develop, amend, improve and distribute his and find a home for hobby languages. work and, if he is lucky, receive reactions from Certainly there is plenty on the internet. Not readers, praise, advice, suggestions, also criticism, only a definition of fictional languages: “Fictional of course - in any case, evidence that his work is languages are invented for the most part for artis- being read, discussed, accepted or rejected. Fur- tic purposes, usually as part of a fictional world. thermore, even those who might hesitate to lec- They are found in literature or film, sometimes in ture or debate in public can, even anonymously, role-play and computer games” (http://de. publish and discuss on the internet. Third: the wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruierte_Sprache# internet is a meeting-place for people with the same Fiktionale_Sprachen); but also a definition of hobby, who can swap notes in chat-rooms and dis- world-building as a hobby: “Within world-build- cussion-lists, they can join this or that group, help ing as a hobby, belong inventing languages, creat- one another, complete, criticise, develop joint ing geographical maps, description of peoples and projects, undertake joint research, discover shared races, establishment of laws and much more” fictional worlds, find fellow-thinkers throughout (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiktive_Welt# the world and enjoy a communal live. Weltenbasteln)2. The majority of hobby linguists live in USA. Inventing languages for purposes of play, ex- This may be explained not only by the technical perimenting or amusement is a current phenom- advancement and mass use of the internet in that enon, whose prestige has grown enormously with country, but also by other facts. The Americans the advent of the internet. This offers hobby-lin- feel no need to learn and use any language other guists three basic advantages. First: it serves as an than English, which has served them well across a archive and distribution point for historic materi- continent for centuries and across the world for als. If one is interested in particular material from decades. While in multilingual Europe, following past centuries, almost certainly one will find in- the demise of the active use of Latin, people sought formation through wikipedias or special archives. some means of international communication, in-

2 In both cases, the German version of the Wikipedia is more precise than the English. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 178 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE venting a series of languages to that end, Ameri- Ouvroir de litérature potentielle, circa 1960), or cans never had such problems. In the pre-internet as languages characterising invented people, age, there were only a few European clubs to pro- groups, societies or planets (Utopians, Selenids, mote language-construction3. Now there are world- Enterans...), or for other artistic purposes (for ex- wide websites specifically to give instruction in ample, word pictures, onomatopoeia, song-sylla- language-construction, and internet galleries in bles...). which are published more than two thousand Psychology and Psychiatry, because they al- hobby-languages, developed over the past ten ready have an interest in pathological language- years. According to ‘Langmaker’, there are about creation, in glossolalia, children’s pseudo-lan- quarter of a million internet hobby-linguists. guages and in language-play, explaining them by Language-construction is a noble hobby. It the various psychological traits of the authors. For enhances interest in world languages and cultures, example, the book ‘Lunatic Lovers of Languages’ in history and geography, it helps the better to un- by Marina Yaguello (1991) – “a brilliant and origi- derstand the relationship between languages and nal study examining the creation of imaginary lan- civilisation. For that reason it deserves a degree of guages”, as one reads on the cover - puts into one special attention within HOBBY LINGUISTICS: it should pot philosophical, science-fiction and mystical lan- be an interdisciplinary specialism, in whose es- guages with Volapük and Esperanto, and explains tablishment might collaborate: their occurrence by the mental abnormality of the Linguistics, because first and foremost it is author: “Megalomania, obsession, thirst for power, about languages, albeit not ‘natural’ languages. and persecution mania, linked with a love of play- Hobby languages are in various states of developing around with language ... are the dominant char- ment; the major ones have grammar, vocabulary, acteristics of the language inventor” (p. 26). texts, magazines, literature and speakers, one can Sociology, Political Science, Ethnography, even detect language development, so nothing dif- because the authors of the languages are often aim- ferentiates hobby-languages from ‘normal’ minor ing at: critique, satire of existing human society languages. Further, many authors of languages are (e.g. Ptydepe), an idealised picture or alternative themselves linguists or are acquainted with sev- form of such, imaginary life in a fictional, virtual eral foreign languages: in the statistics about the world, often extra-terrestrial (Star Trek), a mythi- internet project ‘Auxilingua’ (Barandovská 2003) cal society as regards human examples and tradi- it is apparent that a quarter of all members are ei- tions, and so forth. Users of some hobby languages ther teachers or students of languages, the major- form real language communities and micro-na- ity of them knowing two or more foreign lan- tions, including native speakers (Klingonans, guages, even some who use 11 or 14 languages. Talossans) with their own particular life culture, Literature and Art (theatre, film, comics, mores and customs. songs...) because many fictional languages are Hobby linguistics might possibly be of inter- consciously produced for these purposes, whether est also to Philosophy, Cultural Studies and Reli- as experiments with beautiful or ugly syllables, gion, because as it happens there are also languages words, verses and texts (for example Oulipo = invented by prophets, sages and shamans, not to

3 For example, until 1992 there existed in the Netherlands Nederlands genootschap voor Linguafictie, which later transferred to the internet. V. Barandovská-Frank. LINGUISTICS IN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE... 179 mention cryptic languages, shorthand, universal as auxiliary languages, which belong to the re- philosophical languages and the like, which are search domain of Interlinguistics. A degree of re- explained not by reason of hobby or play, but are ciprocal interdisciplinary information-exchange, created for particular purposes. They belong nev- collaboration and specialist curiosity would cer- ertheless in the general category of invented/arti- tainly be fruitful in such an interdisciplinary lin- ficial languages, as do planned languages intended guistic scene.

References

ALBANI, Paolo; BUONARROTI, Berlinghiero, 1994. org/wiki/Talossan_language, http://starship.python.net/crew/ Aga magéra difúra. Dizionario delle lingue immaginarie. manus/talossa/, http://www.talossa.com/ [Accessed Bologna: Zanichelli, 478 p. 17.04.2007]. Artificial Language. Available from: http://en. wikipedia. Elvish Linguistic Fellowship. Available from: http:// org/wiki/Constructed_language [Accessed 18.04.2007]. www.elvish.org [Accessed 17.04.2007]. BALL, Hugo. Gadji Beri Bimba. Available from: http:// ERHART, Adolf, 1984. Základy jazykovedy. Praha: SPN. www.peak.org/~dadaist/English/Graphics/gadjiberi.html HAVEL, Ivan. Ptydepe. Available from: http://slovnik- [Accessed 17.04.2007]. cizich-slov.abz.cz/web.php/slovo/ptydepe, http://www. BARANDOVSKÁ-FRANK, Vera, 2003. Archiv- und theaterleitertheater.org/index.php?site=3p [Accessed Werkstattseiten für Plansprachen im Internetz. In: BLANKE, 17.04.2007]. Detlev (Hrsg.), 2003. Plansprachen und elektronische Medien. HENNINGS, Jeffrey. Langmaker. Available from: http:// Berlin: GIL, 9-39. www.langmaker.com/ml0101.htm#bm1 [Accessed BELL, David. Ámman iar. Available from: http://www. 17.04.2007]. graywizard.net/Conlinguistics/amman_iar/amman_iar.htm METÁNOVSKÝ, Jakub Hron. Libomudrun a zpyták. [Accessed 17.04.2007]. Available from: http://www.atuka.org/index.php/article/ Car Osten. Available from: http://lege.cz/toCP1250.en/ articleview/22/1/ [Accessed 17.04.2007]. osten.htm [Accessed 17.04.2007]. The Láadan Language Community. Available from: http:// CAVES, Sally. Teonaht. Available from: http://www. www.sfwa.org/members/elgin [Accessed 17.04.2007]. frontiernet.net/~scaves/teonaht.html [Accessed 17.04.2007]. YAGUELLO, Marina, 1991. Lunatic Lovers of Language. Conlangs. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Imaginary languages and their inventors. London, Ruther- conlangs, http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/language ford etc.: The Athlone Press. [Accessed 17.04.2007]. Zolid Matters. Available from: www.zolid.com/zm/ El Glheþ Talossán. Available from: http://en.wikipedia. [Accessed 17.04.2007].

Vĕra Barandovská-Frank Þvaigþdþiø takø vis labiau ágauna tikros kalbos Kibernetikos institutas Paderborne, Vokietija statusà. Avangardinëje poezijoje kalba kuriama Moksliniai interesai: lotynø ir romanø kalbos, dadaistiðkai ir futuristiðkai. Psichiatrai domisi vaikø dirbtinës kalbos, bendroji interlingvistika. kalbos þaismu ir psichiðkai neágaliø suaugusiøjø, kurie susikuria savus pasaulius (pvz. Thetis Caro LINGVISTIKOS TARPDISCIPLININË Osteno romane Mokslo dukra), kalba. Ði veikla jau PERSPEKTYVA – LINGVISTIKA KAIP HOBIS daug metø yra visiðkai sveikø þmoniø laisvalaikio leidimo bûdas. Internetas leidþia lengviau ir laisviau Santrauka kurti kalbà: „kalbos konstravimas“ (conlanging) tapo Kalbos kûrimas turi senas tradicijas mokslinëje labai populiarus ir ágijo daug pasekëjø. Susikûrë fantastikoje. Jau 1518 metais Thomo Moro Utopijos gausybë individualiø ir ðeimyniniø „kalbos kalba ir abëcëlë buvo gerai þinomi, o ðiais laikais konstravimo“ tinklalapiø, internetiniø individualiø J. R. R. Tolkieno Elfishas ir ypaè Klingonas ið kalbø bendruomeniø, turinèiø savas respublikas, ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 180 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

imperijas, netgi gyventojus, emigrantus ir pabëgëlius. populiarinti susidomëjimà pasaulio kalbomis, Lingvistika ávairiai vertina ðiuos kalbos kûrimus. kultûromis, istorija, geografija, leidþia geriau suprasti Viena vertus, jie nepriklauso gyvoms etninëms kalbos ir civilizacijos sàveikà. kalboms, kadangi jos ið tiesø nesiekia varþytis su REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: kalbos kûrimas, jomis. Kita vertus, jos vis dëlto praturtina literatûrà, groþinë literatûra, kalbos þaismas, „kalbos konstra- teatrà, filmus ir interneto kultûrà. Lingvistika kaip vimas“, tarpdalykiðkumas. hobis yra, be abejonës, tarpdalykinis reiðkinys, apimantis lingvistikà, literatûrà, kultûros studijas, Gauta 2007 11 12 psichologijà, netgi religijà ir kitas sritis. Ji padeda Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 16 181

Tatyana Solomonik-Pankraðova Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities Muitinës g. 8, LT-42280 Kaunas, Lithuania Tel.: (370–37) 42 26 04 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: historical lexicography, lexicology, etymology, history of the English language, culturology, semantics.

THE ANGLO-SAXON ‘MIND’ VOCABULARY: THE SEMANTIC CHANGE FROM ‘MÔD’ TO ‘MINDE’

This paper focuses on drawing a semantic picture of the Old English word gemynd, which exhibits a complicated pattern of semantic development. The study aims at revealing the internal structure of the concepts of mind and memory in the Early Middle Ages by means of etymological, semantic and conceptual analysis. The paper extends an interdisciplinary approach embracing the fields of historical linguistics, semantics, etymology, and culturology. Meanwhile, one of the fascinating features of Anglo-Saxon and Pagan Germanic evidence for the significance of the mind is the image of Odin, King of the God, who is accompanied by two black ravens Huginn and Muninn. The ravens have the ‘telling’ names that refer to the intellectual and emotive qualities of the mind or the intellectual and emotive soul. Meanwhile, in the Old English period the distinct concepts of mind and memory were embedded in the Old English word gemynd. However, in the fourteenth century, mynd/minde underwent a significant shift from the conceptual field of memory to the conceptual field of mind, its semantic space in the conceptual field of memory being occupied by a new word, derived from the Old French memorie. KEY WORDS: concept, soul, mind, memory, etymology, semantic development, inclusion, metonymy

The Anglo-Saxons had two distinct traditions of Meanwhile, the conceptual field of mind in thought about mind. Hence, according to Malcolm Anglo-Saxon was constituted by the following Godden (1987, p. 271), words: gemynd ‘mind, memory’, mōd ‘mind, soul, There is a classical tradition, which exhibits heart, spirit, mood’, hyge ‘thought, mind’, gewit(t) the gradual development of a unitary concept of ‘mind, intellect’, þoht ‘thought, mind’. the inner self, identifying the intellectual mind Old words are disappearing and new words are with the immortal soul and life-spirit. Secondly, coming into being throughout the history of a lan- there is a vernacular tradition that preserved the ancient distinction of soul and mind, associating guage; the relations of sense that hold between the the mind at least as much with passion as with words in the system are continually changing intellect. through the time. Any broadening in the sense of ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 182 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE one word evokes a corresponding narrowing in ing’, Lith mintis ‘thought’, atmintis ‘remem- the sense of one or more of its neighbours. Hence, brance’, menas ‘remembrance, understanding’, the words gewit(t) and þoht entered the concep- OSl иmй ‘mind’, pamętī ‘memory’, Russ ум, разум tual field of intellect. ‘mind’, память ‘memory’. Towards the end of the Old English period mōd In the ancient Indo-European tradition, the is being gradually replaced by gemynd/minde in the ability to think, cogitate, and experience was iden- sense of ‘memory’, ‘remembrance’ and ‘commemo- tified with speech, which humans have and ani- ration’ that is overtly presented nowadays in the mals do not. The semantic distinctive feature of adjective mindful. Therefore, the expressions ‘to speaking/non-speaking, which is the basis for the keep in mind’, ‘to bring something to mind’ retain human/animal opposition, suggests that the same the otherwise obsolete meaning ‘memory’. In the two groups contrast in the feature rational/non- course of its semantic development, mōd underwent rational, since the capacity for speech implies sa- a significant shift from the conceptual field of mind gacity. This conclusion follows from the etymo- to the conceptual field of affection (emotion). Mod- logical identity of the words for speak, think and ern English mood refers to the emotional mind or a remember in various Indo-European dialects specific state of mind at one given time. (Gamkrelidze, Ivanov 1995, p. 394). Consider the Yet this paper focuses on drawing a semantic following cognates: Lith manyti ‘have in mind, picture of the Old English word gemynd, which intend’, atminti, atsiminti ‘remember’, menu exhibits a complicated pattern of semantic devel- ‘think’, minti ‘call, name, guess’, OSl mĕniti opment. The study aims at revealing the internal ‘speak’, pomõù nĕti ‘remember’, mīnjo ‘think’, Russ structure of the concepts of mind and memory in помнить ‘remember’, упоминать ‘mention’. the Early Middle Ages by means of etymological, Meanwhile, one of the fascinating features of semantic and conceptual analysis. Pagan Germanic evidence for the significance of Let us consider the etymology of the Old Eng- the mind is the image of Odin, King of the Gods lish word gemynd. Some etymologists (cf. Julius and the patron of the slain warriors in Valhalla. Pokorny Indogermanisches Etymologisches Four animals, i.e. two wolves Geri and Freki, and Wörterbuch 1959, p. 897) claim that etymolo- two black ravens Huginn and Muninn, accompany gically the Old English gemynd possesses the Indo- him. Huginn and Muninn flew forth daily to gather European stem *men- ‘thought, mind, reason; tidings of events all over the world. We can won- think, remember’, (consider also mon-, mn-), and der why ravens have been considered the proto- define OE gemynd as ‘mind, memory, remem- types of mind. One possible interpretation is that brance’; consider the Germanic cognates of the ravens are very vocal and can sometimes mimic gemynd: Goth muns ‘thought, opinion’, gamunds human speech, and this distinctive feature (ability ‘memory’, ON mynd ‘image, model’, munr to speak) drove the ravens out of the semantic ‘thought, wish’, OHG gimunt ‘memory’, PrGmc group of non-rational into the semantic group of *gamunđi-z ‘memory’. Also consider the Indo- rational. Besides, the ravens of Odin could fly away European cognates of OE gemynd: Skt manas-, and, hence, could be considered the prototypes of manman- ‘mind, perception’, mati, mánah the human soul that wonders away. Therefore, in ‘thought, design’, Gr µένοs (ménos) ‘strength, Old Norse the saying “swift as thought” corre- might’, µάντις (mántis) ‘prophet, diviner’, Lat sponds to fljótr sem hugr manns “flies as man’s mēns, mentis ‘mind’, menas ‘memory, understand- hugr” (Kiricsi 2005, p. 21-26). T. Solomonik-Pankraðova. THE ANGLO-SAXON ‘MIND’ VOCABULARY... 183

The ravens have the ‘telling’ names: Huginn is lish word mōd. Hence, mōd designates the soul as the derived from hugr, and Muninn – from munr, the source of conscious life, feeling, thought and volition, two Old Norse words for the mind, akin to the Old abstraction being made from the vegetative functions. English words hyge ‘mind, thought, heart and soul’, Consider the example from the Blickling Homilies (late and myne ‘mind, purpose, and desire’. Both words tenth century, West Saxon, Ælfric works): refer to the intellectual and emotive qualities of the Seó sâwul is animus đæt is môd, đonne heó wât; mind or the intellectual and emotive soul. heó is mēns, đæt is môd, đonne heó Furthermore, in the Old English period the dis- understent, Homl. Skt. I, 184: Blickl. Homl. 229, tinct concepts of mind and memory were embed- 14, 18. The soul is ‘animus’ that is môd ded in the Old English word gemynd. Hence, An when it knows, whilst it is ‘mens’, that is môd, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (Bosworth and Toller 1954, when it understands (Translation mine. – T. S.-P.). p. 419) defines ge-mynd as follows: 1. Mind, Towards the end of the Old English period and memory, memento, remembrance, commemoration. the beginning of the Middle English period the Consider the example of the Anglo-Saxon piece Old English ge-mynd had lost its prefix ge-. Hence, of writing, i.e. Baedae Historia Ecclesiastica a the corresponding Middle English word mynd/ glorisissimo veterum Anglo-Saxonum rege, in the minde appears in the sense of memory and though. context of which gemynd appears in the sense of mind: Consider the following entry from the Oxford Eng- He fæste on gemynde hæfde he had fast in lish Dictionary Online: mind; memoriter retinuit, Bd. 4, 24; S. 597, 26. c1397 TREVISA Higden (Rolls) II. 191 He was so mygty of mynde [L. tanta memoria viguit] þat Consider also the example of King Alfred’s he rehersed two þowsand names arewe by herte. Anglo-Saxon version of Boethius’ de Consolatione Philosophiae; wherein gemynd is related to the Mynd pertained to the state of being remem- meaning of memory: bered; remembrance, recollection. c1000 – c1520, in phrases, such as a. to be in mind, to come in Gecerre hine to his gemynde…let him have mind, etc. b. to have, bear, keep (hold) in mind. c. recourse to his memory, Bt. 35, 1; Fox. 156, 10. to come, fall, run (to a person) to mind. Obs. d. to In the following line from the Ælfric Homilies bring, to call to mind. e. to be (go, pass) out of (late tenth century, West Saxon, Ælfric works), Old mind; to set out of mind. Obs. exc. in the proverb, English gemynd in the meaning of memory is simi- ‘out of sight, out of mind’. lar to its Latin cognate menas ‘memory, under- Thus in the following line from De Imitatione, standing’: the Middle English piece of writing, mynd acquires the meaning of remembrance, recollection: Đæs mannes sâwl hæfþ on hire þreó þing, đæt is gemynd and andgit and willa. Đurh đæt c1450 tr. De Imitatione I. xxiii. 30 Whan man is gemynd se man geþencþ đa þing đe gehyrde ođđe oute of sigt, sone he passiþ out of mynde. geseah ođđe geleornode man’s soul has in it three things, that is memory and understand- In the above-mentioned example, the concept ing and will. By the memory a man of perception, i.e. sight, out of sight is closely in- recollects the things that he has heard or seen or terconnected with the concept of memory, i.e. out learned, Homl. Th. I. 288, 18-21: 28. of mind. Furthermore, the Latin word mēns could be iden- The distinction could also be made among the tified with the human soul in the sense of the Old Eng- following entries of mynd: 3. to put in mind: to ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 184 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE remind; 4. That which is remembered of; the memore) possesses the Indo-European stem memory or record of. Also in phr. of good mind = *(s)mer- memory; cf. also the Indo-European cog- ‘of happy memory’. Obs.; 5. a. The action or an nates of the Old French memorie: Skt smàrati ‘he act of commemorating; something, which serves remembers’, smaraņa-, smŕti- ‘memory’, Gr to commemorate; a commemoration, a memorial; µέρµερος (mérmeros) ‘mourning’, Lat memor cf. the following line from WYCLIF Luke: ‘mindful’, memoria ‘memory’, Morta ‘the Roman 1388 WYCLIF Luke xxii. 19 Do ge (?) this thing deity of fate (the Fate) who cuts the thread of life; in mynde of me. counterpart of Greek Atropos’. Let us now consider the Latin cognate of the Moreover, the Oxford English Dictionary Online Old French memorie, i.e. Morta ‘the Fate’. One distinguishes among the senses of the commemo- can assume that Morta who cuts the thread of life ration of a departed soul, esp. by a requiem said or is Death. Whereas memory is metaphorically con- sung on the day of the funeral in any month or year nected with life, when one is deprived of life, one following; also, in Old English, as the annual com- is deprived of memory. Therefore, memory could memoration of a saint, in MONTH’S MIND, be used metonymically in the sense of life, i.e. LIFE TWELVE-MOINTH’S or YEAR’S MIND. Con- IS MEMORY. sider the example from Old English Martyrol: Furthermore, the Germanic cognates of the a900 O.E. Martyrol. 2 May 70 On þone æfteran Indo-European stem *(s)mer- are as follows: the dæg þæs monðes bið þæs halgan biscopes Proto-Germanic *murnan, ‘to remember sorrow- gemynd sancta Athanasi. fully’, Goth maúrnan, OHG mornēn, Old English Among the entries of mynd marked Obsolete murnan ‘to mourn’. The reduplicated form of the in the Oxford English Dictionary Online there Indo-European stem *(s)mer-, i.e. *me-mor-: a. could be found the following one: Mīmir, from Germanic *mi-mer-, from Old Norse II. Thought; purpose, intention. 7. a. The ac- Mīmir, ‘a giant who guards the well of wisdom’, tion or state of thinking about something; the OE mimorian ‘remember’. b. memorable, memo- thought of (an object). Chiefly in phrase to have randum, memory; commemorate, remember, from mind of: to think of, give heed to. Similarly to take Latin memor ‘mindful’. mind to, upon. Obs. b. to put (a person) in mind: to Meanwhile the Old Norse cognate of the Old suggest an idea to (him). Obs. Consider the fol- French memorie is Mīmir. In Old Norse mythol- lowing line from PALSGR.: ogy, Mīmir was a giant of superhuman strength who stood half-immersed in the Waters of Ulti- 1530 PALSGR. 674/2 Within this syxe dayes I mate Wisdom, supporting the Kjolen Mountains wyll put him in mynde of his promesse. on his powerful shoulders. He was said to have In the fourteenth century, mynd/minde under- been at his post since the world came into being went a significant shift from the conceptual field and to have become part of the mountain itself. In of memory to the conceptual field of mind, its se- ancient times, oracles would bring vessels and re- mantic space in the conceptual field of memory trieve water from the pool in order to learn the being occupied by a new word, derived from the secrets of the earth. From this it follows that the Old French memorie. water is a prototype of wisdom. Moreover, accord- Julius Pokorny (1959, p. 969) maintains that ing to the gestalt principle of similarity, WISDOM etymologically the Old French memorie (memoire, IS MEMORY. T. Solomonik-Pankraðova. THE ANGLO-SAXON ‘MIND’ VOCABULARY... 185

In the following Figure, the metonymical connection between the concepts of soul, life, mind and memory is being revealed. Consider Fig. 1. In sum, the internal structure of the concepts memory of mind and memory exhibits conceptual hierarchy, i.e. establishes the sense relation of in- mind clusion. The concepts of mind and memory could be used metonymically for the concepts of soul life and life. Lexicalised concepts impose restric- soul tions on possible ways of thinking; hence, the distinct concepts of mind and memory were embedded in the semantic picture of the Old Figure 1. Metonymical connection between the English word gemynd. concepts of soul, life, mind and memory.

References BOSWORTH, Joseph; TOLLER T. N., 1954. An KIRICSI, Ágnes, 2005. Semantic Rivalry of Mod/ Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mood and Gemynd/Minde in Old and Middle English Lit- GAMKRELIDZE, Thomas V.; IVANOV, Vjačeslav erature. PhD dissertation. Budapest. V., 1995. Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans. Berlin. Oxford English Dictionary Online. 2002. Oxford Uni- New York: Mouton de Gryuter. versity Press. GODDEN, Malcolm R., 1985. Anglo-Saxons on the POKORNY, Julius, 1959. Indogermanisches Mind. In: Eds. Michael LAPIDGE; Helmut GNEUSS. Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bern, München: Francke Learning and Literature in Anglo-Saxon England: Cam- Verlag. Bd. I-II. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 271-289.

Tatjana Solomonik-Pankraðova ávaizdis ir jo pagalbininkø varnënø Hugino ir Munino Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva „kalbantys“ vardai, kurie ákûnija dvi proto savybes, Moksliniai interesai: istorinë leksikografija, t.y. intelektà ir emocijas. leksikologija, etimologija, anglø kalbos istorija, Jei senosios anglø kalbos laikotarpyje skirtingos kultûrologija, semantika. proto ir atminties sàvokos buvo reiðkiamos vienu þodþiu gemynd, tai XIV amþiuje á anglosaksø kalbà SEMANTINË KONCEPTO „PROTAS“ RAIDA atëjæs normanø kalbos skolinys memorie pakeitë ANGLOSAKSØ KALBOJE: NUO „MÔD“ PRIE þodþio mynd/minde semantinæ raidà. Kuomet mynd/ „MINDE“ minde persikëlë á konceptualøjá „proto“ laukà, jo vietà konceptualiajame lauke „atmintis“ uþëmë Santrauka memorie. Straipsnio tikslas – apraðyti komplikuotà þodþio gemynd REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: konceptas, siela, semantinæ raidà anglosaksø kalboje. Ðis tarpdalykinis protas, atmintis, etimologija, semantinë raida, straipsnis apima istorinës lingvistikos, semantikos, átraukimas (inkliuzija), metonimija. etimologijos bei kultûrologijos sritis. Proto sàvoka buvo itin svarbi anglosaksams- Gauta 2007 11 12 pagoniams. Apie tai byloja Dievø Karaliaus Odino Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 04 ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 186 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH INTO DISCOURSE AND NARRATIVE

Algis Braun Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities Muitinës 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel.: (370–37) 42 24 77 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: cognitive linguistics, sociolinguistics, language acquisition, multicompetence, American literature.

IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING AND LITHUANIAN–ENGLISH TRANSLATION1

This paper reviews an experiment on the translation of jokes from Lithuanian to English. Jokes were divided into three types, based on the method of humor employed: frame-shifting, conceptual blending, or wordplay. The jokes which employed conceptual blending were significantly more difficult to translate, indicating that the translation task is complicated by the necessity to successfully unblend the source language joke prior to re- blending it in the target language. As expected, attempts to translate jokes word-for-word met with mixed results, and it was often the case that apparently easy jokes could not be translated in this way. The results of the study indicate that extra-linguistic knowledge and grammatical form are both factors influencing the difficulty of translation. Familiarity with the target language is another important factor. Translation is discussed as a form of conceptual blending in itself, in which the concepts of the source text are blended with the forms of the target language. It is suggested that crosslinguistic influence may be an effect of conceptual blending. KEY WORDS: conceptual blending, frame-shifting, translation, humor, crosslinguistic influence.

Background without any particular knowledge of translation Translation is a routine activity in the modern theory or the findings of linguistics research. world. From global advertising campaigns which This is a remarkable accomplishment. translate the same slogan into tens or hundreds Mandelblit (1997, p. 177), for example, has shown of languages, to the internal affairs of the Euro- that translating even simple sentences – based on pean Union, which, while recognizing 23 official language universals and requiring no special back- languages (Europa 2007), still conducts the ma- ground or contextual knowledge – is a very com- jority of its official business in either English or plicated cognitive process involving several stages French, it would be safe to say that millions of and forcing the translator to choose between com- words are translated on a daily basis, very often peting principles. As all advertisers are aware,

1 I am grateful to Assoc. Prof. Dr Ala Likhachiova (Vilnius University) for her comments and suggestions on parts of this text. Needless to say, full responibility for any errors is mine alone. A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 187 word-for-word translation is seldom the ideal translate jokes from Lithuanian, their native lan- choice, although it may be cognitively the least guage, into English. As shall be seen, the suc- demanding. However, the solutions arrived at by cess of their translations was to some extent de- translators do not always reflect the elegance of pendent on their familiarity with Anglo-Ameri- form achieved in the original text – a real prob- can culture.) lem when translating advertising slogans in par- The Common Underlying Conceptual Base ticular. (CUCB), as described by Kecskes & Papp (2000), This paper looks at the theory developed by is the storehouse of the multilingual’s sociocul- Mandelblit (1997) and applies it to the transla- tural background knowledge. Two aspects of the tion of jokes from Lithuanian to English. Jokes CUCB are important for the purposes of this pa- were chosen as the source text for several reasons. per: a) it contains only preverbal concepts, not First, jokes present a particular challenge to trans- words; b) it “consists of mainly culture-specific lators. Since Aristotle, humor has been analyzed rather than universal and neutral concepts” as a kind of harmless incongruity or misunder- (p. 49). Because the concepts are culture-specific, standing. Something incongruous or unexpected it stands to reason that translation equivalents must occur in a joke or it simply won’t be funny. (which are concepts expressed as words) will not This implies that jokes violate expectations, and always be concept equivalents. As an example when expectations are violated there is always the consider the Lithuanian phrase balta duona. possibility for confusion. Laughter, therefore, is Literally translated it would be “white bread.” only one of the possible reactions to humor; other However, balta duona is made with rye flour, reactions include “fear, pity, moral disapproba- emphatically not an ingredient of the food prod- tion, indignation, disgust… and problem-solving” uct meant by the English phrase “white bread,” (Archakis & Tsakona 2005, p. 44). In order to so the concept balta duona would be better trans- translate a joke, naturally, one must first under- lated as “light rye bread.” In the case of jokes, the stand it and, more importantly, understand why it humor often depends on culture-specific concepts might be funny. that can be very difficult to translate, rendering Obviously, jokes depend not only on incon- the task all the more complicated. This will be seen gruity, but also on a listener’s sense of humor. in the discussion below. Sense of humor has been defined (in Apte 1987, Another reason jokes were chosen for this p. 29) as the ability to be amused by a large variety experiment is that jokes represent a specific type of situations, even at one’s own expense. However, of polysemy, as most jokes could, in fact, be taken good a translator’s sense of humor may be, how- literally. Consider example (1): ever, there is always the chance that she simply (1) I’m naturally blond - please speak slowly. won’t be amused by a joke. This could, of course, be attributed to the possible non-humorousness of This example, taken from a pin I gave to a a joke, which can fail for various reasons includ- blond friend many years ago, derives no small part ing its inappropriacy in context (Porcu 2001). of its humor from the fact that the target of the However, it is also possible that the translator, humor – blondes and their supposed intellectual coming from one cultural background, may be limitations – can be imagined as actually asking unable to fully understand all the implications of for such a service. Any sentence which may thus a joke from a different background. (For this be interpreted in more than one way will require reason, students in this experiment were asked to the translator to choose among the possible in- ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 188 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE terpretations before attempting to translate. Trans- Of the 11 jokes given to students to translate lators have, of course, developed techniques to deal in this experiment, seven depend on frame- with problems of polysemy at the word-level (e.g., shifting for their humorous effect. Two more are transformations such as replacement or insertion; rather simplistic plays on words, force no Armalytë & Paþûsis 1990), but when an entire sen- reevaluation of the original assumptions, and were tence or utterance is polysemous – as is usually the criticized by students in the experiment as being case with jokes – such techniques may fall short. “not funny.” The remaining two are examples of The final reason to consider jokes as the trans- conceptual blending, a process in which two men- lation material was the nature of the subject group: tal spaces (Fauconnier 1994) are selectively com- 53 first-, second-, and third-year students of the bined to yield a blended space that contains new, Department of Foreign Languages at the Vilnius emergent meaning not present in either of the University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities (VU input spaces. KHF). As discussed in Scovel (2001, p. 127), In mental spaces theory, any utterance invites working memory is adversely affected by anxiety, the listener to create a mental space to accom- and it was assumed that jokes would cause less modate that utterance. Space builders are used to anxiety among the subjects than other translation help the listener determine what type of space to material. In addition, many of the jokes were truly create, be it hypothetical, predicative of a future funny, and in all groups the students spent or past event, or a joke. Some common English several minutes reading, laughing, and relaxing joke space builders (compiled by myself) are listed before beginning to translate. in (3): Following Coulson (2001), the jokes repre- (3) a. Have you heard (the one) about the sented examples of both frame-shifting and con- _____? ceptual blending. Frame-shifting is the reanalysis b. What do you get if you cross a _____ and/ process a listener undergoes when faced with the with a _____? punch line of a joke. Consider example (2): c. What do you call a _____ that (does) _____? (2) Everyone had so much fun diving from the d. Knock, knock! tree into the swimming pool, we decided to e. How many _____ does it take to _____ put in a little water. (e.g., screw in a light bulb)? f. A _____ walks into a bar…. Until encountering the word “water,” most g. Do you want to hear a joke? readers are likely to assume that the pool was full of water to begin with. This is only natural, as the The joke in (2), which depends on frame-shift- frame associated with backyard swimming pools ing, achieves its humorous effect by surprise. How- certainly contains a value slot for water that is ever, any listener who hears the space builders in automatically activated by the verb “diving.” The (3) will immediately be prepared to encounter a final word of the joke, then, forces a reanalysis of joke. It should be noted that “dead-pan jokes” the entire utterance to accommodate the absurd (Attardo 1993) are presented without the use of (not to mention dangerous) assertion that space builders, often in the midst of otherwise someone was diving from a tree into an empty pool. serious, non-humorous discourse, occasionally Clearly, such a joke does not depend for its humor resulting in failure to notice the joke – failure to on the intricacies of any one language, and it could notice a joke, incidentally, being further proof of be predicted that frame-shifting jokes should be its polysemous nature. However, in this experi- easier to translate than conceptual blends. ment, all the jokes were presented as such, and A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 189

Input space 1 Input space 2

Blended space Figure 1. A schematic conceptual blending network. the very context of the experiment could be con- looking for possible points of comparison sidered a kind of space builder in itself. (Fauconnier & Turner 2002, p. 41). By finding a As discussed in Evans & Green (2006), con- relationship such as Disanalogy, a vital relation ceptual blending is crucial to understanding many (Fauconnier & Turner 2002, p. 92) is established jokes. In order to briefly examine the blending between the two spaces that enables them to be process, consider example (4): compressed into the final, blended space, often (4) Q: What do you get if you cross a kanga- forming a new relation altogether. The Disanalogy roo with an elephant? relation is chosen in this case because the joke A: Holes all over Australia. (p. 441-2) invites the listener to focus on what is different between the two animals. However, at the same In this joke, the listener is invited to construct, time the listener is also asked to imagine a new simultaneously, several mental spaces. First, the creature altogether, something that would be able space builder seen in (3b) appears, effectively an- to embody properties of both a kangaroo and an nouncing the approach of a joke. Within this “joke” elephant. No such animal exists in nature, of space, two new spaces are set up: one for the course, so this imaginary creature will automati- kangaroo, and one for the elephant. These two cally be one-of-a-kind. spaces in themselves contain nothing humorous; In the punch line of the joke, the Disanalogy indeed, they contain only the most prototypical, relation becomes compressed into one of Unique- default representations of the animals in question. ness, as the answer to the question involves a sin- Clearly it is not the point of the joke to imagine gle, unique, heretofore unknown chimera that either animal in great detail, so extremely contains elements of both inputs. In the blended general characteristics are sufficient. In any case, space, certain features of kangaroos and certain until the punch line is heard, it is not clear which other features of elephants are selectively projected aspects, exactly, are going to be focused on. Will to create the image of an elephant-sized kanga- it be the elephant’s trunk? The kangaroo’s pouch? roo that, while able to bounce across the country- Because of this uncertainty, elaboration of either side, is so heavy it leaves a trail of craters in its input space is unnecessary. wake. At this point the listener begins mapping Conceptual blends are typically represented between the input spaces (the two animals), by a blending network, as shown in Figure 1. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 190 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

KANGAROO ELEPHANT moves by jumping moves by walking is bipedal is quadrupedal is human-sized is very large is lightweight is very heavy

Input space 1 Input space 2

KANGAROO-ELEPHANT moves by jumping is bipedal is very large is very heavy

Blended space Figure 2. The “holes all over Australia” blend.

In such a network, the solid lines represent blending in her own language. More broadly, the vital relations between the two input spaces, Mandelblit (1997 p. 206) provides the following the dotted lines represent the selective projection list of “generic principles of translation”: from inputs to blend, and the dots represent ele- 1. Stay as close as possible to the form of the ments to be blended. Now consider the network source text (and the particular aspects of for the joke in (4), represented2 in Figure 2. the communicated event highlighted in the The punch line of (4) completes (or runs) the source text). blend by showing the listener which features of 2. Keep the communicative function (or goal) these animals map onto each other across the of the source text (i.e., both its semantics input spaces. Clearly, trunks and pouches are not and its pragmatic-rhetorical effect). part of the joke; rather, the fact that a kangaroo 3. Create a sentence which sounds natural jumps is coupled with an elephant’s size and in the target language. weight to produce an absurd image. Jokes such as These principles are competitive, in the sense these require no sudden frame-shifting in order that focusing on one is likely to cause some dis- to be funny. Instead, the humor arises from the harmony in another. Attardo (2002 p. 175) looks incongruity between the blend and the original specifically at the translation of humor (within the inputs (Coulson, in press). GTVH framework), and determines that transla- A joke can thus depend on either frame- tion should establish “a correspondence between shifting or conceptual blending for its humorous two texts T1 and T2, such that the meaning (M) effect. In order to translate a joke into another of T1 (MT1) and the meaning of T2 (MT2) are simi- ≈ language, a translator must be keenly aware of lar (approximate): MT1 MT2 and/or the pragmatic the conventions of frame-shifting and conceptual force (F) of T1 (FT1) and the pragmatic force of

2 Actually, the final blend is more complicated than depicted here, as the blended kangaroo-elephant is further blended with its effect on the environment. This process will be discussed in more detail below. A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 191

≈ T2 (FT2) are similar/approximate: FT1 FT2.” This The experiment was conducted with no prior formula, too, contains an element of competition preparation. Students were instructed to translate between M and F. Translation is clearly a process as many of the 11 jokes as they could without of choosing between competing options. using a dictionary. They were not required to This experiment was designed to determine translate all of them. In terms of translation tech- whether translators would employ different nique, no special instruction was given. Students strategies depending on which type of joke was were simply told that they should try to make the being translated. As shall be seen, this was indeed jokes sound funny in English. the case. In addition, it was of interest to deter- The translated jokes were collected, quanti- mine whether different types of jokes were fied, and analyzed. A translation was considered “easier” or “harder” to translate. to be successful if it would be comprehensible to a native speaker of English who has no knowledge of Lithuanian. While some jokes were Experiment translated by many or even all of the students, a The experimental subject group comprised 53 stu- great number of them were unsuccessful. The dents of VU KHF: 19 from the first year, 18 from most common reasons for “mismatch” the second year, and 16 from the third year. (Mandelblit 1997, p. 176) were code-switching, Courses in translation are included as part of their syntactic errors, and lexical gaps. study program beginning in the second year. The Figure 3 shows, for each joke, the total number jokes were collected in October and November of translations compared to the number of 2006 from Kauno diena, a daily newspaper pub- successful translations as an average across all lished in Kaunas, and Savas, a bi-weekly newspa- three years of study. per for students. All 11 jokes can be found (in the Jokes 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 11 are examples of original Lithuanian, untranslated) in the Appen- frame-shifting. Jokes 2 and 9 are plays on words, dix. and Jokes 6 and 10 are conceptual blends.

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Total attempts 50% = 53)

n Successful ( 40% translations 30% 20%

Percentage of total sample total of Percentage 10% 0% 1234567891011 Joke number

Figure 3. The translation sample. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 192 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Jokes 3, 8, and 11 were clearly the “easiest” (5) a. Ið ko buvo padaryta pirmoji moteris? jokes to translate. All 53 students translated Joke Ið pirmos mergaitës. b. From what was made the first woman? 3, 42 of them (79%) successfully. Joke 8 was trans- From the first girl. lated by 46 students (87%), of which 36 (68%) did so successfully. And Joke 11, translated by 51 This joke is a clear example of frame-shifting. students (96%), was successfully translated by It can be assumed that most listeners are familiar 49 – a difference of only 4%. All three of these with the Biblical account of Creation and thus jokes are frame-shifting jokes. know that the prototypical answer to the ques- The most difficult jokes were 6 and 10. Both tion should be some version of “From the first of them are conceptual blends. Although 48 stu- man” or “From Adam’s rib.” As in example (2), dents (90%) attempted to translate Joke 6, only however, upon encountering the final word the 12 (22%) did so with any success. Joke 10 was listener is forced to reevaluate the entire translated by only 24 students (45%), and of these, utterance. only two (4%) produced translations that could The success of the translation, then, depends be considered successful. The nature of their in large part on word order. As could be expected, “success” will be discussed in more detail below. “girl” is the final word in every translation of this It is not possible to discuss every joke in this joke. Example (6) shows two unsuccessful trans- paper, so space will be limited to one example of lations: each type. Table 1 provides the number of (6) a. Who was the first woman? The first successful translations expressed as a percentage girl. of the total number of students in the experiment b. What was made of first woman? She (n = 53), shown with each joke’s corresponding was made of first girl. type. In (6a), by choosing the verb “be” instead of Joke 11 stands out immediately as the “make,” the student loses all connection with the “easiest” joke: the difference between the total original “Biblical Creation” frame. There is thus number of translations and the number of no frame-switching triggered by the answer, which successful translations is only 4%. Indeed, only in turn becomes, not funny, but confusing. In (6b), four students were unable to translate this joke. the verb “make” has been correctly chosen, but Actually, as this was the last joke in the list they the preposition has been changed to “of” instead were given, it is quite possible that they simply of “from.” In addition, the subject of the ques- ran out of time. Example (5) presents the joke in the original Lithuanian, followed by a typical tion, “first woman,” has been moved to the end. student translation. Unlike Lithuanian, English cannot tolerate such

Table 1. Percentage of successful translations from total sample (100% = 53 students).

Joke 1 Joke 2 Joke 3 Joke 4 Joke 5 Joke 6 Joke 7 Joke 8 Joke 9 Joke 10 Joke 11 frame- 42% 79% 57% 45% 30% 67% 92% shifting conceptual 22% 4% blending play on 62% 60% words

A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 193 movement operations and still retain the original Eina aplink jà ir galvoja: Kokia ilga meaning of the question. Compare (6b) with (7): tvora... b. Hedgehog was walking in the forest (7) What was the first woman made of? when he saw a barrel. Walking around it, he kept thinking, “What a long (6b) is a subject question which implies that fence…” (translation mine). the first woman (or parts thereof) was used to make some other entity or object, about which As can be seen, this joke is readily translated the questioner is curious. (7) is an object question into English, even though no English jokes using which implies that some other entity or object was this space builder exist. What makes (8) more used to make the first woman. (6b), then, is a difficult than (9) is the fact that (8) is a concep- syntactic mismatch and cannot be considered tual blend—a particularly complicated one. The comprehensible to anyone without some first input space of this “eþys” blend contains the knowledge of Lithuanian-sanctioned movement hedgehog. However, this hedgehog, as in all the operations. “eþiukas” jokes, is itself already a blend of a real Returning to Figure 3, the next joke that stands hedgehog and a human being, in the sense that it out from the chart would be the most “difficult”: is imagined as walking, talking, and having hu- Joke 10. Only 43% of the subjects (23 students) man feelings (cf. Turner 2005, p. 23). Such a blend even attempted to translate it, and of those, only of blends is called a megablend (Fauconnier & two students were in any sense successful. It is Turner 2002, p. 153). The second input space con- worth noting that one second-year student even tains information about an actual Lithuanian admitted that she didn’t understand this joke in mobile telephone service provider, a company Lithuanian—her native language. Example (8) called “Eþys.” This input, too, is already a blend: presents Joke 10 in Lithuanian, together with my the company providing the service and the own unsatisfactory translation (in the absence of service itself have been compressed. In addition, any sort of “typical” student translation): the word used to name the animal is yet another blend: in the traditional jokes of this kind, he is (8) a. Ëjo eþys miðku ir baigësi papildymas. b. Hedgehog was walking in the forest. referred to as eþiukas “hedgehog (dim.)”, whereas Suddenly... his credit ran out. in (8) his name has been blended with that of the phone company to produce “eþys,” not diminu- This translation is unsatisfactory because the tive, but with a lower-case “e”. joke depends on extralinguistic knowledge that What kind of vital relations can be mapped simply cannot be translated within the context of between these two inputs? Disanalogy, certainly, the joke itself (recall the discussion of the CUCB, and also Representation, in the sense that both above). First, the phrase “ëjo eþys/eþiukas miðku” the company name and logo (a stylized drawing is a Lithuanian space builder like those in (3). A of a hedgehog) represent the animal. However, series of jokes have been constructed on the this mapping is not immediately obvious (which premise that Hedgehog (the “hero” of the jokes) may explain the second-year student’s inability to goes walking in a forest, where something ridicu- get the joke), as the key word papildymas “a refill lous happens to him, usually something that ? a credit limit” (from the service provider input) proves how incongruously he acts and makes him is the last word in the sentence. the butt of the joke. Example (9) is a typical joke The verb baigtis “to finish, end, run out” is a of this category: reflexive verb formed by adding the particle -s to (9) a. Ëjo eþiukas miðku ir pamatë statinæ. the verb baigti, thereby changing it from an ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 194 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

Phone Hedgehog service Human provider being Phone service ežiukas “Ežys” walks and talks enables communication looks like a hedgehog hedgehog logo is mortal service can be terminated lives in the forest

“ežys” lives in the forest looks like a hedgehog is mortal/can be terminated

Figure 4. The “Eþys” blend.

active, transitive verb (in which an AGENT “finishes” (10) a. “Eþys” was walking in the forest and a PATIENT) to an intransitive verb whose AGENT his credit has ended. b. A small animal with needles was walk- “finishes” itself (Paulauskienë 1994, p. 289). In ing in the forest and completeness sud- order to understand the joke, a listener is required denly finished. to project, from the service provider input, the idea of a telephone conversation being suddenly ter- After the analysis of Joke 10, example (10a) is minated when the pre-paid phone card’s credit almost understandable. However, leaving the limit runs out (it therefore terminates itself); and, word “Eþys” untranslated and unexplained leaves from the hedgehog input, the death of a small the native English speaker clueless as to the sub- mammal. Whether this particular blend makes a ject of the sentence. In (10b), the student didn’t funny joke or not, of course, is a matter of personal know the word “hedgehog” and attempted to opinion. This blend is illustrated in Figure 4. describe the animal instead. Such detailed descrip- The wonder of conceptual blending is that so tion, however, destroys any mappings between the many compressions and blends can take place hedgehog and the service provider, and even between the hedgehog and the human being: it simultaneously and in the blink of an eye. The reverts to being a real hedgehog. Similarly, the problem for translation is that the blends-within- word “completeness,” apparently coined to blends nature of this joke means that some of the translate papildymas, has no comprehensible information must be “un-packed” (Mandelblit, meaning in the context of a real hedgehog 1997, p. 176) and made explicit for the English walking in a real forest. speaker. Students who failed to do so created The two “successful” translations are pre- incomprehensible translations. sented in (11): Example (10) shows just two of many unsuccessful attempts: (11) a. (“Fox” is a mobil phone bill) One upon A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 195

a time a “fox” was walking through the d. Female is stronger than male because forest and the bill ends. male feels weakness for female. b. Credit card was walking and lost her money. In the Lithuanian version Joke 2 plays with the words silpnoji “the weak (f) one” and silpnybë By providing a brief explanation (even though “weakness,” and also exploits the contrast between the type of animal has been changed), the author silpnoji lytis “the weaker sex” and stiprioji lytis “the of (11a) successfully un-packs the blend and stronger sex.” This contrast is becoming uncommon enables comprehension of at least that part of the in English, where the term “the weaker sex” has joke. However, it is worth considering whether this long been considered dated and chauvinistic. explanation doesn’t ruin the joke. Any joke which The translation in (12b) was the most has to be explained to the listener could be common. Students who chose this option at- considered a failure. In addition, it is still not clear tempted to stay as close as possible to the letter of (from an English listener’s point of view) why the the source text (cf. Mandelblit’s first principle, “fox” should be walking through a forest in the above). Unfortunately, in such translations the first place, because the student still hasn’t sentence becomes long and unwieldy. Lithuanian explained the Hedgehog space builder. nouns and adjectives are marked for gender and (11b) can only be considered “successful” by case, which helps the listener keep track of the a large stretch of the imagination. The core of the sequence of ideas in the sentence. In English, joke – the blend of the hedgehog and the service however, the morphology of the words themselves provider of the same name – has completely provides no such assistance. Examples (12c) and disappeared. However, the translation creates its (12d), by reducing the cognitive burden, sound own blend, that of a credit card and a careless more natural (cf. Mandelblit’s third principle). It human being, to create the concept of a careless is of interest to note that, comparing across the credit card – not a direct translation, but poten- three years tested, only one first-year student (of tially humorous on its own. 16 who attempted to translate Joke 2) wrote a Joke 11 is a frame-shifting joke, and Joke 10 version like (12c), and none wrote anything like is a conceptual blending joke. Joke 2, on the other (12d). In the second-year group, 14 students wrote hand, makes no use of either frame-shifting or translations for this joke; of these, two wrote a 3 conceptual blending. The joke is a wordplay , and version like (12c) and one wrote a version like is presented in example (12) along with three typi- (12d). Looking at the third-year students, 13 trans- cal student translations: lated the joke, and of these, five wrote a version (12) a. Silpnoji lytis stipresnë uþ stipriàjà dël like (12c) and two wrote a version like (12d). stipriosios lyties stiprios silpnybës These results suggest that the third-year stu- silpnajai. dents’ greater familiarity with English language b. Weak sex is stronger than stronger sex because of strong sex weakness for weak norms (due to a longer period of time studying) sex. and/or Anglo-American cultural norms may have c. Women are stronger than men, be- helped them make better choices in translating cause of men’s strong weakness to and arrive at more successful translations. At the women. same time, the third-year students were the most

