MACEDONIANMACEDONIAN RELATIONRELA TrONSS WITWITHH GREECEGREECE

UNDEUNDERR PHILIPHILIPP ANANDD ALEXANDERALEXANDER

bbyy

NicholaNicholass SpearSpear ProukouProukou

A thesisthesis submittedsubmitted toto thethe facultyfaculty ofof ThThee UniversitUniversityy ooff UtahUtah in partiapartiall fulfillmentfulfillment ofof ththee requirementrequirementss foforr ththee degreedegree of

MasteMasterr ofof ArtsArts

DepartmentDepartment ooff HistoryHistory

ThThee UniversityUniversity ofof UtahUtah

AugusAugustt 20092009 CopyrightCopyright © NicholaNicholass SpearSpear ProukoProukouu 20092009

AlAlll RightRightss ReservedReserved THE UNJVERSJTY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL

of a thesis submitted by

Nicholas Spear Proukou

This thesis has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory.

Randall O. Stewart· THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

FINAL READING APPROVAL

To the Graduate Council of the University of Utah:

I have read the dissertation of Nicholas Spear Proukou in its final form and have found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee and is ready for submission to The GraduateSchool.

'2go9 ff�(/' a!�2� Date Winthrop 1. Adams Chair: Supervisory Committee

Approved for the MajorDepartment ��eLL1, JamesR. Lehning 3 ChairlDean

Approved for the Graduate Council

David S. Chapma Dean of The Graduate School ABSTRACABSTRACTT

ThiThiss thesithesiss exploreexploress ththee politicapoliticall relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn MacedoniMacedoniaa anandd GreecGreecee betweebetweenn ththee yearyearss ooff 353599 anandd 323323.. ThrougThroughh aann investigatioinvestigationn ooff ththee historicahistoricall evidenceevidence availablavailablee ththee studstudyy findfindss thathatt thithiss politicapoliticall relationshirelationshipp wawass nonott a meanmeanss ooff conquesconquestt forfor ththee MacedonianMacedonianss oveoverr ththee GreeksGreeks.. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee studstudyy showshowss thathatt ththee policiepoliciess towardstowards

GreecGreecee ooff PhiliPhilipp IIII werweree largellargelyy continuecontinuedd bbyy hihiss sonson,, AlexandeAlexanderr ththee Great.Great. FoForr mmyy familyfamily anandd friendsfriends TABLT ABLEE OOFF CONTENTCONTENTSS

ABSTRACABSTRACTT ...... iviv

ChapteChapterr

II.. INTRODUCTIOWTRODUCTIONN ...... , ...... 1 1

IIII.. THTHEE SOURCSOURCEE MATERIAMATERIALL FOFORR PHILIPHILIPP IIII ANANDD ALEXANDEALEXANDERR IIIII..I ...... 6

ThThee PrimarPrimaryy anandd IntermediarIntermediaryy SourceSourcess ...... 7 ThThee MajoMajorr SourceSourcess ...... 1166 MateriaMateriall EvidencEvidencee ...... 2266

IIIIII.. PHILIPHILIPP IIII,, MACEDONIMACEDONIAA ANANDD THTHEE NORTNORTHH ...... 3300

'Thre'Threee Phases'' ooff ImmediatImmediatee SecuritSecurityy ...... 3311

IV.. PHILIPHILIPP ANANDD GREECGREECEE ...... 5252

PhiliPhilipp IIII:: AsiaAsiann ExpansionisExpansionist.t ...... 7272

VV.. ALEXANDEALEXANDERR ANANDD THTHEE GREEKSGREEKS ...... 7676

AlexanderAlexander:: HisHis Father'sFather's SonSon ...... 8484

VI.VI. CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION ...... 8989

BIBLIOGRAPHyBIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 9292 CHAPTERCHAPTER I

INTRODUCTIOINTRODUCTIONN

TheThe politicapoliticall relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn MacedoniMacedoniaa andand GreecGreecee durinduringg ththee reignreignss ofof

PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr changechangedd drastically.drastically. WheWhenn PhiliPhilipp firsfirstt camecame ttoo ththee thronthronee iinn 359359

MacedoniMacedoniaa wawass a backwatebackwaterr ofof GreecGreecee thathatt servedserved asas a pawpawnn inin ththee politicapoliticall gamesgames ofof thethe mormoree powerfupowerfull city-statescity-states ttoo ththee south.south. BByy ththee enendd ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss reigreignn ththee respectiverespective roleroless ofof ththee MacedonianMacedonianss andand GreeksGreeks hahadd reversereversedd completelycompletely.. MacedoniMacedoniaa nonoww stoodstood asas ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull statestate inin alalll ofof GreeceGreece anandd bbyy thithiss powepowerr wawass beginninbeginningg ttoo createcreate a stablestable GreekGreek statstatee withiwithinn ththee largelargerr MacedoniaMacedoniann Empire.Empire. ThuThuss oveoverr a perioperiodd ofof thirty-sixthirty-six yearsyears,, MacedoniMacedoniaa wawass ablablee ttoo improvimprovee heherr statusstatus ttoo competecompete withiwithinn andand thenthen conquerconquer thethe elitelitee ooff GreeGreekk society.society. A majomajorr portioportionn ofof thithiss transformatiotransformationn wawass ththee politicapoliticall policiespolicies towardtowardss GreeceGreece setset forthforth andand followefollowedd bbyy PhilipPhilip anandd AlexanderAlexander.. ThThee followinfollowingg worworkk willwill examinexaminee thesthesee politicapoliticall policiepoliciess inin aann efforeffortt toto·' investigateinvestigate ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann metamorphosimetamorphosi frofromm pawpawnn ttoo kinkingg ofof Greece.Greece.

BeforBeforee thisthis dynamicdynamic changchangee iinn fortunefortune,, MacedoniMacedoniaa wawass nonott a modemodell ooff stability.!stability.1

ToTo beginbegin,, politicapoliticall intriguintriguee includinincludingg regicidregicidee wawass commonplaccommonplacee iinn ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann courtcourt anandd shortenedshortened manmanyy kingskings'' reignsreigns.. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee actuaactuall unitunityy ooff MacedoniMacedoniaa waswas problematicproblematic.. ForFor allall practicapracticall purposespurposes,, ththee kingdokingdomm waswas separateseparatedd intintoo twtwoo halves:halves:

1 ForFor descriptionsdescriptions ofof MacedonianMacedonian internalinternal stabilitystability issuesissues beforebefore PhilipPhilip see:see: J.R.J.R. Ellis,Ellis, Philip II andand Macedonian Imperialism, (Princeton(Princeton:: PrincetoPrincetonn UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1976)1976) 36-40,36-40, 42;42; N.G.N.G.LL HammonHammondd andand G.TG.T.. GiffithGiffith,, A History of Macedonia v. II (Oxford:(Oxford: ClarendoClarendonn PressPress,, 1979)1979) 167-189;167-189; IaIann Worthington,Worthington, Philip II of Macedonia (Ne(Neww HavenHaven:: YalYalee UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 20082008)) 221-225.221-225. 2

UppeUpperr MacedoniMacedoniaa anandd LoweLowerr MacedoniaMacedonia.. LoweLowerr Macedonia,Macedonia, inin actualityactuality easterneastern

MacedoniaMacedonia,, wawass ththee heartlanheartlandd ooff ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann kingdomkingdom.. ThiThiss areareaa waswas wellwell developeddeveloped andand controllecontrolledd bbyy ththee kingking.. UppeUpperr oorr westerwesternn MacedoniaMacedonia,, oonn thethe otherother hanhandd wawass jusjustt thethe opposite.opposite. ThisThis mountainoumountainouss terraiterrainn brebredd ththee mosmostt unrulunrulyy ofof ththee MacedonianMacedonianss anandd wawass a constanconstantt sourcesource ofof chaochaoss foforr ththee mormoree organizeorganizedd andand controlledcontrolled lowerlower oorr easterneastern

MacedoniaMacedonia.. DespitDespitee ththee besbestt efforteffortss ofof severaseverall kingskings,, thesthesee twtwoo halvehalvess werweree neveneverr trulytruly uniteunitedd untiuntill Philip'Philip'ss reign.reign.

BeyonBeyondd Macedonia'Macedonia'ss internainternall strugglesstruggles,, ththee kingdokingdomm alsoalso sufferedsuffered externalexternal incursionsincursions intointo heherr independenceindependence frofromm alalll sidessides.. 2 FromFrom ththee nortnorthh anandd ththee weswestt camcamee thethe firstfirst anandd mosmostt formidablformidablee forformm ooff troubletrouble.. ThThee barbariabarbariann tribetribess ofof PaeoniPaeoniaa andand lllyriaIllyria representerepresentedd a constanconstantt threathreatt ttoo MacedoniaMacedoniann security.security. ThThee Illyrianlllyrianss hadhad occupieoccupiedd mosmostt ofof upperupper MacedoniaMacedonia anandd regularlregularlyy raideraidedd downdown intintoo ththee lowerlower MacedoniaMacedoniann kingdomkingdom.. BByy thatthat samsamee tokentoken,, ththee PaeonianPaeonianss ttoo ththee nortnorthh neveneverr hesitatehesitatedd ttoo taktakee whawhatt thetheyy couldcould fromfrom theirtheir southersouthernn neighborneighbor.. TToo ththee easteast,, MacedoniaMacedoniann economieconomicc independencindependencee wawass hamperehamperedd byby ththee citiecitiess ooff ththee ChalcidiceChalcidice.. MacedoniaMacedoniann importimportss andand exportsexports werweree entirelyentirely dependentdependent uponupon ChalcidiaChalcidiann porportt citiecitiess foforr theitheirr tradetrade.. AAss a resulresultt ththee relationshirelationshipp betweenbetween

MacedoniMacedoniaa anandd ththee ChalcidicChalcidicee wawass oftenoften strainestrainedd ttoo ththee poinpointt ooff openopen war."3 Finally,Finally, ttoo thethe southsouth,, MacedoniMacedoniaa alsalsoo sufferedsuffered incursionincursionss intintoo heherr politicpoliticss bbyy AtheniaAtheniann anandd ThebanTheban interests.interests. IInn thithiss respectrespect,, ththee AthenianAthenianss werweree focusefocusedd oonn regaininregainingg controlcontrol ofof theirtheir accessaccess ttoo ththee timbetimberr resourceresourcess ooff thethe StrymonStrymon RiveRiverr ValleValleyy iinn westerwesternn ThraceThrace.. IInn 369369 ThebesThebes compellecompelledd MacedoniMacedoniaa intintoo anan alliancalliancee anandd requirerequiredd thathatt thirty-onthirty-onee noble-bornoble-bornn MacedoniaMacedonia

2 EllisEllis,, 42-4442-44,, Hammond,Hammond, Macedonia v. II, 164-166;164-166; WorthingtonWorthington,, 220-22l.220-221. 3 Diodorus,Diodorus, 15.19.2-6;15.19.2-6; Hammond,Hammond, Macedonia v. II, 175-178175-178 ; EllisEllis,, 42.42. 3

sonsonss bebe givegivenn uupp ttoo ThebeThebess aass hostages. 44

ByBy 359359 thesthesee externalexternal pressurepressuress camcamee ttoo a head.5 TheThe Dlyrianlllyrianss attackedattacked

MacedoniaMacedonia,, defeatedefeatedd ththee besbestt ooff ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann troopstroops andand inin ththee procesprocesss killedkilled ththee king,king,

Philip'sPhilip's predecessorpredecessor,, PerdiccaPerdiccass IIIIII.. PhiliPhilipp camcamee ttoo powepowerr atat thithiss poinpointt witwithh hishis kingdomkingdom

collapsingcollapsing allall arounaroundd himhim.. ThThee lllyriansIllyrians coulcouldd bbee expecteexpectedd ttoo followfollow uupp oonn theitheirr victoryvictory

bbyy advancinadvancingg furthefurtherr intintoo MacedoniaMacedonia,, ththee PaeonianPaeonianss werweree gatheringgathering ttoo exploiexploitt ththee currentcurrent

MacedonianMacedonian weaknesweaknesss andand ththee ChalcidiaChalcidiann andand AthenianAthenianss botbothh supportedsupported differendifferentt rivalsrivals

ttoo ththee thronethrone againstagainst PhilipPhilip..

Thus,Thus, upouponn hihiss ascension,ascension, PhiliPhilipp tootookk controcontroll ofof a kingdokingdomm notoriounotoriouss forfor internalinternal

instabilitinstabilityy andand nonoww besebesett externallyexternally bbyy enemiesenemies frofromm allall sides.sides. IItt wawass atat thithiss poinpointt thatthat

PhilipPhilip begabegann a procesprocesss ooff politicapoliticall maneuverinmaneuveringg thathatt woulwouldd transfortransformm MacedoniMacedoniaa intintoo a

worlworldd powerpower.. ThisThis thesithesiss wilwilll breakbreak thithiss procesprocesss dowdownn intintoo threethree phasesphases.. TheThe firsfirstt waswas

definedefinedd bbyy necessitynecessity.. PhiliPhilipp hahadd ttoo contrivecontrive somsomee plaplann ttoo insurinsuree ththee immediatimmediatee securitsecurityy ofof

hishis kingdomkingdom.. ITnn relatiorelationn ttoo GreeceGreece,, thithiss meanmeantt dealindealingg witwithh ththee threathreatt poseposedd byby anan

AtheniaAtheniann bacbackk pretendepretenderr toto ththee thronthronee (se(seee ChapteChapterr III)III).. WheWhenn thithiss firsfirstt bouboutt ooff franticfrantic crisiscrisis managemenmanagementt hadhad passedpassed,, insuringinsuring ththee immediatimmediatee securitysecurity tootookk onon a newnew meaninmeaningg toto

PhiliPhilipp anandd pushepushedd hihimm intointo a seconsecondd phasphasee ooff dealindealingg witwithh GreeceGreece InIn thithiss stage,stage, PhilipPhilip soughtsought ttoo removremovee ththee Greeks'Greeks' potentiapotentiall foforr continuincontinuingg theitheirr interferencinterferencee iinn MacedonianMacedonian politicpoliticss (se(seee ChapteChapterr III)III).. ThisThis remaineremainedd Philip'Philip'ss primarprimaryy concernconcern untiuntill 346346,, bubutt bbyy thisthis timtimee hhee hahadd securesecuredd hihiss immediatimmediatee kingdokingdomm anandd begabegann lookinlookingg toto expandexpand hihiss rulerule eastwardeastward (se(seee ChapteChapterr IY)IV).. FroFromm thithiss poinpointt onon,, PhiliPhilipp entereenteredd a thirthirdd phasphasee iinn hihiss politicalpolitical

4 Diodorus,Diodorus, 15.67.4;15.67.4; PlutarchPlutarch,, Pelopidas, 26.26. 5 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.2.1-6.16.2.1-6. 4 relationshirelationshipp witwithh ththee GreeksGreeks.. ToTo expandexpand easeastt requirerequiredd PhilipPhilip ttoo createcreate a politicalpolitical mechanismechanismm ttoo maintaimaintainn hihiss nonoww prominenprominentt positiopositionn amongsamongstt ththee GreekGreekss anandd PhilipPhilip finallyfinally diddid ssoo iinn ththee forformm ofof ththee CorinthiaCorinthiann League.League.

PhilipPhilip dieddied shortlshortlyy afteafterr hhee hahadd puputt himselhimselff iinn positiopositionn ttoo carrycarry ououtt hihiss wawarr ooff expansionexpansion againstagainst PersiaPersia,, bubutt ththee foundationsfoundations hehe hahadd laidlaid foforr ththee warwar werweree mormoree thanthan sufficient.sufficient. IInn factfact,, hihiss sonson andand successor,successor, AlexandeAlexanderr IIIIII,, dididd nonott deviatedeviate fromfrom Philip'sPhilip's establishedestablished politicapoliticall relationshirelationshipp witwithh GreecGreecee foforr ththee firsfirstt twelvtwelvee yearyearss ofof hihiss thirteen-yearthirteen-year reignreign (see(see ChapterChapter V)V).. ItIt wawass nonott untiuntill hihiss finafinall yeayearr asas kingking,, whewhenn AlexandeAlexanderr turneturnedd backback frofromm expansioexpansionn eastward,eastward, thathatt hhee madmadee anyany attempattemptt ttoo changechange MacedoniaMacedoniann andand GreekGreek politicapoliticall relationsrelations.. DurinDuringg thithiss periodperiod,, AlexandeAlexanderr begabegann implementinimplementingg a dynastidynasticc forformm ooff governancegovernance forfor GreeceGreece intendeintendedd ttoo createcreate a stablestable GreekGreek statestate withiwithinn a largerlarger empireempire (see(see

ChapterChapter IV).IV). IronicallyIronically,, thithiss adjustmenadjustmentt iinn policpolicyy mighmightt alsoalso havhavee beebeenn madmadee followingfollowing precedentprecedentss sesett bbyy Philip.Philip. Alexander'sAlexander's changes,changes, however,however, werweree ill-fated.ill-fated. HeHe dieddied beforebefore theythey couldcould properlproperlyy developdevelop anandd hishis visiovisionn wawass nonott sharedshared bbyy hihiss successors.successors.

MacedonianMacedonian anandd GreekGreek politicapoliticall relationsrelations undeunderr PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr representrepresent arguablyarguably oneone ofof ththee greatestgreatest reversalreversalss ooff fortunfortunee iinn alalll ooff historyhistory.. IInn threthreee stagesstages,, fromfrom 359359 ttoo 336336 MacedoniMacedoniaa rosrosee ttoo prominencprominencee bbyy avoidinavoidingg possiblpossiblee subjugatiosubjugationn bbyy AthenAthenss iinn thethe forformm ofof a puppepuppett kingking,, fortifyingfortifying herselherselff againstagainst GreeGreekk politicapoliticall interferenceinterference andand,, onceonce inin a positionposition ofof power,power, creatingcreating anan effectiveeffective systemsystem toto governgovern thethe Greeks,Greeks, whichwhich alsoalso enabledenabled aann enormousenormous expansionexpansion ttoo ththee east.east. FromFrom 333366 ttoo 324324 thithiss systemsystem operatedoperated effectively,effectively, dealingdealing witwithh ananyy andand alalll teststests.. FinallyFinally,, iinn 324324,, whewhenn ththee wawarr hahadd beebeenn carriedcarried outout ttoo ththee fullestfullest,, MacedoniMacedoniaa turneturnedd ttoo a long-terlong-termm solutiosolutionn ttoo createcreate a stablestable GreekGreek statestate withiwithinn ththee largelargerr MacedoniaMacedoniann EmpireEmpire.. ThThee remaininremainingg pagepagess wilwilll investigateinvestigate thethe 5 respectivrespectivee roleroless ooff PhiliPhilipp anandd AlexandeAlexanderr iinn pushinpushingg MacedoniMacedoniaa ttoo ththee forefronforefrontt ooff GreeGreekk politicspolitics.. CHAPTERCHAPTER HII

THTHEE SOURCESOURCE MATERIALMATERIAL FOFORR PHILIPPHILIP IIII ANANDD ALEXANDEALEXANDERR IIIIII

TheThe sourcessources availableavailable toto ththee modermodernn scholarscholar regardinregardingg MacedoniaMacedonia betweebetweenn 359359 andand 323323 BBCC areare problematicproblematic.. TToo beginbegin,, thertheree mamayy bbee nnoo otheotherr persopersonn iinn ththee recordedrecorded historyhistory ooff mankinmankindd whwhoo hahass beebeenn writtewrittenn oonn mormoree thathann AlexandeAlexanderr ooff MacedonMacedon.. OOnn thethe otheotherr hand,hand, hihiss father,father, whilwhilee widelwidelyy esteemeesteemedd iinn antiquityantiquity,, hahass nonott drawdrawnn ththee attentioattentionn ofof historianhistorianss anandd ththee documentdocumentss pertaininpertainingg ttoo hihiss liflifee thereforthereforee areare nonott aass abundant.abundant. EveEvenn so,so, fullfull ancienancientt historicahistoricall accountaccountss ooff eithereither mamann araree nonott onlyonly rarerare,, bubutt thosthosee thathatt havehave survivedsurvived iinn fulfulll araree separateseparatedd bbyy centuriescenturies frofromm ththee memenn thathatt thetheyy describedescribe.. ThThee problemproblem forfor ththee modermodernn historiahistoriann thethenn isis ttoo assessassess ththee reliabilitreliabilityy ofof thesthesee accountsaccounts.. ThusThus,, anan analysisanalysis ofof ththee sources'sources' compositionscompositions iiss aann unavoidableunavoidable prerequisitprerequisitee ttoo anyany examinationexamination ofof MacedoMacedonn undeunderr ththee reignreignss ooff PhiliPhilipp andand Alexander.Alexander.

WhilWhilee ththee finalfinal goagoall ofof thithiss analysianalysiss wilwilll bebe anan historicahistoricall assessmenassessmentt ofof ththee validityvalidity ofof ththee fivfivee survivinsurvivingg fullfull narrativesnarratives,, iitt wilwilll bbee beneficiabeneficiall firstfirst ttoo identifidentifyy ththee sourcesource materiamateriall availableavailable foforr ususee bbyy ththee authorsauthors ooff thosthosee survivingsurviving textstexts.. ThesThesee araree knownknown indirectlindirectlyy ttoo uuss througthroughh textuatextuall referencesreferences withiwithinn ththee survivingsurviving narrativesnarratives,, aass welwelll asas inin extantextant fragmentsfragments.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, thesthesee authorauthorss represenrepresentt twtwoo levellevelss ooff separationseparation betweenbetween thethe extanextantt sourcessources ofof PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr themselvesthemselves.. FirstFirst areare thosthosee authorauthorss whwhoo livedlived asas contemporariescontemporaries ttoo PhiliPhilipp anandd AlexanderAlexander.. TheThe secondsecond representrepresentss lostlost workworkss onon thesethese memenn thathatt werweree writtewrittenn bbyy authorauthorss whwhoo livelivedd anandd wrotwrotee iinn ththee intermediarintermediaryy timtimee periodperiod betweebetweenn ththee deatdeathh ofof AlexandeAlexanderr anandd ththee compositiocompositionn ooff DiodoruDiodoruss Siculus'Siculus' historyhistory,, whichwhich 7 waswas ththee firstfirst ofof ththee extantextant sourcessources ttoo bebe produced.produced. TheThe sourcesource analysisanalysis thatthat followsfollows isis organizedorganized withwith ththee aboveabove iinn mindmind.. ThisThis analysisanalysis willwill discussdiscuss ththee pertinenpertinentt pnmaryprimary sourcessources andand intermediaryintermediary sources,sources, whicwhichh werewere availableavailable toto somesome degreedegree forfor thethe compositiocompositionn ofof ththee fivefive majormajor sources.sources. ThenThen itit wilwilll movmovee ttoo a discussiondiscussion ofof thethe relativerelative meritsmerits ofof thethe fivefive majormajor extantextant sources.sources. Finally,Finally, thertheree willwill bbee a discussiondiscussion ofof thethe materialmaterial evidenceevidence availableavailable inin coinage,coinage, art,art, anandd archaeology.archaeology.

