Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2004 Community Schools in Mali: A Multilevel Analysis Christine Capacci Carneal Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION COMMUNITY SCHOOLS IN MALI: A MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS By CHRISTINE CAPACCI CARNEAL A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2004 The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Christine Capacci Carneal defended on April 6, 2004. ___________________________________ Karen Monkman Professor Directing Dissertation ___________________________________ Rebecca Miles Outside Committee Member ___________________________________ Peter Easton Committee Member Approved: ___________________________________________ Carolyn D. Herrington, Chair, Department of Education Leadership and Policy Studies The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The idea to pursue a Ph.D. did not occur to me until I met George Papagiannis in Tallahassee in July 1995. My husband and I were in Tallahassee for a friend’s wedding and on a whim, remembering that both George and Jack Bock taught at FSU, I telephoned George to see if he had any time to meet a fan of his and Bock’s book on NFE. Anyone who knew George before he died in 2003 understands that it is hard to resist his persuasive recruiting techniques. He was welcoming, charming, and outspoken during my visit, and also introduced me to Peter Easton. After meeting both of these gentlemen, hearing about their work and the IIDE program, I felt that I finally found the right place to satisfy my learning desires. Before I knew it, I had left the campus with an application in my hand. It is a testament to the hard work of George while he was alive, and to Peter Easton, Steve Klees, Karen Monkman, and Rebecca Miles that I am able to write this acknowledgement. They all served as excellent teachers, facilitators, and mentors at one time or another while I was a student, and during the process of researching and writing this dissertation. I am extremely grateful to Karen, Peter, Steve and Rebecca for all of their insightful and strategic input over the years. Though George began this work with me, Karen and Peter helped me to reach the end. I also want to thank my editor, Ragas Nang-Yad, for his keen eye and knowledge of African history and context. Furthermore, the support staff in the ELPS department at FSU, in particular Amy McKnight and Jimmy Pastrano, were a pleasure to work with as they cheerfully went beyond their call of duty to make sure I was always in good “academic standing.” Apart from academic support, my family provided great encouragement and assistance. It is for them, and because of them, that I did this. I’m forever grateful for Jack’s willingness to embrace new experiences with me and for his dedicated support and belief in what I do. Tabb and Max inspired me. “The moms” made it all possible. Without Mary Claire and Ann’s willingness to fill in the childcare gaps while I was secluding myself to write, none of this would have been finished. In particular, my long stays in Rochester while writing helped me to progress. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, I am grateful to the Malians who taught me so much while there and who were unconditionally helpful in my attaining my goal. In particular, I want to aknowledge Abibaye, Bakary, Dramane and Millogo. I am grateful to Save the Children/USA and Lynn Lederer for allowing me to learn so much and participate in their programming. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables vii List of Figures viii List of Abbreviations ix Abstract x 1. COMMUNITY SCHOOLS IN MALI: BALANCING THE DISCOURSE 1 Introduction 1 Community Schools in Africa: The Story Begins 2 Problem Statement 5 Purpose 5 Research Questions and Strategy 5 Overview of the Study 7 2. TRADITIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES: WHY COMMUNITY SCHOOLS EXIST AS EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES 10 Introduction 10 Modernization Theory and its Critiques: Shaping Educational Development Efforts 12 Education and Development: Looking at Yesterday to Better Understand Today 14 Mass Education and Nonformal Education: Two Strategies for Educational Development 16 Community Schools As Both Mass Education and Nonformal Education 23 Conclusion: Community Schools Bridging Traditional and Alternative Development 24 3. RESEARCH STRATEGY 26 Introduction 26 Conducting the Research 26 Analytical Framework 27 Research Questions 29 Research Methods 30 Presentation of the Data as an Embedded Case Study 37 Limitations of the Study 38 iv 4. THE NATURE AND HISTORY OF COMMUNITY SCHOOLS: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION STRATEGIES IN SUB- SAHARAN AFRICA 40 An Overview of an Alternative Education Strategies 40 Community Schools as a Form of Alternative Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 44 Community Schools in Mali 52 Conclusion 65 5. THE INTERNATIONAL POLICY LEVEL AND COMMUNITY SCHOOLS 66 Introduction: Factors Shaping Policy at the International Level 66 Global Civil Society 66 The Education for All (EFA) Campaign 69 The Increasing Role of NGOs: Actors in Both Global and Local Civil Society 72 A Critical Analysis of EFA and NGOs 74 The Role of EFA and NGOs in Promoting Community Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa 77 Conclusion 77 6. THE NATIONAL LEVEL AND COMMUNITY SCHOOLS 79 Understanding the Context in Which Community Schools Developed 79 Education in Mali 90 National Education Policy and Community Schools 95 An Analysis of Documents on the Community Schools Program in Mali 98 Conclusion 103 7. THE LOCAL LEVEL AND COMMUNITY SCHOOLS 105 Introduction 105 Data Set 1: What is Perceived to Be Changing and What Remains the Same 106 Community Schools from the Perspective of the Local Implementers: Capacity, Community/Teacher Relationships and Serving Local versus National/Global Goals 118 Conclusion 140 8. COMMUNITY SCHOOLS: AN INTEGRATED ANALYSIS 141 International, National, and Local Levels: Working in Harmony and Disharmony 142 v Conclusion 149 9. CONCLUSION 150 Implications for Further Research 152 EPILOGUE 154 APPENDICES Appendix A: List of Analyzed Documents 157 Appendix B: Letter of Permission from Save the Children/Sahel Field Office 159 Appendix C: Human Subjects Approval Letter 160 Appendix D: Focus Group Discussion Questions from Data Set 1 161 Appendix E: Parent Interview Guide from Data Set 1 162 Appendix F: Student Interview Guide from Data Set 1 163 Appendix G: List of Interview 165 Appendix H: Observation Guide from Data Set 2 166 Appendix I: Interview Guide for Education Assistants, Partner NGOs, Teachers, and School Management Committee Members in Data Set 2 167 REFERENCES 168 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 183 vi LIST OF TABLES 1. Three Levels of Analysis 4 2. The Differences Between Formal, Nonformal and Informal Education 18 3. Levels and Respective Categories of Interest Regarding International Education Strategies 29 4. Breakdown of Formal Interviews 34 5. Number (#) of Community Schools by Country in SSA 46 6. Strengths of and Challenges for Balancing Community School Education 48 7. Number of Community Schools by Region in Mali in 2003 53 8. Percentage of Children Out of School By Region, 2000 70 9. Mali Country Profile 80 10. Mali Economic Profile 84 11. Education Responsibilities by Political Level 87 12. Percentage of School-Age Children Attending Primary Schools by Region and Sex 93 13. Parents’ Responses and Frequency: Future of Community School Child 108 14. Students’ Responses and Frequency: Future Work 109 15. Do Community School Students Help the Village 111 16. Why More Boys Than Girls in School 114 17. Summary of Main Issues from Data Set 1 116 18. Implementers’ Understanding of Own and Others’ Capacities 119 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Theoretical Approach to Building A Conceptual Model for the Rise of Community Schools as Educational Strategies 11 2. An Analytical Framework for the Three Levels 27 3. Map of Mali 52 4. Areas of Convergence and Divergence Among the Three Levels in Matters of Concern 143 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Commission CAP Centres d’animation de pedagogiques or Pedagogy Training Centers CBO Community Based Organization CEP Certificate d’étude primaire or primary education certificate CMDT Compagnie pour le développement des textiles or Textile Development Company EFA Education for All ESR Education for Self-Reliance GTZ German Technical Cooperation IMF International Monetary Fund MDG Millennium Development Goals MOE Ministry of Education NFE Nonformal Education NGO Non-Governmental Organization PISE Programme d’Investissement Sectoriel de l’Education, or Education Sector Investment Program PRA Participatory Rapid Assessment PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PRODEC Programme Décennal d’Education or Education Decentralization Program SAP Structural Adjustment Policies SC/USA Save the Children/USA SMC School Management Committee SSA Sub-Saharan Africa UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children Fund UPE Universal Primary Education ix ABSTRACT Community schools are alternative education strategies hailed in some circles as successful educational development endeavors. In Mali, support for community schools began in 1992 using nonformal education