3 Delabastita (1996, p. 128) defines wordplay as “the general name for the various textual phenomena in which structural features of the language(s) used are exploited in order to bring about a communicatively significant confrontation of two (or more) linguistic structures with more or less similar forms and more or less different meanings.” ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 196 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE critical of their own translations. Apparently they Students’ sense of humor is another variable are frustrated by the gap between what they can in the translation process which was not studied understand and what they can create themselves: here. Similarly, differences in the appreciation of their own efforts sound wrong to them, but they humor between Lithuanian and Anglo-American aren’t sure how to improve them yet. It was a third- culture should surely affect the translation proce- year student who wrote of her translation of Joke dures used. In a recent article on the Lithuanian 2, “It sounds clumsy in English!” sense of humor, comedienne Asta Baukutë claims that “Lietuviðkas humoras yra ir jis yra paveiktas kultûros, klimato, ðalèio, þemës ûkio. / There is Discussion such a thing as Lithuanian humor, and it is The results of this experiment can certainly be affected by our culture, climate, cold, and agri- further analyzed. Very little comparison has been culture” (Klimèiauskaitë 2007, p. 4; translation done across the three groups of students within mine) – a view that implies that in order to fully the sample. No attempt was made in this study to appreciate the sense of humor of another culture, examine the length of time students had spent one would need to live in that culture for some studying English prior to the experiment. An time, something that the students in this experi- informal survey of 20 first-year students revealed ment have not had the opportunity to do. that the majority began studying English in the In a recent article, Bell (2006, p. 4) notes that, second form, meaning that most of them had 11 while “humor itself is a universal phenomenon, years of school English instruction before enter- its instantiations within cultural groups can be very ing university. However, there is great individual particular, involving culturally specific topics, variation even assuming this number applies to forms and styles of language, and contextuali- zation cues.” Her study examined the ways that the majority of the total sample. Some students American native speakers (NSs) of English have been taught by native speakers, others have reacted to and marginalized a non-native speaker attended private lessons at language schools or (NNS) from Thailand. One reaction involved with private tutors (where, again, some of the explicit instruction as to what the NNS should teachers may be native speakers). In general, consider humorous, though it should be noted that teachers vary in the amount of Lithuanian they such instruction was apparently unsuccessful. My allow in the classroom. The textbook used is experiment asked NNSs to translate jokes into another factor, and those students whose text- English in such a way that NSs would find them books were written for a foreign audience (i.e. amusing. On the evidence of Bell (2006), it seems entirely in English) may be at a different level of this may have been too much to ask. acquisition than those whose books were bilingual. This experiment was also highly biased in favor Finally, individual differences in terms of of frame-shifting jokes. It would be interesting to working memory span and attention (Skehan redesign the experiment with a more balanced 1998), anxiety (Scovel 2001), perceived social dif- blend of joke types, including also some non-joke ference (Butler & Hakuta 2004), motivation sentences as controls. (Scovel 2001; Skehan 1998; Wood 1998), Finally, almost none of the translations were multilanguage aptitude (Herdina & Jessner 2002), completely native-like. In other words, almost all and so forth were not examined, although these of them exhibited some signs of crosslinguistic are important factors that certainly play a role in influence from Lithuanian (and/or Russian). As a given student’s ease of or success in translation. an example, consider (5) again: A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 197

(5) a. Ið ko buvo padaryta pirmoji moteris? blend to be un-packed and reformulated in the Ið pirmos mergaitës. target language. Which morphosyntactic structure b. From what was made the first woman? to choose for this reformulation also depends on From the first girl. conceptual blending. Both Fauconnier and Turner To be a grammatically correct, English-like (1996) and Mandelblit (1997) have shown that sentence, the translation should read, “What was grammatical structures are themselves conceptual the first woman made from?” or, possibly, “How blends. The conclusion to draw, it seems to me, is was the first woman made?” (5b) is a direct, one- that translation is a sophisticated act of concep- to-one translation of (5a). There are at least two tual blending. Creating a target language sentence ways to explain this fact. First, the student may that satisfies the general principles of translation have resorted to word-for-word translation and is understandable by a native speaker requires simply to reduce the cognitive load of the assign- blending the concepts expressed in the source lan- ment, knowing that she still had nine more jokes guage sentence with one’s knowledge of the tar- to translate. However, it could also be that the get language forms. (Recall that more advanced Lithuanian structure “ið ko” is being transferred students created more natural translations of Joke into English, obscuring the more natural-sound- 2, indicating that their greater familiarity with ing English constructions that are certainly part English forms allows them to blend more freely of the student’s passive knowledge. According to and creatively.) Many examples of unsuccessful the competition model, “everything that can trans- translations may thus be studied as failed concep- fer will” (MacWhinney 2005, p. 55). Interlanguage tual blends. Consider, for example, the coinage phenomena such as transfer (described elsewhere “completeness” in the discussion of Joke 10: a in this paper by the more inclusive rubric nonce blend, perhaps, of one possible translation “crosslinguistic influence”, as discussed in Herdina of the verb papildyti “to refill; to replenish ? to & Jessner 2002) are well known in language complete” with a typical English noun suffix, -ness. acquisition studies. Their relevance for transla- Such an error can be taken as an example of cross- tion studies, however, does not seem to be a popu- linguistic influence, of course, but I now suggest lar area of research. that cross-linguistic influence may also be studied It has been demonstrated in this paper how as conceptual megablending. translation of a conceptual blend can require that Such translation-blends (successful or other-

Concepts Concepts

Forms Forms

Source language text Target language knowledge

Concepts

Forms

Target language text Figure 5. A schematic translation-blend. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 198 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE wise) would be no less complicated than the “eþys” I would further suggest that all communica- megablend discussed above. One input space tion in a second language requires such transla- would contain the source language text, itself a tion-blending. In essence, every utterance pro- blend of concepts and grammatical forms. The duced in a foreign language is a conceptual blend. other space would contain the concepts and forms This is not to deny the existence of universal con- of the target language. A successful translation cepts or semantic primes (cf. Wierzbicka 1998). would thus harmoniously project elements from However, as Wierzbicka (1998, p. 115) writes, “the both inputs to a blend that successfully conveys great majority of words in any language are lan- the concepts of the source language text in the guage specific in their meaning.” The Natural forms of the target language. Figure 5 is a highly Semantic Metalanguage and the “close to 60” simplified attempt to portray such a translation- (p. 114) universal concepts therefore cannot blend as a conceptual integration network. account for the millions of possible translations that can be imagined, especially when such trans- In the CUCB, according to Kecskes & Papp lations involve conceptual blending or frame-shift- (2000, p. 46), concepts originally specific to one ing as in the jokes examined above. Similarly, the language can become neutralized, or made cultural scripts approach described in Goddard available through other language channels (2004) is a useful way of describing what certain without reconceptualization. Such neutralization key concepts might mean to a given culture, and depends on two variables: the nature of the could potentially be used to explain what a given concept itself (skills, for example, learned in the culture understands by “humor” and “joke.” But context of one language, are almost immediately jokes themselves are far beyond the descriptive neutralized; p. 50), and environmental pressure. powers of such scripts. One will not try to express a concept in another language until the need arises, naturally, and those concepts that are used least frequently are the Conclusion most “opaque” (p. 51). Jokes, of course, and The experiment has shown that, while the trans- especially those which are conceptual blends, are lation of jokes is possible, the success of such trans- not frequently expressed, and even more rarely lation depends on the type of joke. Jokes based translated. The jokes in this experiment were new on conceptual blending, especially where such to almost all of the students who translated them, blending involves culture-specific concepts, may and were therefore non-neutralized concepts. be prohibitively difficult to translate. Research into Neutralization, in the terms developed in this translation as a form of conceptual blending is only paper, is the successful translation-blending of beginning, yet it seems possible that translations source language concepts into the target language. may be highly sophisticated megablends.

References

ARCHAKIS, A.; TSAKONA, V. 2005. Analyzing conver- ATTARDO, S., 1993. Violation of conversational sational data in GTVH terms: A new approach to the issue of maxims and cooperation: The case of jokes. Journal of Prag- identity construction via humor. Humor 18 (1), 41-68. matics 19, 537-558. ARMALYTË, O.; PAÞÛSIS, L. 1990. Vertimo teorijos ATTARDO, S., 2002. Translation and humour: An pradmenys. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. approach based on the General Theory of Verbal Humour, GTVH). The Translator 8 (2), 173-194. A. Braun. IT SOUNDS CLUMSY IN ENGLISH: CONCEPTUAL BLENDING... 199

BELL, N. D., 2006. Interactional adjustments in humorous (eds.). Cognitive linguistics, second language acquisition, and intercultural communication. Intercultural Pragmatics 3 (1), 1-28. foreign language teaching. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. BUTLER, Y. G.; K. HAKUTA, 2004. Bilingualism and HERDINA, P.; JESSNER, U., 2002. A dynamic model of second language acquisition. In: T. K. BHATIA; W. C. RIT- multilingualism: Perspectives of change in psycholinguistics. CHIE (eds.). The handbook of bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. 114-144. KECSKES, I.; PAPP, T., 2000. Foreign language and mother COULSON, S., 2001. Semantic leaps: Frame-shifting and tongue. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. conceptual blending in meaning construction. Cambridge: Cam- KLIMÈIAUSKAITË, A., 2007. Iš ko juokiasi Lietuva? bridge University Press. TV Panorama 39 (51), 2-4. COULSON, S. (in press). What’s so funny: Conceptual MACWHINNEY, B., 2005. A unified model of language blending in humorous examples. In: V. HERMAN (ed.). The acquisition. In: J. F. KROLL; A. M. B. De GROOT (eds.). poetics of cognition: Studies of cognitive linguistics and the ver- Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. Oxford: bal arts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available Oxford University Press, 49-67. from: http://cogsci.ucsd.edu/~coulson/papers.htm [Accessed MANDELBLIT, N., 1997. Grammatical blending: Crea- 11 November 2007]. tive and schematic aspects in sentence processing and transla- DELABASTITA, D. (ed.), 1996. Wordplay and Transla- tion. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, San Diego. tion. Manchester: St. Jerome. PAULAUSKIENË, A., 1994. Lietuviø kalbos morfologija. EVANS, V.; GREEN, M., 2006. Cognitive linguistics: An Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijø leidykla. introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. PORCU, L., 2001. Fishy business: Humor in a Sardinian Europa. Education and Training web site, updated 18 July fish market. Humor 18 (1), 69-102. 2007. Available from: http://ec. europa.eu/education/policies/ SCOVEL, T., 2001. Learning new languages: A guide to lang/languages/index_en.html [Accessed 11 November 2007]. second language acquisition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. FAUCONNIER, G., 1994. Mental spaces: Aspects of mean- SKEHAN, P., 1998. A cognitive approach to language learning construction in natural language. Cambridge: Cambridge ing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. University Press. TURNER, M., 2005. Compression and representation. FAUCONNIER, G.; TURNER, M., 1996. Blending as a Language and Literature 15 (1), 17-27. central process of grammar. In: A. E. GOLDBERG (ed.). WIERZBICKA, A., 1998. The semantics of English causa- Conceptual structure, discourse and language. Stanford: CSLI tive constructions in a universal-typological perspective. In: Publications, 113-130. M. TOMASELLO (ed.). The new psychology of language: Cog- FAUCONNIER, G.; TURNER, M., 2002. The way we nitive and functional approaches to language structure. Mahwah, think: Conceptual blending and the mind’s hidden complexities. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. New York: Basic Books. WOOD, D., 1998. How children think and learn: The so- GODDARD, C., 2004. “Cultural scripts”: A new medium cial contexts of cognitive development. 2nd edn. Oxford: for ethnopragmatic instruction. In: M. ACHARD; S. Niemeier Blackwell.

Appendix: List of jokes used in the experiment 1. Máslë: Koks gyvûnas ðliauþia lubomis ir èiulpia lempas? Atsakymas: Lubinis lempaèiulpys. 2. Silpnoji lytis stipresnë uþ stipriàjà dël stipriosios lyties stiprios silpnybës silpnajai. 3. Kalbasi dvi blondinës: – Mane vakar uþpuolë maniakas. – Seksualinis? – Nelabai. 4. Kalbasi du draugai. Vienas klausia: – Kà reiðkia “I don’t know”? – Neþinau. – Nesuprantu, ko tik paklausiu, niekas neþino. 5. Studentas baigæs universitetà sugráþta pas tëvus namo ir klausia mamos: – Gavau inþinieriaus diplomà, tik niekaip nesuvokiu, kaip ið tos algos pragyventi? O mama atsako sûnui: – O tu vok vok ir suvoksi... ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 200 CONTEMPORARYKALBA IR RESEARCH VISUOMENË INTO / LANGUAGE DISCOURSE AND AND SOCIETY NARRATIVE

6. Internetas labai primena internatà – ið abiejø labai sunku iðtrûkti. 7. Paþeidus saugumo technikos reikalavimus ne tik mirðtama, bet ir gimstama. 8. Baltarusijos prezidento rinkimai. Balsavimo biuletenis: Ar Jûs neprieðtarautumëte, kad prezidentu taptø A. Lukaðenka: 1. Taip, neprieðtarauju. 2. Ne, neprieðtarauju. 9. Jeigu vakarëlyje atsiras mergina praradusi saikà, bûtinai atsiras vaikinas, kuris praras sàþinæ. 10. Ëjo eþys misku ir baigësi papildymas. 11. Ið ko buvo padaryta pirmoji moteris? Ið pirmos mergaitës.

Algis Braun sëkmingai „atmaiðyti“ anekdotà kalboje, ið kurios Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva verèiama, po to já ið naujo „sumaiðyti“ vertimo Moksliniai interesai: kognityvinë lingvistika, kalboje. Kaip ir tikëtasi, anekdotø vertimo paþodþiui sociolingvistika, kalbø mokymasis, multi- rezultatai buvo ávairûs. Daugeliu atvejø pakankamai kompetencija, Amerikos literatûra. paprastø anekdotø taip iðversti nepavyko. Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad vertimo sudëtingumà veikia ir PRASTAI SKAMBA ANGLØ KALBA: ekstralingvistinës þinios, ir gramatinës formos. Dar KONCEPTØ BLENDINGAS IR LIETUVIØ- vienas svarbus veiksnys yra vertimo kalbos þiniø ANGLØ KALBØ VERTIMAI gilumas. Vertimo procesas vertinamas kaip konceptø blendingo rûðis, kai verèiamo teksto konceptai yra Santrauka „maiðomi“ su vertimo kalbos formomis. Daroma Straipsnyje analizuojama konceptø blendingo átaka iðvada, kad konceptø blendingas veikia abiejø kalbø anekdotø vertimui ið lietuviø kalbos á anglø kalbà. sàveikà. Anekdotai buvo suskirstyti á tris grupes pagal REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: konceptø blendingas, humoro bûdà (freimø poslinkis, konceptø blen- freimø poslinkis, vertimas, humoras, tarplingvistinë dingas, þodþiø þaismas). Anekdotus, kuriuose buvo átaka. panaudotas konceptø blendingas, versti buvo þymiai sudëtingiau. Vertimo procesà apsunkino bûtinybë Gauta 2007 11 12 Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 25 201

KULTÛRA IR IÐSILAVINIMAS: LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI / CULTURE AND EDUCATION: TIME CHALLENGES

Michael Cwik Forum for Language Rights and Cultural Diversity in Brussels Sijsjeslaan 22 B 3080 Tervuren, Belgium Tel./fax: (32–2) 76 74 021 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: Cultural diversity and non-discriminatory in communication, common strategy for a non-discriminatory multi-lingual education system.

HOW TO ACHIEVE NON-DISCRIMINATION IN “INTER-ETHNIC, INTER-CULTURAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION” IN THE LONG RUN? A Theoretical and Practical Approach for Multilingual Communities and International Organisations

Discrimination in “inter-ethnic, inter-cultural and international communication” exists in our daily life in all circumstances, in private exchanges, public meetings, professional conversations, bilateral and multilateral negotiations, in international associations and organisations, and, finally, also between the civil servants and people working in the European Institutions. Due to the educational system in our schools, we do not have a communication problem, but we have a language problem, which consists in the fact, that, in most cases, one person can speak in his/her mother tongue and the other not; if this happens in the professional and competitive field of daily life, this objective disadvantage for the non-mother tongue speaker becomes an element of discrimination and can influence his daily life and career in a considerable way. Do we need universal and non-discriminatory solutions in communication? The situation within the European Union and its institutions can be used as a good example. At least three different universal solutions for the target of non-discrimination in communication: all languages, one (non-discriminatory, auxiliary) language and two languages for maintaining diversity in language instruction. KEY WORDS: inter-ethnic, inter-cultural and international communication, language, non-discriminatory solutions. ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 202 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

1. Starting point: Definitions and some 3. In the field of private activities, everyone conclusions of a symposium in 2003 on can organise his/her communication in the language policies in the European Union1 language of his/her preference, but, in dealing with public authorities, everyone’s Communication between people means, in the language use (communication) has to be first place, language use for the exchange of feel- in conformity with the legal and linguistic ings and ideas. In the case of persons having a provisions in force at the place concerned different linguistic background, the use of one’s (principle of local self-government). mother tongue plays an important role for mu- 4. In the internal organisation of one’s own tual comprehension. business, everyone is free to determine the In order to facilitate the discussion about dis- language of communication, but, in apply- crimination or non-discrimination in communi- ing for a job, everyone has to meet the pro- cation between people having different mother fessional requirements including the nec- tongues, it might be useful to refer to the conclu- essary linguistic qualification for commu- sions of a one-day symposium in May 2003 in the nication required for the activity con- European Parliament about “citizens’ communi- cerned by the employing firm, association cation rights and duties in a future Constitution or institution (principle of professional of the multilingual European Union. qualification). Under the chairmanship of the MEP, Michael 5. Communication within public services and Gahler, the participants adopted the following administration in Member States depends eight principles to be applied in language policies on the legal and constitutional framework in the European Union and to be subject of rights of the country concerned (principle of and duties in communication within a multilin- subsidiarity). gual community: 6. Communication of the Institutions of the 1. Everybody is free in the choice of the lan- European Union should be non-discrimi- guage for communication with others, but, natory, rational and efficient; therefore, as in the communication with public services general guideline it can be said that exter- and authorities, everyone has to conform nal communication towards the citizen and to the legal and linguistic provisions that within the framework of a political man- are applied at the place concerned (terri- date has to cover all official languages of torial principle). the Union, while internal communication 2. In the private sphere, everybody has the needs a common means of communica- right to communicate in the language of tion; as long as such a working language his/her choice, but, those standing for elec- consists of a national language, discrimi- tion to public office should master com- nation in communication persists (distinc- munication in the local language(s) and tion between external ‘citizen’ communi- recognise the legal and linguistic provisions cation and internal ‘professional’ commu- of the place concerned (principle of inte- nication). gration).

1 Brussel/Bruxelles, 6.5.2003, European Parliament, Symposium on “What language policies for a multilingual European Union? – Do we write citizens’ communication rights and duties into a European Constitution?” published on the website http://www.europe-citizen.net/symposium.html M. Cwik. HOW TO ACHIEVE NON-DISCRIMINATION IN “INTER-ETHNIC, INTER-CULTURAL... 203

7. As long as discrimination in the internal 2. Multilateral communication: communication of the institutions of the 1. When more than two persons speak, Union does exist, the competent bodies at work and debate in their respective the Union level and the education authori- mother tongues, and, every participant ties in the Member States should under- has, at least, a sufficient passive lan- take research in the field of a non-discrimi- guage knowledge of the used lan- natory system such as a universal language guages. model (planned language), its conditions, 2. When more than two persons of dif- capacities and limits, to support feasibility ferent cultural and linguistic back- studies and to facilitate language experi- ground speak, work or debate in a ments with view to ultimately resolving the third, common, for all participants remaining discrimination in internal and ‘neutral’ language (this can be a natu- inter-ethnic communication (principle of ral or planned language). equality and non-discrimination). 3. Voluntary, non-competitive and territorial 8. Finally, it is in the responsibility of the com- legally linked communication: petent authorities in the Member States 1. When a person, for private, educa- and of the competent bodies at the Euro- tional and cultural purposes, uses another language than his/her mother pean level to co-ordinate best practices in tongue , and, communicates in an non- this field, to organise the necessary lan- competitive environment (leisure time guage instruction in schools, to offer and meetings, sport associations). guarantee diversity in language learning, 2. When a person has to communicate in and, finally, to safeguard the cultural and another language than his/her mother linguistic identities within this multilingual tongue with a public administration or Union (principle of diversity in unity). authority which belongs, for the person concerned, to a foreign legal terri- 2. When can we consider inter-ethnic, tory for him or her (other Commune, intercultural and international Municipality, Canton, Region, Land, communication as non-discriminatory? or, State). • In general, on can say: When a person can speak, work and debate in his/her mother tongue. 3. What does discrimination in • In particular: communication, that is “language use”, 1. Concerning bilateral communication: then mean in a multilingual community? 1. When two persons of different cultural • In general, discrimination in communica- and linguistic background can speak in tion can be considered: their respective mother tongues and 1. When a person, at his/her place of origin, each of them can understand the lan- is obliged to use, for administrative and guage of the other. employment purposes a language which is 2. When two persons of different cultural not his/her mother tongue, while others, and linguistic background speak, work at the same place, on the same territory, or debate in a third common language can use there mother tongue (minority (a natural or planned language). aspect). ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 204 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

2. When a person cannot use his/her mother cannot work in their mother tongue must tongue in professional, competitive and often have specific knowledge or experi- public relations, while others can do (trans- ence in order to compete in their profes- national aspect). sional career with mother tongue speak- • Discrimination exists, because: ers of the working language(s). 1. a mother tongue speaker knows best his 4. In European and international organisa- language, its idioms and cultural tions, those who do not have the working specificities; language(s) as their mother tongue, are 2. a mother tongue speaker has objective mostly not only discriminated in relation advantages in speaking, working and de- to mother tongue speakers of one lan- bating in his own language, when it comes, guage, but even are discriminated twice or in particular, to competition and legal in- more times; because they have not only to terpretation of words and expressions; master one, for them, foreign working lan- 3. a mother tongue speaker can better mas- guage, but need also to have, at least, a ter the whole range of possible legal inter- passive knowledge of the other national pretations of official and public texts; working languages. 4. a mother tongue speaker can thus have objective advantages in his professional 4. Where do we have concrete cases of career, in particular, when he has to work discrimination in communication? in an transnational enterprise or in an international organisation. • At the local and regional level: • In particular, discrimination in communi- When the language of a group of persons, cation exists, due to the fact in a multilingual en- living since centuries or generations in a spe- vironment, that one can speak, work and debate cific area or region, is not recognised as an in his/her mother tongue and the other not! official language of the country or state, these 1. If the language of the mother tongue persons cannot communicate with the admin- speaker is at the same time used as a na- istration and the public authorities in their tional or international language, a mother mother tongue (examples: historic cultural or tongue speaker can meanwhile specialise linguistic communities, national minorities). in non-linguistic matters, while a non- • At the national level: mother tongue speakers have to invest When legal texts or official decisions taken time and money to learn and master a com- by local, regional, national, European or in- munication language which is the mother ternational authorities are not published in the tongue of a professional ‘competitor’, for languages of those persons who are concerned. example. • At the European and international level: 2. Speakers of local and regional languages 1. When staff members of multinational as- who are obliged to learn the national lan- sociations and international organisations, guage of their country or state, while their like the European Institutions, are obliged fellow citizens whose mother tongue is the to use national working languages which national language, can qualify already else- are not their mother tongues. where. 2. When a politically mandated person, in his/ 3. In multinational enterprises, those who her official function, is obliged to commu- M. Cwik. HOW TO ACHIEVE NON-DISCRIMINATION IN “INTER-ETHNIC, INTER-CULTURAL... 205

nicate in a language which lies outside of 4. Thus we are becoming witness of an in- his personal preference. creased linguistic and cultural confronta- 3. When a citizen of the European Union tion, not only within the voluntary and has a mother tongue which does not be- peaceful integration process in Europe, long to the 23 official languages of the but also world-wide through fundamen- Union and when he wants to write to the talistic movenments. European Institutions or the Ombudsman • Targets: (regional and minority languages). 1. Showing the theoretical options which exists for non-discriminatory communication 5. Why the subject of language use and within a multilingual community. non-discriminatory communication is 2. Looking at the practical solutions which more and more discussed ? can lead, in the medium and long-term, from the present discriminatory cases to • The situation and conditions: an ideal situation of non-discriminatory 1. There is an increasing need for inter-eth- communication. nic, inter-cultural and international com- 3. Taking the present unsatisfactory cases of munication because of a number of global communication practices within the Euro- factors, like the increase of trans-national pean Union, in particular, concerning lan- trade, exchanges and contacts, the techni- guage use and language instruction in cal development in the field of transport school, as a challenge for being resolved and the internet, the need for trans na- in the long run. tional cooperation and supra-national de- 4. Trying to develop communication practices cision making and, finally, for peace keep- between people with different language ing conferences and missions. background on an equal footing, in a peace- 2. The daily experienced discrimination in ful and voluntary way with the aim of real- communication within the institutions of ising a democratic community founded on the enlarged European Union with 27 the ideal “Diversity within unity!” Member States and 23 official languages, makes more and more people aware that, 6. Where are the major concerns in the besides the safeguard of language diver- European Union as to discrimination in sity for official purposes, for bilateral and communication and language multilateral meetings without interpreters, instruction? a common communication language is needed, and, an increasing number is look- a) The communication practices of and in the ing for a neutral and non-discriminatory EU institutions auxiliary language. • External communication aspects: 3. Through global-wide information and – Relationship between the public authori- trans-border television, there is also an ties and the citizen; increased conscieceness of one’s own – Ombudsman: specificities, concerning, in particular, the 1. Legal texts and official decisions of mul- belonging to specific cultural, linguistic, tinational associations, European institu- ethnic or religious identities. tions or international organisations; ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 206 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