TheThe PrimaryPrimary andand IntermediaryIntermediary SourcesSources

TherTheree wawass a wealthwealth ofof writingwriting pertaininpertainingg toto PhilipPhilip andand AlexanderAlexander eveneven duringduring theirtheir owownn lifetimeslifetimes.. TheThe workworkss andand lettersletters ofof Isocrates,Isocrates, forfor exampleexample,, provideprovide a substantial,substantial, ifif idealistic,idealistic, insighinsightt intointo thethe reignsreigns ofof PhilipPhilip andand Alexander. 6 IsocratesIsocrates wawass a prominentprominent pamphleteerpamphleteer,, rhetoriciarhetoriciann andand pan-Hellenipan-Hellenicc statesmanstatesman ofof thethe fourthfourth century.century. HHee clungclung desperateldesperatelyy ttoo ththee ideaidea ofof a pan-Hellenicpan-Hellenic unionunion,, whichwhich couldcould bebe pittedpitted againstagainst thethe PersiansPersians iinn thethe East.East. WheWhenn PhiliPhilipp broughtbrought MacedoMacedonn intointo a positionposition ofof powepowerr withiwithinn thethe GreekGreek world,world, IsocrateIsocratess sawsaw whawhatt hhee believebelievedd toto bebe ththee perfectperfect leaderleader foforr hihiss conceptionconception ofof pan-pan-

HellenismHellenism.. ThisThis waswas echoedechoed inin hishis mosmostt importantimportant treatistreatisee thethe Philippus. ThisThis investmentinvestment iinn ththee MacedonianMacedonian statestate leledd himhim ttoo composecompose lettersletters toto PhilipPhilip regardingregarding Philip'Philip'ss potentialpotential ttoo executeexecute hishis idealsideals alonalongg witwithh personapersonall sentiments.sentiments. TheseThese lettersletters thenthen represenrepresentt hishis majomajorr contributioncontribution ttoo ththee studystudy ofof AlexandeAlexanderr andand PhilipPhilip andand wouldwould havhavee beenbeen accessibleaccessible ttoo ancienancientt historianhistorianss interesteinterestedd iinn ththee twotwo kings.kings.

6 rd 6 "Isocrates""Isocrates" (G.L.c.)(G.L.C.) The Oxford Classical Dictionary 3 edition, Ed.Ed. SimonSimon HornhlowerHornblower andand AntonyAntony SpawforthSpawforth (Oxford:(Oxford: OxfordOxford UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1996),1996), 769-770;769-770; PeterPeter Green,Green, Alexander of Macedon 336-336- 323 BC: A Historical Biography (Los(Los AngelesAngeles:: UniversitUniversityy ofof CaliforniaCalifornia Press,Press, 1991)1991),, 570.570. 8

ThThee AttiAtticc oratororatorss duringduring thethe perioperiodd ofof PhiliPhilipp anandd AlexandeAlexanderr providprovidee vantagevantage pointpointss thathatt araree ververyy differentdifferent frofromm thathatt ooff IsocratesIsocrates'' vievieww ofof MacedoniaMacedoniann imperialism.imperialism. 7

ThThee mosmostt prominenprominentt ooff thesthesee rhetoricianrhetoricianss wawass DemostheneDemostheness whoswhosee relevanrelevantt worksworks includeinclude ththee Olynthiacs, Philippics, De Corona, anandd De Falsa Legatione. OtheOtherr oratororatorss ofof thisthis perioperiodd whoswhosee workworkss araree alsalsoo pertinenpertinentt includeinclude:: AeschinesAeschines,, DemadesDemades,, Deinarchus,Deinarchus,

HypereidesHypereides,, anandd LycurgusLycurgus.. TheseThese speeches,speeches, unlikunlikee manmanyy ofof ththee contemporarcontemporaryy sourcesourcess toto

PhilipPhilip anandd AlexandeAlexanderr discussediscussedd belobeloww araree preservedpreserved inin fullfull andand thuthuss providprovidee ththee modernmodern historianhistorian withwith a smallsmall amountamount ooff directdirect sourcesource materiamateriall bbyy whicwhichh ttoo assesassesss PhiliPhilipp andand

AlexanderAlexander.. ClearlClearlyy cautioncaution isis ththee kekeyy ttoo ananyy examinationexamination ooff thesethese speeches.speeches. TheTheyy werweree allall rhetoricarhetoricall iinn naturnaturee anandd thuthuss warwarpp eventeventss ttoo fifitt politicapoliticall ambitionsambitions.. ItIt iiss thereforetherefore importanimportantt ttoo taktakee thesthesee speechesspeeches witwithh thosthosee factfactss iinn mindmind,, bubutt eveneven asas anti-Macedoniaanti-Macedoniann asas thetheyy mamayy bebe,, thetheyy stillstill allowallow a directdirect glimpsglimpsee intointo a paspastt thathatt hashas beebeenn largellargelyy loslostt andand thuthuss thetheyy retairetainn mucmuchh valuvaluee iinn ththee presenpresentt study.study.

EumenesEumenes,, HetairosHetairas anandd secretarysecretary ttoo AlexanderAlexander,, recorderecordedd a ververyy usefuusefull archival-archival- typtypee sourcesource foforr ththee ancientancient worldworld.. DurinDuringg hihiss tenurtenuree undeunderr AlexanderAlexander,, EumeneEumeness recordedrecorded notesnotes onon thethe actions,actions, ordersorders,, religioureligiouss sacrificesacrificess anandd pronouncementpronouncementss ooff ththee kingking,, whichwhich werweree referrereferredd ttoo collectivelcollectivelyy aass ththee Ephemerides oror 'Roya'Royall Journal'Journal,.8. ThesThesee notenotess werewere compiledcompiled untiuntill Alexander'Alexander'ss deathdeath atat whicwhichh poinpointt thetheyy werweree stolestolenn bbyy PtolemPtolemyy I Soter,Soter, storedstored atat ththee librarlibraryy ooff AlexandriaAlexandria,, anandd eventualleventuallyy publishepublishedd iinn twtwoo differendifferentt versions;versions;

7 N.G.N.G.LL HammondHammond,, Philip of Macedon (Baltimore:(Baltimore: 1994)1994) 11;11; Green,Green, 570,570, 571;571; svsv "Demosthenes""Demosthenes" (G.L.c.)(G.L.C.) OCD3,456-458.OCD3, 456-458. 8 N.G.L.N.G.L. Hammond,Hammond, Sources for Alexander the Great (Cambridge:(Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1993),1993), 321321;; BosworthBosworth,, 182-184;182-184; ssvv "ephemerides""ephemerides" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 528528.. 9 oneone editeeditedd bbyy OlynthuOlynthuss iinn MacedoniMacedoniaa andand ththee secondsecond bbyy PhilinuPhilinuss ooff Akragas.99 DespiteDespite thethe factfact thatthat ththee RoyaRoyall JournaJournall iiss basebasedd oonn notenotess frofromm Alexander'Alexander'ss campaign,campaign, iitt shouldshould nonott bbee taketakenn aass anan unbiaseunbiasedd source.source. EumeneEumeness hahadd politicapoliticall motivatiomotivationn behinbehindd hishis compositiocompositionn ooff thisthis texttext,, namelnamelyy ttoo enlargenlargee onon ththee featfeatss ooff AlexandeAlexanderr asas welwelll aass quietquiet thethe rumorrumorss ooff hishis poisoning.pOisoning. IO10 TheThe reareall importancimportancee ofof thithiss documendocumentt isis thathatt iitt allowedallowed

PtolemyPtolemy,, andand thereforthereforee Arrian,Arrian, accessaccess ttoo thethe militar militaryy detaildetailss ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss campaign,campaign, whichwhich wouldwould otherwiseotherwise havhavee beebeenn lost.lost.

EphorusEphorus ooff CymCymee wawass almostalmost aann exacexactt contemporarcontemporaryy ooff PhiliPhilipp livingliving frofromm cc.. 405405

- 330330 Be.BC.ll11 HeHe isis thoughtthought toto bebe a studentstudent ofof IsocratesIsocrates andand ofof pro-Athenianpro-Athenian sentiment.sentiment. HisHis majomajorr workwork,, nonoww lostlost,, wawass a thirty-bookthirty-book historyhistory,, whicwhichh begabegann witwithh ththee returreturnn ooff thethe

Heraclidae andand continuecontinuedd asas farfar asas ththee siegsiegee ooff PerinthuPerinthuss iinn 343400 BCBe.. HiHiss sonson eventuallyeventually completedcompleted ththee worworkk bbyy carryingcarrying ththee narrativnarrativee througthroughh ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar.. InIn thisthis historhistoryy EphorusEphorus employedemployed botbothh historicahistoricall anandd literarliteraryy sourcesourcess anandd gavgavee speciaspeciall attentionattention ttoo migrationsmigrations,, ththee foundinfoundingg ooff citiescities aass welwelll aass familfamilyy genealogiesgenealogies.. ItIt iiss ththee firstfirst knownknown attemptattempt atat a universauniversall historhistoryy andand thuthuss EphoruEphoruss hahadd eclipseeclipsedd thosthosee historianhistorianss writingwriting

9 ItIt isis importantimportant toto notnotee a divergencedivergence inin scholarshipscholarship overover ththee authenticityauthenticity ofof thesethese twtwoo publicationpublicationss ooff thethe RoyalRoyal JournalsJournals.. TraditionallTraditionallyy thetheyy havhavee beebeenn accepteacceptedd aass authenticauthentic,, havinhavingg beebeenn preservepreservedd bbyy PtolemPtolemyy andand thusthus indirectlyindirectly througthroughh ArrianArrian.. ThisThis thesisthesis., howeverhowever,, wawass counterecounteredd bbyy LioneLionell PearsoPearsonn anandd hihiss theorytheory subsequentlysubsequently upheldupheld bbyy P.A.P.A. BruntBrunt.. FoForr a briebrieff accounaccountt ooff thesthesee developmentdevelopmentss inin ththee scholarlyscholarly communitycommunity seesee BosworthBosworth,, From Arrian to Alexander, 157-158.157-158. DespitDespitee thesthesee argumentsarguments againsagainstt ththee authenticityauthenticity ooff thethe JournalJournal,, ththee evidenceevidence suggestssuggests aatt ththee ververyy leasleastt ththee JournalJournalss werweree notenotess taketakenn bbyy EumeneEumeness durinduringg thethe campaigncampaignss anandd thethenn moldemoldedd intintoo literarliteraryy formform.. SeSeee N.G.N.G.LL HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander thethe Great (Cambridge:(Cambridge: 1983)1983),5-11;, 5-11; svsv "ephemerides"ephemerides"" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 528;528; A.B.A.B. BosworthBosworth,, From Arrian to Alexander (Oxford:(Oxford: 1988),1988), 157-184.157-184. cf.cf. LioneLionell PearsonPearson,, "The"The DiarDiaryy anandd LetterLetterss ooff AlexandeAlexanderr ththee Great",Great", Historia 3 (1955(1955)) 429-439429-439;; P.AP.A.. BruntBrunt,, Arrian:Arrian: History of Alexander and Indica ii, (Cambridge:(Cambridge: 1976)1976) 288-293288-293.. 1010 Bosworth,Bosworth, Arrian to Alex., 157157-158 -158.. II1 Hammond,Hammond, Philip of Macedon (Baltimore:(Baltimore: JohnsJohns HopkinsHopkins UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1994),1994), 12;12; "Ephorus"Ephorus ofof Cyme"Cyme" (K.S.S.)(K.S.S.) OCD3,OCD3, 529-531.529-531. 1010 beforbeforee himhim atat leastleast iinn scope.scope. HisHis otherother workworkss includedincluded a historyhistory ofof Cyme,Cyme, a treatisetreatise onon stylestyle andand twtwoo bookbookss onon diversediverse rangerangess ofof knowledgeknowledge iinn thethe ancientancient world.world.

EphorusEphorus'' universauniversall historhistoryy wawass importantimportant notnot onlyonly inin itsits groundground breakinbreakingg scope,scope, bubutt alsoalso foforr ththee generalgeneral goodgood reputationreputation itit helheldd asas anan accurateaccurate andand authoritativeauthoritative historicalhistorical workwork.. IItt wawass usedused extensivelyextensively inin thethe ancientancient worlworldd asas a reputablereputable referencereference forfor thethe periodperiod thathatt itit covered.covered.

TheopompusTheopompus ofof ChiosChios wawass bornborn iinn 373788 andand livedlived througthroughh ththee reignsreigns ofof botbothh PhilipPhilip andand Alexander. 1212 HeHe waswas a prominentprominent historianhistorian ofof hihiss agagee andand wrotwrotee manymany worksworks includingincluding anan epitomeepitome ofof HerodotusHerodotus;; a workwork entitledentitled Hellenica, whichwhich continuedcontinued

Thucydides'Thucydides' narrativnarrativee downdown ttoo 394,394, andand finallyfinally hishis Philippikai historiai whichwhich waswas notnot solelysolely a historhistoryy ofof Philip,Philip, bubutt ratheratherr a universaluniversal historhistoryy centeredcentered onon Philip.Philip. ThroughoutThroughout allall thesethese workworkss TheopompusTheopompus hadhad a commoncommon conceptionconception ofof historhistoryy asas universaluniversal.. HeHe waswas rhetoricalrhetorical inin hihiss compositioncomposition andand moralizinmoralizingg iinn hishis tonetone.. AlsoAlso,, itit isis clearclear thathatt hehe waswas fairlyfairly wellwell disposeddisposed towardtowardss PhiliPhilipp seeingseeing inin thethe KingKing a closeclose realizatiorealizationn ttoo hihiss personalpersonal politicalpolitical idealsideals.. IInn hihiss convictionsconvictions regardinregardingg PhiliPhilipp hehe waswas atat leastleast welwelll acquaintedacquainted withwith hihiss subjectsubject havinghaving spentspent muchmuch timtimee inin thethe MacedonianMacedonian court.court. FinallyFinally,, hhee wawass wellwell regarderegardedd iinn thethe ancienancientt worlworldd asas a meticuloumeticulouss historianhistorian andand beingbeing a contemporarycontemporary ofof

PhiliPhilipp andand AlexanderAlexander lendslends credencecredence toto hihiss sequencingsequencing ofof events.events.

MarsyaMarsyass ofof MacedoMacedonn waswas ththee brothebrotherr ofof AntigonuAntigonuss ththee One-eyedOne-eyed andand servedserved

1 T under him as an admiral. I3 In his younger years he served with Alexander as a Royal under him as an admiral. In his younger years he served with Alexander as a Royal Page under the direction of Aristotle. He wrote a history entitled Makedonika, which Page under the direction of Aristotle. He wrote a history entitled Makedonika, which

1212 HammondHammond,, Philip of Macedon, 82;82; 'Theopompus"Theopompus ooff Chios"Chios" (K.M.)(K.M.) OCD3,OCD3, 1505-1506.1505-1506. 1313 Hammond,Hammond, Philip of Macedon, 15;15; "Marsyas"Marsyas ofof Pella"Pella" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 930.930. 1111

chronicledchronicled Inin tenten bookbookss ththee achievementachievementss ooff MacedoMacedonn frofromm ththee beginningbeginningss ofof thethe

KingshiKingshipp itselitselff dowdownn ttoo 331331 BC. Furthermore,Furthermore, hhee wrotwrotee twtwoo workworkss oonn Alexander,Alexander,

detailingdetailing Alexander'Alexander'ss educatioeducationn andand accomplishments.accomplishments. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, nonnonee ooff hihiss worksworks

havehave survivedsurvived iinn fulfulll anandd whawhatt wwee knoknoww ooff thethemm iiss derivederivedd frofromm quotationsquotations bbyy otherother

authorsauthors.. Marsyas'Marsyas' testimonytestimony wawass importantimportant iinn thathatt hhee wawass a MacedoniaMacedoniann himselfhimself.. ThuThuss inin hihiss reporreportt ththee ancientsancients hahadd a MacedoniaMacedoniann vantagvantagee poinpointt frofromm whicwhichh ttoo vievieww ththee kingkingss asas welwelll asas a trutruee MacedonianMacedonian backgrounbackgroundd ttoo ththee events.events.

CallisthenesCallisthenes,, a membememberr ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss entouragentouragee die diedd iinn 323277 BBCC anandd thuthuss waswas witneswitnesss ttoo allall ofof Philip'sPhilip's reignreign anandd ththee firsfirstt ninninee yearyearss ofof Alexander's.Alexander's.1414 InIn hihiss tenuretenure undeunderr AlexandeAlexanderr hhee accompanieaccompaniedd thethe armyarmy onon itsits expeditionexpedition intointo BactriaBactria,, wherwheree hhee waswas implicatedimplicated inin a ploplott againstagainst AlexanderAlexander,, imprisoneimprisonedd anandd subsequentlysubsequently dieddied.. A nativnativee ofof

Olynthus,Olynthus, membememberr ooff thethe RoyalRoyal PagePagess anandd nephenepheww ooff AristotleAristotle,, hihiss firsfirstt attemptattempt iinn writingwriting historyhistory coverecoveredd ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar.. HHee thethenn undertooundertookk a projectproject ttoo composcomposee a historhistoryy thathatt wawass entitleentitledd 'Th'Thee DeedDeedss ofof Alexander,Alexander,'' whicwhichh chroniclechronicledd dowdownn ttoo 330330 BC.

DespitDespitee personapersonall discrepanciediscrepanciess witwithh AlexandeAlexanderr (quarrelling(quarrelling oveoverr ththee King'King'ss requirementrequirement foforr proskynesis anandd hihiss imprisonment,imprisonment, whicwhichh causecausedd hihiss death)death),, Callisthenes'Callisthenes' worworkk waswas eulogisticeulogistic iinn naturenature,, centerincenteringg oonn ththee militarmilitaryy achievementachievementss anandd divindivinee paternitpaternityy ooff hishis

KingKing..

ThereThere iiss alsoalso a textextt thathatt hadhad beebeenn falselfalselyy ascribedascribed ttoo CallistheneCallistheness thougthoughh scholarsscholars nonoww refereferr ttoo itsits authoauthorr aass Pseudo-Callisthenes,Pseudo-Callisthenes, sincsincee ththee actuaactuall authorauthor ofof ththee textextt isis

14 LioneLionell Pearson,Pearson, The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great (London(London:: ScholarsScholars PressPress,, 1960),1960), 22-4922-49;; "Callisthenes"Callisthenes ooff OlynthusOlynthus"" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3,OCD3, 278278.. 1212

unknown.unknownY15 ThiThiss 'Alexander-Romance'Alexander-Romance'' wawass a forformm ofof populapopularr fictiofictionn iinn ththee ancientancient

worlworldd basebasedd onon historicahistoricall eventsevents.. IItt wawass widelwidelyy reareadd nonott lonlongg afteafterr Alexander'Alexander'ss deatdeathh andand

itsits importanceimportance lieslies nonott withiwithinn ananyy smalsmalll fragmentfragment ofof accurateaccurate historhistoryy withiwithinn thethe textextt (there(there

araree nonott many)many),, bubutt ratheratherr iinn ththee interesinterestt thathatt iitt gainegainedd amongamong a widwidee readershipreadership.. ThiThiss texttext

wawass translatetranslatedd intintoo GreekGreek,, SyriacSyriac andand ArabiArabicc bbyy medievamedievall timetimess andand thuthuss enjoyeenjoyedd greatgreat

popularitpopularityy amongamong a diversediverse audience.audience.

AristobulusAristobulus wawass a minominorr engineeringengineering officeofficerr inin ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann armarmyy anandd closeclose

companiocompanionn ofof Alexander.1616 InIn ththee laterlater yearyearss ooff hihiss life,life, AristobuluAristobuluss composecomposedd hishis

MemoirsMemoirs inin aann attemptattempt ttoo refutrefutee ththee currentcurrent trendtrend,, promotepromotedd bbyy CleitarchusCleitarchus,, ofof mythologizinmythologizingg AlexanderAlexander.. HiHiss accountaccount,, therefore,therefore, varievariess greatlgreatlyy fromfrom manmanyy otherother accountsaccounts inin hihiss charactecharacterr judgmentjudgmentss ofof AlexanderAlexander duringduring thithiss periodperiod.. OneOne exampleexample ofof thisthis iiss AristobulusAristobulus'' denialdenial ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss predispositiopredispositionn towardstowards alcoholalcohol,, whichwhich iiss foundfound iinn manmanyy otheotherr accountaccountss ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss lifelife.. ItIt iiss cleaclearr thethenn thathatt inin manmanyy waywayss hhee merelymerely eulogizeeulogizedd thethe KingKing,, bubutt hhee alsalsoo provideprovidedd mucmuchh genuinegenuine firsthanfirsthandd logisticalogisticall information.information.

FinallyFinally,, hihiss worworkk waswas a majomajorr sourcesource forfor ArrianArrian,, whicwhichh makemakess hihiss flawflawss aass welwelll asas hishis strengthstrengthss aass a historiahistoriann ofof greagreatt importimport forfor ththee studystudy atat hand.hand.

NearchuNearchuss ooff CretCretee servedserved iinn ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann militarmilitaryy undeunderr AlexandeAlexanderr holdinholdingg a numbenumberr ofof importantimportant positions.1717 HHee wawass aann accomplisheaccomplishedd soldiesoldierr andand statesman.statesman. HisHis postpostss durinduringg hihiss careercareer includedincluded beinbeingg satrapsatrap ofof Lycia/PamphyliaLycia/Pamphylia,, commandingcommanding ththee navynavy bringinbringingg ththee fleefleett ttoo meemeett AlexandeAlexanderr anandd ththee lanlandd forceforce atat ththee moutmouthh ofof ththee Tigris,Tigris, hhee waswas

15 15 AlberAlbertt MugridicMugridichh WolohojianWolohojian,, The Romance of Alexander the Great by Pseudo-Callisthenes (New(New YorkYork:: RoutledgeRoutledge,, 1969)1969) 1-21;1-21; Green,Green, 571;571; "Pseudo-Callithenes""Pseudo-Callithenes" (R.B.(R.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 1270.1270. 1166 A.BA.B.. BosworthBosworth,, A Historical Commentary on Arrian'sArrian 's History of Alexander (Oxford(Oxford:: OxforOxfordd UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 1989),27-30;1989), 27-30; PearsonPearson,, 150-187;150-187; "Aristobulu"Aristobuluss ooff CassandreiaCas sand rei a"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3OCD3,, 161161.. 17 17 PearsonPearson,, 112-149112-149;; "Nearchus"Nearchus ooff CreteCrete"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 1032.1032. 1313

a majormajor figurefigure inin BabylonBabylon atat thethe timetime ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss death,death, andand finally,finally, hehe waswas a membermember

ooff AntigonusAntigonus'' staffstaff fromfrom 313177 ttoo 312312 BCBe.. HHee wrotwrotee a memoimemoirr ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss campaigns,campaigns,

whicwhichh iiss loslostt excepexceptt foforr a fefeww fragmentfragmentss regardinregardingg ththee eventeventss ofof ththee IndianIndian campaigncampaign.. IItt

wawass anan importanimportantt documentdocument iinn ththee ancienancientt worlworldd anandd wawass employedemployed asas sourcesource materiamateriall byby

StraboStrabo anandd ArrianArrian.. ThThee fragmentfragmentss thathatt dodo existexist suggestsuggest thathatt whilwhilee hishis memoimemoirr waswas

importantimportant forfor ititss detaidetaill regardinregardingg eventsevents,, iitt oftenoften exaggeratedexaggerated NearchusNearchus'' owownn rolrolee Inin eventsevents.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, iitt wawass a reputablreputablee sourcesource useusedd bbyy ArrianArrian,, DiodoruDiodoruss anandd Plutarch.Plutarch.