2. Publications; stand legal and official texts in his/her mother 3. Internet; tongue, and, ministers and Members of the Eu- 4. Correspondence. ropean Parliament (MEPs) have to be allowed to • Internal communication aspects: speak in their mother tongue and to receive docu- Staff members of these multilingual institu- ments in their mother tongue, when they act in tions, associations and organisations are obliged their official political functions; here, the univer- to use national working languages which are not sal solution in communication is “all official lan- their mother tongues. guages” of the European Union must be used ! b) How language learning and diversity in in- Internal communication aspects: struction in schools could be organised? • In particular, for time, cost and efficiency • Model: Mother tongue plus two foreign reasons, in the internal relations, one common languages at school. non-discriminatory working or communication • Propedeutical language aspects. language within the EU institutions, there is a great gap between the present situation and the 7. What kind of theoretical options do ideal situation in the future. The European Com- exist for non-discrimination in mission and the Council of the Union have three communication in a multilingual working languages, the European Court has one, community and for language instruction others are using, in practice, two languages etc. in schools? The main question is: How can we conceive a tran- sition from the today’s discriminatory situation to • All official languages. the future ideal solution? • One common language (natural or In the field of language instruction and learn- planned/auxiliary language). ing • Two languages, one common planned or As to language instruction and language learn- auxiliary language for non-discriminatory inter- ing in schools of the member states (and else- ethnic and international communication, and, one where) English is mostly accepted as first foreign obligatory foreign language at school for private language. and professional purposes. Even the “big” languages in Europe, like a. Are these options conform with the prin- French, German, Italian and Spanish, are lesser ciples guiding the European integration and lesser chosen by parents for their children in process? school, because the fact that one national lan- 1. Equality and non-discrimination, guage, in fact, English, is considered as being the 2. diversity and efficiency, only key for international communication. 3. democracy and political subsidiarity. Therefore, for guaranteeing diversity in lan- b. Which of the language options would fit guage instruction in schools in the medium and best into each of the detected fields of con- long term, only the option “two languages” can cern? be taken! External communication aspects: The concept of “mother tongue plus two” pro- • Towards the citizen in the member states moted by the European Commission and adopted (external relations), communication of the EU by the Ministers for Education in the Council of institutions has to be done in all official languages the Union opens the door, in the long run, for of the Union, because everybody has to under- realising diversity in language instruction and non- M. Cwik. HOW TO ACHIEVE NON-DISCRIMINATION IN “INTER-ETHNIC, INTER-CULTURAL... 207 discrimination by having, at the disposal of every- As the official external communication aspects body, a common, non-discriminatory language. If (publication of legal texts and decisions in all offi- such an auxiliary language can be used, as Latin cial languages of the Union, correspondence with was often used in schools, as a propedeutical the citizen and the right to write in one of the of- means for quicker and easier learning a specific ficial languages to the Ombudsman and to receive national (target) language, diversity in language a reply in the same language) are largely fulfilled, instruction and efficient professional and inter- two major fields of concern remain where practi- nal communication could be realized at the same cal and convincing steps have to be taken in order time. Thus, the universal solution would be one to achieve the envisaged universal and non-dis- common auxiliary language for non-discrimina- criminatory target. tory inter-ethnic, inter-cultural and international communication, and, one other language obliga- 8. How we can achieve non-discrimination tory for everybody for his/her private or profes- and diversity in these two crucial fields of sional purposes. communication in a multilingual If the selected auxiliary language, because of European Union? (practical approach) its regular structure and pedagogical value, would also be used as an instrument in school A) In the field of internal professional com- (propedeutical means for 100 to 120 hours, which munication in a multilingual environment (mul- would be around one year) for better and quicker tinational enterprises, European Institutions, in- learning a specific “target language”, this can be ternational associations and organisations) an international one like English, a national or The target is one working language. As long regional one, for private or professional purposes, as this working language is a national one, like in then, in the medium term, or, the next generation the European Court, the French language, dis- could dispose one neutral, non-discriminatory lan- crimination in communication persists. Therefore, guage for inter-ethnic, inter-cultural and interna- from a theoretical and non-discriminatory point tional communication and one foreign language, of view, in this field of communication, the uni- besides one’s mother tongue, for communicating, versal solution in language use has to be a non- with his/her neighbour. Diversity in language in- discriminatory auxiliary language in the long run. struction would increase and the language of each The following practical steps can lead to a non- cultural and linguistic community would have be- discriminatory long-term solution: come the chance and attractiveness being learned 1. Common declaration of placing commu- by the neighbours. nication in the European institutions on a The conclusions of this examination are: non-discriminatory basis in the long run • All languages for the external communi- and adopting a calendar of preparatory cation aspects of the European Institutions. work. • One language for the internal communi- 2. Mandating scientific feasibility studies cation aspects of the European Institutions. about capacities and limits of planned or • Two languages besides the mother tongue auxiliary languages. for language instructions in schools2 . 3. Concluding the feasibility studies and se- lecting the best placed auxiliary language

2 See also the publication on the web-site http://www.europe-citizen.net/documents_symposium/lang-options.html ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 208 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

for voluntary communication experiments should have the right to express him/herself in his/ with staff members of the EU institutions her mother tongue. This does not touch the du- under scientific control. ties of every EU citizen to respect the legal provi- 4. Concluding the communication experi- sions, the public traditions in culture, language and ments with view to present a proposition religion of democratic elected political entities in introducing the concerned auxiliary lan- the Member States of the EU. guage from a specific date as an additional B) In the field of language instruction and official working language besides the ex- learning in schools isting one(s), especially for those staff In order to assure diversity in language instruc- members who cannot work in the mother tions in schools in the future, the following steps tongue and who feel discriminated by the can lead to break the present monopoly of Eng- working language(s) of the concerned EU lish in language learning in schools in the long institution. run: Staff members can, but are not obliged, to use 1. Agreement between the responsible au- the selected non-discriminatory working language; thorities for schools and education in the thus, this process remains voluntary, and, it de- EU about introducing, on a voluntary ba- pends of the persons concerned, whether they sis, and, in a limited number of schools in switch or not over to the auxiliary working lan- each of the member states, a new instruc- guage, because they feel discriminated in relation tion method for learning the first foreign to those colleagues who can work in their mother language consisting of a language orien- tongue. tation course of a limited number of hours 5. If the use of a national working language (100 to 120 hours, one school year) based in the EU institutions approaches the on a logical structured auxiliary language share of its mother tongue speakers, the and used as a propedeutical means for concerned national language could and quicker and better learning actual first tar- should be phased out as a working lan- get language of the school or class. guage of the EU institution. 2. Only schools are selected which organises Thus, on the basis of a voluntary process, in the experiment in parallel classes, one class the long run, the possibility exists in the EU insti- is learning directly the actual first foreign tutions that all national working languages could language (target language), the experi- be phased out by a non-discriminatory auxiliary mental class learns first (about one year) language. It will only happen, if those persons who the structures and specificities of languages are working in the EU institutions consider the (grammar) on the basis of a logically struc- present practice in the EU institutions for them and others as sufficiently discriminatory and there- tured planned language and then starts fore switch over to the universal auxiliary solu- with the learning of the target language. tion in inter-ethnic, inter-cultural and interna- 3. Already, after the first year, scientific con- tional communication. trols and practical comparison can be In the field of human and political rights, in made between classes of different schools particular, concerning the relationship “citizen and countries, as to the communication and its public employer”, such as, information capacity in the target language and in the rights, legal defence rights, political mandates in language orientation course (auxiliary lan- multilingual common institutions, everybody guage). M. Cwik. HOW TO ACHIEVE NON-DISCRIMINATION IN “INTER-ETHNIC, INTER-CULTURAL... 209

4. After the second, third and forth year, tegrated and facilitated through language practical tests and comparisons can be programmes (LINGUA and others) within made in multinational meetings or holi- the European Union and should cover at day camps between the classes participat- least some full “vintages” of school leavers ing in the EU experiment. (5 to 8 years). Furthermore, the same kind 5. After the normal time of the instruction of experiment for diversifying language in the target language (normally 4 to 5 instruction in school could be subject of years), final tests should be made, a) in the bilateral agreements of the EU with main knowledge and capacity of expression in trade partners, like Russia, China, Japan the target language, and, b) in the com- and the Arabic countries, in order to make, munication capacity of the language ori- in the long run, also other languages of the entation course (auxiliary language), which EU than English attractive to learn. was only taught one year, but which should 8. Also local and regional languages could be offered, on a voluntary basis, in the ex- profit in the long run from this approach perimental schools for practice and exer- for more diversity in language learning and cising for those pupils who wants to con- language instruction. On the basis of this tinue to communicate with speakers in language instruction method, they could other countries. even get a direct access to international 6. Until this step, the present educational communication when learning the obliga- systems in the member states of the EU, tory national language by means of the especially the instruction of the first for- common language orientation course. eign target language at school would not In the medium and long term, therefore, the have changed; but if more and more par- strategy of introducing an auxiliary language be- ticipants of the experiment conclude that sides the existing working language (s) in the EU they can use also the language orientation institutions, and of using that language as a course (the auxiliary language) as an in- propedeutical means for learning the first foreign ternational communication means like language at school, would open the way for non- English, than the schools could offer more discrimination in communication, and, at the same and more other languages than English as time, for diversity in language instruction, thus first target language, for example the making everybody’s language more attractive to neighbours’ languages. be learned by his/her neighbour. 7. This language and communication experi- It needs only the political will and courage to ment in the Member States should be in- make such a voluntary process reality! ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 210 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Michael Cwik blemomis, nes gauname iðsilavinimà savo ðalies Kalbos teisiø ir kultûrinës ávairovës forumas mokyklose, taèiau susiduriame su kalbos problema, Briuselyje, Belgija kurios esmæ galima nusakyti taip: daugeliu atveju Moksliniai interesai: kultûrinë ávairovë ir nedis- þmogus kalba savo gimtàja kalba, o kitas ja nekalba. kriminacinë komunikacija, bendra strategija Jei tai atsitinka profesinëje ir konkurencinëje nediskriminacinëje daugiakalbëje ðvietimo sistemoje. kasdieninio gyvenimo srityje, negimtàja kalba kalbanèiam þmogui ðis objektyvus trûkumas tampa KAIP PASIEKTI, KAD NELIKTØ DISKRI- diskriminacijos elementu ir gali stipriai paveikti jo MINACIJOS „TARPETNINËJE, TARPKULTÛ- kasdieniná gyvenimà bei karjerà. RINËJE IR TARPTAUTINËJE KOMUNI- Ar mums reikalingi nediskriminaciniai spren- KACIJOJE“? dimai komunikacijoje? Situacija Europos Sàjungoje Santrauka ir jos institucijose gali bûti geras pavyzdys. Siûlomi maþiausiai trys skirtingi ir universalûs sprendimo Mûsø gyvenime pastebima diskriminacija „tarp- bûdai, kad iðvengtume diskriminacijos komuni- etninëje, tarpkultûrinëje ir tarptautinëje komu- kacijoje: visos kalbos, viena (nediskriminuojanti, nikacijoje“. Ji daþna ávairiausiomis aplinkybëmis: papildoma) kalba ir dvi kalbos tam, kad palaikytume asmeniniuose pokalbiuose, vieðuose susirinkimuose, ávairovæ mokydamiesi kalbø. profesionalø pokalbiuose, dvikalbëse ar dau- REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: tarpetninë, tarp- giakalbëse derybose, tarptautinëse asociacijose ir kultûrinë ir tarptautinë komunikacija, kalba, nedis- organizacijose ir, galiausiai, tarp tarnautojø ir kriminuojantys sprendimo bûdai. þmoniø, dirbanèiø Europos institucijose. Mes nesusiduriame su komunikacijos pro- Gauta 2007 11 12 Priimta publikuoti 2007 04 03 211

Yuri V. Stulov Minsk State Linguistics University Department of World Literature Zakharova st. 21, 220034 Minsk, Belarus Tel.: (375–17) 28 82 563 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: American literature.

ALEXANDER PUSHKIN’S AFRICAN LINEAGE AND CONTEMPORARY INTERPRETATIONS: CONNECTING TIME AND CULTURES

John Killens’s novel The Great Black Russian is a rare example of African American reading into Pushkin. The paper analyzes how Alexander Pushkin’s African origin and its influence on the development of his personality and creative work are interpreted by a contemporary African American writer. Killens presents the figure of the greatest Russian poet playing on the mythological and Freudian concepts, the focus being on Pushkin’s love-hate relationship with his homeland. The most important aspect of Killens’s revisiting Pushkin’s life is the poet’s painful self-identification process. He insists that the poet’s integrity is always at stake because of the conflicting ethnic components of his identity. The feeling of alienation, “otherness” will be forever torturing Pushkin. Only when he manages to combine the two aspects of his ethnic origin destroying the wall of alienation, does he acquire a poetic voice. KEY WORDS: African American historical novel, identity, multiculturalism, the Other.

Over the last twenty or thirty years, African Ameri- at the time of the Black Revolution, which signi- can literature has become a major factor in the fied a turning point in the relationship between development of American literature demonstrat- the whites and the blacks in the U.S.A., history ing new powerful tendencies, which have greatly became a vehicle for developing group conscious- changed the U.S. literary map and directly affected ness. At the same time, under the influence of mainstream literature. various postmodernist tendencies it stopped be- The historical novel occupies a special place ing regarded as something solid, thus challenging among the literary genres that have been most the traditional concept of history. Instead, there popular during this period. Since the publication came an understanding that “History is written of Alex Haley’s novel Roots: The Saga of an Ameri- out not in linear terms, as a monolith, but as can Family in 1976 and the enormous popularity myriad – changing, contingent, related to states of the film sequel based on the book it has proven of being, habits of narration. It is seen, in short, as to be one of the most dynamically developing gen- inextricable from power, its truth dependent on res that have attracted writers of different gen- whose story manages to be told.” (Gray 2004, erations. The reason for this is obvious enough: p. 684). Just as Haley’s personal histories made ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 212 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE the African American historical quilt, other black compatriots can understand his poetry. John writers turned to stories about the roots of Afri- Oliver Killens, an outstanding African American can Americans, their ancestry, and their steep road novelist (1916-1987), proves otherwise. Being an to visibility. In their attempt to re-evaluate the ardent black activist, he along with other black contribution of various ethnic groups to the mak- intellectuals is concerned with the question, “Can ing of America, they bravely started revisiting his- America survive and thrive without coming to tory, as there was an urgent need to reconnect terms with its roots in slavery, its expansion in Jim with the past in order to be able to have a future. Crow and conquest, and its prosperity alongside Exploring African roots, they look for icons that discrimination and devaluation of people of could ensure hope. There had been too much color?” (Gates, West 2000, p. xv). He looks at the misery and despair in the past; the most impor- life and writings of the father of contemporary tant concerns of the protest novel had been vic- Russian literature in the politically charged novel timization and discrimination of African Ameri- Great Black Russian: A Novel on the Life and Times cans. In the epoch of multiculturalism, which “ac- of Alexander Pushkin (1989) trying to find an an- knowledges the existence of various human com- swer to this burning question. Though Pushkin munities” (TuSmith 2001, p. 9), history had to turn belongs to a different civilization, Killens regards into a channel of coming to terms with life and him as an icon epitomizing freedom and resist- accepting it, however tragic it might be. Black ance to oppression. However, not of least impor- writers of the end of the 20th century focus on the tance for the writer are the African roots of Rus- positive insisting that life is a chain of events that sia’s genius who, according to A. M. Gorky, “is lead to celebration through suffering. In the past, the beginning of all beginnings” in Russia (qtd in they look for people who managed to overcome Killens 1989, p. 14). Pushkin then becomes a sym- prejudice, subjugation, humiliation, and hardships bol of the talent and creativity of a person of Afri- and became winners in the battle for life in spite can descent. Killens who had a long academic ca- of oppression and desolation. Therefore, history reer teaching at Columbia University and the becomes an empowering force helping the new Medgar Evers College of the City University of generation of African Americans look at their past New York could not but use the chance of giving not only as a history of suffering and frustration his own version of the life of a black European but also as a self-sustaining force. whose influence on the consciousness of the big- 20th century culture tends to revisit the past, gest European nation was so enormous. His ef- often to challenge the established norms and atti- forts to popularize Pushkin in the United States tudes. African American fiction of the 1980-90s were of great importance, but the point of depar- has produced a number of novels that deal with ture for him is the poet’s lineage, which connects the life of people of African descent who have Africa and Europe, Europe and America, past and made a great contribution to humankind defying present. the racist myth of the inferiority of people of color. It is well known that to his dying day, Alexan- Among them is the greatest Russian poet and der Pushkin had retained profound interest in his writer Alexander Sergeievich Pushkin who, along ancestry. Often confused by his ethnicity and Af- with Alexander Dumas, is regarded by African rican looks, the poet had to take an insight into Americans as a symbol of black brilliance, inge- his own identity reconciling the ancestry of his nuity, and liberating spirit. African roots (his mother’s line) with the centu- It used to be considered that only Pushkin’s ries-old traditions of Russian aristocracy to which Y. V. Stulov. ALEXANDER PUSHKIN’S AFRICAN LINEAGE AND CONTEMPORARY ... 213 his father belonged (he would introduce his boyar cerning Pushkin’s biography, some of which are ancestor into Boris Godunov). The dramatic story well-known, but his approach to the events in of his great grandfather who had been captured Pushkin’s short dramatic life is quite challenging. and brought to Constantinople at the age of 8 and It is revealed in the subtitle of the novel where he was later freed and sent to St. Petersburg to be- emphasizes the historical background against come a godson of the Russian tsar was a valuable which the poet’s drama develops. Starting as an source of Pushkin’s poetic inspiration. During the “I”-narration giving authenticity to Pushkin’s voice last years of his life Pushkin had been working on on the tragic day of his duel, it revolves around the historical novel Arap Petra Velikogo (Peter the the most significant episodes in his life reflecting Great’s Black Man; other translations: The Moor his links with his family, milieu, and Russia. of Peter the Great, The Negro of Peter the Great), Killens’s concern is very much in line with what which remained unfinished. In the novel, Pushkin other black writers of the 1980s tried to explore – looks at Russian history during the climactic pe- “the relationships of the protagonist, whether to riod of the enormous and excruciating reforms lover, wife, brother, family generally or commu- started by Peter I who wanted to transform the nity or the interlocking of all these” (Hilfer 1992, patriarchal Russia steeped in tradition and obso- p. 49). However, his focus is Pushkin’s self-identi- lete ways into a powerful Eurasian country. The fication through his love-hate relationship with his poet was sure that Russia could benefit from her father, mother, and homeland, which in Russia is multiple identities and become integrated into a associated with mother – Motherland. This ex- family of world nations. This could also mean plains why the author so intensely plays on the Pushkin’s attempt to reconcile with his African mythological and Freudian ideas that are intended past and to acquire a sense of integrity, which he to support his concept of an artist who will “feel had been desperately lacking in a society divided rapture in harmony, shed tears of joy at the crea- by class and race. tion of [his] fantasy” (Pushkin 1999, p. 61). The Killens’s insightful novel was published post- artist will observe no canons; the sources for his humously. It started as a film project, which was inspirations are various and are akin to articula- enthusiastically supported by Harry Belafonte tion of sexuality while “poetry is the highest crea- who intended to play the title role. The writer tive manifestation of the human spirit” (Fennell spent over ten years collecting materials for the 1999, p. xix-xx). His is a free spirit that transcends book, made a trip to the Soviet Union where he borders, divisions, and conventions. However, the visited Moscow and Mikhailovskoye and partici- main condition for the free spirit to express itself pated in the Puskhin festivities there, but the film is complete freedom, which Pushkin so anxiously never came out. Instead, an interesting contro- tried to achieve, – freedom from circumstances, versial novel appeared. Killens, who was the censorship, limitations of his environment, mate- founding father of the Harlem Writers Guild and rial tensions, and antagonisms of society. one of the most important figures of the Black The problem of identity that has been focal Aesthetics movement, showed the greatest Rus- for generations of African American writers is sian poet in a somewhat unusual way departing particularly important for Killens who makes from the traditional interpretation of the facts of Pushkin go through a painful self-identification Pushkin’s life to draw a litigious portrait of the process. The poet’s integrity is always at stake Russian genius of African descent. The writer because of the conflicting ethnic components of makes an abundant use of various sources con- his identity. He seldom feels complete and ful- ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 214 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE filled as those fragments of his “I” that make him with such brilliance and forcefulness. Family is of whole also tear him apart. “It was a time when he special importance for him because, according to was constantly taking inventory of himself. Who Killens, a person best expresses him/herself in two was he? A Russian with the royal blood of Africa spheres – family and community. It is in these two in his veins? An African who was born in Russia? that Pushkin feels his alienation most strongly. The What was he all about? What was he worth to family seem not to understand him and his call- himself? To his family? To his friends who con- ing. Killens dramatizes the conflict between the spired behind his back to keep him out of a revo- poet and his father who refuses to recognize his lutionary conspiracy? <…>He had to know what son’s talent and freedom-loving spirit and who is he was worth, what his life meant”1 . The feeling involved in spying after his “prodigal” son. of alienation, “otherness” will be forever tortur- Pushkin’s drama is intensified by the complexity ing Pushkin. All his life he will be trying to break of his relationship with his mother who is torn the barriers between himself and the others in- apart by her desire to protect the most gifted of sisting that his African blood “makes all the dif- her children and by her sense of shame for his ference in the world. Whatever I am today, what- African features. Killens offers a Freudian inter- ever I have given the Russian people, I owe to pretation of their relations emphasizing the po- Africa and to Russia” (153). Only when he man- et’s desperate love for his handsome, elegant but ages to combine the two aspects of his ethnic ori- moody “mulatto” mother and his inability to build gin destroying the wall of alienation does he ac- up communication with her. He remains as lonely quire a poetic voice. It is clear, therefore, why he in his father’s house as he is in the wide world, is drawn to the freedom-loving tribes of the Gyp- which refuses to take him as he is. His mother’s sies who connect him with his ancient past. “He ambivalence in her attitude to him also explains felt a kinship with these almost-brown complex- his bursts of passion and his longing to be accepted ioned people reminding him of his African an- by her accounting for the unusual degree of lyri- cestry, and thought seriously of joining them and cism in his love poetry. losing or finding himself amongst these people Women play a special role in Pushkin’s life. whose country had no borders. Citizens of all the Killens claims that women are a major source of earth” (153). In an attempt to understand the very Pushkin’s poetry giving it a peculiar lightness, re- magic of Pushkin’s poetry, Killens deeply analyzes finement, elegance, and depth. However, Killens’s the roots of the poet’s alienation. This conflict in Pushkin is quite different from the charming his soul is a source both of his frustration and de- Mozart-like womanizer of the Russian literary tra- spair and of his creativity and exceptional sensi- dition. He is different with different women: with tivity. those who love him for himself he is gentle, im- The novel clearly demonstrates that for Killens pulsive, and caring; with those who are excited by the personal is truly political. Like his other books, his Africanness he may be crude and callous be- The Great Black Russian plunges the readership cause he feels he is being treated as a sex object, into the intricacies of Pushkin’s family and social and objectification is abhorrent to him as it de- life articulating the great values of freedom and prives him of his dignity. “He realized now he’d human dignity, which the poet managed to express always sought in the arms of women assurance

1 KILLENS, John Oliver, 1989. Great Black Russian: A Novel on the Life and Times of Alexander Pushkin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. P. 174. Pages of this edition will be further given in the text. Y. V. Stulov. ALEXANDER PUSHKIN’S AFRICAN LINEAGE AND CONTEMPORARY ... 215 that he was likable, perhaps even lovable. But it ages to combine the two aspects of his ethnic ori- had never been enough for him. He wanted to be gin destroying the wall of alienation does he ac- loved for himself and not for his poetry or the quire a poetic voice, but this can happen only un- popularity it has provided him. Sometimes he der the influence of a loving woman who sharp- didn’t know what he wanted” (170). ens his perception, elevates his spirit and becomes Sexuality is a source for understanding the his Muse. However, such moments are rare, and creative process, and the writer looks at it from the feeling of alienation, or “otherness” will be the psychoanalytical perspective showing that his forever tormenting Pushkin. protagonist is a self-reflexive artist who is continu- Killens does not always stick to facts, empha- ously involved in the study of his own self. He is sizing some, omitting or neglecting others. His tortured by doubts, despair, and inability to come mosaic of Pushkin’s life is inaccurate but power- to terms with himself. Self-reflection becomes ful, for, as Addison Gayle puts it, “He is, like both an obstacle in his creative work and its driv- Pushkin, “the people’s poet,” for whom concern ing force. The poet needs an object to love and with people is more important than wealth or idealize that can put an end to his loneliness and fame. It is this concern which enables both him aloneness. Love is interpreted as one of the great- and the subject whose life he carefully researched est gifts given to humankind, and the poet with and ably presented in fiction to remain vibrant his unique sensitivity and sense of the beautiful forces in the daily lives of revolutionaries/ roman- finds inspiration in a woman’s soul and body. tics everywhere” (Gayle 1989, p. 13). Chapter 1 Describing his exile in Mikhailovskoye, Killens describes the meeting of little Sasha with Emperor deascribes it as a very fruitful period in his life: Paul I when “the brutal tyrant” “knocked the lad’s Pushkin was in love and was loved. He felt ful- cap off with his riding crop, scolded the old woman filled, and this sense of unity with the world and [Arina Rodionovna. – Yu. St.] and threatened to of harmony with himself became a forceful stimu- have them both jailed for treason and sedition” lus for his creative work. “At night when Pushkin (29], which could hardly take place for the boy to left them [the Wulf-Osipova house. – Yu. St.], he remember it. Killens introduces it along with the felt inebriated with their love, as if drunk from scene of a serf being flogged (reminding of the headiest of wines. As elevated as the pine trees L. Tolstoy’s famous story) to emphasize the surrounding his estate on possibilities and crea- sources of Pushkin’s fortitude and his resistance tive expectations. Nothing was beyond his captur- to any forms of dehumanization. Though these ing artistically, creatively. <…> In times like are purely fictitious scenes, they help to under- these he knew a God-like feeling of omnipotence, stand his links with the muzhiks. Common people he felt close to God even though he wasn’t sure with their wisdom, high moral principles and stoi- he believed there was a God. Sometimes, in those cism inspire Pushkin’s creativity. His close relations rarified euphoric moods, he felt like he was, in with ordinary people and his deep understanding fact, a Creator. And he would create a new world. of their psychology, aspirations and hopes account A really new world” (234). At such moments, tran- for his unsurpassed aptitude to render the “Rus- scending the earthly and the ordinary, Killens’s sian spirit” in the language of his nation, which, Pushkin acquired the powers to express the im- according to the writer, is one of Pushkin’s great- possible. The writer emphasizes the poet’s natu- est contributions to the Russian world. ralness, his indivisible links with the organic world The question of the vernacular is topical for of which he is an integral part. Only when he man- African American authors. Though there can be ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 216 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE no direct parallels between the Russian of and separated itself from the rest of the country. Pushkin’s times and Black English, the poet’s re- Killens constantly emphasizes that although sponsiveness to the vernacular underlines Killens’s Pushkin belonged to one of the oldest boyar fami- stand on the issue of language. The vernacular lies, he was never at ease with those people who expresses the soul of the people revealing their had lost their national identity. The writer shows perception of the world in the “subliminal culture Pushkin’s links with the Decembrists that have to of fairy tales, songs, and folk beliefs – the original point out his dedication to the cause of the peo- ethnic (võlkisch) subsoil of the common people’s ple. It is generally acknowledged that the poet art forms that may culminate in the highest artis- shares with the Decembrists the desire to put an tic achievements” (Sollors 1995). At the time when end to despotism and build up a new Russia. At Russian aristocracy hardly knew Russian and used the same time, his poetry after 1825 indicates that only French insisting on the universality of French, he gradually loses the illusions of his youth. The Pushkin’s use of the vernacular as a vehicle for ardor of protest is replaced by wisdom and pro- poetry revolutionized Russian literature as he in- found philosophical depth. Killens ignores the troduced local idioms, showed the possibilities of evolution of Pushkin’s political views and emphati- modern Russian syntax to express ideas ad- cally shows him as a radical who is ready to fight equately and precisely and made everyday speech against injustice and all forms of oppression. He the language of poetry. In the novel, the boy learns is not only the “bard of the Decembrists”; he is the beauty of the Russian language from his nurse the one who makes the young romantic revolu- and his grandma and challenges his elders’ atti- tionaries act. One of the most dramatic scenes in tude to the vernacular: “And – and – and it’s the novel is the oath, which they give to sacrifice equally absurd for us to write in French. Russians their lives for the better future for the Russian are as universal as anybody else.” <…> “When I people. For Killens this is a rare moment in become a writer, I’m going to write in Russian for Pushkin’s life because he feels accepted, but every literate Russian to read, and the devil take though he shares the enthusiasm of his friends the the universal French!” (37). In his description of poet sees further than even the most radically Pushkin’s creative process Killens repeatedly re- minded of them, for he knows how difficult the turns to the question of the vernacular showing road to freedom can be. Paraphrasing some of what resources it has for poetic creation and em- the lines from Pushkin’s Exegi Monumentum, phasizing the role of the common people in shap- Killens makes the poet explicitly state the tasks of ing the language and manipulating its possibili- a Russian revolution in front of a group of his ties to achieve precision, tension, and beauty. admirers: “Take the future by the scruff of the neck From the start, the novel is based on the jux- and change the country. But go all the way! Make taposition of the Russia of the tsar and the Russia a people’s revolution. Don’t be content with a coup of the common people. Pushkin identifies him- d’etat of the elite, which is so fashionable today in self with his people and takes upon himself the Europe. Liberate the Tadjik, the Finn, the Kalmuk, mission of a precursor of a future free Russia. For Tartar, Uzbek, the Don Cossack, the Jew, espe- him “the muzhik is the pure and unadulterated cially the muzhik, as well as the so-called Great Russian. He is the most human of us all. And I White Russian! Rally every Russian to the cause. love him for it. I love his invincibility. I love his Even the Caucassians. It is left entirely up to you!” instinct for survival” (186). The aristocracy repre- (203) However, the revolt failed; many of his clos- sents an alien class, which has forgotten Russian est friends were exiled, and Pushkin did what only Y. V. Stulov. ALEXANDER PUSHKIN’S AFRICAN LINEAGE AND CONTEMPORARY ... 217 a poet could “having roused noble thoughts with Russian world. And I know it wasn’t easy for him. [his] lyre, <…> having glorified Freedom in [his] Right here in this same Saint Petersburg. They harsh age and called for mercy for the fallen” say my so-called savage temper and my sensuality (Pushkin 1999, p. 75). Part 6 “Captivity” of come from him, but they refuse to give him credit Killens’s novel deals with the drama of the great for my genius. Somehow I know it comes from poet who was imprisoned in a golden cage out of him>” His voice choked off. “I’ve always felt the which there was no exit. African in me very deeply” (342). It is at this period that Pushkin begins to take The novel abounds in scenes of Pushkin’s a closer look at his great ancestor. The writer gives dreams and meditations in which the poet speaks a broad, though naïve historical background, fo- with Hannibal looking for answers not only to the cusing on the role of Ibrahim Hannibal in form- urgent political questions but also to major exis- ing Pushkin as a person and a poet. Abram (or tential problems that worry him. Hannibal proves Ibrahim) was probably the son of a ruler in Af- to be the man who teaches him to come to terms rica: he might have come from Abyssinia though with his double consciousness and accept his great contemporary scholars suggest that it could be poetic mission. Emphasizing the poet’s acknowl- Chad. In Russia Abram became one of Peter I’s edgement of his African heritage, Killens displays close aides after receiving a brilliant education in pride in the fact that a man of African descent France. It is hardly a coincidence that the name became the greatest Russian poet who managed he chose was that of Hannibal, a Carthaginian to express the unfathomable Russian soul with its military genius who defied the power of Rome. pain, suffering, longing for harmony and a roman- Killens insists that it is from him that Pushkin in- tic belief in Russia’s destiny. Henry Louis Gates, herited not only some of his looks, which often Jr., one of the most influential black literary crit- the poet feel miserable, but, what is more signifi- ics, considers the creation of a multidimensional cant, his unusual sense of freedom, which accounts character of the poet among the great achieve- for Pushkin’s hatred of all forms of discrimina- ments of Killens. A Russian reader might not rection and oppression. For Killens Pushkin is a born ognize this Pushkin. But in spite of understand- revolutionary who activates the energy of the peo- able flaws connected with cultural differences, ple defying the absolute power of the tsar. inaccuracy in detail Killens manages to create a Pushkin’s great ancestor helps to mould the commanding portrait of the Russian genius. The boy’s character and formulate his stand on Rus- writer displays a new understanding of the his- sia’s most important issue – serfdom, which inevi- torical novel where the objectivity of his story is tably connects itself to slavery and accounts for combined with the truthfulness and authenticity the poet’s special interest in America. Killens of situations that make the historical novel one of claims that Pushkin knew only too well what it the most required literary genres today. Showing means to be different in an oppressive system and Pushkin as a product of several cultures, he fol- could not but become a rebel. His great grandfa- lows F. Dostoyevsky’s idea that the poet’s expo- ther with his sense of human dignity and perse- sure and responsiveness to the world are his chief verance was a beacon that illuminated the poet’s contribution to world culture. road to freedom. Killens introduces a scene when According to Killens, Pushkin’s ticket to the the poet tells his sister-in-law what his great grand- pantheon is his deep humanity. The writer cre- father meant to him: “He was a great man, ates an unorthodox picture of the poet. He often Alexandrina. A proud African in this Great White suits his concept of the great black Russian to his ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 218 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE artistic needs overstretching Pushkin’s revolution- Regretfully, Killens did not live to see his book ary spirit. Killens creates a desperate, troublesome published. Nevertheless, time has shown that, as and nervous Pushkin who, however, is granted a Gwendolyn Brooks said, Great Black Russian is divine poetic gift, which allows him to become the “magnificent testimony to the size of Pushkin”. greatest Russian poet.

References

FENNELL, John, 1999. Introduction. In: HILFER, Toni, 1992. American Fiction Since 1940. A. PUSHKIN. 1999. Selected Verse. With introduction and Harlow: Longman Group UK Ltd. prose translation by John Fennel. London: Bristol Classical PUSHKIN, A., 1999. Selected Verse. With introduction and Press. prose translation by John Fennel. London: Bristol Classical GATES, Henry Louis, Jr.; WEST, Cornel, 2000. The Afri- Press. can American Century: How Black Americans Have Shaped Our SOLLORS, Werner, 1995. Ethnicity. In: Critical Terms Country. New York et al.: The Free Press. for Literary Study. Ed. By Frank LENTRICCHIA and Tho- GAYLE, Addison, 1989. Introduction. In: KILLENS, mas MCLAUGHLIN. Chicago: the Univ. of Chicago Press. John Oliver, 1989. Great Black Russian: A Novel on the Life TUSMITH, Bonnie, 2001. The Significance of the “Multi” and Times of Alexander Pushkin. Detroit: Wayne State Uni- in “Multiethnic Literatures of the US”. MELUS, Vol. 26, versity Press, Number 2, Summer, 5-14. GRAY, Richard, 2004. A History of American Literature. KILLENS, John Oliver, 1989. Great Black Russian: A Malden, MA, USA – Oxford, UK – Carlton, Victoria, Aus- Novel on the Life and Times of Alexander Pushkin. Detroit: tralia. Wayne State University Press.

Yuri V. Stulov asmenybæ, þaisdamas mitologija, Freudo sàvokomis Valstybinis Minsko lingvistikos universitetas, bei pabrëþdamas Puðkino meilës ir neapykantos savo Baltarusija ðaliai santyká. Killensas naujai vertina poeto Moksliniai interesai: Amerikos literatûra. gyvenimà. Svarbiausiu aspektu tampa skausmingas poeto savivokos procesas. Vertintojas teigia, kad ALEKSANDRO PUÐKINO AFRIKIETIÐKA poeto identiteto vientisumas yra abejotinas dël KILMË IR ÐIUOLAIKINËS prieðtaringø etniniø aspektø. Puðkinà nuolat INTERPRETACIJOS: LAIKO IR KULTÛRØ kamuoja susvetimëjimo jausmas, „kitoniðkumas“. SÀSAJOS Tik tada, kai sugeba suderinti du savo etninës kilmës aspektus sugriaudamas susvetimëjimo sienà, jis ágyja Santrauka poeto balsà. Johno Killenso romanas Didysis juodaodis rusas yra REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: istorinis afroame- retas pavyzdys, kaip afroamerikieèiai supranta rikieèiø romanas, identiðkumas, daugiakultû- Puðkinà. Darbe analizuojama, kaip ðiuolaikinis riðkumas, Kitas. afroamerikieèiø raðytojas interpretuoja Aleksandro Puðkino afrikietiðkà kilmæ ir jos poveiká asmenybei Gauta 2007 07 01 bei kûrybai. Killensas perteikia þymiausio rusø poeto Priimta publikuoti 2007 07 09 219

Laura Gilda Paccagnella University of Padua Dept. Pure and Applied Mathematics Via Trieste 63, 35121 Padova, Italy Tel.: (39–049) 82 71 417; (39–049) 82 71 406 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: natural language processing, mathematical data bases.

Carlo Minnaja University of Padua Dept. Pure and Applied Mathematics Via Trieste 63, 35121 Padova, Italy Tel.: (39–049) 82 71 417; (39–049) 82 71 406 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: history of mathematics, etymology of mathematical words, planned languages.

A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO, ACCORDING TO WORDNET*

WordNet is a database started in 1985 at Princeton, where the search of a word is based on psycholinguistic theories. In WordNet, information is stored according to syntactic categories and is linked through different types of relations. Both synonyms and polysemous words appear; synonyms are collected in sets called synsets. The database is organized by hierarchies between concepts. Later, EuroWordnet was born, a multilingual WordNet with nine different European languages, and some specific domains have been added to get different WordNets, one for each language and for each subject. We arranged a mathematical WordNet for Esperanto, which is at present limited to nouns, where connections among words are classed as follows: 1) synonym – when two words are synonyms; 2) antonym – when two words have opposite meanings, e. g. adicio (addition) and subtraho (subtraction); 3) hypernym/hyponym – when a concept is more or less general of another, e.g. formulo de Taylor (Taylor’s formula) is a hyponym of formulo; 4) holonym/meronym – when an object has another as its part, or, on the contrary, it is a part of another one, e.g. adiciato (addend) is a part of adicio, and adicio has adiciato as one of its parts; 5) relation – when two words are related, either because they occur in the same situation, or they have the same holonym or hypernym, like adicio and divido (division), both having operacio as a hypernym. The database is stored at the URL: http://www.math.unipd.it/~minnaja/ WORDNETESP/vortaro.html where a slot is offered. Typing in the word to be sought one gets its antonyms, hypernyms, hyponyms, etc. Hypernyms and hyponyms can be nested: funkcio (function) has funkcio kontinua (continuous function) as its hyponym, which has in turn funkcio derivebla (function with derivative) as its hyponym. We added a link to definitions, formulae and more extended comments; when it deals with a name of a mathematician, the link points to his/ her biography (The Mac Tutor History of Mathematics Archive, in English). KEY WORDS: WordNet, mathematical dictionary, Esperanto, word taxonomies.

* The authors thank Prof. F. Sullivan for helping with the English version. ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 220 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

1. Dictionaries in Esperanto: a short course, roots in Esperanto were translated by com- introduction plete words into the different ethnic languages, according to the morphological meaning of each Esperanto was launched in 1887 through the first root. This dictionary became the standard, as the book in Russian, with title and author as follows: Äð ÝÑÏÅÐÀÍÒÎ first General Congress of Esperantists, which took ÌÅÆÄÓÍÀÐÎÄÛÉ place in 1905 at Boulogne-sur-Mer, considered it ßÇÛÊÚ as an essential part of the fundamental texts and and in the same year the versions in Polish, French stated that it would not be changed. The language and German came out; the edition in English was was to develop like an ethnic language, by way of issued in the following year. The name of the neologisms and archaisms, but these words will author, Dr. Esperanto, was the pseudonym of never change their meanings or their spelling. Lejzer Ludwik Zamenhof, a Polish ophthal- Some dictionaries devoted to specific subjects th mologist. began to appear in the first years of the 20 cen- So, the very first Esperanto dictionary was at- tury; the first papers on mathematics appeared in tached to the first grammar in Russian: it was printed France (Bardellé 1901)and in Italy. In particular, on a unique large page and had 917 roots with their Dr. Ceretti (1903) wrote a small Italian-Esperanto translations. We speak about roots, because many mathematical dictionary: just a few pages, but with words can be regularly formed from just one root, some interesting insights. The first sufficiently rich and the regularity of making words was, at the be- text of mathematics fully in Esperanto appeared ginning, the main argument for the easiness of an a couple of years later (Bricard 1905): a 60-page “artificial” language, as it was called at that time, or booklet with sections concerning arithmetic, al- a “planned” language, as we would say today. gebra, analysis, geometry and mechanics, involv- At the end of 1888 the Plena vortaro Rusa- ing 472 specifically mathematical words. Internacia (Full Russian-International Dictionary) Then, further dictionaries were issued, espe- came out: it is the first dictionary from an ethnic lan- cially for mathematics or for general science. Some guage into the international one. The name “Espe- specific dictionaries for different subjects used to ranto” was not yet generally used: its first appear- appear as the second part of the Yearbook of the ance was in some Russian announcements in the Universal Esperanto-Association, at that time, review Íèâà in 1888 written by Zamenhof himself, and even now, the greatest association of the Es- where he calls his language “Âñåìèðíûé ßçûêú peranto-speaking community. In such a series, a Ýñïåðàíòî”, in order to distinguish it from other 1031-word mathematical dictionary appeared in projects also having the epithet “international”. This 1954 (Bean 1954). dictionary included nearly 500 new roots, mainly of A very interesting effort was made in 1980, international origin; but precisely because it was from when a mathematical lexicon in eight languages, Russian into Esperanto, it remained not very widely with Esperanto as the leading one, was issued in known, and subsequent dictionaries did not incor- Germany (Hilgers and Yashovardan 1980). It was porate all the words it listed. a significant initiative, not so much for the number Finally, in 1893 (with date of issue 1894) the of words, just 460, but for the fact that the other so called Universala vortaro (Universal Diction- seven languages were the languages of the Euro- ary) in five languages (German, French, English, pean Community of that time: Danish, Dutch, Russian, Polish) proposed 1710 more roots, so at English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese. that time the whole corpus was of 2627 roots. Of Some words had their equivalents also in Irish, L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 221

Greek, Spanish and Turkish, announcing in ad- ize information: words are listed alphabetically, vance the coming of other countries into the Eu- in order to facilitate searches. Their meanings are ropean Community. Concise, but precise, defini- usually listed in order of their frequencies of use, tions were in Esperanto. or, less often, in order of the historical use, or, Further dictionaries became bigger and big- sometimes, in a nested order: the most general is ger: the Matematika Vortaro Esperanta-Ceha- registered first, and more and more particular Germana (Esperanto-Czech-German Mathemati- meanings come afterwards. cal Dictionary), by Jan Werner (1990), issued by Another way to organize information is to the International Academy of Sciences San Ma- collect words in different groups according to their rino, has 3722 words, and it is up to now the most meanings: synonyms and similar meanings are put extensive mathematical dictionary in Esperanto. together; the list is no longer alphabetical, so the Its second edition can be downloaded for free at: search must be done a different way. rasmus.uib.no/~st01490/esperanto/ An elementary way to classify words is to JanWerner.pdf. divide them according to their morphological At present the most modern and really the best categories. This looks to be easy, but it involves such dictionary is the Matematika vortaro kaj strong differences depending on the different oklingva leksikono (Mathematical Dictionary and languages. In English, for instance, the difference 8-languages Lexicon) by Marc Bavant (2003), a between nouns and adjectives is very weak: a lot French engineer, published in the Czech Repub- of nouns behave like adjectives when they are put lic. It is not so rich in entries, only 1328, but many in some positions, or at least they should be words can be found through the examples. In ad- translated into other languages by adjectives. In dition, there are several plates with the names of similar cases, German or Esperanto make a symbols, curves and other specific situations. The frequent use of compound words; French and eight languages are Esperanto as the leading one, Italian prefer the use of adjectives or development and then Czech, German, English, French, Hun- of the couple of neighboring nouns into a noun and a genitive phrase. garian, Polish and Russian. There are also some WordNet is a system of lexical search for very interesting historical comments about previ- English, based on up-to-date psycholinguistic ous dictionaries and the evolution of the mean- theories. It has been developed at the Cognitive ings of the words. Science Laboratory of Princeton University This brief look at the mathematical dictionar- (Miller et al. 1990). This is not the first attempt in ies in Esperanto has considered both traditional this field, of course, several dictionaries having alphabetically-ordered dictionaries and some been constructed with this goal. The Duden types of small encyclopedias, were words are ex- Wörterbuch, for instance, is of this type, and it plained by their use in texts. Two of these diction- has the Esperanto version by Rüdiger Eichholz aries, namely those of Bricard and Bavant, also (1988); another good example just for Esperanto arrange a sort of hierarchy among terms. is Mariano (1980). There are also dictionaries listing both synonyms and antonyms. 2. WordNet and its Extensions Ontology is usually thought of as a philosophical discipline, far away from the world 2.1 General principles of Information Technology. In philosophy it is a Let us now have a look at the way WordNet is branch of metaphysics and it concerns the study arranged. A traditional dictionary is based on his- of being or existence and their fundamental torical procedures for the classical ways to organ- categories. ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 222 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

In Information Technology an ontology is the subroutine, religious ceremony, and it can be a verb, attempt to formulate an exhaustive and concep- too. On the other hand, in mathematics it has tual scheme in a specific domain. The net and the some synonyms, like application, map and so on. communication through it have made the onto- A Lexical Matrix can be constructed this way: logical aspects of information strategic. In order the meanings are put in the rows and the head- to organize information, the contents become fun- words in the columns. When a word matches a damental. The most widely accepted definition of meaning, the square of the matrix is filled; when ontology is that of Tom Gruber (1993): “ontology there is no match, it remains empty. Squares filled is an explicit specification of a conceptualization”. in the same column indicate that a word has some We will deal now with lexical ontologies, which different meanings; squares filled in the same row mark a language or more than one language, or indicate that a concept can be expressed by vari- one of its parts. A lexical ontology is independent ous different words. In this last case, the words of the domain and expresses the semantics of are collected in a unique family, called “synonym linguistic constructions. We would like to express set”, or, briefly, synset. two features: – a lexical knowledge, constituted by a set 2.2 Extensions for WordNet: Multilingualism of words (strings of characters); and Specific Domain – a semantic knowledge, collecting the word A linguistic ontology should have all meanings meanings and the relations between them. arising from the different fields of knowledge, and WordNet fulfils these features, as it allows one this is very complex. Extensions are of two types: not only to take in the meaning of a word, as in a multilingualism and domain-specific. dictionary, but, above all, it gives relations with other words based on their meanings. 2.2.1 Multilingualism At first glance, WordNet may look like an online dictionary, but it is really used as a lexical The project “EuroWordNet” (Vossen 2001), fi- ontology (WordNet, without date1 ). As we said nanced by the European Community (1996- before, in a traditional dictionary words are listed 1999), aimed at constructing a consistent and re- alphabetically, and their meanings are listed in liable multilingual lexical database and to main- accordance with their frequencies. The search can tain the diversity and richness of the different get tedious. In WordNet, information is stored in languages. accordance with both the syntactic categories and There were nine languages involved in this the meaning, and there is a connection through project: Dutch, English, Italian and Spanish from different types of hierarchical relations. its beginning, with Czech, Estonian, French, WordNet classifies words via two concepts: the German and Swedish being added in 1998. Big Word Form, i. e., the written form, and the Word databases were established, nearly 30.000 concepts Meaning, i. e., the concept expressed. So the ini- and 50.000 word senses. Such databases have been tial point of the WordNet classification of the very useful for subsequent dictionaries made words is the relations between the headword and outside the program itself; e. g., the biggest the meaning. For instance, the word function can Lithuanian-English dictionary is based on the have several meanings, as mathematical relation, WordNet database.

1 The most recent Windows version is 2.1, released in March, 2005. Version 3.0 for Unix/Linux/Solaris was released in December, 2006. L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 223

Each database is structured following the same ILI is in English, but its function is just for the guidelines as Wordnet, i. e., synonyms are gath- connection among the different databases: further ered in synsets, which are associated to the synsets extensions of the database use ILI as a set of con- of the Princeton WordNet, in order to create a cepts. multilingual database. The Top-Concept Ontology is a common The equivalence relations among synsets of structure for the most important concepts of all different languages are realized by a structure wordnets in the different languages. It consists of called an Inter-Lingual-Index (ILI). An ILI uses 63 basic semantic groups and 1610 fundamental essentially the English WordNet with the addition concepts common to all languages. of specific concepts from other languages. In Dia- The Domain Ontology is important in order gram 1 we have an example of the architecture, to separate specific words from generic ones; this dealing with the word “drive”. This word in Eng- is important for solving problems of ambiguity. lish is compared with Spanish, Dutch and Italian Sometimes a concept does not exist in a spe- words having the same meanings. As the diagram cific language, while it exists in another. For in- shows, the word is linked to the general ontology stance the Italian word dito and the Spanish word about traffic, which is independent of the lan- dedo have both the meaning of fingers and toes, guage. The ethnic languages refer, in turn, to the having a more general meaning than the corre- ILI. sponding English word. The inverse happens for

Diagram 1. Scheme of EuroWordNet for word “drive”2

2 The diagram is taken from http://www-ksl.stanford.edu/onto-std/eurowordnet.pdf ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 224 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Inter-Lingual-Index Unstructured Superset of Concepts

GB-Net IT-Net

toe dito

finger { toe: part of foot }

head { finger: part of hand } { dedo, dito: finger or hand }

{ head: part of body }

NL-Net { hoofd : human head } ES-Net

{ kop: animal head } hoofd dedo

kop = normal equivalence

= hyponym-equivalence

= hyperonym-equivalence

Diagram 2. Record for a new word in ILI3 the Dutch words kop and hoofd, which are more der to establish the right connections among them. specific than the English head. In both cases the Several specific lexical dictionaries have been relation will be realized by adding a new (non- developed, mostly for English which now has dic- English) record to ILI (look at Diagram 2). tionaries for medicine, art, architecture and ge- Multilingualism plays an important role in this ography. Some specific databases also exist for case, as different languages do not behave in the other languages. For Italian, e. g., specific same way; feelings are not interpreted with the databases have been implemented for the mari- same sense, and often a word in one language time domain and for economics, architecture and needs several terms to be expressed in another law; in particular, a mathematical database has language. Although for mathematics this phenom- been developed at the Department of Pure and enon is reduced to the minimum, it is, neverthe- Applied Mathematics of the University of Padova less, present. (Giunta, Minnaja and Paccagnella 2005).