NearchusNearchus'' subordinatesubordinate OnesicrituOnesicrituss alsalsoo provideprovidedd a first-handfirst-hand accounaccountt ofof

Alexander.Is18 OnesicritusOnesicritus wawass a studentstudent ooff DiogeneDiogeness ththee CynicCynic,, servedserved directlydirectly underunder

AlexandeAlexanderr foforr a timtimee anandd finallyfinally serveservedd undeunderr NearchuNearchuss durinduringg ththee navigationavigationn ooff thethe

IndianIndian coastcoast.. HHee wrotwrotee aann accounaccountt ooff AlexandeAlexanderr inin ththee stylestyle ooff Xenophon.Xenophon. WhaWhatt havehave comcomee dowdownn toto modernitmodernityy areare fragmentfragmentss thathatt focusfocus onon thethe IndiaIndiann BrahmanBrahmanss anandd thethe kingdokingdomm ofof MusicanusMusicanus.. HHee alsalsoo madmadee a detailedetailedd descriptiodescriptionn ooff ththee seseaa voyagvoyagee thatthat isis similasimilarr iinn somesome respectrespectss ttoo NearchusNearchus'' descriptiondescription.. HiHiss historyhistory,, howeverhowever,, wawass nonott wellwell receivedreceived,, beinbeingg regarderegardedd aass mostlmostlyy falsefalse andand thosthosee instancesinstances iinn whicwhichh hhee maymay havhavee shownshown promispromisee aass a source,source, suchsuch aass hihiss descriptiodescriptionn ooff ththee IndusIndus RiveRiverr voyagevoyage wherwheree NearchusNearchus proveprovedd ttoo bbee definitive,definitive, werweree eclipseeclipsedd bbyy otherother authors.authors.

ChareCharess ooff MytilenMytilenee wawass Alexander'Alexander'ss chamberlainchamberlain.. FollowinFollowingg Alexander'Alexander'ss deathdeath hhee wrotwrotee a historhistoryy ooff AlexandeAlexanderr entitleentitledd 'History'History regardinregardingg Alexander,Alexander,'' whicwhichh wawass aatt leastleast tenten bookbookss long. I919 InIn thithiss worworkk hhee puputt mucmuchh emphasiemphasiss oonn ththee detaildetailss ooff settingsetting aass wellwell aass ththee lUXuryluxury ofof ththee surroundingsurroundingss duringduring ththee lattelatterr halhalff ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss AsiaAsiann campaign.campaign.

1188 PearsonPearson,, 83-11183-111;; "Onomarchus"Onomarchus ofof PhocisPhocis"" OCD3OCD3,, 1068.1068. 1919 PearsonPearson,, 51,51, 6060;; "Chares"Chares ofof MytileneMytilcne"" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 317-318.317-318. 1414

ThisThis wawass dondonee iinn leslesss ofof a moralizinmoralizingg tontonee witwithh minimaminimall digressiondigressionss ttoo assessassess

Alexander'Alexander'ss character.character. RatheRatherr hihiss interesinterestt iinn conveyingconveying thithiss informationinformation wawass basebasedd onon

purpuree curiositcuriosityy ofof PersianPersian wealthwealth aass welwelll aass a responsresponsee ttoo readereaderr demandemandd regardinregardingg thisthis

topictopic.. ThisThis proveprovedd ttoo bbee usefuusefull foforr laterlater historianhistorianss sucsuchh asas PlutarcPlutarchh whwhoo werweree thuthuss ablablee toto

utilizeutilize thethe detailsdetails hehe recordedrecorded iinn theitheirr owownn narratives.narratives.

ThThee finafinall witneswitnesss ttoo AlexanderAlexander,, whwhoo wrotwrotee a historhistoryy basebasedd aatt leastleast partiallpartiallyy onon personapersonall experience,experience, wawass PtolemyPtolemy.2o. HHee wrotwrotee a ververyy influentiainfluentiall historhistoryy ooff AlexandeAlexanderr thatthat derivederivess ititss importanceimportance forfor ththee studystudy aatt hanhandd frofromm ththee factfact thathatt iitt wawass useusedd extensivelextensivelyy byby

ArrianArrian.. PtolemPtolemyy wawass a childhoodchildhood frienfriendd ofof AlexandeAlexanderr andand serveservedd thethe latterlatter aass a generalgeneral throughouthroughoutt hishis campaignscampaigns.. HiHiss historhistoryy wawass atat onconcee botbothh anan extremelextremelyy valuablvaluablee andand disappointingdisappointing sourcsourcee foforr latelaterr historianshistorians.. HiHiss workwork isis valuablevaluable,, oonn ononee handhand,, iinn thathatt hehe recordrecordss iinn immensimmensee detaidetaill informatioinformationn regardinregardingg militarmilitaryy operationsoperations,, whicwhichh wawass derivedderived fromfrom ththee RoyaRoyall JournalJournal.. OOnn ththee otheotherr hand,hand, PtolemPtolemyy wawass silensilentt oonn Alexander'Alexander'ss charactercharacter andand motivesmotives.. HHee woulwouldd havhavee provideprovidedd anyany historianhistorian witwithh aann accurataccuratee accounaccountt ooff thethe militarmilitaryy eventsevents ofof AlexanderAlexander aass PtolemPtolemyy hahadd accesaccesss ttoo ththee RoyaRoyall JournalJournalss foforr thethe compositioncomposition ooff hihiss historyhistory.. ThusThus hihiss valuvaluee asas a sourcsourcee wawass asas aann excellenexcellentt recorrecordd forfor thethe militarymilitary logisticslogistics ofof ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann army.army.

CleitarchusCleitarchus ofof AlexandriaAlexandria iiss extremelextremelyy importanimportantt iinn ananyy analysianalysiss ofof ththee historhistoryy ofof

AlexandeAlexanderr anandd representrepresentss ththee firstfirst ofof ththee sourcessources thathatt werweree writtewrittenn bbyy authorauthorss whwhoo livedlived during the intermediary period between Alexander's death and Trogus' history.2121 Son of during the intermediary period between Alexander's death and Trogus' history. Son of

2200 PearsonPearson,, 188-211;188-211; BosworthBosworth,, Commentary, 26-2726-27;; "Ptolem"Ptolemyy II"" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 1271-1272.1271-1272. 2211 PearsonPearson,, 230-234230-234;; HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander, 10,10, ffff 8383;; W.WW.W.. Tarn,Tarn, Alexander thethe Great v.v. 2: Sources and Studies (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: CambridgCambridgee UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1948),1948), 127;127; "Cleitarchus""Cleitarchus" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 344.344. • 1515

a historianhistorian himself,himself, CleitarchusCleitarchus wrotewrote whatwhat waswas likelylikely thethe mostmost popularpopular historicalhistorical accountaccount

ofof AlexandeAlexanderr iinn ththee ancientancient worldworld.. ThougThoughh ththee datdatee ooff compositioncomposition forfor thithiss worworkk iiss

debateddebated,, itit wawass writtewrittenn sometimsometimee inin ththee perioperiodd betweebetweenn 310310 andand 262600 BCBe.. SinceSince hhee wrotewrote

soso chronologicallychronologically closeclose ttoo Alexander'Alexander'ss lifetimelifetime,, iitt iiss likellikelyy thathatt hihiss researcresearchh utilizedutilized

almosalmostt exclusivelexclusivelyy eyewitneseyewitnesss sourcessources,, thougthoughh hhee himselhimselff wawass nonott witneswitnesss toto ththee eventsevents

thathatt hhee depictedepictedd inin hihiss historyhistory.. DespitDespitee sucsuchh a greatgreat accesaccesss toto qualityquality sourcesource materialmaterial,, hehe

wawass nonott highlhighlyy regarderegardedd amongstamongst ththee ancientsancients aass aann historianhistorian.. HiHiss stylestyle ofof compositioncomposition

wawass rhetoricarhetoricall andand dramatidramaticc iinn naturenature.. MoreoverMoreover,, hihiss accountaccountss ofof ththee eventsevents werweree atat somesome

pointpointss whollwhollyy inventedinvented ttoo serveserve ththee purposepurposess ooff rhetoricrhetoric andand drama. 2222 Nevertheless,Nevertheless,

CleitarchuCleitarchuss wawass a fundamentalfundamental sourcsourcee foforr DiodorusDiodorus,, JustinJustin anandd Curtius.Curtius.

DiylluDiylluss ofof AthenAthenss livelivedd durinduringg ththee earlyearly thirthirdd centurcenturyy Be.BC.2323 HHee wawass ththee authoauthorr ofof

a universaluniversal history,history, whichwhich consistedconsisted ofof twenty-sixtwenty-six books.books. TheThe workwork focusedfocused onon SicilySicily

frofromm 353577 ttoo 292977 BBCC andand alsalsoo includeincludedd aann accounaccountt ooff ththee ThirThirdd SacredSacred WarWar,, whicwhichh waswas

similarsimilar inin effeceffectt ttoo EphorusEphorus'' historyhistory.. VerVeryy littllittlee isis knowknownn abouaboutt hihiss workwork,, bubutt throughthrough

comparativcomparativee studstudyy ooff DiodorusDiodorus'' sequencinsequencingg ooff eventeventss pertaininpertainingg ttoo AlexandeAlexanderr andand other,other,

bettebetterr knownknown,, ancienancientt accountaccountss ooff AlexandeAlexanderr iitt seemseemss acceptablacceptablee ttoo judgjudgee hihiss worworkk ttoo bebe

ververyy factualfactual.. IItt wawass thithiss facfactt thethenn thathatt encourageencouragedd DiodoruDiodoruss andand PlutarcPlutarchh ttoo employemploy himhim

asas a source.source.

FinallyFinally,, thertheree araree sourcessources thathatt mamayy nonott focufocuss entirelyentirely oonn PhiliPhilipp oror AlexanderAlexander,, butbut

neverthelessnevertheless mentiomentionn thethemm anandd providprovidee marginamarginall insightinsightss intintoo theitheirr respectivrespecti vee careerscareers.. AAnn

exampleexample ofof thithiss typtypee ooff sourcesource iiss Strabo'sStrabo's Geography, whicwhichh wawass writtewrittenn iinn ththee firstfirst

2222 PearsonPearson,, 212-213212-213;; Tarn,Tarn, 131;131; "Cleitarchus"Cleitarchus"" (A.B.B.(A.B.B.)) OCD3OCD3,, 344.344. 2323 HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander, 79-8279-82;; "Diyllus"Diyllus ththee AthenianAthenian"" (G.L.B;(G.L.B; K.S.S.K.S.S.)) OCD3,OCD3, 489489 1616 centurycentury Be.BC.2424 WhileWhile StraboStrabo iiss clearlyclearly nonott focusinfocusingg exclusivelyexclusively oonn ththee Kings,Kings, hehe neverthelesneverthelesss provideprovidess instanceinstancess ooff historhistoryy withiwithinn hihiss worworkk pertaininpertainingg ttoo PhiliPhilipp andand

AlexandeAlexanderr andand thuthuss becomebecomess a valuablvaluablee checcheckk oonn ththee informatioinformationn provideprovidedd byby thethe majormajor sourcessources..

TheThe pertinencpertinencee ofof thesthesee variouvariouss primarprimaryy anandd intermediarintermediaryy sourcesourcess ttoo ththee studystudy atat hanhandd isis variablevariable.. MosMostt ooff ththee sourcessources mentionementionedd helhelpp onlyonly ttoo providprovidee periodiperiodicc checkcheckss onon ththee majomajorr sourcessources foforr PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr anandd thuthuss araree nonott overlyoverly utilizeutilizedd iinn thethe followinfollowingg paperpaper.. TheThe atticattic orators,orators, howeverhowever,, araree extremelyextremely usefuusefull andand potentiallypotentially misleading.misleading. TheiTheirr perspectivperspectivee oonn ththee expansionexpansion ofof MacedonianMacedonian powepowerr provideprovidess furtherfurther insightinsightss intointo MacedoniMacedoniaa expansionexpansion anandd thereforthereforee hahass beebeenn useusedd extensivelyextensively iinn thithiss study.study.

ThThee MajoMajorr SourcesSources

DiodoruDiodoruss SiculusSiculus

DiodoruDiodoruss SiculuSiculuss wawass a SicilianSicilian GreeGreekk frofromm ththee towtownn ooff AgyriuAgyriumm andand wawass borbornn inin ththee firsfirstt centurcenturyy BCBe.. HHee wrotwrotee ththee Bibliotheke, whicwhichh wawass a universauniversall historhistoryy witwithh thethe aiaimm ooff parallelinparallelingg eventsevents iinn botbothh GreecGreecee anandd RomeRome.. IItt wawass composecomposedd iinn fortyforty bookbookss andand specificallspecificallyy detailedetailedd a historhistoryy thathatt rangerangedd fromfrom mythologicamythologicall agesages ttoo 6060 BCBe.. ThThee extantextant piecepiecess ofof DiodorusDiodorus'' Bibliotheke represenrepresentt ththee mosmostt comprehensivcomprehensivee ancienancientt historicalhistorical overvieovervieww ooff PhiliPhilipp anandd AlexandeAlexanderr availableavailable ttoo ththee modermodernn scholar.scholar. OOff hihiss fortyforty booksbooks onlyonly fifteenfifteen havehave survivesurvivedd intactintact,, bubutt fortunatelfortunatelyy foforr ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann historiahistoriann booksbooks sixteensixteen anandd seventeen,seventeen, whicwhichh begibeginn witwithh ththee ascensioascensionn ooff PhiliPhilipp andand endend witwithh thethe deatdeathh ofof

24 "Strabo""Strabo" (N.P.eN.p.)) OCD3,OCD3, 1447.1447. , \

1717

25 AlexanderAlexander havhavee comcomee dowdownn ttoo uuss iInn ful1.full. AAnn understandinunderstandingg ofof DiodorusDiodorus SiculusSiculus asas

sourcsourcee materiamateriall iiss thereforthereforee paramounparamountt ttoo ananyy investigatioinvestigationn intintoo MacedonianMacedonian affairsaffairs

betweebetweenn 353599 BBCC anandd 323233 Be.BC.

ToTo understanunderstandd DiodoruDiodoruss asas a sourcsourcee wwee musmustt firstfirst identifidentifyy thosthosee texttextss thatthat hehe

employeemployedd ttoo composcomposee hihiss owownn historyhistory.. InIn ththee 19thth century,century, iitt waswas believebelievedd thathatt throughthrough

analysisanalysis iitt woulwouldd bbee possiblpossiblee ttoo identifidentifyy alalll ooff DiodorusDiodorus'' sources,sources, bubutt sincesince thenthen thethe

debatedebate overover thithiss topitopicc hahass continuecontinuedd vigorouslyvigorously.. InIn facfactt iitt iiss impossiblimpossiblee ttoo proveprove

definitiveldefinitivelyy exactlexactlyy whawhatt sourcesource DiodoruDiodoruss useusess iinn evereveryy instanceinstance,, bubutt thertheree araree theoriestheories

regardingregarding hishis sourcsourcee materialmaterial basebasedd onon soundsound,, iiff sometimessometimes speculative,speculative, logiclogic.. N.G.L.N.G.L.

HammonHammondd madmadee extensiveextensive gaingainss iinn ththee understandinunderstandingg ofof DiodorusDiodorus'' sourcesourcess iinn thethe

twentiettwentiethh centurycentury.. HHee positepositedd a neneww strategystrategy foforr identifyingidentifying ththee sourcesource materiamateriall foforr thethe

worworkk thathatt wawass basebasedd oonn ththee premispremisee thathatt DiodorusDiodorus'' finafinall historicahistoricall producproductt musmustt havehave

been the sum of the sources which he worked with during composition.2266 Consequently, been the sum of the sources which he worked with during composition. Consequently, Hammond grouped Diodorus' work thematically and deduced from these themes the Hammond grouped Diodorus' work thematically and deduced from these themes the source material from which the historical narrative was derived. Hammond concludes source material from which the historical narrative was derived. Hammond concludes that the three major sources for book sixteen, which centers on Philip, were: Ephorus, for that the three major sources for book sixteen, which centers on Philip, were: Ephorus, for the years from Philip's ascension to 357 BC and a combination of Demophilus and the years from Philip's ascension to 357 BC and a combination of Demophilus and Diyllus' Syntaxis as he changes sources. Finally, Diodorus transitions to the exclusive use Diyllus' Syntaxis as he changes sources. Finally, Diodorus transitions to the exclusive use of Diyllus for the remaining history to Philip's death. Using the same method for the of Diyllus for the remaining history to Philip's death. Using the same method for the subsequent book seventeen Hammond concludes that Diyllus remained the foundation for subsequent book seventeen Hammond concludes that Diyllus remained the foundation for

2255 GreenGreen,, 570;570; "Diodoru"Diodoruss ooff AgyriumAgyrium"" (K.S.S.(K.S.S.)) OCD3,OCD3, 472-473472-473.. 26 26 HammondHammond,, Philip of Macedon, 12-14;12-14; HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander,Alexander. 1212.. cfcf.. Bosworth,Bosworth, Arrian to Alexander, 9-109-10.. BoswortBosworthh arguesargues thathatt a scene-by-scenescene-by-scene comparisocomparisonn ofof DiodoruDiodoruss ttoo parallelparallel traditiontraditionss iiss ththee onlonlyy wawayy inin whicwhichh ttoo identifidentifyy ththee sourcsourcee material.material. 1818

ththee sequencingsequencing ooff ththee narrativenarrative,, bubutt thathatt CleitarchuCleitarchuss iiss thethenn employeemployedd foforr ththee descriptiondescription

27 ooff majomajorr eventeventss ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss career.career. 27

IIff wwee areare ttoo accepacceptt Hammond'Hammond'ss conclusionconclusionss regardinregardingg ththee compositiocompositionn ooff

DiodorusDiodorus'' narrativenarrative,, whicwhichh iinn mmyy opinioopinionn areare welwelll foundedfounded,, thethenn thertheree areare specificspecific

conclusionconclusionss thathatt musmustt bbee madmadee iinn regarregardd ttoo ththee studystudy aatt handhand.. FirsFirstt Diodorus'Diodorus' historhistoryy ofof

ththee yearyearss ofof Philip'Philip'ss reignreign iiss drawdrawnn frofromm trustworthtrustworthyy sources.sources. AAss mentionementionedd above,above,

EphoruEphoruss wawass a widelwidelyy reareadd historian,historian, livedlived aass a contemporarcontemporaryy ofof PhilipPhilip andand AlexanderAlexander

andand hihiss historhistoryy waswas widelywidely respecterespectedd iinn antiquitantiquityy beinbeingg referencereferencedd bbyy ththee likelikess ofof Strabo,Strabo,

NicolausNicolaus ofof Damascus,Damascus, PlutarcPlutarchh anandd possiblpossiblyy PompeiuPompeiuss Trogus.Trogus.2828 Furthermore,Furthermore,

DiodorusDiodorus'' transitiontransition ttoo DiylluDiylluss isis understandablunderstandablee aass DiyllusDiyllus'' historhistoryy overlappeoverlappedd Ephorus'Ephorus'

forfor thethe perioperiodd ooff 359359 ttoo 343411 andand waswas alsoalso acceptedaccepted bbyy ththee ancientancientss aass aann historicalhistorical

. 2929 authority.aut honty.

HiHiss accuracyaccuracy inin portrayinportrayingg AlexanderAlexander iiss lessless reliablereliable.. DiodorusDiodorus'' ususee ofof DiyllusDiyllus

foforr ththee sequencingsequencing ofof eventsevents andand thethenn colorincoloringg thesthesee eventsevents bbyy usinusingg Cleitarchus'Cleitarchus' accountaccount

ooff AlexandeAlexanderr requirerequiress thathatt Diodorus'Diodorus' analysianalysiss ofof AlexandeAlexanderr bbee useusedd witwithh cautioncaution.. WhileWhile

hihiss useuse ofof DiylluDiylluss enablesenables ththee modermodernn historiahistoriann ttoo emploemployy hihiss historhistoryy aass a sourcesource forfor thethe

reigreignn ofof AlexanderAlexander,, hihiss extensivextensivee integrationintegration ooff CleitarchusCleitarchus ttoo mormoree vividlvividlyy colocolorr thatthat reigreignn detractdetractss frofromm hihiss reliabilitreliabilityy asas a sourcesource.. IItt iiss thereforthereforee necessarynecessary,, whenwhen

implementinimplementingg DiodorusDiodorus,, ttoo bbee extremelyextremely warwaryy ooff exaggerationexaggerationss ofof personalitpersonalityy iinn regardregard ttoo AlexandeAlexanderr durinduringg ththee majormajor turninturningg pointpointss ooff hihiss career.career. TheseThese anecdoteanecdotess andand colorationscolorations ofof ththee factfactss promotepromotedd bbyy DiodoruDiodoruss througthroughh hihiss extensivextensivee ususee ooff CleitarchusCleitarchus

27 27 HammondHammond,, The Three Historians of Alexander, 79.79. 2288 "Ephorus"Ephorus ofof CymeCyme"" (K.S.S.)(K.S.S.) OCD3,OCD3, 529.529. 2299 HammondHammond,, Philip ofofMacedon, Macedon, 16;16; "DiyUus"Diyllus ofof AthensAthens"" (O.L.B.;(G.L.B.; K.S.S.K.S.S.)) OCD3,OCD3, 489.489. 1919 inevitablyinevitably debasdebasee hihiss reliabilitreliabilityy asas a sourcsourcee forfor ththee reigreignn ofof AlexanderAlexander.. ThuThuss iitt iiss safesafe toto concludconcludee thathatt DiodoruDiodoruss iiss aann extremelextremelyy reliablreliablee sourcesource througthroughh ththee deathdeath ooff PhiliPhilipp andand forfor whawhatt eventeventss tootookk placplacee duringduring thethe reigreignn ooff AlexanderAlexander.. ThThee mannemannerr inin whichwhich hehe depictsdepicts thosethose eventeventss transpirintranspiringg undeunderr AlexanderAlexander,, howeverhowever,, remainremainss dubious.dubious. IInn anyany case,case,

DiodorusDiodorus remainremainss a valuablvaluablee sourcesource forfor thethe studystudy atat hanhandd iinn thathatt hehe iiss writinwritingg a universaluniversal historhistoryy anandd thereforthereforee provideprovidess insightinsightss intintoo bothboth ththee GreeGreekk andand MacedoniaMacedoniann world.world.