2.2.2 Specific Domains 3. Architetcture of Wordnet Generic lexical ontologies have lexical databases 3.1 Hierarchical and semantic relations containing a knowledge level without specific coverage. Specific databases gather specific concepts, WordNet was born in 1985. The most evident dif- and provide lexical hierarchies. The synsets col- ference between WordNet and an ordinary dic- lected this way have the form of compound words tionary is that the former divides the lexicon into and the co-operation of an expert is crucial in or- five syntactic categories: nouns, verbs, adjectives,

3 The diagram is taken from http://www.ercim.org/publication/ws-proceedings/DELOS3/Vossen.pdf L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 225 adverbs and function words. At present WordNet a concept represented by the synset {x1, x2, does not deal with the last category. Nouns are x3, …} is called hyponym of the concept represented by the synset {y1, y2, y3, …} if we can arranged in a lexical memory as hierarchies accept a sentence constructed this way: An x is a (hypernyms/hyponyms); verbs are structured in a type of y. hierarchy of troponymy (a verb is a troponym of Hyponymy is transitive and antisymmetric; it another when it expresses a specific action in com- generates a hierarchical semantic structure where parison of a more general one, e.g. to walk/to move hyponyms (concept: son) are under their hyper- himself/herself). Adjectives, in turn, are arranged nyms (concept: father). as n-dimensional hyperspaces. Meronymy/Holonymy is a semantic relation, WordNet is based on the semantic relations and expresses the concept of part of: among concepts; among these relations, synonymy plays a fundamental role, but it is not the only {x1, x2, x3, …} is a meronym of a concept one employed. We will deal with the following expressed by {y1, y2, y3, …} if we can accept sentences like x is a part of y main classification: – Synonymy, The meronymy/holonymy relation is transitive – Antonymy, (with the reservations we will explain later) and – Hyponymy/hypernymy, antisymmetric, and it can be used to construct – Meronymy/holonymy, hierarchical relations. E. g. beak and wing are – Morphological relations. meronyms of bird, eagle is a hyponym of bird. So, Synonymy has a very rigid definition (attrib- because of the hierarchical system, beak and wing uted to Leibniz): are themselves meronyms of eagle. Two concepts are synonymic if the truth value of the sentence does not change when one con- 3.2 Developing WordNet cept is substituted by the other. WordNet uses some symbols in its coding; they According to this definition, synonyms would are pointers which are recognized by the program, be very rare. So a weaker definition is used, not which will organize the words in a chart. We list connected to the sentence, but to the relevant some of them, not all of which will be useful in context: mathematics. Two concepts are synonymic in a linguistic The symbols for nouns are: context C if the substitution of one concept by ! Antonym the other in the linguistic context C does not @ Hypernym change its truth value. @i Instance hypernym With this definition, function and map are ~ Hyponym synonyms in mathematics, but not in cartography. i Instance hyponym Antonymy is a type of relation, which cannot #m Member holonym be defined easily and in the same way for all situ- #s Substance holonym ations, but it is quite common. Usually the anto- #p Part holonym nym of a word x is defined as not-x. For instance %m Member meronym rich and poor are usually classed as antonyms, al- %s Substance meronym though a person can be not rich, but also not poor. %p Part meronym Hyponymy/Hypernymy is a relation defined as = Attribute follows: + Derivationally related form ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 226 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

;c Domain of synset – TOPIC The source files have to contain the lexical -c Member of this domain – TOPIC database, which is the kernel of WordNet, and can ;r Domain of synset – REGION be increased with time. WordNet works -r Member of this domain – REGION associating four characteristics to a single word: ;u Domain of synset – USAGE – its orthographic form, -u Member of this domain – USAGE – the syntactic category (noun, adjective, For instance, let us look how the word “Lithua- verb, adverb), nia” is treated: – the semantic field, Lithuania – the sense number, i. e. the number identi- Noun fying the meaning. 1. a republic in northeastern Europe on the WordNet arranges the words following a deep Baltic Sea semantic and morphological analysis, dividing (synonym) Republic of Lithuania, Lietuva nouns from adjectives and verbs; nouns and verbs (hypernym) Baltic State, Baltic Republic are, in turn, divided into semantic fields. (member-meronym) Lithuanian Adjectives are divided into two categories: (part-meronym) Klaipeda, Memel descriptive adjectives and relational adjectives. As is easy to guess, the category “substance “Glossa” is a commentary, usually the definition meronym” is useless in mathematics, as well as or an example sentence, and it must be included “substance holonym”. Also the different types of in any synset. In the source file every synset domain are not meaningful in our field. occupies one line. The general syntax is as follows: We do not provide the complete list of the pointers for other morphological categories; here {word pointer (glossa)} we mention just a few of them: for verbs, an inter- Every synset must have at least one headword esting relation is the one indicating cause, for ad- and the glossa; our mathematical WordNet has jectives, pertaining to a noun or being a partici- for every headword at least the semantic field, too. ple have a specific pointer, as well as the relation of similarity; the derivation from an adjective is pointed out for an adverb. 4. A mathematical database for Esperanto Many pointers have the reflexivity property, The aim to create a lexical resource for mathemat- so in the following list we find the relation at left ics which does not give only definitions led us to and its reflected one at right, and vice versa. choose the principles of WordNet as a base for Antonym – Antonym, the construction of the dictionary. In addition, Hyponym – Hypernym, such a scheme allows interfacing it with other Hypernym – Hyponym, databases. The mathematical WordNet deals with Holonym – Meronym, nouns and has the semantic fields. Instance Hyponym – Instance Hypernym, A Specific Domain for mathematics has never Instance Hypernym – Instance Hyponym, been established and usually mathematical dic- Meronym – Holonym, tionaries have no taxonomies. Similar to – Similar to, In the present work we show both the most Attribute – Attribute, recent changes to the structure of the database Verb Group – Verb Group, and the Esperanto version of the mathematical Derivationally Related – Derivationally Related, WordNet. In order to make it easy to enrich the Domain of synset – Member of Domain. database we have introduced some new structures L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 227 and organized a new part, which deals with biog- #2 Algebra, raphies of mathematicians and formulae, and #3 Arithmetic, which has no analogue in other specific dictionar- #4 Topology, ies. In particular, nothing for Esperanto was done #5 Analysis, in WordNet. #6 Geometry, #9 Applied mathematics. 4.1 The source files The scheme is hierarchical, so, for instance, we indicated algebra (general) by #2, rings, groups Our mathematical WordNet deals only with nouns and modules by #21, algebraic equations, loga- and organizes them by semantic fields; for instance rithms, exponentials by #23; general analysis is bazo (base) has different meanings in geometry, indicated by 5, real analysis by #51, theory of func- arithmetic and linear algebra. It is founded on a tions by #55; applied mathematics is indicated by source file, which is a text file containing a set of #9, operational research by #96 and so on. strings consisting of four fields: This dictionary is for students and for novices – identifier of the entry (the headword it- of mathematics, so the glossa plays a crucial role. self), Therefore we created a file devoted just to the – identifier of the subject (e.g. geometry, glossa, so it can be enriched without burdening functional analysis, probability, …), the other source files. – pointer to semantic relations, Every line of the noun file is structured this – identifier of the definition. way: The identifier of the entry deals only with sin- {headword identifier_subject [f1,pointer] gular nouns, or compound nouns joined by an [f2,pointer],…, [fn, pointer] (identifier_glossa)} underscore character. The subject indicates which where the square brackets indicate that the fields branch of mathematics is involved; if the word is included are optional. involved in more than one branch, the main The variables in the line can take the follow- branch is indicated, and the other fields can be ing values: found in the definition. The pointer to semantic – headword is the form of the word to which relations is essential in the construction of the the synset represented by the line is re- structure; the symbols and the taxonomy are those lated, and it is its main key; of WordNet. We made just a couple of changes: – identifier_subject is given by the key of the in our mathematical WordNet the synonymy re- subject to which the headword refers; it lation is marked by symbol S; actually, there are has the numerical value of the mathemati- few synonyms in mathematics, but they are not cal subject according to the classification completely absent. In addition, we introduced a mentioned above; new relation R with the meaning “in relation – the pairs fi,pointer are constituted as fol- with”. Other relations have the same pointer sym- lows: fi is another headword, pointer is a bols as WordNet. Finally, the identifier of the defi- symbol which connects fi to the main head- nition is the glossa. word and is one of the symbols mentioned The subject identifies the concept uniquely. in Section 3; The classification of the mathematical subjects – identifier_glossa is the headword itself and follows the Dewey classification used in libraries. points to the corresponding definition, The subjects are: which can be enriched by examples, for- #1 Mathematics (in general) and Biographies, mulae and comments. ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 228 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

In mathematics some relations do not happen; A screen opens with directions (in Esperanto) e. g., distinctions between part meronyms, sub- for the word search, and with a slot to insert the stance meronyms and member meronyms are word. If a full expression is searched, the single meaningless; so pointers have been restricted to words must be joined into only one word by use the following types: of the underscore character, and the adjective fol- ! Antonym lows the noun. The spelling used for the word @ Hypernym being sought in Esperanto is the x-system, and the ~ Hyponym breve over “u” must be omitted. Clicking on #p Part holonym “sercxu” (search), one gets the result. %p Part meronym For instance, let us apply the procedure to the S Synonym example above. We type “operacio” in the slot and R Relation we get the screen for “vorto: operacio” (word: op- Our identifier_glossa is merely a string included eration) with the following result (“rezulto”): between round brackets. It points to another file, apart from the main source file of the nouns, so it Vorto: operacio can be managed autonomously. This glossa file Rezulto: describes the headword itself: it is a definition, or an explanation, or a formula with a comment or TEMO: Algebro (gxenerala) an example, or a complete biography when it deals DIFINO with a mathematician. Everything is in Esperanto, regulo au aro da reguloj asociantaj al n elementoj except the last case, where the biography is ob- donitaj en difinita ordo alian elementon (au aliajn tained by a link to a specific URL in English. elementojn) nomata(j)n rezultato de la operacio HIPONIMOJ DE operacio operacio_binara 4.2 Examples operacio_ekstera operacio_interna Let us show, as an example, how the source file inversigo with headword operacio (operation) appears: adicio {operacio 2 operacio_binara,~ subtraho operacio_ekstera,~ operacio_interna,~ multipliko inversigo,~ adicio,~ subtraho,~ multipliko,~ divido divido,~ konjugo,~ radikado,~ potencigo,~ konjugo transpono,~ malvastigo,~ kunligo,~ kunfaldo,~ radikado logaritmo,~ derivado,~ integrado,~ operatoro,R potencigo elemento_neutra,R operaciato,%p rezulto,%p transpono strukturo_algebra,R (operacio)} malvastigo kunligo In the glossa the definition, or a useful com- kunfaldo ment, or a biography are registered. logaritmo The programs operating on these files have logaritmo_dekuma logaritmo_de_Briggs been created and improved over the years (Croin ogaritmo_natura 2004, Giunta, Minnaja and Paccagnella 2005, logaritmo_kompleksa Niero 2007). ogaritmo_nepera The word search must be done at the follow- modulo_de_logaritmo ing URL: http://www.math.unipd.it/~minnaja/ derivado integrado WORDNETESP/vortaro.html L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 229

HIPERNIMOJ DE operacio multipliko Neniu elemento divido MERONIMOJ DE operacio operaciato Another example is funkcio (function), which rezulto has several hyponyms and hypernyms: HOLONIMOJ DE operacio Neniu elemento Vorto: funkcio SINONIMOJ DE operacio Neniu elemento Rezulto: ANTONIMOJ DE operacio Neniu elemento TEMO: Analitiko (gxenerala) EN RILATO KUN operacio DIFINO operatoro bildigo, precipe kiam la fonta kaj cela aroj elemento_neutra konsistas el nombroj; strukturo_algebra vd. ankau korespondo HIPONIMOJ DE funkcio As is easily seen, the definition comes at the funkcio_abela beginning; then the various relations to the funkcio_barita headword (hyponyms, hypernyms, meronyms, funkcio_kontinua funkcio_derivebla holonyms, synonyms, antonyms and relation in funkcio_de_klaso_Cn general) are represented by nests, and every entry funkcio_holomorfa of the nest has, in turn, its synset. When no entry funkcio_elvolvebla_en_serion_de_Taylor matches a specific relation, the result offers: neniu funkcio_analitika elemento (no elements). We remark that a funkcio_de_Bessel funkcio_de_Diricxlet operacio adicio hyponym (son) of is (addition), and funkcio_fucxsia if we go back to the URL and type in adicio we funkcio_integralebla find that operacio is its hypernym (father): funkcio_integrala funkcio_kunligita Vorto: adicio funkcio_meromorfa funkcio_monotona Rezulto: funkcio_kreskanta funkcio_kreskanta_strikte TEMO: Aritmetiko funkcio_malkreskanta DIFINO funkcio_malkreskanta_strikte operacio kiu aldonas kvantojn unu al la alia kaj funkcio_perioda kunigas ilin en unu solan, nomatan sumo funkcio_trigonometria HIPONIMOJ DE adicio sinuso Neniu elemento kosinuso HIPERNIMOJ DE adicio tangento operacio funkcio_inversa MERONIMOJ DE adicio funkcio_plurvalora adiciato funkcio_unuvalora sumo HIPERNIMOJ DE funkcio HOLONIMOJ DE adicio rilato_binara Neniu elemento rilato SINONIMOJ DE adicio MERONIMOJ DE funkcio Neniu elemento argumento ANTONIMOJ DE adicio celo-aro subtraho fonto-aro EN RILATO KUN adicio valoro ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 230 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

HOLONIMOJ DE funkcio ANTONIMOJ DE Taylor Neniu elemento Neniu elemento SINONIMOJ DE funkcio EN RILATO KUN Taylor apliko Neniu elemento korespondo bildigo If we go back to the URL and search for transformo “formulo_de_Taylor” we get the following result: ANTONIMOJ DE funkcio Neniu elemento Vorto: formulo_de_Taylor EN RILATO KUN funkcio vastigo Rezulto: malvastigo TEMO: Kompleksa analitiko As seen in the previous example, in the noun DIFINO formulo; gxi estas utila por aproksimi funkcion “funkcio_elvolvebla_en_serion_de_Taylor” havantan derivajxojn en cxirkauajxo de punkto (function which can be expanded pere de polinomo in Taylor’s series) HIPONIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor Neniu elemento the name of a mathematician appears. At the HIPERNIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor School of Mathematics and Statistics of the formulo University of St. Andrews (Scotland) an URL Taylor MERONIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor collecting biographies of mathematicians (in resto_de_formulo English) is available on line: The MacTutor HOLONIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor History of Mathematics Archive (http://www- Neniu elemento gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/BiogIndex.html). SINONIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor The Mathematical WordNet has been extended Neniu elemento ANTONIMOJ DE formulo_de_Taylor to these mathematical biographies. When looking Neniu elemento at the word “Taylor” we have the following result, EN RILATO KUN formulo_de_Taylor where the link points to the biography of Taylor: formulo_de_MacLaurin serio_de_Taylor Vorto: Taylor where “formulo” is a link for a definition of the Rezulto: formula. A click on it gives the following text, which is an extended definition with a short TEMO: Gxenerala matematiko kaj Biografioj DIFINO comment: Brook Taylor 1685-1731, anglo This mathematical WordNet can be easily ex- HIPONIMOJ DE Taylor tended with new terms and new morphological funkcio_elvolvebla_en_serion_de_Taylor categories. funkcio_analitika formulo_de_Taylor HIPERNIMOJ DE Taylor Neniu elemento MERONIMOJ DE Taylor Neniu elemento HOLONIMOJ DE Taylor Neniu elemento SINONIMOJ DE Taylor Neniu elemento L. G. Paccagnella, C. Minnaja. A MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY FOR ESPERANTO... 231

References

BARDELLÉ, CH., 1901. L’Esperanto et les Mathé- GRUBER, T. R., 1993. A Translation Approach to Port- maticiens. L’Enseignement mathématique, 444-445. able Ontologies. Knowledge Acquisition, 5(2): 199-220. BAVANT, M., 2003. Matematika vortaro kaj oklingva MARIANO, M., 1980. Esperanto-Vortaro per temo-tabeloj leksikono. Dobøichovice: Kava-Pech. (Esperanto-dictionary by subject tables). Ascoli Piceno: BEAN, C. M., 1954. Matematika terminaro. In: Jarlibro – Gabrielli. Dua parto. Rotterdam: UEA, 39-77. MILLER, G. A.; BECKWITH, R.; FELLBAUM, C.; BRICARD, R., 1905. Matematika terminaro kaj kres- GROSS, D.; MILLER, K., 1990. WordNet: an On-line Lexical tomatio. Paris: Hachette. Database. International Journal of Lexicography (special issue), CERETTI, U., 1903. Matematica ed Esperanto. Rivista di 3 (4): 235-312. Fisica, Matematica e Scienze Naturali, IV, 45, Sett. 1903, 1-16. NIERO, F., 2007. WordNet e sue applicazioni. Revisione e CROIN, S., 2004. Sviluppo di un dizionario matematico implementazione di un database di termini matematici (WordNet nella struttura di WordNet (Development of a mathematical and its applications. Revision and implementation of a data- dictionary in the WordNet structure). Thesis (MA). Univ. base of mathematical terms). Thesis (MA). Univ. Padova, Padova, Engineering, Academic Year 2002-2003. Engineering, Academic Year 2005-2006. EICHHOLZ, R., 1988. Esperanta Bildvortaro. Mannheim: VOSSEN, P. ed., 2001. EuroWordNet [online]. Available Bibliographisches Institut. from: http://www.illc.uva.nl/Euro WordNet/ [Accessed 27 May HILGERS, R.; YASHOVARDHAN, Hrsg., 1980. EG- 2007]. Wörterbuch mathematischer Begriffe. Alsbach: Leuchtturm. WERNER, J., 1990. Matematika Vortaro Esperanta-Ceha- GIUNTA, A.; MINNAJA, C.; PACCAGNELLA L. G., Germana, Poprad: Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj (AIS) 2005. Extending the Italian WordNet with the Specialized San Marino. Language of the Mathematical Domain. Grundlagenstudien Wordnet. Available from: http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/ aus Kibernetik und Geisteswissenschaft, 46, 3: 3-12. ~wn/ [Accessed 27 May 2007].

Laura Gilda Paccagnella skirstomi á grupes, vadinamas sinonimø eilëmis Padujos universitetas, Italija (synsets). Visi konceptai duomenø bazëje yra Moksliniai interesai: natûraliø kalbø apdorojimas, hierarchiðkai struktûruoti. Vëliau buvo sukurta matematinës duomenø bazës. duomenø bazë EuroWordNet. Tai daugiakalbis Carlo Minnaja WordNet, parengtas devyniomis Europos kalbomis. Padujos universitetas, Italija Be to, jis buvo papildytas tam tikromis sritimis, kad Moksliniai interesai: matematikos istorija, atsirastø skirtingi WordNet, po vienà kiekvienai matematiniø þodþiø etimologija, dirbtinës kalbos. kalbai ir dalykui. Mes sukûrëme matematikos terminø duomenø bazæ WorNet esperanto kalba. MATEMATIKOS TERMINØ ÞODYNAS Bazëje ðiuo metu yra tik daiktavardþiai, o santykiai ESPERANTO KALBA PAGAL WORDNET tarp þodþiø yra klasifikuojami taip: 1) sinonimas – kai du þodþiai yra sinonimai; 2) antonimas – kai du Santrauka þodþiai turi prieðingas reikðmes, pvz., adicio (sudëtis) WordNet yra duomenø bazë, veikianti nuo 1985 ir sutraho (atimtis); 3) hiperonimas/ hiponimas – kai metø Princetono universitete. Joje þodþio paieðka konceptas yra daugiau ar maþiau bendresnis nei grindþiama psicholingvistinëmis teorijomis. Bazëje kitas, pvz., formulo de Taylor (Tayloro formulë) yra WordNet informacija yra saugoma pagal sintaksines formulo hiponimas; 4) holonimas/ meronimas – kai kategorijas ir yra sujungta ávairiais santykiø tipais. vienas objektas turi savyje kito objekto dalá ar, Yra ir sinonimø, ir poliseminiø þodþiø; sinonimai yra atvirkðèiai, jis yra kito objekto dalis, pvz., adiciato ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 232 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

(dëmuo) yra dalis adicio, o adicio turi adiciato kaip (iðvestinë funkcija). Visa tai mes papildëme nuoroda vienà ið savo daliø; 5) santykis – kai du þodþiai yra á definicijas, formules ir iðsamius komentarus. O tais susijæ tuo, kad jie yra toje paèioje situacijoje, ar tuo, atvejais, kai uþklausa siejama su matematikø vardais, kad jie turi tà patá holonimà ar hiperonimà, pvz., pateikiama nuoroda á jø biografijà (The Mac Tutor adicio ir divido (dalinimas) hiperonimas yra operacio. History of Mathematics Archive, anglø kalba). Ðios duomenø bazës prieiga: http://www. REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: WordNet, mate- math.unipd.it/~minnaja/ WORDNETESP/vortaro. matikos terminø þodynas, esperanto, þodþio html. Áraðius norimà þodá, jums bus pateikti taksonomijos. antonimai, hiperonimai, hiponimai ir kt. Hiperoni- mai ir hiponimai gali bûti áterpti – funkcio (funkcija) Gauta 2007 11 12 hiponimas yra funkcio kontinua (tæstinë funkcija), o Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 09 ðio hiponimo hiponimas yra funkcio derivebla 233

Vaiva Zuzevièiûtë Vytautas Magnus University Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Education Donelaicio 52-304, LT-44244 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel. / fax: (370–37) 32 78 21 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: learning strategies of students in tertiary education.

Edita Butrimienë Vytautas Magnus University Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Education Donelaicio 52-304, LT-44244 Kaunas, Lietuva Tel. / fax: (370–37) 32 78 21 E-mail: [email protected] Research interests: education, ICT based education.

INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK OF SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM: ADEQUACY BETWEEN THE OPPORTUNITIES AND STUDENTS AND LECTURERS’ NEEDS

The increased economic and social role of knowledge changes patterns of learning. This article aims at analyzing the e-learning as a socio-cultural systemic model, which depends on congruent processes that take place within it. This e-learning systemic model has been designed with the consideration of literature and documents analysis. Methods of literature, document analysis and empiric research (aimed at finding out students’ and lecturers’ approach towards E-learning) were employed for the development of this article. This preliminary research paper aims at: 1) The concept of the e-learning socio-cultural system is addressed in the first part of the article. 2) The prerequisites for a systemic analysis of e-learning are highlighted in the second part. 3) In the third part of the article results of an empiric research aimed at finding out students’ and lecturers’ approach towards e- learning. The research findings disclosed that: 1) It can be stated that e-learning is possible to investigate as a socio- cultural system collected from many objects. Key components of each object are: participants; technologies (ICT); processes, relationship; materials (information). The surrounding system of all of them is knowledge society. All these systems differ one from another in regard to time and place dependently on applied ICT. 2) Under the outcome of empiric exploratory research, more than one third of students and lecturers think that they exploit possibilities that ICT provides in learning insufficiently. Students identify search for information on the internet and work with text edit software to all ICT possibilities provided to learning. 3) Lecturers think that they exploit possibilities that ICT provides in their work sufficiently. 4) Students exploit possibilities that ICT provides in learning not as regularly as it is expected by lecturers. KEY WORDS: e-learning, blended learning, Information and Communication technology, education. ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 234 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Introduction indication of interaction performers’ (students’) attitudes. A rapid and continuous change of ICT as well as its diversity influences both social order and modern teaching and learning process. It is indicated The concept of the sociocultural system in in the possibility study project under the Euro- e-learning pean scientific research space context of Lithua- Analyzing e-learning as a concept of the socio- nian humanitarian and social science concerning cultural system, the concepts of information and infrastructural expansion (Lietuvos communication technologies, e-learning and humanitariniø… 2005) that “the increased eco- socio-cultural system have to be defined too. nomic and social role of knowledge changes pat- In the literature there are a lot of definitions terns of modern scientific research. The bounda- concerning information and communication tech- ries of traditional disciplines are likely to disap- nologies. Thus, after having summarized various pear; their evaluation criterion is to be not as much authors’ thoughts (Heeks 1999, Wentling et al. their scientific novelty and acknowledgement in 2000), it can be stated that information technolo- the academic society as the applicable innovation gies are computers and information that is con- and effectiveness of knowledge”. The application trolled with computers (operational systems, ap- of information and communication technologies plied software), and communicational technology in the educational process is namely valuable un- involve local net/intranet, internet, mobile con- der this approach. nection, a telephone net allocated to general pur- Problem. In a recent university, at the same poses and any radio net for data transferring. time there exist traditional as well as qualitatively According to Castells (2005, p. 87), the social new educational environments enriched with dimension of the revolution in information information and communication technologies that technologies is made to obey the law of techno- create prerequisites for e-learning. The research logical and social intercourse under issue, for the analysis of which, the article pays Kranzberg: „the technology is neither good nor bad the most attention is related to “what the e- nor neutral”. Shields and Behrman (2000) notice learning structure is”? that equality of digital opportunity (quality of Object of the Article. Interpretation of the information and communication technologies, socio-cultural system under the e-learning context. author), becomes a synonym to equality of Aim of the Article. To reveal perspectives of educational opportunity. Then the main aim of the e-learning analysis as a socio-cultural system. integration of information and communication Methodology of the Article. It is based on the technologies into educational process, would be theoretical paradigm of structuralism (Levi- to design a new informative dynamic model that Strauss (1908) (Bitinas 2005; Glazer 1994)) and is suitable for the development of students’ skills the branch of the cognitive theory – construc- that are related to communication, critical tionism (Piaget (1896-1980) (Huitt, Hummel thinking as well as to independent and responsible 2003)). performance. Due diverse authors (Conole 2004, Method of research. There were applied Kompiuterinës leksikos… 2001-2005, analysis of scientific literature and documents as Osguthorpe, Graham 2003, Wentling et al. 2000): well as empiric exploratory research and e-learning is learning for the efficiency of which qualitative research (questionnaires). The statistic there are applied information and communication descriptive analysis was carried out for the technologies (computers, local area networks, V. Zuzevièiûtë, E. Butrimienë. INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK... 235 internet, mobile technologies, etc.). E-learning In summary of various authors’ thoughts, may have several models: from traditional it can be claimed that the socio-cultural learning, enriched with information and system of e-learning is a system where for the communication technologies, to one that is increase of efficiency in learning there are completely based on information and commu- applied information and communication nication technologies and is going on in the technologies that have been artificially virtually designed environment. E-learning also designed by a human being and influence the emphasizes the interactivity of learning and the development and structure of this system. learner’s activity. E-learning may be synchronous or asynchronous as well as unlimited in regard to Prerequisites of e-learning as a place and time. socio-cultural system The title of the socio-cultural system (Ðèed- rovskij, Lefevr, Mamardaðvili) consists of two In 2004, Conole foresaw the main guidelines for words – socium and culture. Socium (mankind and a ten-year period. One group of questions to be people) involves the most different constituents analyzed according to Conole (2004) is called: that in one or another way have arranged a system. e-learning structures and processes. He states An exclusive unitary element of a socium (an that the integration stage of modern information indivisible system) is a person (Kvedaravièius and communication technologies into learning 2006). The socium possesses a natural origin that process can be called just a primary exploitation has not been created by a person. Urbonaite of potential. (1999) draws a conclusion that culture is not Castells (2005) distinguishes the essential anything else than the level of the conscious characteristics of the new paradigm of informa- human’s action, based on the certain value system, tion and communication technologies: in accordance with that the primal stage of any 1. Information is the basic stock and infor- issue is exchanged due to an advanced idea. mation and communication technologies Culture is an exclusive phenomenon, i.e. an affect information; artificially designed system that later naturalized 2. The influence of new information and (Kvedaravièius 2006). Natural systems can evolve, communication technologies is penetra- and artificial ones can develop. Urbonaitë (1999) tive. Information is a constituent of all defines the information culture as a whole of social human activities; consequently, a new values, standards and experience that enables the technological environment directly de- application of stored information base in signs all operations of individual and col- communication operations as well as its lective activities; expansion. On the one hand, a social-cultural 3. A network, the basis of which is informa- system that belongs to a social group; on the other tion and communication technologies, hand; it exists in the culture. On the one part, such can already be implemented into diverse systems are ones, which establish culture, on the operations and structures physically. Due other part, they are restricted by culture. Culture to Kelly (1995) “the only type of an or- supposes parameters and criteria, permissible ganization that is able to expand (accord- norms, tendencies and taboo zones for their ing to author: develop, improve.) with- functioning. In other words, culture conditions out a prejudice as well as to store knowl- “behavior, efficiency and effectiveness” of a social- edge apart from outside help, is Net- cultural system (Urbonaitë 1999). work”; ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 236 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Figure 1. E-learning as a social-cultural system

4. Information and communication tech- there are discussed human’s possibilities to ac- nologies are flexible. That enables the al- cess and systematize information and commu- teration of operations, modification of nication. structures and institutions as well as their Castells (2005) highlights that only a special substantial change, while reorganizing analysis and empiric observations will enable the their constituents. There appear new so- determination of interaction outcome related to cial forms and operations that have been information and communication technologies conditioned by new information and and newly emergent social forms. According to communication technologies; the literature (Osguthorpe, Graham 2003, 5. Gradually, the peculiar technologies join Rentroia-Bonito, Pires Jorge 2004), ICT-based into a very integrated system, where old educational environments, in regard to informa- and single technologies become insepa- tion ad communication technologies applied in rable/integral ones. learning, differ one from another under the as- According to Bitinas (2006), such compo- pect of place and time. That is conditioned by nents make complex self-controlled systems: the variety of information and communication goals which are sought by subjects; tools to technologies, applied in learning. Such educa- achieve these goals; feedback (information) that tional environments can also be considered be- reveals precise realization; tools for taking so- ing a social-cultural system. The more techno- lutions. According to Kirkman (2000) and logical tools there are applied, the greater re- Verhoest and Cammaerts (2001), Alampay quirements for the developed structure of edu- (2006) explains what the universal access of ICT cational environment, the closer relationship is, and separates such three levels: infrastruc- between an instructor (or lecturer) and a stu- ture; service, the basis of which is ICT; contents dent. (information, knowledge, communication op- To conclude all authors thoughts and taking portunities). Such an explanation can also be into consideration logics (Glazer 1994), ICT- comprehended as a system. The basic factor of based Education process (ore-learning) can be such a system is a human being, as in this case explained as a social-cultural system (1 figure). V. Zuzevièiûtë, E. Butrimienë. INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK... 237

The surrounding system of the one is knowledge “Lithuanian situation in e-learning, National society. Report” (2005) Figure 1 reflects ICT-based Edu- Its basis is a complex transformation of capi- cation process (or e-learning) and how social- tal and technologies into knowledge (Ducker cultural system can be divided into objects: vir- 2001). tual learning and blended learning (Table 1). According to Castells (2005) the develop- During the analysis of the object parts of e- ment model of information establishes a particu- learning as a socio - cultural system provided in larly close relationship between culture and pro- Table 1 and according Castells (2005), it can be duction power. Consequently, you can wait for noticed that all of them are united by technolo- the appearance of historically new social inter- gies (ICT), participants (student and lecturer), action, management of society and forms of so- processes (educational interaction, all processes cial alternation. According to systematic logics that guarantee operation and development of a (Bitinas 2005, Glazer 1994, Castells 2005), and system) and materials (information) (2 Table).