PompeiuPompeiuss Trogus/MarcuTrogus/Marcuss IunianusIunianus IustinusIustinusnn (Justin)(Justin)

PompeiuPompeiuss TrogusTrogus wawass a provinciaprovinciall RomanRoman,, livinlivingg iinn modermodernn dadayy southernsouthern FranceFrance anandd hihiss CeltiCelticc origioriginn isis proveprovedd bbyy hihiss cognomecognomenn ooff Trogus,Trogus, whicwhichh iiss fromfrom ththee CeltiCelticc wordword for clan. 33D0 His family had received Roman citizenship for services to Pompey the Great for clan." His family had received Roman citizenship for services to Pompey the Great and his grandfather was the Gallic Secretary to Caesar. The Romanization of his family and his grandfather was the Gallic Secretary to Caesar. The Romanization of his family must have extensively moved him away from Celtic culture so much so that eventually he must have extensively moved him away from Celtic culture so much so that eventually he moved to Rome itself to undertake the task of writing his history. moved to Rome itself to undertake the task of writing his history. There are two works attributed to Trogus: On Animals, which was a treatise based There are two works attributed to Trogus: On Animals, which was a treatise based on Aristotle and Theophrastus, and the Philippic Histories. Neither of these works on Aristotle and Theophrastus, and the Philippic Histories. Neither of these works survived antiquity and dating the composition of the latter has been problematic for survived antiquity and dating the composition of the latter has been problematic for scholars. Some have argued that a reference in Justin's epitome of Trogus to the names of scholars. Some have argued that a reference in Justin's epitome of Trogus to the names of Caesar and Augustus being given to subsequent emperors indicates that Trogus was Caesar and Augustus being given to subsequent emperors indicates that Trogus was writing sometime after the ascension of Tiberius?! If, however, that statement was writing sometime after the ascension of Tiberius.31 If, however, that statement was merely an insertion by Justin, then Trogus may very well have been writing earlier. merely an insertion by Justin, then Trogus may very well have been writing earlier.

300 JustiJustinn 41.5.841.S.S;; J.e.J.C. YardleyYardley andand WaldemarWaldemar HeckelHeckel,, Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of PompeiusPompeius TrogusTragus (Oxford(Oxford;; ClarendonClarendon PressPress,, 1997)1997) 33;; "Pompeiu"Pompei uss TrogusTragus"" (A.H(A.H.. McD.McD.;; A.J.S.S.A.J.S.S.)) OCD3,OCD3, 1217.1217. 3311 YardleYardleyy andand HeckelHeckel,, 4-54-5.. 2200

UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, thertheree iiss nnoo wawayy ttoo definitiveldefinitivelyy provprovee eitheeitherr argumenargumentt anandd ththee onlonlyy concreteconcrete evidencevidencee wwee ddoo havhavee datindatingg TroguTroguss iiss thathatt hhee endeendedd hihiss narrativnarrativee iinn 1100 BBeC anandd hahadd criticizecriticizedd Livy'Livy'ss ususee ooff direcdirectt discoursdiscoursee witwithh ththee peoplpeoplee iinn hihiss booksbooks.. FroFromm thesthesee factfactss wwee cacann infeinferr onlonlyy thathatt aatt leasleastt somsomee ooff TrogusTrogus'' worworkk wawass writtewrittenn contemporaneoucontemporaneouss ttoo LivLivyy aatt ththee earliest.earliest. 32

WritinWritingg sometimsometimee betweebetweenn ththee mimidd ttoo latlatee ImperiaImperiall perioperiodd iinn RomeRome,, JustinJustin epitomizeepitomizedd ththee Philippic Histories ooff PompeiuPompeiuss TroguTroguss anandd whilwhilee thertheree iiss clearlclearlyy debatedebate oveoverr TrogusTrogus,, thertheree iiss equalequal,, iiff nonott mormoree debatdebatee oveoverr JustinJustin.. FirstFirst,, whilwhilee certaicertainn factsfacts regardinregardingg ththee liflifee ooff TroguTroguss araree discernabldiscernablee througthroughh Justin'Justin'ss texttext,, thertheree iiss ververyy littllittlee thatthat cacann bbee employeemployedd ttoo achievachievee bettebetterr insighinsightt intintoo JustinJustin.. SecondSecond,, ththee probleproblemm ooff datingdating

Justin'Justin'ss epitomeepitome,, liklikee TrogusTrogus,, iiss alsalsoo a perilouperilouss tasktask.. SomSomee arguarguee oonn ththee basibasiss ooff textualtextual

33 references that the epitome could not have been written later than 226/7 AD. 33 This is references that the epitome could not have been written later than 226/7 AD. " This is based on a statement within the text that claims that the Parthians rule the East (Justin based on a statement within the text that claims that the Parthians rule the East (Justin 41.1.1), which ceased to be a true statement in 226/7 AD. This, however, is not definitive 41.1.1), which ceased to be a true statement in 226/7 AD. This, however, is not definitive since others argue that it is merely a direct carryover from Trogus and therefore has no since others argue that it is merely a direct carry over from Trogus and therefore has no bearing on the problem of dating Justin. Third, the nature of the work itself is under bearing on the problem of dating Justin. Third, the nature of the work itself is under question. While Justin is generally conceived of as a poor historian and summarizer, question. While Justin is generally conceived of as a poor historian and summarizer, Yardley and Heckel speculate that Justin's work, which he never refers to as an epitome, Yardley and Heckel speculate that Justin's work, which he never refers to as an epitome, was rather a rhetorician's attempt to imitate an academic trend of his day, namely, to was rather a rhetorician's attempt to imitate an academic trend of his day, namely, to

3232 YardleyYardley andand Heckel,Heckel, 5-6.5-6. Y.Y. andand H.H. alsoalso gogo onon toto argueargue thethe verbalverbal similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween LivyLivy andand TrogusTrogus inin pagespages 6-86-8 therebythereby furtherfurther supportingsupporting theirtheir claimclaim thatthat LivyLivy andand TrogusTrogus werewere contemporaries.contemporaries. ThisThis argumentargument seemsseems toto meme tenuoustenuous asas verbalverbal similaritiessimilarities couldcould occuroccur eveneven ifif thethe twotwo authorsauthors hadhad notnot beenbeen contemporaries.contemporaries. InIn factfact YardleyYardley andand HeckelHeckel areare mostmost nearnear thethe truthtruth whenwhen theythey quotequote SteeleSteele asas writing,writing, "all"all thatthat wewe cancan definitelydefinitely knowknow isis thatthat somesome partsparts ofof thethe workwork ofof TrogusTrogus werewere writtenwritten afterafter somesome partsparts ofof thethe wordword ofLivy."of Livy." 3333 YardleyYardley andand Heckel,Heckel, 8-19.8-19. 2121 shrinkshrink downdown massivemassive historicalhistorical topictopicss foforr ththee ususee ooff ththee schoolschoolss ooff rhetoric.rhetoric?434 ThuThuss wwee cancan seesee thathatt thertheree areare numerounumerouss historicahistoricall debatesdebates revolvinrevolvingg aroundaround ththee compositioncomposition ofof bothboth

TroguTroguss andand Justin.Justin.

WhilWhilee thesthesee debatedebatess certainlcertainlyy holholdd somesome relevancyrelevancy forfor ththee studstudyy aatt handhand,, itit isis muchmuch mormoree importanimportantt ttoo undertakundertakee ththee tastaskk ooff identifyinidentifyingg thethe sourcsourcee materialmaterialss thatthat underlayunderlay thesthesee worksworks.. OfOf thesthesee sourcessources nnoo singlesingle sourcesource hahass providedprovided mormoree stimulstimulii forfor debatedebate thanthan thathatt ofof Timagenes.Timagenes. TimageneTimageness wawass a rhetoriciarhetoriciann duringduring ththee AugustaAugustann ageage whwhoo wrotwrotee a universauniversall historyhistory thatthat wawass titletitledd 'On'On Kings.Kings.'' HHee wawass anti-Romananti-Roman iinn hishis sentimentssentiments andand highlhighlyy complementarcomplementaryy ooff ththee GreekGreekss andand ParthiansParthians.. ItIt hahass beebeenn proposedproposed thathatt Trogus'Trogus' worworkk wawass a rewritinrewritingg ofof TimagenesTimagenes intintoo LatinLatin,, butbut thithiss vievieww hahass beebeenn largelylargely dispelled.dispelled. 35" HammonHammondd hahass proposeproposedd thathatt TroguTroguss eschewedeschewed ththee stylestyle ooff hihiss predecessorpredecessor

DiodoruDiodoruss anandd thereforthereforee neglecteneglectedd DiodorusDiodorus'' maimainn source,source, namelynamely,, DiyllusDiyllus.. InsteaInsteadd hehe chosechose ttoo focufocuss onon MacedoniaMacedoniann intriguintriguee bbyy relyinrelyingg heavilheavilyy oonn CleitarchusCleitarchus.. OtheOtherr sourcessources thatthat HammonHammondd citecitess foforr TrogusTrogus araree MarsyaMarsyass ooff MacedonMacedon anandd Theopompus.3636 AAss iinn thethe cascasee ofof DiodorusDiodorus,, Trogus,Trogus, whilwhilee integratinintegratingg sourcesourcess considereconsideredd ververyy respectablrespectablee foforr theirtheir historicahistoricall accuracyaccuracy suchsuch asas Theopompus,Theopompus, wawass unablunablee ttoo resisresistt somesome ooff ththee fantastifantasticc storiesstories ooff intriguintriguee puputt forwarforwardd bbyy Cleitarchus.Cleitarchus. WWee musmustt thereforthereforee bbee warwaryy ofof ththee personalpersonal anecdoteanecdotess andand moramorall lessonlessonss regardinregardingg ththee charactecharacterr ooff AlexandeAlexanderr bbyy Trogus/Justin.Trogus/Justin.

TheseThese embellishmentsembellishments basebasedd onon CleitarchuCleitarchuss wilwilll inevitablinevitablyy lealeadd awayaway fromfrom ththee truthtruth.. ThisThis isis nonott ttoo saysay thathatt Justin'Justin'ss epitomeepitome isis thereforthereforee uselesuselesss beinbeingg basebasedd primarilprimarilyy onon

3344 YardleyYardley andand HeckelHeckel,, 18-19.18-19. 3355 YardleYardleyy andand HeckelHeckel,, 30-3130-31;; "Pompeiu"Pompeiuss TrogusTrogus"" (A.H(A.H.. McD.McD.;; A.J.S.S.A.1.S.S.)) OCD3OCD3,, 1217.1217. 3636 HammondHammond,, Philip of Macedon, 14-15;14-15; HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander, 113-115;113-115; YardleYardleyy andand HeckelHeckel,, 30.30. 2222 /I

Cleitarchus.Cleitarchus. IInn factfact,, JustiJustinn proveprovess ttoo bebe ververyy usefuusefull sincesince hhee examineexaminess ththee politicapoliticall actionsactions ofof PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr extensivelyextensively.. EmployinEmployingg thithiss source,source, howeverhowever,, requirerequiress carefulcareful

37 comparisoncomparison witwithh otherother evidenceevidence aatt ourour disposal. 37

PlutarchPlutarch

LivinLivingg fromfrom c.c. 5050 AADD ttoo 120120 ADAD,, PlutarcPlutarchh wawass a majomajorr intellectuaintellectuall figurefigure ooff thethe earlyearly RomanRoman Empire.3838 HHee wawass bornborn,, raisedraised,, andand livedlived foforr ththee majoritmajorityy ooff hihiss liflifee inin

ChaeroneaChaeronea andand consequentlconsequentlyy wawass extremelyextremely familiafamiliarr witwithh AthensAthens.. HHee waswas,, nevertheless,nevertheless, wellwell traveledtraveled anandd visitedvisited EgyptEgypt,, ItalItalyy andand alsoalso spentspent timtimee teachingteaching iinn RomeRome.. ReligiouslyReligiously hhee wawass devoudevoutt ttoo ancienancientt customscustoms ttoo sucsuchh a degreedegree thathatt hhee wawass madmadee a priespriestt atat DelphDelphii forfor ththee finafinall thirtthirtyy yearyearss ofof hihiss lifelife.. ThusThus,, hihiss effortsefforts aatt teachingteaching abroaabroadd anandd hihiss prolificprolific writingwriting earneearnedd hihimm a loftylofty andand respectablrespectablee reputatioreputationn asas a philosophephilosopherr anandd scholarscholar amongamong hihiss contemporaries.contemporaries.

IInn ththee courscoursee ooff hihiss lifetimlifetimee PlutarcPlutarchh wrotwrotee a masmasss ofof literaturliteraturee oonn philosophy,philosophy, politicpoliticss andand historyhistory.. A lislistt thathatt survivessurvives fromfrom antiquitantiquityy recordrecordss thathatt PlutarcPlutarchh completedcompleted

227227 separateseparate piecepiecess ofof writingwriting.. OfOf thithiss astoundingastounding numbenumberr onlyonly seventy-eighseventy-eightt ooff hishis workworkss havehave survivesurvivedd ttoo modernitymodernity.. TToo citcitee thesthesee workworkss individuallindividuallyy herheree iiss clearlyclearly impracticalimpractical,, bubutt thertheree araree fourfour ooff thesthesee whicwhichh araree particularlparticularlyy importanimportantt ttoo ththee studystudy aatt hanhandd namelynamely,, ththee Life of Alexander, Life of Demosthenes, Moralia, Saying of Kings and

Commanders, anandd ththee Sayings of Spartans. TheThe twtwoo livelivess givegive uuss accountsaccounts ooff ththee agagee ofof

AlexandeAlexanderr througthroughh a biographicalbiographical mediumediumm thougthoughh oneone musmustt bbee warwaryy ofof thesthesee accountsaccounts becausbecausee Plutarch'Plutarch'ss motivationmotivation wawass ttoo paralleparallell GreeGreekk anandd RomaRomann exampleexampless ooff charactercharacter

3377 YardleYardleyy andand HeckelHeckel,, 34-4l.34-41. 3388 "L"L.. MestruiMestruiss PlutarchusPlutarchus"" (D.A.R.)(D.A.R.) OCD3OCD3,, 1200.1200. 2323 andand thuthuss hhee sawsaw AlexandeAlexanderr iinn termtermss ooff CaesaCaesarr anandd DemosthenesDemosthenes inin termtermss ofof Cicero.Cicero. TheThe

Moralia areare a collectioncollection ofof treatisetreatisess onon moramorall philosophphilosophyy witwithh ththee intentiointentionn ooff instructinginstructing hihiss audienceaudience oonn ththee manmanyy facetfacetss ooff a moramorall liflifee iinn ththee ancienancientt worldworld.. ThThee specificspecific essayessay relevantrelevant ttoo thithiss studstudyy iiss entitledentitled "O"Onn ththee FortuneFortune"" oorr "th"thee VirtuVirtuee ofof Alexander.Alexander."" Lastly,Lastly, ththee finafinall twtwoo sourcessources fromfrom PlutarcPlutarchh ddoo nonott pertaipertainn ttoo PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr exclusivelyexclusively thoughthough thertheree araree portionportionss withiwithinn eacheach textextt thathatt araree attributedattributed ttoo ththee Kings.Kings.

DetermininDeterminingg thethe validitvalidityy ooff PlutarchPlutarch asas historicahistoricall sourcesource materiamateriall iiss difficultdifficult sincesince analysis of his writing has shown that he employed a large multitude of sources. 3399 These analysis of his writing has shown that he employed a large multitude of sources. These sources include some of the very best source material available such as Aristobulus, sources include some of the very best source material available such as Aristobulus, Chares, Marsyas of Macedon and one of the later editions of Royal Journal, not the Chares, Marsyas of Macedon and one of the later editions of Royal Journal, not the original. He does, however, rely extensively on Cleitarchus in many instances. The task original. He does, however, rely extensively on Cleitarchus in many instances. The task then of awarding Plutarch an overarching label of 'reliable,' 'acceptable,' or 'unreliable' then of awarding Plutarch an overarching label of 'reliable,' 'acceptable,' or 'unreliable' is all but impossible. The only practical solution is to evaluate him on an event-by-event is all but impossible. The only practical solution is to evaluate him on an event-by-event basis since he is employed as a source in the following study. basis since he is employed as a source in the following study.

QuintusQuintus CurtiuCurtiuss RufusRufus

SupposedSupposed sonson ooff a gladiatorgladiator,, CurtiuCurtiuss rosrosee througthroughh ththee rankrankss ofof RomaRomann societysociety beinbeingg trainetrainedd iinn rhetorirhetoricc anandd adoptingadopting a deedeepp fascinationfascination foforr history.history.4o40 DurinDuringg Curtius'Curtius' risrisee hhee becambecamee a novus homo, whwhoo wawass appointeappointedd a positiopositionn inin ththee senate.senate. Eventually,Eventually, witwithh thethe supporsupportt ooff TiberiusTiberius,, hehe earnedearned a praetorshippraetorship.. HeHe alsoalso waswas a legatlegatee inin ththee UpperUpper

RhinRhinee regioregionn inin chargecharge ofof procurinprocuringg silversilver througthroughh ththee mininminingg ooff thethe surroundingsurrounding areaarea.. HeHe

3399 BosworthBosworth,, Arrian to Alexander, pgpg.. 9 ff.. 3232;; J.R.J.R. HamiltonHamilton,, Plutarch - Alexander: A CommentaryCommentary (Oxford,(Oxford, 19691969)) xlix-liixlix-Iii;; N.G.L. HammondHammond,, Sources forfor Alexander the Great: An Analysis of Plutarch'sPlutarch's Life and Arrian'sArrial!'s Anabasis Alexandrou (New(New York:York: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1993)1993),, 186-187.186-187. 4400 "Q."Q. CurtiusCurtius Rufus"Rufus" (A.B.B.(AB.B.)) OCD3,OCD3, 416.416. 2424 wawass suffecsuffectt consulconsul iinn 4433 AADD anandd thethenn endeendedd hihiss careercareer aass a proconsuproconsull iinn AfricAfricaa wherwheree hehe diediedd iinn office.office.

HiHiss activeactive politicapoliticall careecareerr dididd nonott howevehoweverr suppressuppresss hihiss historicahistoricall inquiryinquiry.. HeHe wrotwrotee a ten-booten-bookk historicahistoricall worworkk entitleentitledd History of Alexander the Great. ThThee titltitlee isis interestinginteresting inin thatthat iitt pointpointss towardtowardss thethe RomaRomann conceptioconceptionn ooff AlexanderAlexander bbyy referrinreferringg toto hihimm aass "the"the Great,"Great," ratheratherr thathann hihiss normanormall GreekGreek epitheepithett uupp ttoo thathatt timetime,, whichwhich wawass "the"the

Invincible."Invincible.,,4141 HeHe wrotwrotee thithiss historhistoryy neanearr ththee endend ooff ththee firstfirst centurycentury oror ththee beginningbeginning ofof thethe secondsecond.. ThThee majomajorr sourcessources forfor hihiss worworkk werweree DiyllusDiyllus,, PtolemyPtolemy,, CleitarchuCleitarchuss andand

4242 possiblpossiblyy Marsyas. HiHiss worworkk hahass beebeenn subjectsubject ttoo manmanyy scholarlyscholarly chargechargess ofof fabricationfabrication anandd sensationalismsensationalism anandd oonn manmanyy levelslevels thesthesee chargescharges holholdd truetrue.. HiHiss trainintrainingg aass a rhetoriciarhetoriciann oftenoften cloudsclouds hihiss abilityability ttoo adhereadhere toto anyany specificspecific ideideaa ofof ththee truthtruth andand sometimessometimes manifestmanifestss itselitselff iinn whollwhollyy inventeinventedd speeches.4343 OOnn ththee otherother handhand,, thesethese argumentsarguments cannotcannot bbee useusedd ttoo claiclaimm thathatt CurtiuCurtiuss hahass nnoo valuvaluee asas a sourcesource forfor PhiliPhilipp andand

AlexanderAlexander.. HiHiss useuse ooff DiylluDiylluss anandd PtolemPtolemyy implyimply thathatt hihiss observationsobservations oonn MacedonianMacedonian customcustomss araree valuablevaluable,, bubutt hihiss focusfocus oonn Alexander'Alexander'ss campaignscampaigns makemakess hihiss valuvaluee asas a sourcesource iinn thithiss studystudy negligible.negligible.

LuciusLucius FlaviuFlaviuss ArrianuArrianuss (Arrian)(Arrian)

BorBornn c.c. 8866 AADD iinn NicomediNicomediaa iinn BithyniaBithynia,, ArriaArriann begabegann asas a studenstudentt ofof EpictetusEpictetus

4444 anandd concludedconcluded thithiss studentshistudentshipp bbyy publishinpublishingg ththee lecturelecturess ooff hihiss teacher. HeHe laterlater

41 41 WinthropWinthrop LindsaLindsayy AdamsAdams,, Alexander the Great: Legacy of a Conqueror (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: RoutledgeRoutledge,, 2006)2006) 269269.. 4422 HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander, 159;159; "Q."Q. CurtiuCurtiuss RufusRufus"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3OCD3,, 416.416. 4433 HammondHammond,, Three Historians of Alexander, 137;137; "Q."Q. CurtiuCurtiuss RufusRufus"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3OCD3,, 416.416. 4444 A.BA.B.. Bosworth,Bosworth, Commentary on Arrian's History of Alexander volume i (Oxford:(Oxford: ClarendoClarendonn Press,Press, 1980)1980) 1-7;1-7; "Luciu"Luciuss FlaviuFlaviuss ArrianusArrianus"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 175-176.175-176. 2525

befriendedbefriended ththee emperoemperorr HadrianHadrian whilwhilee iinn GreecGreecee anandd thithiss relationshirelationshipp sparkedsparked hishis riserise

intintoo ththee politicapoliticall structurestructure ofof ththee RomaRomann EmpireEmpire.. HadriaHadriann adlecteadlectedd hihimm intintoo thethe senatorialsenatorial

rank,rank, whichwhich subsequentlysubsequently resulteresultedd iinn hihiss holdinholdingg ofof a consulatconsulatee anandd hihiss laterlater appointmentappointment

aass ththee legatlegatee ooff CappadociaCappadocia.. FinallyFinally,, ArriaArriann retireretiredd ttoo AthenAthenss wherwheree hhee waswas appointedappointed

archonarchon anandd livelivedd ououtt hihiss remaininremainingg daydayss untiuntill hihiss deathdeath c.c. AADD 160.160.