Table 1.Objects e-learning as a social-cultural system. Object parts of a social- Indicative definition Objects of a cultural system social-cultural system Virtual University/ e- A University with no campus, providing courses Virtual learning university/ accredited by its constituent/consortium national or Interactive University international University members, sometimes in partnership with commercial publishers. Professional tutorial support.

Videoconferencing/ Desktop and group video-conferencing systems which teleconferencing provide 2-way and multi-way interactivity between student and professor Distance Education/ Focuses on students separated in time and space from Distance Learning/ their peers and professors Virtual Learning E-Learning/ on-line Delivery of courses/modules where most teaching, learning/ web-based learning & student support occurs by interactive internet learning & computer technologies. Open/Flexible Learning “Courseware”/learning materials - digital or paper-based - Blended distributed electronically or by post. Tutorial support by learning correspondence and occasional meetings. In some cases, audio and video media can augment this system, with group tutorials via audio-conferencing.

Distributed learning This can include a “mix” of delivery methods, including “blended learning”, which integrate various technological methodologies with “traditional teaching” Blended learning A combination of e-Learning and classroom-based courses

ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 238 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Table 2. General structure of object parts of e-learning as a social-cultural system

Communication Place In relation to In relation to time information Participants Student 1.Can be in Process participants Create an extra Lecturer one place can work: value of information 2.Can be in 1. At the same time; different 2. At a different places time. Technologies Guarantee Warrant a Provide with an Guarantee security communication possibility to opportunity to work of information, work in any time communication and anywhere copying, analysis, etc. Processes, Can be single-sided 1.Depend on Can occur: Resulting, relationship or reciprocal place 1. At the same time; functioning, 2.Independen 2. At a different reproduction, t on place time. organization, management, control, creativity, termination and development Materials In regard to Information Information can be (information) possessed can be any when information the can obtained be asymmetry anywhere

According to Castells (2005) information is possibilities. It is necessary to highlight that they the basic stock, i.e. technologies affect infor- are just these changes those do not destroy the mation. socium and its parts, the fundamentals of exist- The flexibility of information technologies ence and present cultural base, basic processes and joining the integrated systems (4) secures of culture that have already naturalized the diversity of socio-cultural systems in e-learn- (Kvedaravièius 2006). The outcome of e-learning and learning. Kvedaravièius (2006) points out ing system (Table 2) can be considered the new- that the development is constructive outcome est achievements of learning. Students obtain of artificial operations that expands the artifi- abilities to work in a modern volatile society. The cial variety. Whereas the keeping of variety implication is that results of e-learning system among natural objects (evolution) and expan- are pointed towards the surrounding environ- sion between naturally artificial and artificial ment of that system, - knowledge society (Fig- objects (development) is metacriterion and ure 1). After having assessed these results, it is metagoal of the universe development possible to decide on the functional effectiveness (Kvedaravièius 2006). The socio-cultural system of the system. Functioning, reproduction, organi- of e-learning and learning can develop, because zation, management, control, creativity, termina- culture has got a natural origin. The develop- tion and development processes are to be all pro- ment involves the changes of socio-cultural sys- vision and other supplementary ones that guar- tems during the expansion of their objectives and antee continuation of resulting process. V. Zuzevièiûtë, E. Butrimienë. INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK... 239

Through the analysis of Table 2 and accord- who participated varied from 19 to 22. The ing to according to the literature it can be students grouped according to their sex in the claimed that achievements of ICT enable to col- following way: 14.9% males and 85.1 % females. lect modern Web-based courses, online learn- The age of the lecturers who participated varied ing, e-learning from many constituents: face-to- from 26 to 65. The lecturers grouped according face learning, audio, video, hypertext, synchronic to their sex in the following way: 43.1% males and asynchronous communication, chat rooms, and 56.9 % females. thematic chat rooms and virtual forums. Tradi- The questionnaire consisted of presen- tional learning forms (preparation of lecture and tational/introductory part, where there was provision with it, students’ participation, discus- explained the research aim, and content/ sions, feedback/reflection and assessment) and psychostimulating part that involved 11 ques- methods can be transferred into ICT-based e- tions (5 closed questions, 4 semi-open questions learning social-cultural system. (1 Figure). In and 2 open questions). Three questions had a other words, there exists an opportunity to demographic pattern. The questions, delivered investigate e-learning social-cultural systems to students in the second part, enabled drawing collected from many objects. Key elements of of conclusions concerning the fact if the each object are: respondents learn while applying the opportu- • Participants; nities provided by information and commu- • Technologies (ICT); nication technologies, and how they assess such • Processes, relationship/connections; learning. In the second part the lecturers were • Material (information). provided with questions that enabled the The surrounding system of all of them is reasoning concerning the point if respondents information society. The result they are will- apply the opportunities provided by information ing to achieve is the same: students acquire and communication technologies at work, and abilities to work in knowledge society (1 Fig- how they assess themselves and students in ure). All these systems differ one from an- regard to the application aspect of information other in regard to time and place aspect de- and communication technologies. pendently on applied ICT. One third of students and almost one third of lecturers (29.3%) think that it is more effectively to apply information and commu- The research in order to find out how nication technologies for learning of all subjects. students and lecturers apply the Approximately 75% of students believe that possibilities provided by information and information and communication technologies communication technologies, and how they would be more beneficial for the provision with assess such teaching and learning educational materials in the e-space. 20% of There was performed empiric exploratory students think that the lecturers’ encouragement research. During the research, the aim was to would aid at the more frequent application of find out students’ and lecturers’ attitude towards information and communication technologies. application of ICT in an educational process. 97% of students and all lecturers have got Respondents. The research index was 313 computers at home. The research was performed students and 58 lecturers from 3 universities of in one university, but the authors suppose that a Lithuania. Computer science students where similar situation is in other universities as well. absent from the research. The age of the students 79.1% of students and 88.2% of lecturers have ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 240 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

100,00% 100%

87,80% 97,00% 79,10% 88,20%

74,70%

80,00% 68,29%

60,00%

46%

40,00%

20,00%

0,00%

Students 2004 Lecturers 2004 Students 2007 Lecturers 2007

Computer at home Internet connection at home

Figure 2. The students‘ and lecturer‘s computers and Internet Connection got Internet Connection at home; in comparison learning? (Figure 3) The students had to identify to the research, carried out in 2004. (Figure 2) how often they apply these opportunities the number of ones who have got computers at provided by ICT (1 – continuously; 2 – very often; home increased about 20%, and the number of 3 – apply; 4 – I don’t apply): ones, who have got Internet Connection at K1 Search for supplementary materials home, among students increased by 30% and online, among lecturers 20%. Therefore, it can be K2 Materials, presented by lecturers on the concluded that such material resources deliver University Server, primary conditions for the application in e- K3 Automated University Library, learning and learning. K4 CDs, The students were asked a question: How do K5 Online Courses, you apply the opportunities provided by ICT in K6 Automated libraries of other universities.

90%

75,50%77,10%

80%

70% 61,70%

60%

50%

41,00% 39,50%

36,80% 35,80% 36,70%

40% 33,30%

30%

18,80%

16,10%

20% 13,30% 12,70%14,60%

8,30% 10,00%

10% 5,60%4,90%

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6

All students Students say, that sufficiently Students say, that not sufficiently

Figure 3. How do you apply the opportunities provided by ICT in learning? V. Zuzevièiûtë, E. Butrimienë. INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK... 241

In the Figure 3 there are provided just those 3% of them do not apply Internet. Hence, students‘answers, who responded: continuously 97% students answered that they applied the and very often. In comparison to the students‘ opportunities provided by ICT continuously, answers, who think that they apply the often or sometimes, and 53.7% of students opportunities provided by ICT for learning thought that it is the basic means for learning. sufficiently and ones, who think they do not apply It is obvious that the students identify the the opportunities provided by ICT for learning information search online and the application sufficiently (Figure 3), it can be stated that there of text editors with all opportunities provided are just slight diffrences. There has been by ICT in learning. According to the Figures performed a non-parametric Mann-Withney U 3 and 5, it can be claimed that the students test. The diffrences among student groups‘ apply the opportunities provided by answers were not statistically meaningful apart automated libraries insufficiently. from: “ Search for supplementary materials 19% of students answered that they applied online”, where p = 0,012. Consequently, there the opportunities provided by ICT in learning can be drawn a conclusion that all students apply insufficiently. 13% of students said that they the opportunities provided by ICT in learning applied some opportunities insufficiently. After equally, without reference to the fact if they having performed the analysis of the responses to apply the opportunities provided by ICT the open question, where it was asked to explain sufficiently or not. why students thought they applied the 77.6% of students claimed that they applied opportunities provided by ICT insufficientl, there Internet continuously and very often, and only can be distinguished four prevailing answer groups: 3% of all students, who participated in the survey • There is a lack of knowledge concerning said that they did not apply Internet. ICT. 68% of students think that they apply ICT • They do not have an opportunity to work for learning sufficiently. 19% of students believe with a computer continuously. that they apply ICT for learning insufficiently. • There is too little information online in 13% of students enumerated the reasons why Lithuanian. they applied some ICT means sufficiently and • They don‘t like computers. others insufficiently. After having out the analysis of the answers The students were provided with an open to the open question, where it was asked to question, where it was asked to explain why they explain why the lecturers thought that students thought they applied the opportunities provided applied the opportunities provided by ICT in by ICT in learning sufficiently. After having learning, it turned out that one fourth of them carried out the analysis of responses to the open (as well as students) identified that there was question, it was possible to distinguish one search for information online, there prepared prevailing group of answers: 69.7% of students, course papers and presentations. 36% of who stated that they applied the opportunities lecturers think that students apply ICT in learning provided by ICT sufficiently, responded that they insufficiently. After having out the analysis of the used Internet for information search and did answers to the open question, where it was asked individual homework, applying text editors. That to explain why the lecturers thought that students makes 53.7% of all students, who participated applied the opportunities provided by ICT in in the survey. During the analysis of the learning insufficiently, there could be students’ responses it was found out that just distinguished three prevailing answer groups: ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 242 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE

Worse then exeptionally

distant 3,60%

28,60%

As well as distant

64,30%

Better then exeptionally 71,40%

distant 32,10%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Students Lecturers Figure 4. How do you assess the blended teaching and learning?

• There is a lack of means (special The lecturers and students’ opinions educational programs, technique, and separated. The lecturers value the blended little information in Lithuanian). teaching and learning more (71.4%) and just one • A lack of motivation. third of students would give the preference to • Little information concerning the the blended teaching and learning. Two thirds opportunities. of students and just one third of lecturers assess Two of these reasons are identified with the the blended teaching and learning in the same outcome, mentioned by the students. way as a distant one. The students and lecturers were asked a The lecturers were asked how in their point question, how they assessed the blended of view students applied the opportunities

learning. (Figure 4) provided by ICT in learning. (Figure 5):

80%

75,50% 79,20%

70%

60%

50,00%

46,20%

50% 41,00%

36,80%

40% 35,80%

30%

16,10%

13,90%

20% 12,70% 11,40%

5,60%

10%

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6

St uden t s ap p ly Lecturers point of view Figure 5. How in lecturers point of view students applied the opportunities provided by ICT in learning. V. Zuzevièiûtë, E. Butrimienë. INTERPRETATION OF E-LEARNING IN THE FRAMEWORK... 243

90% 80% 83,60% 70% 60% 45,10% 50% 44,00% 40% 30,00% 30% 15,20% 14,30% 20% 10,20% 10% 0% K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7

Figure 6. How do you apply ICT opportunities for teaching? Answers of the lecturers

K1 Search for supplementary materials applied by 13.9 % of students. In summary, it online, can be claimed that students apply ICT in K2 Materials, presented by lecturers on the learning more seldom than lecturers expect. University Server, Lecturers were given a question: How do you K3 Automated University Library, apply ICT opportunities for teaching? The re- K4 CDs, spondents had to identify how often they applied K5 Online Courses, the opportunities provided by ICT (Figure 9): K6 Automated libraries of other universities. K1 Apply the internet for the search for The most popular is the search of supplementary materials online, information online (K1, Figure 7). Eight in ten K2 Automated library of University, students look for supplementary information K3 CDs, K4 Automated libraries of other universities, online continuously or very often. The lecturers K5 Publish materials in the University server, are aware of the situation and think that 79.2 % K6 Virtual learning environment, of students search for information online K7 Online courses. continuously or very often. Approximately five Throughout analysis of figure 3 and 6, it can in ten students download the materials, provided be concluded that the pattern of students‘ and by the lecturers on the University Server, lecturers‘ work while applying ICT, differs. The continuously or very often. (K2, Figure 7). The students and lecturers provide with an advantage lecturers think in the same way. Three in ten Internet; however, other operational means are students apply the automated university library applied diffrently. The lecturers gave the second continuously or very often. (K3, Figure 7), and place to automated libraries, and students to lecturers think that five in ten students apply the matierials that are provided by the lecturers on automated university library continuously or the University Server. very often. 16.3 % of students use CDs in learning continuously or very often (K4, Figure 7), and Conclusions lecturers believe that approximately a half students learn in such a way. One in ten students It can be stated that e-learning is possible to in- uses Online Courses (K5, Figure 7). The vestigate as a socio-cultural system collected lecturers suppose that Online Courses are from many objects. Key components of each ÐIUOLAIKINIAIKULTÛRA IR DISKURSO IÐSILAVINIMAS: IR NARATYVO LAIKO IÐÐÛKIAI TYRIMAI / / 244 CONTEMPORARYCULTURE RESEARCH AND EDUCATION: INTO DISCOURSE TIME CHALLENGES AND NARRATIVE object are: participants; technologies (ICT); ICT provides in learning insufficiently. Students processes, relationship; materials (information). identify search for information on the internet The surrounding system of all of them is knowl- and work with text edit software to all ICT pos- edge society. All these systems differ one from sibilities provided to learning. another in regard to time and place dependently Lecturers think that they exploit possibilities on applied ICT. that ICT provides in their work sufficiently. Under the outcome of empiric exploratory Students exploit possibilities that ICT pro- research, more than one third of students and vides in learning not so regularly as it is expected lecturers think that they exploit possibilities that by lecturers.

References

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Vaiva Zuzevièiûtë elektroninio mokymosi kontekste. Siekiama Vytauto Didþiojo universitetas, Lietuva atskleisti elektroninio mokymosi kaip sociokultûrinës Moksliniai interesai: studentø mokymosi strategijos sistemos analizës perspektyvas. Remiamasi teorine treèiojoje mokymosi pakopoje. struktûralizmo (C. Levi-Strausso) paradigma ir Edita Butrimienë kognityviosios teorijos pakraipa – konstruktyvizmu Vytauto Didþiojo universitetas, Lietuva (J. Piaget). Moksliniai interesai: ðvietimas, informacinës Straipsnyje elektroninis mokymasis anali- komunikacinës technologijos ðvietime. zuojamas kaip sociokultûrinë sistema, kurios branduolys yra joje vykstantys procesai. Straipsnyje ELEKTRONINIO MOKYMOSI KAIP SOCIO- pateikiama literatûros ir dokumentø analizë bei KULTÛRINËS SISTEMOS PRIELAIDOS: DËS- pristatomas empirinis tyrimas. Pirmoje straipsnio TYTOJØ IR STUDENTØ POREIKIØ GALI- dalyje apibrëþiama elektroninio mokymosi sociokul- MYBIØ ATITIKIMAS tûrinës sistemos sàvoka. Antroje dalyje iðryðkinamos elektroninio mokymosi kaip sociokultûrinës sistemos Santrauka analizës prielaidos. Treèioje dalyje pristatomas Ðiø dienø universitete vienu metu egzistuoja tiek empirinis tyrimas, kuriuo buvo bandoma iðsiaiðkinti tradicinës, tiek kokybiðkai naujos – informacinëmis studentø ir dëstytojø poþiûrá á elektroniná mokymàsi. ir komunikacinëmis technologijomis pagrástos – REIKÐMINIAI ÞODÞIAI: elektroninis moky- edukacinës aplinkos, sudaranèios prielaidas elektro- masis, miðrus mokymasis, informacinës ir komuni- niniam mokymuisi. Tyrimo klausimas, kurio analizei kacinës technologijos. skirtas pagrindinis dëmesys ðiame straipsnyje: kokia elektroninio mokymosi struktûra? Straipsnio Gauta 2007 11 12 objektas – sociokultûrinës sistemos interpretavimas Priimta publikuoti 2008 04 07

2 LiedDM Virtual Dictionary. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 246 REIKALAVIMAICONTEMPORARY STRAIPSNIAMS RESEARCH INTO/ REQUIREMENTS DISCOURSE AND FOR NARRATIVE PUBLICATION

REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS

„Respectus Philologicus“ yra tarptautinis regioninis filologijos mokslo srities leidinys, skirtas gramatikos, semantikos ir semiotikos krypties (H 352) tyrinëjimams. Pagrindinës „Respectus Philologicus“ kalbos: lietuviø, lenkø, anglø, rusø. Leidinyje „Respectus Philologicus“ skelbiami Centrinës ir Rytø Europos regiono mokslininkø probleminiai straipsniai, vertimai, recenzijos, diskusijos, mokslinës veiklos apþvalgos. Straipsniø apimtis – iki 30 000 spaudos þenklø (0,75 autorinio lanko), apþvalgos, recenzijos – iki 10 000 spaudos þenklø (0,25 autorinio lanko). Dël didesnës apimties publikacijø bûtina ið anksto susitarti su redakcija. Tekstai redakcijai pateikiami atspausdinti dviem egzemplioriais, 12 punktø Times New Roman ðriftu, 1,5 eilutës intervalu. Prie atspausdinto teksto turi bûti pridëta ir elektroninë teksto rinkmena (teksto redaktorius – „Microsoft Word“, „Office’97“ arba naujesnë versija, rinkmenà galima atsiøsti elektroniniu paðtu adresais , , . Tekstai turi bûti parengti pagal toliau pateikiamus publikacijø struktûros reikalavimus. Straipsniai, parengti nesilaikant ðiø reikalavimø, redakcijos nesvarstomi. Redakcija pasilieka sau teisæ, esant reikalui, redaguoti tekstà ir kartu nekeisti jo esmës. Leidiniui „Respectus Philologicus“ teikiamus mokslo straipsnius vertina maþiausiai du redaktoriø kolegijos paskirti recenzentai. Ið jø bent vienas yra ne redaktoriø kolegijos narys. Recenzentø pavardës neskelbiamos. Straipsnio pabaigoje redakcija nurodo datas, kada jis gautas ir kada priimtas publikuoti. Leidinyje skelbiami tik straipsniai, neskelbti nei viena ið pagrindiniø leidinio kalbø.

„Respectus Philologicus“ publikacijø struktûra

Leidiniui „Respectus Philologicus“ teikiami mokslo straipsniai turi atitikti tokius reikalavimus. Juose turi bûti suformuluotas moksliniø tyrimø tikslas bei metodologija, aptarta nagrinëjamos problemos tyrimø bûklë, pateikti ir pagrásti tyrimø rezultatai, padarytos iðvados, nurodyta naudota literatûra. Prie lietuviðkai skelbiamo mokslinio straipsnio turi bûti pridëta ne maþiau kaip 1 000 spaudos þenklø santrauka lietuviø kalba, nurodyti reikðminiai þodþiai ir ne maþiau kaip 1 000 spaudos þenklø santrauka anglø, o prie skelbiamo nelietuviðkai – ne maþiau kaip 1 000 spaudos þenklø anotacija ir reikðminiai þodþiai straipsnio kalba bei ne maþiau kaip 2 000 spaudos þenklø apimties santrauka anglø kalba. Publikacijos pradþioje, kairëje puslapio pusëje, nurodomi autoriaus vardas ir pavardë, ástaiga, kuriai ji(s) atstovauja (straipsnio kalba), autoriaus ástaigos (autoriaus pageidavimu – namø) adresas (autoriaus atstovaujamos ðalies kalba), telefonas, elektroninio paðto adresas, moksliniai interesai. Toliau puslapio centre spausdinama publikacijos antraðtë. Straipsnio pavadinimas, autoriaus vardas ir pavardë, atstovaujama ástaiga kartojami prieð Summary straipsnio pabaigoje anglø kalba. Pabaigoje nurodomi autoriaus vardas ir pavardë, mokslinis, pedagoginis vardas (-ai), pareigos atstovaujamos institucijos padalinyje. Nuorodos pateikiamos pagal tarptautinæ Harvardo nuorodø sistemà (iðsamiau apie ðià sistemà þr.: http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html). Nuorodos pagrindiniame tekste pateikiamos pagal tokià schemà: skliausteliuose nurodoma ðaltinio autoriaus pavardë, leidimo metai, puslapis ar puslapiai. Pvz.: Skaitytojas ar kalbëtojas „pasitelkia savo REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS / REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION 247 kultûrinæ patirtá aiðkindamasis kodus ir þenklus, kurie sudaro tekstà“ (Fiske 1998, p. 17). Autoriaus pavardës galima neminëti, jei ið konteksto visiðkai aiðku, kuriam autoriui priklauso nurodomas darbas. Jeigu ðaltinis turi daugiau negu du autorius, nurodoma tik pirmojo autoriaus pavardë: (Kubilius ir kt. 1999, p. 131). Jei literatûros sàraðe du ar daugiau autoriø yra bendrapavardþiai, autoriaus pavardë nuorodoje papildoma vardo inicialu: (Kubilius V. 1999, p. 15). Paaiðkinimai ir pastabos pateikiamos pagrindinio teksto puslapio apaèioje 10 p. ðriftu. Jø numeracija iðtisinë. Literatûros sàraðas pateikiamas po pagrindinio teksto (arba po paaiðkinimø, jei jie yra). Ðaltiniai sàraðe iðdëstomi abëcëlës tvarka pagal autoriø pavardes. Ðaltiniai kirilica arba kitais nelotyniðkais ðriftais pateikiami sàraðo pabaigoje. Ðaltiniai nurodomi pagal ðiuos pavyzdþius: Nurodant knygà: AUTORIAUS PAVARDË, Vardo inicialai, leidimo metai. Knygos pavadinimas. Leidimo numeris (jei ne pirmasis). Leidimo vieta: Leidëjas. Nurodant groþiná kûriná, straipsná ar kità smulkesná tekstà ið knygos: AUTORIAUS PAVARDË, Vardo inicialai, leidimo metai. Groþinio kûrinio, straipsnio ar kito smulkesnio teksto pavadinimas. In: Knygos autoriaus ar sudarytojo (pastaruoju atveju prieð sudarytojo pavardæ pridedama santrumpa Sud.) Vardo inicialai. PAVARDË. Knygos pavadinimas. Leidimo vieta: Leidëjas, puslapiai. Nurodant straipsná ið periodinio leidinio: AUTORIAUS PAVARDË, Vardo inicialai, leidimo metai. Groþinio kûrinio, straipsnio ar kito teksto pavadinimas. Periodinio leidinio pavadinimas, numeris, puslapiai. Nurodant straipsná ið elektroninio leidinio: AUTORIAUS PAVARDË, Vardo inicialai, leidimo metai. Groþinio kûrinio, straipsnio ar kito smulkesnio teksto pavadinimas. Prieiga: Interneto puslapio adresas [Þiûr. data]. Jei tas pats autorius tais paèiais metais paskelbë daugiau negu vienà nurodomà ðaltiná, jie skiriami raidëmis a, b, c ir t. t., raðomomis prie leidimo metø. Literatûros sàraðe ðaltiniai pateikiami chronologiðkai pagal iðleidimo datà. Lietuviðkame tekste senesni lietuviðki asmenvardþiai raðomi pagal dabartinës raðybos normas, o nelietuviðki asmenvardþiai – originalo forma pagal leidinio Lietuviø kalbos raðyba ir skyryba (parengë SLIÞIENË, N.; VALECKIENË, A., 1992. Vilnius: Mokslas, 81-89) reikalavimus. Pirmà kartà tekste pateikiamas visas vardas (vardai) ir pavardë, o toliau galima raðyti tik to paties asmens pavardæ. Nelietuviðkame tekste asmenvardþiai raðomi pagal tos kalbos raðybos tradicijas. Nuorodose visi apraðai raðomi originalo forma. Tekste minimus kitakalbius arba senesnius literatûros kûriniø, mokslo veikalø, periodiniø leidiniø pavadinimus rekomenduojama raðyti originalo forma. Jeigu jie verèiami arba trumpinami, skliaustuose arba iðnaðoje reikia nurodyti originalø pavadinimà. Nuorodose ir literatûros sàraðe visi pavadinimai raðomi originalo forma. Knygø, þurnalø ir kitø atskirø leidiniø pavadinimai tekste raðomi kursyvu, o smulkesniø, atskiro leidinio nesudaranèiø, groþinës literatûros kûriniø, straipsniø ir kitø tekstø – kabutëse. Groþinæ literatûrà tekste rekomenduojama cituoti originalo kalba iðlaikant autentiðkà raðybà ir skyrybà. Kitakalbës groþinës literatûros citatos gali bûti iðverstos iðnaðose. Kitakalbes mokslinës literatûros citatas rekomenduojama iðversti. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 248 REIKALAVIMAICONTEMPORARY STRAIPSNIAMS RESEARCH INTO/ REQUIREMENTS DISCOURSE AND FOR NARRATIVE PUBLICATION

ZASADY OPRACOWYWANIA PUBLIKACJI

„Respectus Philologicus” – to międzynarodowe regionalne czasopismo naukowe z dziedziny nauk humanistycznych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem gramatyki, semiotyki i semantyki (H 352). Podstawowymi językami „Respectus Philologicus” są języki polski, litewski, angielski i rosyjski. W „Respectus Philologicus” publikowane są artykuły naukowe o charakterze problemowym, przekłady, recenzje, dyskusje uczonych regionu i przeglądy działalności naukowej w państwach Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej. Wielkość artykułu – do 30 000 znaków drukarskich (0,75 arkusza autorskiego); przeglądy, recenzje – do 10 000 znaków drukarskich (0,25 arkusza autorskiego). Przekroczenie dopuszczalnej wielkości publikacji wymaga wcześniejszego uzgodnienia z redakcją. Przysłane do publikacji materiały powinny być wydrukowane przy zastosowaniu 1,5 odstępu między wierszami, czcionka: 12 Times New Roman w 2 egzemplarzach. Jednocześnie powinna być przedłożona wersja elektroniczna (edytor tekstów – Microsoft Word, Office’97 i późniejsze wersje; materiały można przysłać pocztą elektroniczną na adres: , , ). Teksty powinny odpowiadać wyszczególnionym poniżej wymogom odnośnie struktury publikacji. Prace nie spełniające wymogów stawianych przez redakcję nie będą przyjmowane. Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo do dokonywania zmian redaktorskich w nadesłanych publikacjach bez zmiany istoty treści. Każdemu artykułowi naukowemu, który otrzymuje redakcja, kolegium wyznacza dwóch recenzentów, z których jeden nie jest członkiem kolegium redakcyjnego. Recenzja jest przeprowadzana anonimowo. Na końcu artykułu redakcja wpisuje datę otrzymania i przyjęcia artykułu do druku. Publikowane są jedynie oryginalne prace naukowe, które nie były publikowane w żadnym z podstawowych języków czasopisma.