DespiteDespite whawhatt wawass certainlcertainlyy aann accomplishedaccomplished politicapoliticall careercareer iInn ththee RomanRoman

EmpireEmpire,, Arrian'Arrian'ss reareall famefame iinn ththee ancientancient worlworldd wawass duduee ttoo hihiss penmanshippenmanship.. ArriaArriann waswas anan emineneminentt authorauthor ooff hihiss ageage.. HeHe wrotwrotee prolificallprolificallyy onon politicspolitics,, historyhistory,, militarymilitary operations,operations, andand philosophphilosophyy andand diddid ssoo witwithh impeccableimpeccable literarliteraryy style,style, whicwhichh wawass basedbased primarilprimarilyy oonn Xenophon.4545 OfOf thesthesee workworkss hihiss mosmostt famousfamous,, andand asas iitt happenhappenss mostmost pertinenpertinentt ttoo ththee studstudyy aatt handhand,, wawass ththee Anabasis of Alexander, iinn whicwhichh hhee coverecoveredd thethe liflifee ofof AlexandeAlexanderr fromfrom hihiss ascensionascension ttoo ththee thronthronee ooff MacedoniMacedoniaa ttoo hihiss deathdeath inin 323323 Be.BC.

ThisThis worworkk playplayss aann integraintegrall rolrolee iinn ththee investigatioinvestigationn intintoo MacedoniaMacedoniann politicpoliticss underunder

AlexanderAlexander..

Arrian'Arrian'ss twtwoo majom~Jorr sourcesourcess iInn composIngcomposing hihiss historhistoryy werweree PtolemPtolemyy andand

AristobulusAristobulus,, thougthoughh hhee reliereliedd mormoree heavilheavilyy oonn ththee former.former. ItIt alsoalso seemseemss likelylikely,, duduee ttoo thethe richnessrichness ooff detaidetaill withiwithinn hihiss narrativenarrative,, thathatt ArriaArriann hahadd accesaccesss ttoo ththee RoyaRoyall JournalJournalss aass wellwell

46 asas otheotherr accountsaccounts bbyy contemporariecontemporariess ooff AlexandeAlexanderr sucsuchh asas NearchusNearchus.. 46 CompilinCompilingg hihiss historyhistory frofromm whawhatt werweree ththee mosmostt reliablreliablee sourcessources availablavailablee ttoo hihimm atat ththee timetime,, Arrian'sArrian's historhistoryy iiss perhapperhapss ouourr mosmostt reliablereliable sourcesource materiamateriall regardinregardingg ththee liflifee anandd timetimess ooff

4455 "Luciu"Luciuss FlaviuFlaviuss ArrianusArrianus"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 175-176.175-176. 4466 HammondHammond,, Sources forfor Alexander the Great, 320320;; BosworthBosworth,, Commentary on Arrian, 16;16; "Lucius"Lucius FlaviusFlavius ArrianusArrianus"" (A.B.B.)(A.B.B.) OCD3,OCD3, 175-176.175-176. 2266

AlexanderAlexander,, butbut liklikee CurtiusCurtius,, ArrianArrianss focufocuss onon ththee campaignscampaigns ooff AlexandeAlexanderr limitlimitss ththee valuevalue

4747 ofof hihiss worworkk ttoo ththee studystudy aatt hand.

MaterialMaterial EvidenceEvidence

WhilWhilee ththee literaryliterary evidencevidencee makemakess thethe largestlargest contributioncontribution toto ourour knowledgknowledgee ofof thithiss periodperiod,, thertheree iiss alsoalso a bodbodyy ofof materiamateriall evidenceevidence thathatt iiss criticacriticall iinn developingdeveloping anan historicahistoricall accounaccountt thathatt iiss asas accurateaccurate asas possiblepossible.. A ververyy importanimportantt portioportionn ofof thithiss bodbodyy ooff materiamateriall iiss ththee numismatinumismaticc evidenceevidence oror coinagcoinagee ooff PhilipPhilip anandd AlexandeAlexanderr thathatt hahass survivedsurvived ttoo ththee modermodernn dayday.. CoinCoinss araree helpfuhelpfull iinn severalseveral waysways.48. FirsFirstt ththee metametall ooff ththee coincoinss iiss anan excellenexcellentt indicatoindicatorr ooff ththee economy'economy'ss healthealthh atat anyany givegivenn timetime.. ThusThus,, a proliferatioproliferationn ooff golgoldd coinscoins woulwouldd suggessuggestt a fulfulll treasurytreasury,, whilwhilee ththee absenceabsence ooff coincoinss oorr ththee ususee primarilyprimarily ofof bronzbronzee coinscoins mighmightt indicateindicate economieconomicc downturndownturn.. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee coinscoins mintemintedd bbyy PhilipPhilip anandd AlexandeAlexanderr givgivee kekeyy insightinsightss intintoo ththee politicapoliticall climatclimatee duringduring theitheirr productionproduction.. TheThe imageimagess printeprintedd onon coincoinss aass welwelll aass ththee otherother non-Macedonianon-Macedoniann coincoinss alloweallowedd ttoo bbee mintedminted simultaneouslysimultaneously araree botbothh referencereferencess ttoo climateclimate ooff ththee perioperiodd iinn whicwhichh ththee coicoinn waswas producedproduced..

ThThee seconsecondd forformm ofof materiamateriall evidencevidencee thathatt iiss availablavailablee iiss ththee epigraphicepigraphic evidenceevidence surroundinsurroundingg PhilipPhilip anandd AlexanderAlexander.. InscriptionInscriptionss iinn ththee ancientancient worlworldd werweree useusedd ttoo makemake decreedecreess bbyy rulerrulerss oror governmentgovernmentss publipublicc knowledgeknowledge.. IInn ththee casecase ooff PhiliPhilipp anandd AlexanderAlexander thethe inscriptioninscriptionss thathatt havhavee beebeenn preservepreservedd largellargelyy concerconcernn ththee relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn thethe

4477 BosworthBosworth,, Commentary on Arrian, 33-3433-34 callcallss intointo questioquestionn Arrian'Arrian'ss "erudition""erudition" asas a historiahistoriann pointingpointing ououtt flawflawss iinn hihiss depictiodepictionn ooff ththee fall ofof ThebeThebess anandd historicahistoricall understandinunderstandingg ooff DariusDarius.. WhilWhilee thesethese instanceinstancess areare wortworthh notinnotingg thetheyy ddoo nonott servservee ttoo discreditdiscredit ththee relativelrelativelyy larglargee amountamount ofof qualitqualityy informationinformation iinn comparisocomparisonn ttoo ouourr otherother extantextant sources.sources. 4488 OttOttoo MorkholmMorkholm,, Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea,Apamea, editeeditedd bbyy PhiliPhilipp GriersonGrierson anandd UllUllaa WestermarWestermarkk (New(New YorkYork:: CambridgCambridgee UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1991)1991) 3-30;3-30; EllisEllis,, 235-239.235-239. 2727

MacedonianMacedonian KingsKings andand thethe GreekGreek worlworldd asas a whole. 4949 ThereThere areare seriousserious problemsproblems whenwhen

dealingdealing witwithh inscriptionsinscriptions,, howeverhowever,, sincesince ththee majoritmajorityy ofof thosthosee availableavailable foforr studystudy survivesurvive

onlyonly partiallpartiallyy intact.intact. ThusThus itit cancan bebe difficultdifficult ttoo bbee suresure whetherwhether aann inscriptioninscription isis referringreferring

specificallyspecifically toto AlexandeAlexanderr "the"the Great"Great" oror somesome otherother AlexanderAlexander inin historyhistory.. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, thosthosee inscriptionsinscriptions thatthat cancan bebe accuratelyaccurately dateddated andand attributedattributed ttoo PhilipPhilip andand AlexandeAlexanderr givegive excellentexcellent firsthanfirsthandd insightinsight intointo thethe politicapoliticall relationshipsrelationships ofof MacedoMacedonn thatthat prevailedprevailed duringduring thithiss period.period.

ThThee nextnext pIecespieces ofof materialmaterial evidenceevidence toto bbee dealtdealt witwithh areare thethe artisticartistic representationrepresentationss ofof AlexanderAlexander.. LikeLike thethe literaryliterary sources,sources, thethe originaloriginal artisticartistic renderingsrenderings ofof

AlexanderAlexander areare lostlost toto modernitmodernityy andand thethe onlyonly recordrecord wewe havehave ofof thesthesee originalsoriginals areare

RomanRoman replicas.replicas. InIn addition,addition, completelycompletely originaloriginal worksworks ofof artart werewere producedproduced asas culturescultures continuedcontinued toto develodevelopp theirtheir ownown interpretationinterpretation ofof AlexanderAlexander afterafter hishis death.death. TheThe mostmost famousfamous exampleexample isis thethe mosaicmosaic foundfound inin CasaCasa deldel Fauno,Fauno, whicwhichh depictsdepicts ththee battlebattle ofof

AlexandeAlexanderr andand DariusDarius,, butbut thertheree araree manmanyy otherother examplesexamples includingincluding busts,busts, reliefrelief sculpturessculptures andand statues.statues. WhilWhilee thesethese artisticartistic representationsrepresentations mamayy notnot bbee excellentexcellent insightsinsights intointo AlexandeAlexanderr himselhimselff duedue toto theitheirr separationseparation fromfrom AlexanderAlexander byby hundredhundredss ofof years,years, theythey ddoo providprovidee anan interestinginteresting vantagvantagee poinpointt fromfrom whicwhichh toto viewview thethe conceptionsconceptions ofof AlexanderAlexander durinduringg ththee periodperiod iinn whicwhichh thetheyy werewere made.so50 Therefore,Therefore, artworkartwork hahass a specificspecific useuse inin thisthis historicahistoricall analysis.analysis. WheWhenn anan artisticartistic renditiorenditionn ofof AlexandeAlexanderr correspondscorresponds ttoo anan eraera iinn

4499 A.JAJ.. Heisserer,Heisserer, Alexander the Great and the Greeks: The Epigraphic Evidence (Norman:(Norman: UniversityUniversity ofof OklahomaOklahoma Press,1980)Press, 1980) xiixii;; B.H.B.H. McLeanMcLean,, An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy of the Hellenistic andand Roman Periods from Alexander the Great Down to the Reign of Constantine (323-337), (Ann(Ann Arbor:Arbor: UniversityUniversity ofof MichigaMichigann Press,Press, 2002)2002),, 1-21-2 ForFor a fulfulll collectioncollection ooff inscriptioninscriptionss pertaininpertainingg toto MacedonMacedon seesee thethe InscriptionesInscriptiones GraecaeGraecae vv.. X.X. 50 50 MargaretMargaretee Bieber,Bieber, Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art (Chicago:(Chicago: UniversitUniversityy ofof ChicagoChicago Press,Press, 1964)1964)15-16 15-16.. 2828 whicwhichh oneone ooff ththee majomajorr extanextantt literaryliterary sourcessources wawass composed,composed, ththee artworkartwork providesprovides furtherfurther illuminatioilluminationn onon ththee potentiapotentiall culturalcultural biasebiasess ooff ththee author.author.

Finally,Finally, thethe archaeologicalarchaeological recorrecordd provideprovidess additionaladditional evidencevidencee thatthat isis helpfulhelpful toto anan understandinunderstandingg ooff PhilipPhilip anandd AlexanderAlexander.. MacedoniMacedoniaa hahadd traditionalltraditionallyy yieldeyieldedd onlyonly smallsmall amountamountss ooff archaeologicalarchaeological evidenceevidence,, whicwhichh displayedisplayedd a loloww densitdensityy ruralrural populationpopulation,, littlelittle epigraphiepigraphicc evidenceevidence,, fewfew templetempless anandd aann assortmenassortmentt ofof gravesgraves andand tombtombss thathatt becombecomee mormoree complexcomplex asas thetheyy reachreach ththee fourtfourthh century.century.5151 InIn 1977,1977, however,however,

AndronikosAndronikos'' excavatioexcavationn ooff a tumulutumuluss iinn VerginaVergina returnereturnedd a wealthwealth ofof archaeologicalarchaeological evidence.5252 In the tomb Andronikos found an unparalleled amount of material, much of evidence. In the tomb Andronikos found an unparalleled amount of material, much of which involved regal symbolism. In fact, the royal nature of the tomb is the only aspect which involved regal symbolism. In fact, the royal nature of the tomb is the only aspect of this discovery that is widely agreed upon. Andronikos and the Greeks themselves of this discovery that is widely agreed upon. Andronikos and the Greeks themselves adamantly claim that this is the tomb of Philip II, while resistance to this claim comes adamantly claim that this is the tomb of Philip II, while resistance to this claim comes largely from American scholarship. 53 The evidence seems to suggest that the tomb is not largely from American scholarship. The evidence seems to suggest that the tomb is not in fact that of Philip II, but rather Philip III. Even so, the tomb and the material culture in fact that of Philip II, but rather Philip III. Even so, the tomb and the material culture found within still give insights into royal burial customs of Macedon and therefore what found within still give insights into royal burial customs of Macedon and therefore what images were expected by Macedonians in relationship to their royal family. images were expected by Macedonians in relationship to their royal family. The material evidence noted above does not represent a major source for the study The material evidence noted above does not represent a major source for the study at hand. While it is interesting, only a limited amount of the extant material evidence is at hand. While it is interesting, only a limited amount of the extant material evidence is actually relevant to this study. Moreover, most of the small portion of evidence that may actually relevant to this study. Moreover, most of the small portion of evidence that may 5511 JameJamess WhitleyWhitley,, The Archaeology of Ancient Greece (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 2001)2001) 406-408.406-408. 5522 FoForr a recorrecordd ooff ththee artifactsartifacts uncovereuncoveredd see:see: Treasures of Ancient Macedonia, editededited bbyy KateKate Ninou,Ninou, translatedtranslated bbyy HeleHelenn ZigadZigadaa (Athens(Athens:: 1979).1979). 5533 FoForr supporsupportt ooff ththee tomtombb aass thathatt ofof PhilipPhilip IIII seseee WhitleyWhitley,, 409-410409-410;; N.G.LN.G.L.. HammondHammond,, '''Philip's'"Philip's Tomb'Tomb' inin historicahistoricall context,context,"" Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 1313 (1978):(1978): 387-450387-450.. cf.cf. EugenEugenee BorzBorzaa anandd OlgaOlga Palagia,Palagia, "The"The ChronologChronologyy ofof ththee RoyaRoyall MacedoniaMacedoniann TombsTombs aatt Vergina,Vergina,"" lahrbuchJahrbuch des DeutschesDeutsches Archaologisches Institutlnstitut 122122 (2007),(2007), 81-125.81-125. 2929 bbee relevanrelevantt cannotcannot bbee definitivelydefinitively dated.dated. ThusThus ththee materialmaterial evidencevidencee isis overshadowedovershadowed byby thethe bodbodyy ofof literaryliterary evidence.evidence.

TheseThese thenthen,, ththee literary,literary, numismaticnumismatic,, epigraphic,epigraphic, artistic,artistic, andand archaeologicalarchaeological evidenceevidence,, represenrepresentt ththee fullfull bodbodyy ofof sourcesource materialmaterial availableavailable toto thethe modernmodern scholarscholar researchinresearchingg MacedonMacedon betweebetweenn 359359 andand 323323 BC. ThereThere areare problemproblemss toto bbee confrontedconfronted inin eacheach ofof thesthesee areas,areas, bubutt iitt iiss onlyonly througthroughh thathatt confrontationconfrontation thatthat oneone cancan beginbegin toto constructconstruct anythinanythingg closeclose ttoo anan objectivobjectivee picturpicturee ofof thithiss periodperiod.. WithoutWithout criticalcritical analysisanalysis ofof thesthesee sourcessources anyany argumentsarguments positepositedd becombecomee merelymerely anan expressionexpression ofof ththee author'sauthor's ownown desiresdesires regardinregardingg ththee ssubjectubject.. CHAPTERCHAPTER IIIHI

PHILIPPHILIP II,II, MACEDONIMACEDONIAA ANANDD THETHE NORTHNORTH

Philip'Philip'ss risrisee toto powerpower asas KinKingg ofof MacedoniMacedoniaa occurredoccurred duringduring oneone ofof thethe mostmost turbulenturbulentt periodsperiods ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann statestate hahadd everever endured.endured. EveEvenn followingfollowing hishis triumphtriumph overover thethe myriamyriadd ofof difficultiesdifficulties surroundingsurrounding hishis ascension,ascension, PhilipPhilip waswas stillstill forcedforced toto walkwalk a politicapoliticall tight-wirtight-wiree inin orderorder toto insurinsuree thethe stabilitystability ofof hishis kingdomkingdom withiwithinn a quarrelsomequarrelsome

GreekGreek world.world. HisHis successsuccess inin dealingdealing witwithh ththee GreeksGreeks waswas nono smallsmall achievementachievement andand thethe politicapoliticall meansmeans byby whicwhichh hehe accomplishedaccomplished thisthis tasktask laidlaid a frameworkframework thathatt woulwouldd becomebecome a modelmodel forfor hishis sonson eithereither toto followfollow oror disregard.disregard. ThisThis thereforetherefore leavesleaves twotwo questions:questions: InIn dealindealingg witwithh ththee GreekGreek statesstates ttoo thethe SouthSouth whatwhat waswas hihiss politicapoliticall strategystrategy andand whatwhat tacticstactics diddid hehe implementimplement ttoo achieveachieve thithiss strategy?strategy? ToTo addressaddress thesethese questions,questions, anan analysisanalysis ofof thethe developmentdevelopment ofof Philip'sPhilip's individualindividual politicapoliticall strategiesstrategies isis necessary.necessary.

IInn dealingdealing witwithh thethe individualindividual decisionsdecisions PhilipPhilip madmadee duringduring hishis tenurtenuree asas KinKingg ofof

MacedoniaMacedonia itit musmustt bbee notednoted thathatt thethe politicapoliticall worldworld aroundaround himhim shiftedshifted bothboth drasticallydrastically andand consistentlyconsistently duringduring hishis reignreign.. ThisThis addsadds ttoo thethe complexitcomplexityy ofof ththee narrative,narrative, bubutt doesdoes notnot makmakee determiningdetermining hihiss largelargerr politicalpolitical aimsaims anyany moremore difficult.difficult. Rather,Rather, knowingknowing thatthat

Philip'sPhilip's decisionsdecisions tooktook placeplace inin ththee constantconstant fluxflux ofof GreekGreek politicpoliticss isis helpfulhelpful inin thathatt anyany consistencieconsistenciess inin hihiss decisionsdecisions mustmust poinpointt toto hihiss long-rangelong-range ambitions.ambitions. TowardsTowards thisthis end,end, itit iiss helpfuhelpfull ttoo thinthinkk ofof Philip'sPhilip's policiepoliciess forfor GreeceGreece inin threthreee phasesphases:: ththee immediateimmediate preservationpreservation ofof hihiss kingshikingshipp andand kingdom,kingdom, protectionprotection ofof ththee kingdokingdomm againstagainst potentialpotential 3131 aggression,aggression, andand finally,finally, ththee stabilizationstabilization ofof GreeceGreece followingfollowing TheThe ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar inin a mannermanner beneficiabeneficiall ttoo hishis ownown security.security.

AllAll ofof thesethese effortsefforts werewere directeddirected towardtoward thethe securitysecurity ofof Macedonia.Macedonia. InIn thisthis respectrespect thethenn thethe consistencyconsistency inin ththee evidenceevidence suggestssuggests thathatt PhilipPhilip developeddeveloped aggressivelyaggressively decisivedecisive short-termshort-term policiepoliciess ttoo dealdeal withwith immediateimmediate threatsthreats ttoo hishis kingdomkingdom,, butbut nevernever developeddeveloped a long-termlong-term ambitionambition toto brinbringg centracentrall andand southernsouthern GreeceGreece underunder hihiss directdirect contro1.control.5454 PhilipPhilip expandedexpanded,, iinn GreeceGreece,, incrementallyincrementally andand onlyonly outout ofof necessity.necessity. HeHe waswas denieddenied hihiss onlyonly wawarr basebasedd purelpurelyy onon ambitiousambitious imperialisticimperialistic goalsgoals whenwhen hehe waswas assassinatedassassinated onon thethe cuspcusp ofof hihiss invasioninvasion ofof AsiaAsia.. ThisThis wawass hohoww Philip'Philip'ss storystory camecame ttoo anan end,end, bubutt hishis relationshiprelationship witwithh ththee GreekGreek statestate asas KingKing beganbegan immediatelyimmediately upouponn hishis accession.accession.

'ThreeThree Phases'Phases' ofof ImmediatImmediatee SecuritySecurity

Philip'sPhilip's reigreignn begabegann iinn diredire circumstancescircumstances andand itit wawass amidstamidst attackattackss onon MacedoniaMacedonia fromfrom alalll sidesidess thathatt hhee wawass forcedforced ttoo developdevelop a strategystrategy toto insureinsure ththee immediateimmediate stabilitystability ofof hihiss kingshipkingship andand ththee kingdokingdomm hehe hahadd inheritedinherited.. AthenAthenss wawass finallyfinally recoverinrecoveringg fromfrom herher losselossess iinn thethe PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar andand heherr ambitionsambitions rangerangedd intointo territoryterritory nearnear Macedonia,Macedonia, specifically,specifically, thethe citycity ofof Amphipolis.5555 AmphipoliAmphipoliss hahadd originallyoriginally beenbeen a colonycolony setset uupp byby ththee AtheniansAthenians iinn ththee fifthfifth centurycentury inin anan attemptattempt toto (I)(1) gaingain accesaccesss toto thethe vasvastt naturalnatural resourceresourcess aroundaround ththee StrymonStrymon RiverRiver area,area, (2)(2) toto expandexpand theitheirr politicalpolitical influencinfluencee inin thisthis

5454InIn generalgeneral thertheree iiss a two-sidedtwo-sided debatedebate overover Philip'sPhilip's intentionsintentions regardinregardingg centracentrall andand southernsouthern Greece.Greece. OnOn oneone hand,hand, scholarsscholars suchsuch asas l.R.J.R. Ellis,Ellis, Philip II and Macedonian Imperialism (Princeton,(Princeton, 1976),1976), argueargue thatthat PhiliPhilipp nevernever mademade a plaplann foforr ththee conquestconquest ofof Greece,Greece, bubutt ratheratherr waswas consistentlconsistentlyy tryintryingg toto puputt togethertogether a safesafe exitexit strategystrategy ttoo enableenable anan invasioinvasionn ofof AsiaAsia Minor.Minor. OnOn thethe otheotherr hand,hand, IanIan Worthington,Worthington, Philip II of Macedonia (New(New HavenHaven;; 20082008)) andand G.T.G.T. GriffithGriffith andand N.G.LN.G.L.. Hammond,Hammond, A History of Macedonia VII (Oxford(Oxford,, 1979)1979) argueargue againstagainst EllisEllis iinn claimingclaiming thatthat PhilipPhilip wawass anan opportunisticopportunistic expansionistexpansionist andand thereforetherefore developeddeveloped long-terlong-termm planplanss forfor ththee conquesconquestt ofof GreeceGreece beforebefore desiringdesiring anan invasioinvasionn ooff AsiAsiaa Minor.Minor. 5555 SarahSarah PomeroyPomeroy,, Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History (New(New York:York: UniversitUniversityy ofof CambridgeCambridge PressPress,, 1999),249;1999), 249; WorthingtonWorthington,, 1313.. 3232 areaarea anandd (3(3)) ttoo protecprotectt theitheirr graigrainn routroutee ttoo ththee BlacBlackk Sea.Sea. DurinDuringg PeridiccaPeridiccass Ill'Ill'ss reignreign

(Philip's(Philip's brothebrotherr anandd predecessorpredecessor)) iinn MacedoniMacedoniaa frofromm 365-360,365-360, AmphipoliAmphipoliss wawass anan independentindependent citycity,, whicwhichh wawass alliedallied ttoo Macedonia.5656 AAss a resultresult,, PerdiccaPerdiccass hahadd sentsent

MacedonianMacedonian reinforcementreinforcementss ttoo AmphipoliAmphipoliss ttoo foifoill AtheniaAtheniann attemptattemptss ttoo brinbringg ththee citycity bacbackk undeunderr ththee controlcontrol ofof AthensAthens.. UpoUponn PerdicasPerdicas'' deathdeath,, howeverhowever,, ththee AthenianAthenianss werewere quicquickk ttoo taktakee advantagadvantagee ofof ththee resultinresultingg discordiscordd iinn MacedoniMacedoniaa ttoo furthefurtherr theitheirr prospectsprospects foforr Amphipolis.Amphipolis.

UpoUponn hihiss brother'brother'ss death,death, PhiliPhilipp camecame ttoo ththee thronethrone,, bubutt hihiss holholdd oonn thathatt positionposition wawass a tenuoutenuouss one.one. 57 TheThe armarmyy wawass iinn disarradisarrayy afteafterr sufferingsuffering defeatdefeat aatt ththee handshands ofof thethe

IllyriansIllyrians andand anyany anandd alalll ooff Macedonia'Macedonia'ss traditionatraditionall enemiesenemies werweree nonoww inin positiopositionn toto pushpush theirtheir advantageadvantage againsagainstt PhilipPhilip,, hihiss confusedconfused kingdokingdomm anandd disillusionedisillusionedd army. 5858 WitWithh thisthis opportunityopportunity atat hand,hand, ththee AthenianAthenianss supportesupportedd a pretendepretenderr ttoo ththee thronthronee ofof Macedonia,Macedonia,

ArgaeusArgaeus,, withwith a combinedcombined AthenianAthenian anandd mercenarymercenary forceforce oonn ththee conditioncondition thathatt ArgaeusArgaeus returreturnn AmphipoliAmphipoliss toto thethe Athenians.Athenians. IItt waswas inin thithiss firsfirstt testestt fromfrom thethe AthenianAthenianss thathatt PhilipPhilip displayedisplayedd hihiss truetrue skilskilll inin politicapoliticall guile.guile. PhiliPhilipp knekneww ththee importanceimportance ooff ththee naturalnatural

56 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.3.16.3.33 TherTheree isis somesome controverscontroversyy oveoverr ththee politicapoliticall independenceindependence ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss aatt thithiss time.time. DiodoruDiodoruss recordrecordss thatthat PhiliPhilipp upouponn recognizinrecognizingg thathatt thethe recoverrecoveryy ooff AmphipoliAmphipoliss wawass ththee AtheniaAtheniann aimaim inin supportinsupportingg ArgaeusArgaeus,, lefleftt ththee citcityy ooff AmphipolisAmphipolis afteafterr firsfirstt makinmakingg itit autonomousautonomous.. ThiThiss iiss a vaguevague statemenstatementt fromfrom DiodorusDiodorus,, bubutt considerinconsideringg DiodoruDiodoruss wawass a SicilianSicilian andand fullfullyy entrencheentrenchedd iinn ththee RomanRoman systesystemm ofof alliancealliance iitt standsstands ttoo reasoreasonn thathatt ifif hhee understoodunderstood AmphipoliAmphipoliss asas alliealliedd ttoo PhiliPhilipp thethenn PhiliPhilipp wouldwould thereforetherefore neeneedd ttoo makmakee AmphipoliAmphipoliss autonomousautonomous iinn ordeorderr ttoo enendd thathatt AllianceAlliance.. HHee iiss thereforthereforee simplsimplyy usingusing a RomanRoman conceptionconception ofof alliancealliance whenwhen describingdescribing thesethese events.events. Worthington,Worthington, 13,13, 20;20; Ellis,Ellis, 48:48: bothboth ofof thesthesee accountaccountss alsalsoo concludeconclude thathatt AmphipoliAmphipoliss wawass anan independenindependentt citcityy aatt thithiss timtimee thathatt wawass alliealliedd withwith MacedoniaMacedonia.. Cf.Cf. Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia v.II, 232-233232-233.. 5757 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.1.3.16.1.3. Cf.Cf. JustiJustinn 5.7.95.7.9fTheref There iiss a debatedebate oveoverr Philip'Philip'ss possiblpossiblee regencregencyy periodperiod.. ThThee debatedebate isis irrelevanirrelevantt foforr ththee purposepurposess ofof thithiss paperpaper,, bubutt I havhavee followefollowedd EllisEllis'' conclusioconclusionn thathatt ththee regencregencyy nevernever occurredoccurred anandd PhiliPhilipp becambecamee kinkingg immediatelimmediatelyy upouponn ththee deathdeath ooff hihiss brotherbrother.. SeSeee EllisEllis,, ChapterChapter 1 notnotee 1155 anandd ChapterChapter 2 notnotee 10;10; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v.II, 208-209.208-209. Cf.Cf. WorthingtonWorthington,, 20-2120-21 5858 DiodorusDiodorus 16.3.5;16.3.5; DemostheneDemostheness 23.12123.121;; EllisEllis,, 48-5248-52;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 24-25;24-25; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v.II, 236236.. 3333 resourceresourcess ooff Macedonia5959 andand thethe rolrolee ooff AmphipoliAmphipoliss inin controllingcontrolling them;them; aann AthenianAthenian controllecontrolledd AmphipoliAmphipoliss wawass detrimentadetrimentall ttoo MacedoniMacedoniaa asas iitt divideddivided controcontroll oveoverr thethe resourceresourcess surroundingsurrounding ththee StrymoStrymonn RiveRiverr anandd blockadeblockadedd hihimm frofromm ththee AegeanAegean.. LosingLosing controcontroll oorr atat leasleastt influencinfluencee iinn thithiss areaarea iinn ththee long-terlong-termm wawass unacceptablunacceptablee forfor Philip.Philip.

HoweverHowever,, anan AtheniaAtheniann supportesupportedd rivarivall foforr ththee thronthronee outweighedoutweighed thathatt concernconcern inin thethe short-term.short-term. ThuThuss PhiliPhilipp hahadd twtwoo objectivesobjectives whewhenn considerinconsideringg ththee probleproblemm poseposedd byby

ArgaeusArgaeus:: eliminateeliminate hihiss rivarivall ttoo ththee thronthronee inin ththee short-termshort-term anandd iinn ththee long-termlong-term securesecure hishis influenceinfluence inin Amphipolis.Amphipolis.

PhilipPhilip achieveachievedd botbothh ofof hihiss goalgoalss iinn a brilliantbrilliant,, yeyett admittedladmittedlyy backhandebackhandedd wayway.. 6060

FirsFirstt hhee withdrewithdreww hihiss supporsupportt forfor ththee citcityy ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss andand immediatelimmediatelyy thereafterthereafter soughtsought a peacpeacee agreementagreement betweebetweenn MacedoniMacedoniaa anandd AthensAthens.. InIn thesthesee actions,actions, PhilipPhilip effectivelyeffectively isolateisolatedd ArgaeuArgaeuss frofromm hihiss AtheniaAtheniann supportsupport bbyy implicitlimplicitlyy suggestingsuggesting thathatt ifif

AthenAthenss withdrewithdreww thethenn PhiliPhilipp woulwouldd givegive uupp claimclaimss ttoo AmphipolisAmphipolis.. ThisThis causecausedd thethe

AthenianAthenianss ttoo taktakee pauspausee andand considerconsider theitheirr optionsoptions.. TheThe pro-Atheniapro-Atheniann messagmessagee fromfrom

PhilipPhilip wawass cleaclearr andand consequentlconsequentlyy AthenAthenss decidedecidedd ttoo bacbackk ththee establisheestablishedd positiopositionn ratherrather thanthan ththee potentiapotentiall oneone andand withdrewithdreww heherr supportsupport forfor ArgaeusArgaeus.. ThThee AtheniaAtheniann generalgeneral

MantiasMantias,, iinn chargecharge ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann forcesforces,, felfelll bacbackk ttoo MethoneMethone,, whilwhilee sendingsending ArgaeusArgaeus aheadahead alone.alone.

ShortlyShortly thereafterthereafter,, PhilipPhilip surprisedsurprised ArgaeuArgaeuss andand hihiss mercenarmercenaryy forcforcee inin a battlebattle neanearr MethonMethonee andand wowonn readily.readily.6161 UpoUponn victorvictoryy PhiliPhilipp immediatelimmediatelyy releasereleasedd ththee AthenianAthenian

5959 RicharRichardd AA.. BillowsBillows,, Kings and Colonists: Aspects of Macedonian Imperialism (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: UniversitUniversityy ofof CambridgCambridgee PressPress,, 1995),1995), 5-115-11.. 6600 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.3.3.16.3.3. 6611 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.3.5;16.3.5; JustinJustin,, 8.6.8.6. 3434 forceforce stationestationedd nearbnearbyy withouwithoutt ransoransomm andand sensentt a letterletter ttoo requesrequestt a formaformall alliancealliance betweebetweenn MacedoniMacedoniaa anandd AthensAthens.. Macedonia,Macedonia, howeverhowever,, hahadd nonott beebeenn ththee onlonlyy powepowerr iinn thathatt regioregionn ttoo seekseek AtheniaAtheniann alliancealliance atat thathatt time.time. DemostheneDemostheness notesnotes thathatt OlynthuOlynthuss hadhad alsoalso askeaskedd foforr alliancealliance.. 62 FoForr AthensAthens,, anan OlynthianOlynthian alliancalliancee wouldwould certainlcertainlyy bbee consideredconsidered a hostilehostile actionaction towardstowards PhilipPhilip sincesince Olynthus,Olynthus, situatedsituated soso closeclose toto PellaPella onon thethe Chaldice,Chaldice, hahadd longlong contributecontributedd ttoo ththee instabilitinstabilityy ooff MacedoniaMacedonia.. IInn ananyy casecase,, AthenAthenss decideddecided ttoo rejectreject thethe OlynthiaOlynthiann offer anandd insteainsteadd honorhonor a peacpeacee witwithh PhiliPhilipp onon ththee conditioncondition thathatt hhee wouldwould givegive uupp alalll claimclaimss oonn Amphipolis.6363 PhiliPhilipp hahadd thuthuss achieveachievedd hihiss firsfirstt goagoall ofof securingsecuring thethe thronethrone,, bubutt aatt ththee expensexpensee ooff achievinachievingg influencinfluencee overover Amphipolis.Amphipolis.

ThThee cheschesss matcmatchh betweebetweenn PhiliPhilipp anandd ththee AthenianAthenianss oveoverr AmphipoliAmphipoliss wawass farfar fromfrom finishedfinished.. MomentarilyMomentarily,, howeverhowever,, Philip'Philip'ss attentioattentionn wawass divertedivertedd bbyy anotheranother powepowerr ttoo thethe southsouth:: Thessaly.Thessaly.6464 IInn 353588 PhiliPhilipp wawass offeredoffered anan alliancalliancee bbyy ththee ThessalianThessalian citcityy ooff Larisa.Larisa.

LarisaLarisa hahadd beebeenn iinn competitiocompetitionn witwithh ththee citycity ooff PheraPheraee foforr dominancdominancee withiwithinn Thessaly.Thessaly. IInn anan attempattemptt ttoo gaigainn groungroundd inin theitheirr rivalrrivalryy forfor powepowerr witwithh PheraePherae,, LarisaLarisa askeaskedd PhilipPhilip toto joijoinn thethemm iinn anan alliance.alliance. ForFor hishis partpart,, PhiliPhilipp recognizerecognizedd ththee benefitbenefitss ttoo hishis owownn securitysecurity thathatt thithiss alliancealliance offereofferedd himhim.. IfIf hhee coulcouldd helhelpp maintaimaintainn Larisa'Larisa'ss dominancedominance oveoverr ThessalyThessaly hhee woulwouldd havehave effectivelyeffectively createcreatedd a friendlyfriendly buffebufferr statestate forfor hishis southernsouthern border.border.6565 InIn latelate

358358 oror earlearlyy 353577 PhiliPhilipp accepteacceptedd thisthis alliance,alliance, committincommittingg aatt leastleast somsomee MacedonianMacedonian trooptroopss ttoo ththee cause.cause.

62 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 1.7.1.7. 6633 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.4.1;16.4.1; Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 7.27.7.27. 6644 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.14.116.14.1 CfCf.. JustiJustinn 7.7.66 FoForr argumentsarguments iinn supportsupport ooff usinusingg DiodorusDiodorus ratherrather thathann JustiJustinn seesee GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v. II,//,225-227; 225-227; EllisEllis,, 6611 especiallespeciallyy notnotee 50.50. 65 65 WorthingtonWorthington,, 36-336-377 makemakess thethe pointpoint thathatt PhiliPhilipp surelsurelyy woulwouldd havhavee remembererememberedd JasoJasonn ooff PheraePherae,, whowho aimeaimedd Thessaly'sThessaly's expansionexpansion aatt MacedoniMacedoniaa iinn ththee earlearlyy fourthfourth century.century. 3535

ThusThus bbyy 357357 Philip'Philip'ss politicalpolitical relationrelationss toto thethe SouthSouth werweree mucmuchh improvedimproved fromfrom

hihiss ascensionascension iinn 359.359. HeHe hadhad subduedsubdued thethe immediateimmediate threatthreat toto hishis kingshikingshipp posedposed byby

AthenAthenss andand forgedforged a mutuallmutuallyy beneficiallbeneficiallyy relationshirelationshipp witwithh hihiss southernsouthern neighborneighbor

Thessaly.Thessaly. HHee couldcould nownow turturnn hishis attentionattention backback toto ththee securitysecurity issueissue posedposed byby

AmphipolisAmphipolis.. DiodoruDiodomss telltellss uuss thathatt iitt wawass atat thisthis veryvery momentmoment thathatt PhilipPhilip besiegedbesieged

6666 AmphipoliAmphipoliss onon thethe groundsgrounds thathatt ththee peoplpeoplee ofof thatthat citycity hadhad givengiven manymany pretextspretexts forfor war.war.

Consequently,Consequently, atat leasleastt a factionfaction ofof thethe peoplepeople ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss sentsent twtwoo representatives,representatives,

HieraxHierax anandd Stratocles,Stratocles, ttoo seekseek anan AtheniaAtheniann alliancealliance againstagainst PhilipPhilip,, whwhoo wawass nonoww clearlyclearly

breachingbreaching hishis agreementagreement withwith AthensAthens regardinregardingg thethe city.city.6767 AthensAthens,, however,however, neveneverr sentsent

helphelp.. ThereThere areare manmanyy reasonreasonss whwhyy itit wouldwould havhavee beenbeen impracticalimpractical foforr thethe AthenianAthenianss toto

supportsupport AmphipoliAmphipoliss resistinresistingg Philip,68Philip,68 bubutt itit seemsseems thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss werweree finallyfinally

placateplacatedd bbyy repeaterepeatedd promisepromisess fromfrom PhilipPhilip thatthat hhee wouldwould returreturnn ththee citycity ttoo AthensAthens uponupon

takintakingg it.it.

FoForr Philip,Philip, ththee siegesiege ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss (357(357 BCBC)) wawass a swiftswift one.6969 AssaultingAssaulting thethe

wallswalls ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss witwithh siegesiege weaponsweapons andand batterinbatteringg rams,rams, PhilipPhilip waswas ableable toto createcreate a breacbreachh inin oneone ofof thethe walls.walls. UpoUponn thisthis success,success, hhee commandedcommanded ththee armyarmy ttoo enterenter thethe

b66b DiodorusDiodoms,, 16.8.2.16.8.2. 6677 DemosthonesDemosthones,, 1.5,1.5, 1.8;1.8; Ellis,Ellis, 63-64;63-64; WorthingtonWorthington,, 40-41.40-41. WorthingtonWorthington notesnotes thatthat thethe evidenceevidence isis unclearunclear inin makingmaking a definitivedefinitive determinatiodeterminationn asas ttoo whethewhetherr thesethese menmen representedrepresented allall ofof AmphipolisAmphipolis oror anan anti­anti- MacedoniaMacedoniann factionfaction withiwithinn ththee city.city. ThThee brevitbrevityy ofof ththee siege,siege, Philip'sPhilip's subsequentsubsequent handlinhandlingg ofof thethe populatiopopulationn ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss andand Demosthenes'Demosthenes' commentcomment thatthat thethe peoplepeople ofof AmphipoliAmphipoliss betrayebetrayedd theirtheir citycity allall lenlendd supporsupportt ttoo ththee ideideaa thathatt ththee resistancresistancee wawass ledled bbyy anan anti-Macedoniananti-Macedonian factionfaction ratheratherr thanthan a fullfull manifestatiomanifestationn ofof disaffectiondisaffection fromfrom ththee populationpopulation asas a whole.whole. 6868 WorthingtonWorthington,, 4141;; Ellis,Ellis, 64.64. BothBoth notnotee ththee siegesiege waswas timedtimed toto coincidecoincide witwithh EtesianEtesian Wind,Wind, whicwhichh wouldwould makmakee sendingsending a fleefleett virtuallvirtuallyy impossibleimpossible.. BotBothh authorsauthors alongalong withwith GriffithGriffith (Macedonia v. II, 238-239)238-239) alsoalso taktakee intointo considerationconsideration ththee beginninbeginningg ofof ththee SocialSocial WarWar forfor AthensAthens,, whichwhich woulwouldd havehave diverteddiverted anyany availableavailable resourcesresources foforr assistance.assistance. Finally,Finally, WorthingtonWorthington notenotess thatthat AthensAthens hadhad nnoo basebase fromfrom whichwhich toto launclaunchh aann attacattackk sincesince sheshe hahadd alienatedalienated OlynthuOlynthuss byby notnot acceptingaccepting anan alliancealliance againstagainst PhilipPhilip inin 359359 andand thereforthereforee hahadd littlelittle toto nono accessaccess toto thethe ChalcidicChalcidic peninsula.peninsula. 6969 DiodorusDiodoms,, 16.8.1-4.16.8.1-4. 3636 fortificationfortificationss andand proceedeproceededd ttoo taktakee controcontroll ooff ththee city.city. OncOncee iinn control,control, PhiliPhilipp exileexiledd hishis politicalpolitical enemieenemiess anandd incorporatedincorporated ththee remainderemainderr ofof ththee populationpopulation.. NowNow,, insteadinstead ooff turningturning oveoverr AmphipoliAmphipoliss ttoo ththee AthenianAthenianss asas promisedpromised,, PhiliPhilipp insteainsteadd besiegebesiegedd andand forciblyforcibly tootookk Pydna,Pydna, anan AtheniaAtheniann ally,ally, furthefurtherr securingsecuring ththee kingdokingdomm ofof MacedoniMacedoniaa fromfrom ththee outsidoutsidee influenceinfluence ofof AthensAthens.. ThThee AtheniansAthenians,, thoroughlthoroughlyy embarrasseembarrassedd aatt fallingfalling forfor

Philip's deceit, declared war on Philip.7o70 Philip's deceit, declared war on Philip. The ensuing war between Macedonia and Athens began with a mutual courtship The ensuing war between Macedonia and Athens began with a mutual courtship of Olynthus.71 Olynthus was important for a few reasons. First it was a major city within of Olynthus.71 Olynthus was important for a few reasons. First it was a major city within striking distance of Macedonia located on the Chalcidice. Moreover, Olynthus was striking distance of Macedonia located on the Chalcidice. Moreover, Olynthus was capable of fielding a sizable hoplite force. Olynthus' land-power combined with Athenian capable of fielding a sizable hoplite force. Olynthus' land-power combined with Athenian sea-power would have been a serious problem for Philip.72 Thus Philip's intention in an sea-power would have been a serious problem for Philip. Thus Philip's intention in an Olynthian alliance was defensive, while for the Athenians an alliance with Olynthus Olynthian alliance was defensive, while for the Athenians an alliance with Olynthus represented their only practical option for bringing war to Macedonia. The Athenians, represented their only practical option for bringing war to Macedonia. The Athenians, however, were incapable of seizing this opportunity. Working actively in the island of however, were incapable of seizing this opportunity. Working actively in the island of Euboea and facing an uprising of their allies, Athens had no resources to spare in Euboea and facing an uprising of their allies, Athens had no resources to spare in confronting Philip in the North. confronting Philip in the North. Philip took full advantage of the situation and negotiated an alliance with Philip took full advantage of the situation and negotiated an alliance with Olynthus. 73 The alliance alone would have stemmed any potential Athenian-Olynthian Olynthus. 73 The alliance alone would have stemmed any potential Athenian-Olynthian collusion, but Philip separated his potential enemies even further by promising to deliver collusion, but Philip separated his potential enemies even further by promising to deliver the city of Potidaea to Olynthus as part of their new found alliance. This was an the city of Potidaea to Olynthus as part of their new found alliance. This was an

7700 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.70.2.70. 7711 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.8.4.16.8.4. 7722 EllisEllis,, 65;65; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v. II,/1,243; 243; WorthingtonWorthington,, 40.40. 7733 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.8.3.16.8.3. 3737 importantimportant politicapoliticall ploployy bbyy PhiliPhilipp iinn thatthat PotidaePotidaeaa wawass alreadalreadyy covetecovetedd bbyy OlynthusOlynthus,, butbut currentlycurrently wawass anan AtheniaAtheniann allyally,, helheldd bbyy AtheniaAtheniann garrisongarrison.. IfIf hhee couldcould deliverdeliver onon hishis promispromisee ttoo deliverdeliver thethe city,city, PhiliPhilipp couldcould bbee certaincertain thathatt OlynthusOlynthus anandd AthenAthenss couldcould nevernever forgeforge anan alliancealliance againstagainst himhim.. ShortlyShortly thereafterthereafter,, PhiliPhilipp besiegebesiegedd anandd tootookk PotidaeaPotidaea.. HeHe releasereleasedd ththee AtheniaAtheniann garrisongarrison withouwithoutt ransoransomm anandd presentepresentedd ththee citcityy ttoo Olynthus,Olynthus, therebtherebyy drivingdriving a wedgewedge betweebetweenn AthenAthenss anandd Olynthus.Olynthus.