Struktura publikacji w „Respectus Philologicus” Do „Respectus Philologicus” przyjmowane są artykuły naukowe, odpowiadające wymogom dotyczącym takiego rodzaju publikacji. W artykule koniecznym jest sformułowanie i określenie metodologii badania naukowego, przeanalizowanie istniejących badań dotyczących danego zagadnienia, przedstawienie i uzasadnienie rezultatów analizy materiału, wyszczególnienie wykorzystanej literatury. Artykuł naukowy w języku polskim powinien mieć dołączoną adnotację (nie mniej niż 1 000 znaków drukarskich) w języku polskim, słowa klucze w języku polskim i angielskim i streszczenie w języku angielskim (nie mniej niż 2 000 znaków drukarskich). Na początku artykułu, z lewej strony, podaje się imię i nazwisko autora, instytucję, którą reprezentuje autor, adres instytucji i adres domowy (wg życzenia autora), telefon i adres poczty elektronicznej, zainteresowania naukowe. Poniżej, pośrodku strony – tytuł artykułu. Tytuł artykułu, imię i nazwisko autora, instytucja, którą reprezentuje autor, należy powtórzyć w języku angielskim na końcu artykułu, przed Summary. Na końcu podaje się imię i nazwisko autora, tytuù/stopieñ naukowy, stanowisko zajmowane w jednostce reprezentowanej instytucji. Odsyłacze bibliograficzne są cytowane według systemu harwardzkiego (więcej o systemie zob. http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html). Odsyłacze w tekście podstawowym zaznaczamy następująco: w nawiasie – nazwisko autora, rok wydania, po przecinku – strona lub strony. REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS / REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION 249

Np. „Część ciała nie może występować w funkcji instrumentu” – pisał Grochowski (Grochowski 1974, s. 163). Nazwisko autora można pominąć, jeżeli z kontekstu jednoznacznie wynika, że jest on autorem cytowanej pracy. Przy pracach zbiorowych podajemy nazwisko pierwszego autora (Kubilius i in. 1999, p. 131). Jeżeli w spisie wykorzystanych źródeł i opracowań dwóch lub więcej autorów ma to samo nazwisko, to w odsyłaczu przy nazwisku autora należy umieścić inicjał imienia (Kubilius V. 1999, p. 15). Objaśnienia i uwagi należy umieszczać na dole strony i opracowań czcionką 10. Numeracja ciągła pozycji w całości spisu. Spis wykorzystanych źródeł i opracowań umieszczamy po tekście podstawowym (lub po objaśnieniach, o ile takowe są). Źródła w spisie podajemy w układzie alfabetycznym według nazwisk autorów. Źródła zapisane cyrylicą lub innym, nie łacińskim alfabetem umieszczamy na końcu spisu. Źródła opisujemy następująco: Dla monografii: NAZWISKO AUTORA, Inicjały, rok wydania. Nazwa książki. Numer wydania (jeżeli nie pierwsze). Miejsce wydania: Wydawca. Dla utworów literatury pięknej, artykułów lub innych, niedużych tekstów z książki: NAZWISKO AUTORA, Inicjały, rok wydania. Tytuł utworu literackiego, artykułu lub innego, niedużego tekstu z książki. In: Inicjały. NAZWISKO autora lub red./oprac./ed. książki (w takim wypadku przed nazwiskiem należy umieścić skrót red./oprac./ed.). Tytuł książki. Miejsce wydania: Wydawca, strony. Dla artykułów z wydań periodycznych: NAZWISKO AUTORA, Inicjały, rok wydania. Tytuł utworu literackiego, artykułu lub innego, niedużego tekstu. Tytuł wydania periodycznego, numer, strony. Dla artykułów z wydań internetowych: NAZWISKO AUTORA, Inicjały, rok wydania. Tytuł utworu literackiego, artykułu lub innego, niedużego tekstu z książki. Dostępne na stronie: Tytuł strony internetowej [od data]. Jeżeli ten sam autor w tym samym roku ogłosił więcej niż jedno cytowane źródło, należy je opatrzyć literami a, b, c itd., umieszczając przy roku wydania. W spisie wykorzystanych źródeł i opracowań umieszczamy od najstarszego do najpóźniejszego. Imiona własne pisze się zgodnie ze współczesnymi zasadami ortografii. W odsyłaczu, pojawiającym się w tekście po raz pierwszy, podaje się nazwisko i inicjały, dalej można ograniczyć się tylko do nazwiska tego autora. Występujące w tekście zapożyczone i przestarzałe nazwy źródeł literackich, badań naukowych, wydań periodycznych zaleca się podawać zgodnie z oryginałem. W przypadku, kiedy są one tłumaczone lub skracane, w nawiasie lub w odsyłaczu trzeba koniecznie podać nazwę w oryginale. W odsyłaczach i spisie wykorzystanych źródeł i opracowań wszystkie nazwy i tytuły należy podawać w oryginale. Tytuły książek i innych publikacji oddzielnych w tekście pisze się za pomocą kursywy, a tytuły niedużych utworów literackich, artykułów i innych tekstów nie będących publikacją samodzielną – w cudzosłowie. Literaturę piękną zaleca się cytować w języku oryginału, zachowując zasady pisowni i interpunkcji źródła. Tłumaczenie cytatu z utworu literackiego w języku obcym można przytoczyć w przypisie. Cytaty z literatury naukowej w języku obcym zaleca się przytaczać w tłumaczeniu. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 250 REIKALAVIMAICONTEMPORARY STRAIPSNIAMS RESEARCH INTO/ REQUIREMENTS DISCOURSE AND FOR NARRATIVE PUBLICATION

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATIONS

“Respectus Philologicus” is a philological periodical dealing with the problems of grammar, semiotics and semantics (H 352). The main languages of the journal are English, Lithuanian, Polish and Russian. “Respectus Philologicus” publishes scholarly articles, translations, reviews, overviews, and discus- sions of the philological research in the region. The size of articles is up to 30 000 printed characters; the size of reviews and overviews is up to 10 000 printed characters. In case the paper exceeds the normal length the editors’ consent for its publication is needed. Texts for publication should be submitted in two hard copies printed in Font 12 Times New Roman with 1,5 space between the lines. A copy on a floppy disc (Microsoft Word, Office’97 or newer version) should be added to the hard copy. Contributions can also be sent by e-mail: the address is , , . The authors of the manuscripts are expected to conform to the format and documentation requirements that are given below. All articles submitted for publication in “Respectus Philologicus” are reviewed by at least two academics appointed by the Editors’ Board: one of the reviewers is not a member of the Editorial Board. Reviewers stay anonymous. The dates of submission and acceptance for publication of the paper are indicated by the editors at the end of the manuscript.

Format and Documentation Requirements Articles submitted for publication in „Respectus Philologicus“ should include the aim(s) and methodology of the research, give an overview of the work previously done on the investigated problem, substantiate the achieved results of the research and have a list of references. The manuscript should also contain an abstract of at least 1 000 printed characters in volume in English, key words in English and Lithuanian, and a summary of at least 2 000 printed characters in Lithuanian. The author’s full name, academic affiliation, office (or home) address, telephone, e-mail address and research interests should be typed in the top left-hand corner of the first page, and the title of the article should be given below in the centre of the page. The author‘s full name, degree, position and academic affiliation are to be presented at the end of the article. References should be presented according to the international Harvard System (comprehensive explanation in: http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html). Citations in the text are referred to in the text by giving the author’s surname, the year of publication and the page numbers. e.g. As Harvey (1992, p. 21) said, “good practices must be taught” and so we... The author’s surname is not given in parentheses if it naturally occurs in the context. If there are more than two authors, the surname of the first author should be given followed by et al. e.g. Office costs amount to 20% of total costs in most business (Wilson et al. 1997) If there are several authors with the same surname, the author’s name is supplemented with initials. Explanations and notes should be given as footnotes and should be printed in Font 10. The nu- meration is continuous. REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS / REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION 251

References to documents cited in the text should be listed at the end of a piece of work (or after the notes). They are arranged in alphabetical order by author’s surnames. References in Cyrillic and other non Latin type should be given at the end of the list. They are referred according to the examples: Reference to a book: Author’s SURNAME, INITIALS., Year of publication. Title. Edition (if not the first). Place of publication: Publisher. Reference to a work of artistic literature, article or short texts from a book: Author’s SURNAME, INITIALS., Year of publication. Title of a fictional work, article or short texts. In: INITIALS. SURNAME, of author or editor of publication followed by ed. or eds. if relevant. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher, Page number(s). Reference to an article in a journal: Author’s SURNAME, INITIALS., Year of publication. Title of article. Title of journal, Volume number and (part number), Page numbers. Reference to an article from web recourses: Author’s SURNAME, INITIALS., Year. Title [online]. (Edition). Place of publication, Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: URL [Accessed date]. When an author has published more than one cited document in the same year, these are distinguished by adding lower case letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the year. In References they should be listed chronologically (earliest first). Proper names should be spelt in accordance with the latest orthographical norms. When mentioned for the first time, a personal name should include both first and last names, but when repeated the family name is sufficient. If the work is written in another language, proper names should be written according to the spelling rules of that language. When books or periodicals published in foreign languages are mentioned in the paper, their titles are to be put in the original language. If their titles are translated or abbreviated, their original title should be indicated in brackets or in footnotes. All titles in footnotes are to be written in their original language. Titles of books, journals and other periodicals should be italicized. Titles of other works that are not separate publications are to be given in quotation marks. Quotations from the fictions should be written in their original language and their original spelling and punctuation should be preserved. Citations from the fictions in foreign languages may be translated in footnotes, while quotations from scholarly works are expected to be translated. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 252 REIKALAVIMAICONTEMPORARY STRAIPSNIAMS RESEARCH INTO/ REQUIREMENTS DISCOURSE AND FOR NARRATIVE PUBLICATION

ÒÐÅÁÎÂÀÍÈß Ê ÎÔÎÐÌËÅÍÈÞ ÑÒÀÒÅÉ

“Respectus Philologicus” – филологический журнал, посвященный исследованиям в области грамматики, семиотики и семантики (Н 352). Основные языки “Respectus Philologicus” – литовский, польский, английский, русский. В журнале “Respectus Philologicus” публикуются проблемные научные статьи, переводы, рецензии, дискуссии ученых региона и обзоры научной деятельности в регионе. Объем статей – до 30 000 печатных знаков (0,75 авторского листа), обзоры, рецензии – до 10 000 печатных знаков (0,25 авторского листа). Превышение объема публикации следует заблаговременно оговаривать с редакцией. Присылаемые для публикации материалы должны быть отпечатаны через 1,5 интервала, шрифт 12 Times New Roman в 2 экземплярах. Одновременно должна быть представлена электронная версия (текстовый редактор – Microsoft Word Office’97 и выше). Материалы можно присылать электронной почтой по адресам: , , . Тексты должны соответствовать приводимым ниже требованиям к структуре и оформлению публикации. Статьи, оформленные с нарушением настоящих «Требований», редакция к рассмотрению не принимает. Редакция оставляет за собой право в случае необходимости вносить в текст редакционные изменения, не искажающие основное содержание статьи. Для каждой поступающей в редакцию “Respectus Philologicus” научной статьи редакционная коллегия назначает двух рецензентов, один из которых не является членом редакционной коллегии. Рецензирование проводится анонимно. В конце статьи редакция указывает даты поступления и принятия статьи к печати. “Respectus Philologicus” публикует только статьи, не выходившие ранее на языках журнала.

Структура публикаций в “Respectus Philologicus” В “Respectus Philologicus” принимаются научные статьи, соответствующие требованиям, предъявляемым к публикациям такого рода. В статье необходимо сформулировать цель и определить методологию научного исследования, рассмотреть соответствующие исследования по данной проблеме, представить и обосновать результаты анализа материала, указать использованную литературу. Научная статья на русском языке должна быть снабжена аннотацией (не менее 1 000 печатных знаков) на русском языке, ключевыми словами на русском и английском языках и резюме на английском языке (не менее 2 000 печатных знаков). В начале статьи, слева, указываются имя и фамилия автора, учреждение, представляемое автором (на языке статьи), адрес учреждения (на языке представляемой автором страны), контактный телефон, адрес электронной почты, область научных интересов автора. Ниже, в центре страницы, располагается название статьи. Название статьи, имя и фамилия автора, аффилиация повторяются перед Summary – на английском языке. В конце указываются имя и фамилия автора, ученая степень, звание и должность в представляемом автором учреждении. Библиографические отсылки оформляются по международной гарвардской системе (подробнее см.: http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html). Библиографические отсылки в тексте оформляются следующим образом: в круглых скобках указывается фамилия автора, год издания, страница (или страницы). REIKALAVIMAI STRAIPSNIAMS / REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION 253

Напр.: В середине прошлого века прозвучал знаменитый призыв разобраться в сущности явления, называемого «разрушительным залпом словесной артиллерии по крепости рассудка» (Болинджер 1987, с. 24). Фамилию автора можно не упоминать, если авторство указываемой работы понятно из контекста. Если отсылка дается на работу нескольких авторов, указывается фамилия первого автора, напр.: (Баранов и др. 2004, с. 15). Если в списке литературы есть однофамильцы, в таком случае фамилия автора в отсылке сопровождается инициалом, напр.: (Баранов А. 1990). Пояснения и замечания располагаются в конце страницы в виде постраничных сносок (шрифт 10, нумерация сносок сплошная). Список литературы располагается в конце текста. Источники приводятся в алфавитном порядке по фамилиям авторов. В начале списка указываются источники на латинице, затем – на кириллице и иных графических системах. Источники оформляются следующим образом: Для книг: ФАМИЛИЯ АВТОРА, Инициалы, год издания. Название книги. Номер издания (если это не первое издание). Место издания: Издательство. Для произведений художественной литературы, статей или других небольших текстов из книги: ФАМИЛИЯ АВТОРА, Инициалы, год издания. Название художественного произведения, статьи или другого небольшого текста из книги. In: Инициалы автора или составителя. (В последнем случае перед инициалами составителя добавляется сокращение «Сост.».) ФАМИЛИЯ. Название книги. Место издания: Издательство, страницы. Для текстов из периодических изданий: ФАМИЛИЯ АВТОРА, Инициалы, год издания. Название художественного произведения, статьи или другого небольшого текста. Название периодического издания, номер, страницы. Для текстов из электронных изданий: ФАМИЛИЯ АВТОРА, Инициалы, год издания. Название художественного произведения, статьи или другого небольшого текста. Режим доступа: адрес страницы в Интернете [См. дата]. Если в тексте упоминаются опубликованные в том же году труды одного автора, в таком случае в библиографической отсылке и списке литературы год издания сопровождается буквой а, б, в и т. д. (в хронологическом порядке, если это возможно). В тексте на литовском языке литовские антропонимы пишутся в соответствии с современными нормами правописания, остальные антропонимы – в оригинальной форме согласно правилам, изложенным в «Орфографии и пунктуации литовского языка» (Сост. SLIŽIENĖ, N.; VALECKIENĖ, A., 1992. Lietuvių kalbos rašyba ir skyryba. Vilnius: Mokslas, 81-89). В тексте на других языках антропонимы пишутся в соответствии с традициями правописания в тех языках. При первом упоминании в тексте указываются полностью имя и фамилия, в дальнейшем тексте можно указывать лишь фамилию того же лица. Упоминаемые в тексте иностранные или старинные названия литературных произведений, научных трудов, периодических изданий рекомендуется писать в оригинальной форме. Если подобные названия даются в переводе, в скобках или сноске следует указать оригинальное название. В сносках, библиографических отсылках и списке литературы все названия пишутся в оригинальной форме. Художественную литературу рекомендуется цитировать на языке оригинала, сохраняя правописание и пунктуацию источника. В сносках можно приводить перевод цитаты из художественной литературы на иностранном языке. Цитаты из научной литературы на иностранном языке рекомендуется давать в переводе. ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 254 CONTEMPORARYMÛSØ RESEARCH AUTORIAI INTO / OURDISCOURSE AUTHORS AND NARRATIVE

MÛSØ AUTORIAI / OUR AUTHORS

Aliûkaitë Daiva Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Lietuviø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë, Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Sociokultûriniø tyrimø centro jaunesnioji mokslo darbuotoja; Kauno technologijos universiteto Humanitariniø mokslø fakulteto Kalbotyros katedros lektorë dr.; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Lithuanian Philology; Junior Researcher – Socio-Cultural Research Centre at Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities; Lecturer Dr – Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Humanities, De- partment of Linguistics; Lithuania

Baèiûnaitë Lina Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Lietuviø filologijos katedros doktorantë; Lietuva PhD Student – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Lithuanian Philology; Lithuania

Bajarûnienë Jadvyga Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros bei Filologijos fakulteto Vokieèiø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Philology and Faculty of Philology, Department of German Philology; Lithuania

Bankauskaitë-Sereikienë Gabija Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Lietuviø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Sociokultûriniø tyrimø centro vyr. mokslo darbuotoja; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Lithuanian Philology; Senior Researcher – Socio-Cultural Research Centre at Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities; Lithuania

Baranauskienë Rita Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Lietuviø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Lithuanian Philology; Lithuania

Barandovská-Frank Vĕra Tarptautinës mokslø akademijos docentë; San Marino; Kibernetikos instituto Paderborne docentë; Vokietija Assoc. Prof. Dr – International Academy of Sciences; San Marino; Institute of Cybernetics in Paderborn; Germany

Bartkuvienë Inga Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros doktorantë, lektorë; Lietuva Lecturer, PhD Student – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Ger- manic Philology; Lithuania MÛSØ AUTORIAI / OUR AUTHORS 255

Braun Algis Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Uþsienio kalbø katedros doktorantas, lektorius; Lietuva Lecturer, PhD Student – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of For- eign Languages; Lithuania

Brûzgienë Rûta Mykolo Romerio universiteto Kalbos kultûros katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuviø literatûros ir tautosakos instituto Naujosios literatûros skyriaus vyr. mokslo darbuotoja; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Mykolas Romeris University; Senior Researcher – Institute of Lithuanian Litera- ture and Folklore, Department of Contemporary Literature; Lithuania

Butrimienë Edita Vytauto Didþiojo universiteto Socialiniø mokslø fakulteto Edukologijos katedros doktorantë; Lietuva PhD Student – Vytautas Magnus University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Education; Lithuania

Cwik Michael Kalbos teisiø ir kultûrinës ávairovës forumo Briuselyje atstovas, daktaras; Belgija Dr, Spokesman of the Forum for Language Rights and Cultural Diversity in Brussels; Belgium

Dainovica Natalija Daugpilio universiteto Humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Latvija Assoc. Prof. Dr – Daugavpils University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Philology; Latvia

Danylyuk Nina Lesios Ukrainkos Valstybinio Volynës universiteto Lucke Ukrainistikos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Ukraina Assoc. Prof. Dr – Lesya Ukrainka Volyn State University of Lutsk, Department of Ukrainian Studies; Ukraine

Fadeeva Irina E. Valstybinio Komi pedagoginio instituto Kultûros studijø katedros profesorë; Rusija Prof. Dr Habil. – Komi State Pedagogical Institute, Department of Cultural Studies; Russia

Galouschko Victor G. Sankt Peterburgo psichologijos ir socialinio darbo instituto Humanitariniø mokslø katedros docentas, humanitariniø mokslø daktaras; Rusija Assoc. Prof. Dr – Saint-Petersburg Institute of Psychology and Social Work, Department of Humani- ties; Russia

Jundina Natalija Daugpilio universiteto Humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Latvija Assoc. Prof. Dr – Daugavpils University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Philology; Latvia ÐIUOLAIKINIAI DISKURSO IR NARATYVO TYRIMAI / 256 CONTEMPORARYMÛSØ RESEARCH AUTORIAI INTO / OURDISCOURSE AUTHORS AND NARRATIVE

Juzelënienë Saulë Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Lietuviø filologijos katedros docentë bei Kauno technologijos universiteto Humanitariniø mokslø fakulteto Kalbotyros katedros lektorë dr., humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Lithuanian Philology; Lecturer Dr – Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Linguistics; Lithuania

Kovtun Asija Vytauto Didþiojo universiteto Èeslavo Miloðo slavistikos centro docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vytautas Magnus University, the Czeslaw Milosz Centre for Slavonic Studies; Lithuania

Krûminienë Jadvyga Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto Anglø filologijos katedros docentë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Philology and Vilnius Pedagogical University, Department of English Philology; Lithuania

Linkevièiûtë Vilma Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Uþsienio kalbø katedros doktorantë, lektorë; Lietuva Lecturer, PhD Student – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Foreign Languages; Lithuania

Minnaja Carlo Padujos universiteto Grynosios ir taikomosios matematikos katedros profesorius; Italija Prof. Dr Habil. – University of Padua, Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics; Italy

Paccagnella Laura Gilda Padujos universiteto Grynosios ir taikomosios matematikos katedros profesorë; Italija Prof. Dr – University of Padua, Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics; Italy

Satkauskaitë Danguolë Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Phylology; Lithuania

Solomonik-Pankraðova Tatyana Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Phylology; Lithuania MÛSØ AUTORIAI / OUR AUTHORS 257

Stulov Yuri V. Minsko valstybinio lingvistikos universiteto Pasaulio literatûros katedros profesorius; Europos „Amerikos studijø asociacijos“ Baltarusijos filialo prezidentas; Baltarusija Prof. Dr – Minsk State Linguistics University, Department of World Literature; President of Euro- pean Association for American Studies in Belarus; Belarus

Ulvydienë Loreta Vilniaus universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto Germanø filologijos katedros docentë, humanitariniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Assoc. Prof. Dr – Vilnius University, the Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Department of Germanic Phylology; Lithuania

Zuzevièiûtë Vaiva Vytauto Didþiojo universiteto Socialiniø mokslø fakulteto Edukologijos katedros profesorë, socialiniø mokslø daktarë; Lietuva Prof. Dr – Vytautas Magnus University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Education; Lithuania RESPECTUS PHILOLOGICUS 2008 Nr. 13 (18) A Leidþiamas nuo 1999 m.

2008 06 26. Tiraþas 100 egz. Leidþia VU Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas ir Akademia Úwiætokrzyska im. Jana Kochanowskiego – Wydziaù Humanistyczny w Kielcach

Maketavo “Vilniaus universiteto leidykla”, Universiteto g. 1, 01122 Vilnius Spausdino “Vilniaus universiteto leidyklos” spaustuvë