PhilipPhilip waswas alsalsoo ablablee ttoo stestemm AtheniaAtheniann influencinfluencee inin Thrace.Thrace. IInn 353566 PhiliPhilipp tootookk overover ththee citycity ofof Crenides,Crenides, whicwhichh controllecontrolledd vasvastt mineraminerall resourceresourcess anandd wawass locatelocatedd neanearr thethe importanimportantt AtheniaAtheniann allyally Neapolis.Neapolis.7474 HeHe renamerenamedd ththee citycity PhilippiPhilippi anandd effectivelyeffectively madmadee iitt ththee firsfirstt MacedonianMacedonian colonycolony bbyy increasinincreasingg itsits populatiopopulationn witwithh MacedoniaMacedoniann subjects.subjects. ThisThis neneww MacedonianMacedonian colonycolony broughbroughtt massemassess ooff wealtwealthh ttoo PhilipPhilip andand mitigatemitigatedd muchmuch ooff thethe dangerdanger poseposedd bbyy Neapolis.Neapolis. 75

FinallyFinally,, sincesince ththee AthenianAthenianss hadhad beebeenn ineffectivineffectivee aatt preventingpreventing ananyy ofof Philip'sPhilip's movesmoves ttoo thithiss pointpoint,, PhilipPhilip movedmoved ttoo finisfinishh ofofff ththee laslastt citcityy thathatt poseposedd aann immediateimmediate dangedangerr toto hishis kingdomkingdom.76. MethonMethonee hahadd beebeenn ththee staginstagingg poinpointt foforr AthensAthens'' supporsupportt ooff

ArgaeusArgaeus,, bibidd foforr ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann throne.throne. PhiliPhilipp hahadd taketakenn nnoo actioactionn againsagainstt ththee citcityy then,then, bubutt bbyy 353555 atat leasleastt iitt seemseemss thathatt PhiliPhilipp perceiveperceivedd anan independenindependentt MethonMethonee aass a breedingbreeding groundground foforr AtheniaAtheniann anti-Macedoniaanti-Macedoniann sentimentsentiment.. OOnn thesthesee groundsgrounds,, PhiliPhilipp launchelaunchedd aann attackattack againstagainst MethonMethonee iinn orderorder ttoo seizeseize ththee laslastt citycity nonott undeunderr MacedoniaMacedoniann controcontroll onon hishis seaboard.seaboard. DespitDespitee hihiss earlearlyy successessuccesses iinn siegsiegee warfarewarfare,, ththee siegsiegee atat MethonMethonee wawass moremore

7474 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.3.7,16.3.7, 8.68.6;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 4455 cfcf.. EllisEllis,, 69-7069-70.. CfCf.. GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v. II,l/, 249.249. GriffithGriffith suggestssuggests thathatt thithiss eventevent happenehappenedd simultaneouslysimultaneously witwithh Philip'Philip'ss seizurseizuree ooff Potidaea.Potidaea. 7575 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.8.6;16.8.6; WorthingtonWorthington,, 45-4745-47;; EllisEllis,, 72-73.72-73. 7676 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.34.4-516.34.4-5.. 3838 difficultdifficult thathann hihiss previoupreviouss victoriesvictories.. PhiliPhilipp begabegann thithiss actionaction iinn 353555 andand diddid nonott prevailprevail untiuntill 354. 7777 ThThee AthenianAthenianss continuedcontinued inin theitheirr patterpatternn ofof ineffectualineffectual resistancresistancee bbyy sendingsending reinforcements too late despite the extended length of the siege. 7878 reinforcements too late despite the extended length of the siege. In 355 the political situation to Philip's South changed dramatically with the In 355 the political situation to Philip's South changed dramatically with the outbreak of the Third Sacred War. 79 Phocis, a small power in central Greece, had outbreak of the Third Sacred War. Phocis, a small power in central Greece, had forcefully taken control of the Oracle at Delphi. The act was highly sacrilegious and the forcefully taken control of the Oracle at Delphi. The act was highly sacrilegious and the matter was taken up by the Amphictyonic Council. This was a council of states including matter was taken up by the Amphictyonic Council. This was a council of states including Thessaly, Phocis, and Thebes, among others, who were all bound by an oath to protect Thessaly, Phocis, and Thebes, among others, who were all bound by an oath to protect the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. The aggressors, the Phocians, sent embassies to ensure the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. The aggressors, the Phocians, sent embassies to ensure the other Greek states that the temple would be well taken care of under their protection the other Greek states that the temple would be well taken care of under their protection and that the treasuries Delphi housed would not be abused. Even with these assurances, and that the treasuries Delphi housed would not be abused. Even with these assurances, the Amphictyonic Council still declared a sacred war against Phocis for the restoration of the Amphictyonic Council still declared a sacred war against Phocis for the restoration of Delphi. Delphi. Philip's involvement in this conflict was not instantaneous and in fact came about Philip's involvement in this conflict was not instantaneous and in fact came about indirectly. In 355 he was still heavily involved in the siege of Methone and controlling indirectly. In 355 he was still heavily involved in the siege of Methone and controlling his eastern borders. Moreover, the Amphictyonic Council did not immediately ask for his his eastern borders. Moreover, the Amphictyonic Council did not immediately ask for his assistance. It was not until two years later, in 353, that a member of the Amphictyonic assistance. It was not until two years later, in 353, that a member of the Amphictyonic so Council sought Philip's support. OA Larisa had suffered tremendous losses since the Council sought Philip's support. Larisa had suffered tremendous losses since the beginning of the Third Sacred War primarily from an alliance between the city of Pherae beginninand the Phocians.g of the Thir Onced Sacre again,d Wa as r wasprimaril the ycase fro min a358,n allianc the epower betwee structuren the cit ofy o Thessalyf Pherae and the Phocians. Once again, as was the case in 358, the power structure of Thessaly

77 77 JJ.. BucklerBuckler,, Philip II and the Sacred War (Leiden:(Leiden: 1989)\989),, 181-5181-5.. 7878 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 4.35.4.35. 79 79 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.33.1-\6.33.1-55 FoForr mormoree extensiveextensive summariesummariess ofof ththee outbreaoutbreakk ooff ththee ThirThirdd SacredSacred WaWarr seesee PomeroyPomeroy,, 381-382.381-382. AlsoAlso,, WorthingtonWorthington,, 54-56;54-56; EllisEllis,, 73-7573-75.. 8080 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.35.1\6.35.1.. 3939 wawass iinn foforr upheavaupheavall unlesunlesss LarisLarisaa couldcould stemstem ththee powepowerr ofof Pherae.Pherae. AAss a resultresult,, LarisaLarisa onceonce againagain soughtsought Philip'Philip'ss helhelpp iinn controllincontrollingg heherr lonlongg timtimee adversary.adversary.

FoForr PhiliPhilipp a requesrequestt foforr helhelpp frofromm LarisLarisaa couldcould nonott bbee ignoreignoredd iiff hihiss southernsouthern bordeborderr wawass ttoo bbee maintainedmaintained.. SometimeSometime followinfollowingg ththee requesrequestt PhilipPhilip himselhimselff marchedmarched onon

81 Thessaly.Thessaly. 81 HHee joinejoinedd witwithh hihiss ThessaliaThessaliann alliealliess anandd movemovedd againsagainstt PheraePherae.. PheraPheraee iinn turturnn calledcalled uponupon heherr ownown alliealliess ththee PhociansPhocians,, whwhoo atat firstfirst sentsent onlyonly a smalsmalll detachment.detachment.

PhiliPhilipp easileasilyy defeatedefeatedd thithiss forcforcee andand PhociPhociss responderespondedd bbyy sendingsending heherr generalgeneral

OnomarchusOnomarchus witwithh heherr entireentire militarmilitaryy forceforce.. TheThe MacedoniaMacedoniann armyarmy undeunderr PhiliPhilipp waswas defeatedefeatedd twictwicee atat ththee handhandss ofof thithiss force.8282 PhiliPhilipp retreateretreatedd witwithh hihiss armarmyy ttoo MacedoniaMacedonia forfor ththee winterwinter,, holdinholdingg hihiss soldierssoldiers togethetogetherr witwithh greagreatt difficultdifficultyy afterafter sufferingsuffering theitheirr firstfirst defeadefeatt undeunderr Philip.Philip. HHee thethenn returnereturnedd witwithh hihiss armarmyy ththee followingfollowing yeayearr ttoo renereneww thethe strugglestruggle.. ThiThiss timetime,, howeverhowever,, PhiliPhilipp wawass ablablee ttoo convinceconvince alalll ooff ThessalThessalyy ttoo fightfight iinn commoncommon againsagainstt Phocis.Phocis. Consequently,Consequently, PhiliPhilipp wowonn aann overwhelmingoverwhelming victorvictoryy againstagainst

Onomarchus,Onomarchus, thanksthanks primarilprimarilyy toto ththee strengthstrength anandd valovalorr ooff ththee uniteunitedd ThessaliaThessaliann cavalry.cavalry.

ManyMany PhocianPhocianss werweree killedkilled inin routrout nonott onlonlyy bbyy MacedoniaMaeedoniann spears,spears, bubutt alsalsoo bbyy drowningdrowning sincesince manmanyy fledfled toto thethe sea.sea.

8811 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.35.1-16.35.1-66 cfcf.. JustinJustin 8.2;8.2; WorthingtonWorthington,, 61.61. Justin'Justin'ss accounaccountt ooff Philip'sPhilip's involvemeninvolvementt iinn thisthis eventevent,, frofromm ththee firstfirst twtwoo losselossess ttoo ththee eventualeventual victorvictoryy ththee followinfollowingg yearyear,, iiss condensecondensedd intointo ononee singlesingle battlebattle.. JustiJustinn createcreatess a storystory iinn whicwhichh PhilipPhilip iiss callecalledd oonn bbyy ThebeThebess anandd LarisLarisaa andand upouponn acceptinacceptingg theirtheir requesrequestt swoopswoopss iinn fromfrom ththee nortnorthh witwithh aann armarmyy crownedcrowned witwithh laurelaurell anandd defeatsdefeats OnomarchusOnomarchus andand thethe PhociansPhocians.. HiHiss accountaccount inin comparisocomparisonn ttoo Diodoms'Diodorus' acccountacccount isis aann instancinstancee iinn whicwhichh JustinJustin abbreviatedabbreviated TrogusTrogus'' narrativnarrativee substantiallysubstantially anandd thereforthereforee hihiss accountaccount ooff thithiss eveneventt includinincludingg hihiss referencreferencee thathatt PhilipPhilip ordereorderedd hihiss armarmyy ttoo weawearr laurelaurell crowncrownss aass ifif ththee gogodd werweree marchinmarchingg beforbeforee ththee armarmyy shoulshouldd bbee disregarded.disregarded. ThuThuss Worthington'Worthington'ss ususee ofof thithiss factfact ttoo supporsupportt hihiss claiclaimm thathatt PhiliPhilipp nonoww hahadd seriousserious expansionisexpansionistt aimsaims iinn southersouthernn GreecGreecee iiss wrong.wrong. 8822 PolyaenusPolyaenus describedescribess ononee ofof thesthesee PhociaPhociann victorievictoriess iinn 2.38.2.2.38.2. 4040

Philip'Philip'ss victorvictoryy proveprovedd ttoo bbee a greagreatt boosboostt inin hishis relationshirelationshipp withwith Thessaly.Thessaly.

SometimeSometime shortlshortlyy afterafter hihiss victorvictoryy hhee wawass namenamedd archonarchon ooff ThessalyThessaly.83. ~ ThiThiss lifetimelifetime appointmentappointment puputt hihimm atat ththee helhelmm ofof Thessaly'Thessaly'ss politicspolitics,, thuthuss enablinenablingg hihimm ttoo safelysafely controlcontrol ththee politicapoliticall developmentdevelopmentss ofof hihiss southernsouthern neighborneighbor.. IInn addition,addition, aass anan acactt ooff goodwill,goodwill, ThessalThessalyy cededceded ttoo PhiliPhilipp ththee territorieterritoriess ofof MagnesiMagnesiaa andand PerrhaibiaPerrhaibia,, whicwhichh bothboth were of strategic military and political value. SKA84 Militarily, Magnesia was a line of were of strategic military and political value. Militarily, Magnesia was a line of mountains running from Tempe South to Pagasitic Gulf on Thessaly's Aegean shoreline mountains running from Tempe South to Pagasitic Gulf on Thessaly's Aegean shoreline and was of little importance. Perrhaibia, on the other hand, controlled any southern access and was of little importance. Perrhaibia, on the other hand, controlled any southern access to Macedonia. Politically, the gift of these territories gave Philip direct control over four to Macedonia. Politically, the gift of these territories gave Philip direct control over four votes on the Amphictyonic Council. Finally, to conclude the stability of Thessaly he votes on the Amphictyonic Council. Finally, to conclude the stability of Thessaly he made serious attempts at quelling the rivalry between Larisa and Pherae by marrying a made serious attempts at quelling the rivalry between Larisa and Pherae by marrying a 85 noble woman of Pherae. o c noble womaPhilip'sn o f gainsPherae in. Thessaly during this period were a double edged sword. On the one handPhilip' Philips gainhad smade in Thessal a greaty durinamountg thi ofs progressperiod wer in ehis a doubllong-timee edge goald sword of stabilizing. On the onhise southernhand Phili border.p had madOn thee a othergreat hand,amoun het o hadf progres inheriteds in hia smuch long-tim largere goa vestedl of stabilizininterest ing hithes outcomesouthern ofborder the .Third On th Sacrede othe rWar hand from, he thishad process.inherited Having a much been large givenr veste directd interes controlt in overthe outcom four ofe othef th etwenty-four Third Sacre votesd Wa ron fro them thiAmphictyonics process. Havin Councilg bee nand give havingn direc tde contro factol over four of the twenty-four votes on the Amphictyonic Council and having de facto control over all of Thessal y' s votes through his election as archon, Philip was now one of control over all of Thessaly's votes through his election as archon, Philip was now one of the major figures within the Amphictyonic league. Thus he was forced to turn his the major figures within the Amphictyonic league. Thus he was forced to turn his attention to dealing with Phocis and the Third Sacred War as a representative of attention to dealing with Phocis and the Third Sacred War as a representative of

8833 IItt iiss importanimportantt ttoo notnotee thathatt thertheree areare nnoo expliciexplicitt statementstatementss ooff PhiliPhilipp becominbecomingg ththee archonarchon ooff Thessaly.Thessaly. RatheRatherr ththee evidencevidencee availablavailablee ttoo uuss iiss largellargelyy indirecindirectt frofromm accountsaccounts oonn AlexandeAlexanderr anandd othersothers.. SeeSee Ellis,Ellis, chapchap.. IlIIIl ff.ff. 101033 foforr anan explanatioexplanationn ooff ththee evidence.evidence. 8484 EllisEllis,, 85-86.85-86. 8585 AthenaeusAthenaeus,, 13.513.5.. 4141

ThessaliaThessaliann interestsinterests.. IInn 352352 hhee marchemarchedd soutsouthh ttoo brinbringg ththee fightfight toto PhociPhociss Viavia

Thermopylae.8686 Onomarchus'Onomarchus' successosuccessorr PhayllosPhayllos,, howeverhowever,, hahadd beebeenn givegivenn enoughenough timetime iinn ththee interiinterimm betweebetweenn OnomarchusOnomarchus'' defeatdefeat anandd ththee presentpresent ttoo preparpreparee foforr thathatt linlinee ofof attackattack.. SupportedSupported bbyy ththee AtheniansAthenians,, hhee blockeblockedd ththee paspasss frofromm PhilipPhilip.. Philip Philip,, seeinseeingg nono easeasyy solutiosolutionn toto thithiss problemproblem,, simplsimplyy packepackedd uupp anandd movemovedd northeastnortheast ttoo deadeall witwithh moremore immediatimmediatee MacedoniaMacedoniann problems.problems.

DueDue ttoo hihiss initiainitiall defeatdefeatss atat ththee handhandss ooff OnomarchusOnomarchus,, PhiliPhilipp facedfaced a numbenumberr ooff challengechallengess ttoo hihiss immediatimmediatee securitysecurity iinn ThracThracee anandd ththee Chalcidice.Chalcidice. FirstFirst,, hihiss allyally

Cersebleptes,Cersebleptes, KinKingg ofof EasterEasternn ThraceThrace,, turneturnedd onon hihimm bbyy forgingforging a neneww alliancalliancee withwith

AthensAthens,, ththee termtermss ooff whicwhichh recognizerecognizedd ththee AtheniaAtheniann righrightt toto AmphipoliAmphipoliss andand pledgepledgedd toto helphelp inin ititss recoveryrecovery.87. ThiThiss wawass combinecombinedd witwithh setbacksetbackss iinn Philip'Philip'ss relationsrelations witwithh thethe

ChalcidiceChalcidice,, aass Olynthus,Olynthus, sensinsensingg Philip'Philip'ss weakness,weakness, alsoalso callecalledd forfor anan alliancealliance withwith

Athens.xx88

PhilipPhilip movemovedd firsfirstt againsagainstt Thrace.Thrace. CerseblepteCersebleptess hahadd immerseimmersedd himselhimselff iinn a warwar

OQ with his neighbors as he attempted to unite all of Thrace under his rule. 89 Philip's with his neighbors as he attempted to unite all of Thrace under his rule. Philip's response was to offer his assistance to those fighting against Cersebleptes. The three response was to offer his assistance to those fighting against Cersebleptes. The three allies already at war against Cersebleptes, Byzantium, Perinthia and Amadocus King of allies already at war against Cersebleptes, Byzantium, Perinthia and Amadocus King of Central Thrace, gratefully accepted his offer and with their blessing Philip besieged the Central Thrace, gratefully accepted his offer and with their blessing Philip besieged the city of Heraion. Athens saw this as an opportunity to strike at Philip at a distance from city of Heraion. Athens saw this as an opportunity to strike at Philip at a distance from

8686DiodorusDiodorus 16.38.216.38.2;; DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.84;19.84; JustinJustin,, 8.28.2;; EllisEllis,, 86-8786-87;; GriffithGriffith,, MacedoniMacedoniaa vv.. IIII,, 279-28279-2800 fnfn 7.7. CfCf.. WorthingtonWorthington,, 66-68.66-68. Worthington'Worthington'ss titltitlee ofof thithiss sectionsection,, "Philip'"Philip'ss AttemptAttempt ttoo BreacBreachh Thermopoylae"Thermopoylae" errerrss inin accordancaccordancee witwithh hihiss largelargerr biabiass ofof attemptinattemptingg ttoo provprovee Philip'Philip'ss expansionisexpansionistt designdesignss onon southernsouthern GreeceGreece.. ClearlClearlyy thertheree isis nnoo evidencevidencee thathatt PhiliPhilipp attempteattemptedd ttoo breacbreachh anything.anything. RatherRather,, findinfindingg ththee passpass blockeblockedd hhee simplsimplyy lefleftt ttoo deadeall witwithh incursionincursionss closecloserr ttoo hihiss homelanhomelandd ooff MacedoniMacedoniaa iinn Thrace.Thrace. 8877 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 23.18323.183;; EllisEllis,, 8787;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 60.60. 8888 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 1.131.13,23.107;, 23.107; TheopompusTheopompus,, F12F1277 .. 8899 ScholiastScholiast AeschinesAeschines,, 2.812.81.. 4242

AthenAthenss andand afteafterr a debatdebatee decidedecidedd ttoo sendsend a forceforce ooff fortfortyy vesselvesselss alonalongg witwithh fortfortyy talentstalents toto supportsupport theirtheir allyally Cersebleptes.9o90 ThiThiss ideaidea,, howeverhowever,, wawass neveneverr executeexecutedd outout ooff a lacklack ooff initiative.initiative. EventuallyEventually PhiliPhilipp tootookk ththee citycity anandd onconcee againagain solidifiesolidifiedd hihiss influencinfluencee inin

ThraceThrace witwithh thethe supportsupport ooff Amadocus.Amadocus.

HeHe nonoww turneturnedd hihiss attentionattention toto ththee ChalcidicChalcidicee anandd ththee OlynthiansOlynthians.. FollowingFollowing

Philip'Philip'ss defeatdefeat atat ththee handhandss ooff OnomarchusOnomarchus,, itit seemsseems thathatt OlynthuOlynthuss madmadee overtureoverturess ooff friendshifriendshipp ttoo ththee Athenians.9191 ThereThere isis ambiguitambiguityy withiwithinn ththee sourcesource materialmaterial aass ttoo Philip'sPhilip's exactexact responseresponse.. PhilipPhilip maymay havhavee undertakeundertakenn a smallsmall militarmilitaryy showshow ooff forcforcee iinn 351/035110,, butbut clearlyclearly hihiss aimaim wawass nonott ththee conquestconquest ofof ththee ChalcidicChalcidicee atat thithiss point.point. 92 AAss a result,result, thethe

OlynthiansOlynthians renewedrenewed theitheirr MacedoniaMacedoniann alliancalliancee thathatt yearyear,, butbut bbyy 343499 relationrelationss brokbrokee downdown completelcompletelyy andand a fulfulll scalescale warwar begabegann betweebetweenn PhiliPhilipp anandd OlynthusOlynthusY3. " PhiliPhilipp immediatelyimmediately

94 tooktook ththee wawarr ttoo ththee Chalcidice. 94 HHee firsfirstt tootookk ToroneTorone,, anan alliealliedd citcityy ooff Olynthus.Olynthus. NotNot

90 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 3.4-5.3.4-5. 9191 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 23. 11 Off;Off ; Ellis,Ellis, 81;81; Worthington,Worthington, 75.75. 9292 DemostheneDemostheness 1.12-13,8.40,9.56-66;1.12-13, 8.40, 9.56-66; TheopompusTheopompus FGrFGrHH 115115 F 127;127; EllisEllis,, 88-8988-89;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 69.69. BothBoth EllisEllis andand WorthingtoWorthingtonn concludconcludee thathatt ananyy venturventuree intintoo ththee ChalcidicChalcidicee aatt thithiss poinpointt musmustt havhavee beebeenn minimalminimal andand mighmightt havhavee beebeenn aass smallsmall aass a verbaverball warningwarning.. CfCf.. GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 298-299298-299.. GriffitGriffithh arguesargues thatthat thertheree wawass nnoo suchsuch actioactionn iinn 351/0,351/0, andand insteainsteadd onlonlyy ththee actionsactions ooff 343499 tootookk place.place. 9933 JustinJustin,, 8.38.3 OnlOnlyy JustiJustinn givesgives anyany reasoreasonn forfor ththee breabreakk inin relationrelationss betweenbetween PhiliPhilipp andand OlynthusOlynthus recordingrecording thatthat itit wawass a resulresultt ofof OlynthusOlynthus'' harborinharboringg Philip'Philip'ss twtwoo half-brotherhalf-brotherss anandd potentiapotentiall rivalsrivals.. OOnn ononee hanhandd iitt waswas iinn Philip'Philip'ss besbestt interestinterestss ttoo havhavee a pretexpretextt forfor ththee wawarr ssoo thathatt hihiss actions,actions, aatt leastleast oonn ththee surface,surface, werewere notnot blinblindd aggression.aggression. JustiJustinn characterizescharacterizes ththee eveneventt iinn thithiss mannemannerr pointinpointingg ououtt whawhatt hhee believebelievedd ttoo bbee yetyet mormoree evidenceevidence thatthat PhiliPhilipp wawass a mastemasterr ooff deceitdeceit anandd WorthingtoWorthingtonn agrees.agrees. OnOn ththee otheotherr handhand,, thithiss mamayy nonott havehave beebeenn merelmerelyy a pretexpretextt aass JustiJustinn indicatesindicates,, bubutt trultrulyy a strikestrike againsagainstt PhilipPhilip bbyy OlynthusOlynthus.. IInn otherother wordswords,, PhiliPhilipp woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn satisfiedsatisfied witwithh a diplomaticdiplomatic settlementsettlement ratheratherr thathann a militarmilitaryy oneone pre-349pre-349.. ThThee politicapoliticall climatclimatee ofof OlynthuOlynthuss changechangedd followinfollowingg heherr warninwarningg andand reconciliationreconciliation witwithh PhiliPhilipp iinn 351351 toto a pro-Macedoniapro-Macedoniann oneone.. ThiThiss act,act, howeverhowever,, mamayy havhavee actuallyactually beebeenn a revivarevivall ofof attemptsattempts aatt installininstallingg heherr owownn puppepuppett MacedoniaMacedoniann kingking,, whicwhichh finallfinallyy manifestemanifestedd itselitselff inin OlynthusOlynthus'' harborinharboringg ooff Philip'Philip'ss halhalff brothersbrothers.. IfIf thithiss wawass Olynthus'Olynthus' plaplann thethenn ththee situationsituation becamebecame cleaclearr toto PhiliPhilipp bbyy 349349 andand necessitatednecessitated hishis aggressiveaggressive policpolicyy againsagainstt Olynthus.Olynthus. SeeSee EllisEllis,, 93-9593-95;; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 298-299298-299 cf.cf. WorthingtonWorthington,, 74-75.74-75. 9494 EllisEllis,, 9696.. Cf.Cf. WorthingtonWorthington,, 16-11.76-77. ThThee evidencevidencee iiss ververyy limited,limited, bubutt iitt seemseemss thertheree wawass a mildmild disturbancedisturbance iinn ThessalThessalyy jusjustt aass wawarr brokbrokee ououtt betweebetweenn PhiliPhilipp andand Olynthus.Olynthus. NNoo sourcesource explainsexplains exactlyexactly hohoww PhiliPhilipp dealtdealt witwithh this,this, bubutt ElliElliss believebelievess thathatt hahadd hhee himselhimselff actuallactuallyy marchemarchedd oonn ThessalyThessaly,, specificallyspecifically Pherae,Pherae, thethenn thertheree woulwouldd bbee aatt leasleastt somesome evidenceevidence ttoo supporsupportt thisthis.. WorthingtoWorthingtonn suggestssuggests,, howeverhowever,, thatthat PhiliPhilipp actuallactuallyy foughfoughtt aatt Pherae,Pherae, bubutt givegivess nnoo supportinsupportingg evidence.evidence. 4343 throughthrough siege,siege, bubutt ratherrather througthroughh briberbriberyy hhee wawass ablablee ttoo havhavee ththee citcityy betrayebetrayedd ttoo him.95him.95

HeHe useusedd ththee samesame tactitacticc asas hhee movemovedd ttoo isolatisolatee OlynthuOlynthuss furthefurtherr bbyy takintakingg heherr port.port.

AgainAgain,, hehe useusedd goldgold ratheratherr thanthan armarmss ttoo achieveachieve hishis ends.ends.

AAss ththee wawarr beganbegan,, OlynthusOlynthus soughtsought ththee helhelpp ofof ththee AthenianAthenianss andand thethe mattematterr wentwent ttoo thethe assembly.assembly.Y696 DespitDespitee thethe obviouobviouss gaingainss iinn a defeatdefeat ooff PhilipPhilip,, iitt tootookk twtwoo monumentalmonumental speechespeechess frofromm DemostheneDemostheness (bot(bothh hihiss firstfirst anandd seconsecondd Olynthianic) ttoo convincconvincee thethe

AthenianAthenianss ttoo act.act. FinallyFinally,, ththee AthenianAthenianss votevotedd ttoo makmakee anan alliancealliance witwithh OlynthuOlynthuss andand theythey sentsent a forceforce ofof twotwo thousanthousandd peltastpeltastss andand thirtthirtyy shipsships undeunderr thethe commandcommand ooff ChareCharess toto helhelpp inin ththee resistanceresistance.. TheTheyy alsoalso sentsent theitheirr generagenerall iinn ththee ChersoneseChersonese,, Charidemus,Charidemus, toto reinforcreinforcee OlynthuOlynthuss witwithh ththee eighteeneighteen triremestriremes,, fourfour thousanthousandd peltastpeltastss anandd 150150 cavalrycavalry undeunderr hihiss command.command.

ThoughThough thethe AtheniansAthenians hahadd actuallactuallyy beenbeen ablablee ttoo sendsend theitheirr forceforcess beforbeforee PhilipPhilip tooktook ththee citcityy entirely,entirely, thetheyy werweree ooff littllittlee helphelp.. BByy ththee timtimee thetheyy hahadd arrivedarrived,, PhiliPhilipp hadhad alreadyalready effectivelyeffectively isolateisolatedd OlynthusOlynthus bbyy separatingseparating heherr frofromm heherr alliesallies bbyy botbothh groundground anandd seasea bbyy surroundingsurrounding ththee citcityy andand takintakingg controlcontrol ooff ththee port.9797 IItt wawass onlonlyy a mattematterr ooff timetime untiuntill ththee pressurespressures ofof ththee siegesiege werweree totooo mucmuchh foforr ththee Olynthians.Olynthians. 9988 PhiliPhilipp pressepressedd hihiss advantageadvantage,, causincausingg anan internainternall collapsecollapse ooff ththee OlynthiaOlynthiann resistance.9999 HHee bribebribedd twtwoo ooff theirtheir chiechieff officials,officials, EuthycrateEuthycratess andand LasthenesLasthenes,, ttoo betrabetrayy ththee citcityy ttoo himhim.. WitWithh thithiss fimlfinal

9595 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.53.2;16.53.2; Justin,Justin, 8.3.8.3. 9696 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 21.16121.161;; PhilochorusPhilochorus,, FGrFGrHH 49-5149-51;; AlfreAlfredd BradfordBradford,, Philip of Macedonia: A Life fromfrom the Ancient Sources (Westport(Westport:: PraegerPraeger,, 1992),60;1992), 60; EllisEllis,, 98;98; WorthingtonWorthington,, 7777.. 9797 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.53.1-2.16.53.1-2. 9898 GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 319319;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 81.81. PhiliPhilipp mamayy havhavee alsalsoo puputt pressurpressuree oonn ththee AthenianAthenianss bbyy encouragingencouraging ththee EuboeaEuboeann revolrevoltt thathatt yeayearr asas a meanmeanss ooff weakeninweakeningg AtheniaAtheniann supportsupport foforr OlynthusOlynthus.. WithWith thisthis neneww problemproblem soso closeclose ttoo homhomee foforr ththee AtheniansAthenians,, theitheirr resourceresourcess werweree thethenn dividedividedd betweenbetween OlynthusOlynthus andand EuboeEuboeaa anandd ththee prioritpriorityy iinn thathatt divisiodivisionn wawass ththee close-rangeclose-range probleproblemm ofof Euboca.Euboea. 9999 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.53.2-3;16.53.2-3; DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 8.40,8.40, 9.469.46,, 19.265,19.265, 19.342,19.342, 18.48;18.48; JustinJustin,, 8.38.3;; WorthingtoWorthingtonn ppgg 7799 fnfn 20.20. 4444 internalinternal betrayabetrayall thethe citcityy nownow fellfell intintoo Philip'Philip'ss possessiopossessionn anandd hhee wipewipedd iitt outout.. PhilipPhilip destroyeddestroyed ththee citycity,, soldsold ththee inhabitantsinhabitants intintoo slaverslaveryy anandd solsoldd theitheirr possessionpossessionss foforr profit.profit.

InIn takintakingg Olynthus,Olynthus, PhiliPhilipp hahadd alsalsoo taketakenn alalll ththee AtheniaAtheniann reinforcementreinforcementss thathatt hadhad beebeenn sensentt ttoo ththee citcityy andand thougthoughh hihiss treatmentreatmentt ofof ththee OlynthianOlynthianss mamayy havhavee beebeenn harshharsh,, hishis

100 treatmentreatmentt ofof ththee captivecaptive AthenianAthenianss waswas notnot.. IOU ThThee AthenianAthenianss whwhoo werweree capturecapturedd durinduringg ththee assaultassault werewere nonott killedkilled,, bubutt taketakenn prisoneprisonerr ttoo Pella.Pella. MoreoverMoreover,, anan AtheniaAtheniann envoyenvoy toto

PhilipPhilip,, CtesiphonCtesiphon,, whwhoo wawass sentsent ttoo PhiliPhilipp oonn unrelateunrelatedd businessbusiness,, camcamee bacbackk ttoo AthensAthens withwith mormoree sentimentssentiments ooff peacpeacee fromfrom ththee KingKing.. IItt seemedseemed,, CtesiphonCtesiphon relaterelatedd ttoo thethe assembly,assembly, thathatt PhilipPhilip hahadd regretteregrettedd beinbeingg suckedsucked intointo a wawarr witwithh AthenAthenss againsagainstt hihiss ownown wisheswishes andand hhee nonoww wantewantedd ttoo openopen upup avenuesavenues ooff communicationcommunication ttoo negotiatnegotiatee a peacepeace betweebetweenn ththee twtwoo powerspowers.. ThiThiss messagmessagee frofromm PhiliPhilipp wawass warmlwarmlyy receivereceivedd bbyy thethe

AthenianAthenianss andand notnot onlyonly diddid theythey agreeagree ttoo opeopenn uupp negotiationsnegotiations througthroughh a motiomotionn proposedproposed byby Philocrates,Philocrates, bubutt thetheyy alsalsoo votedvoted CtesiphonCtesiphon honorhonorss foforr bringinbringingg sucsuchh googoodd newsnews.. IItt waswas nonott allall euphoriaeuphoria iinn Athens,Athens, howeverhowever,, aass somsomee ofof ththee citizencitizenss stilstilll remembererememberedd Philip'sPhilip's reputationreputation foforr deceit.deceit. WitWithh thithiss i inn minmindd thethenn thetheyy alsoalso passepassedd a motionmotion proposeproposedd byby

AeschineAeschiness ttoo sensendd envoysenvoys ttoo alalll ththee GreeGreekk statestatess proposinproposingg a unifieunifiedd efforeffortt againstagainst

·l· 101101 phiiiPhlip.P.

NowNow,, IIIin 347,347, eventsevents transpiretranspiredd thathatt changedchanged ththee complexioncomplexion ooff ththee politicalpolitical situationsituation betweebetweenn PhiliPhilipp andand ththee wholewhole ofof GreecGreecee southsouth ooff ThessalyThessaly.. HavinHavingg sufferedsuffered greatlgreatlyy aatt thethe handhandss ofof a PhociaPhociann offensivoffensivee inin ththee ThirThirdd SacreSacredd WarWar,, ThebeThebess andand thethe

100 Aeschines,Aeschines, 2.132.13.. 101 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.1019.10,, 19.30319.303.. 4455

BoeotianBoeotianss turneturnedd ttoo PhiliPhilipp foforr supportsupport.. I02 Philip'Philip'ss initialinitial responsresponsee wawass minimalminimal,, sendingsending onlyonly a handfuhandfull ofof troops,troops, bubutt ththee practicapracticall consequencesconsequences ofof thithiss requesrequestt werweree monumental.monumental.

TheThe complexitcomplexityy ofof thethe situationsituation wawass a producproductt ooff Philip'Philip'ss differindifferingg relationrelationss betweenbetween himself,himself, Thessaly,Thessaly, AthenAthenss andand ThebesThebes.. ThessalThessalyy wawass Philip'Philip'ss closestclosest allyally.. HHee waswas,, thereforetherefore,, officiallyofficially bounboundd ttoo opposeoppose PhociaPhociann interestsinterests inin ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar.. InIn thisthis mannermanner hehe wawass iinn linlinee witwithh ThebeThebess anandd ththee BoeotianBoeotianss aass well,well, bubutt aann annihilationannihilation ofof

PhocisPhocis effectivelyeffectively meanmeantt aann affirmatioaffirmationn ooff ThebeThebess aass ththee mosmostt dominandominantt statstatee inin BoeotiaBoeotia anandd thethe Peloponnese.Peloponnese. ThisThis woulwouldd almostalmost certainlcertainlyy forcforcee AthenAthenss intintoo forgingforging aann alliancealliance witwithh ThebesThebes.. AnAn alliancealliance ooff thithiss naturenature woulwouldd bbee exactlyexactly whawhatt hhee hahadd workeworkedd againstagainst whewhenn preventingpreventing aann Olynthian-AthenianOlynthian-Athenian alliancealliance.. PhiliPhilipp coulcouldd nonott alloalloww AtheniaAtheniann navalnaval powepowerr toto paipairr witwithh ananyy otheotherr citycity thathatt hahadd significantsignificant landland powepowerr forfor fearfear ooff AthenianAthenian agitated aggression within the immediate and surrounding territories of Macedonia. 103101 agitated aggression within the immediate and surrounding territories of Macedonia. Finally, the nature of his own relationship with Athens was uncertain enough to prevent Finally, the nature of his own relationship with Athens was uncertain enough to prevent him from moving into central Greece on behalf of Thessaly or Thebes for fear of an him from moving into central Greece on behalf of Thessaly or Thebes for fear of an attack from the rear by the Athenians. attack from the rear by the Athenians. For the Athenians, who feared Philip's presence in central Greece since it could For the Athenians, who feared Philip's presence in central Greece since it could result in their having to bow to Theban dominance, the Boeotian call for assistance also result in their having to bow to Theban dominance, the Boeotian call for assistance also was extremely alarming. The Athenians had not yet made good on Philip's overtures of was extremely alarming. The Athenians had not yet made good on Philip's overtures of peace to this point, hoping that a coalition of Greek states could be formed to oppose him, peace to this point, hoping that a coalition of Greek states could be formed to oppose him, but despite Aeschines' best efforts there was little support to be found within Greece for but despite Aeschines' best efforts there was little support to be found within Greece for

102 102 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.58.1-3,16.58.1-3, 16,59.2.16,59.2. 103103 CfCf.. WorthingtonWorthington,, 84-8584-85;; JohnJohn BucklerBuckler,, "Philip"Philip IPII'ss DesignDesignss onon Greece,Greece,"" 83-86.83-86. IItt hahass alsalsoo beenbeen consideredconsidered thathatt hihiss preventiopreventionn ooff AthenianAthenian anandd ThebaThebann alliancalliancee wawass basebasedd specificallyspecifically onon preventinpreventingg anan obstacleobstacle iinn hihiss conquesconquestt ooff centralcentral GreeceGreece.. ThisThis sentimentsentiment iiss basebasedd upouponn ththee faultfaultyy premispremisee thathatt PhiliPhilipp waswas alreadyalready benbentt oonn ththee conquerinconqueringg ooff thisthis region.region. ThThee evidenceevidence,, howeverhowever,, doedoess nonott supportsupport thithiss claim.claim. 4646 anan AtheniaAtheniann led,led, Pan-HellenicPan-Hellenic,, anti-Macedoniananti-Macedonian alliance.alliance. ThThee onlyonly supportsupport thetheyy foundfound wawass fromfrom ththee Phocians,Phocians, whwhoo offereofferedd thethemm controcontroll ofof ththee citiecitiess thathatt controllecontrolledd ththee paspasss atat

Thermopylae.104104 ThiThiss woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn a giangiantt stepstep forwarforwardd iinn AtheniaAtheniann planplanss forfor resistinresistingg PhilipPhilip,, bubutt iitt wawass nonott ttoo bebe.. ThThee PhociaPhociann leaderleaderss whowho hahadd offeredoffered thesthesee citiecitiess toto

AthenAthenss werweree shortlshortlyy thereaftethereafterr arrestedarrested andand ththee politicapoliticall climateclimate iinn PhociPhociss immediatelyimmediately changechangedd ttoo a feelingfeeling ofof hostilithostilityy ttoo AtheniaAtheniann proposalsproposals.. TheThe neneww PhociaPhociann leaderleaderss metmet

AtheniaAtheniann embassiesembassies coldlycoldly anandd denieddenied ththee previoupreviouss agreementagreement ttoo hanhandd oveoverr theitheirr cities.cities.

AthenAthenss waswas lefleftt withouwithoutt ananyy optionoptionss forfor defendindefendingg herselherselff againsagainstt Philip.Philip.

BByy 346346 AthenAthenss hahadd receivereceivedd nnoo supportsupport foforr a coalitiocoalitionn anandd hahadd nnoo wawayy ofof blockinblockingg PhiliPhilipp fromfrom enterinenteringg centralcentral GreecGreecee anandd thereforthereforee wawass forceforcedd ttoo pursupursuee thethe procesprocesss ooff peacepeace.. InIn thithiss regarregardd AthenAthenss sentsent ththee firsfirstt ofof twtwoo embassies,embassies, whicwhichh includedincluded

105 AeschinesAeschines,, DemostheneDemostheness anandd PhilocratePhilocratess iinn earlyearly 343466 ttoo negotiatnegotiatee peacpeacee witwithh Philip. lOS

FoForr Philip'Philip'ss parpartt thertheree werweree fivfivee specificspecific requirementrequirementss foforr peacpeacee betweebetweenn MacedoniMacedoniaa andand

AthensAthens.. FirsFirstt andand foremostforemost,, botbothh partiepartiess musmustt recognizrecognizee whawhatt thetheyy eaceachh controllecontrolledd ttoo thisthis point. 106106 ThuThuss AthensAthens musmustt givgivee uupp anyany claimclaimss ttoo ththee territoriesterritories,, suchsuch asas AmphipoliAmphipoliss thatthat

PhiliPhilipp hahadd taketakenn sincesince hihiss ascensionascension ttoo ththee thronethrone.. ThiThiss alsoalso appliedapplied ttoo PhiliPhilipp inin recognizinrecognizingg ththee AtheniaAtheniann influencinfluencee oonn alalll ooff ththee ChersoneseChersonese,, exceptexcept ththee citcityy ofof Cardia,Cardia, whicwhichh wawass alreadalreadyy hihiss allyally.. SeconSecondd thertheree woulwouldd bbee a defensivedefensive alliancealliance betweebetweenn PhilipPhilip andand ththee AthenianAthenianss witwithh nnoo timtimee limitations.107107 MoreoverMoreover,, thithiss alliancalliancee wawass ttoo extenextendd toto

104 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.132-133.2.132-133. 105 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.182.18,, 2.822.82;; JustinJustin,, 8.4.8.4. 106 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 7.26.7.26. 107 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.48,19.48, 19.14319.143.. 4747 bothboth AthensAthens'' andand Philip'sPhilip's allies. I08108 ThisThis wawass donedone inin referencereference toto disputesdisputes overover CardiaCardia

(mentioned(mentioned above)above) andand Helos,Helos, whwhoo werweree revoltin revoltingg alliesallies ofof PhiliPhilipp beinbeingg assistedassisted byby

Athens.Athens. ThusThus AthenAthenss wouldwould havehave toto respectrespect CardiaCardia onon ththee ChersoneseChersonese andand ceasecease anyany supportsupport toto HelosHelos.. Finally,Finally, thethe peacpeacee woulwouldd includincludee safesafe passagpassagee forfor botbothh partiepartiess bbyy sea.sea.I09109

ThisThis wawass importantimportant toto botbothh parties,parties, ththee AthenianAthenianss inin theirtheir neeneedd toto importimport graingrain fromfrom thethe

BlackBlack Sea,Sea, bubutt eveneven moremore soso toto PhilipPhilip sincesince hishis ownown navalnaval powepowerr palepaledd inin comparisoncomparison toto ththee AtheniansAthenians.. HavingHaving stressedstressed thesethese pointspoints andand promisingpromising notnot toto gogo toto ththee Chersonese,Chersonese,

PhiliPhilipp leftleft thethe AtheniaAtheniann ambassadorsambassadors andand headedheaded toto campaigncampaign inin Thrace.11O110

OOnn ththee surfacesurface thethe peacepeace seemsseems ttoo favorfavor PhilipPhilip significantlysignificantly andand inin somesome respectsrespects itit did.did. EvenEven so,so, therethere werewere definitedefinite benefitsbenefits builbuiltt iinn forfor thethe AthenianAthenianss shouldshould theythey agreeagree toto thesethese termsterms.. BesidesBesides Philip'sPhilip's guaranteeguarantee nonott toto interfereinterfere witwithh ththee vitavitall graingrain tradtradee andand

AtheniaAtheniann influenceinfluence onon thethe Chersonese,Chersonese, PhilipPhilip hadhad alsoalso mademade clearclear ttoo ththee AthenianAthenianss duringduring ththee coursecourse ofof negotiationsnegotiations thatthat hehe hahadd nnoo intentionsintentions ofof bringingbringing ThebesThebes ttoo eminenteminent powerpower throughthrough hihiss involvementinvolvement iinn thethe SacredSacred War. III111 Instead,Instead, ifif hehe gainegainedd controlcontrol ofof ththee mattermatter hehe woulwouldd taktakee actionsactions ttoo promotpromotee thethe statusstatus ofof AthensAthens inin thethe region.region.

TheThe AtheniansAthenians tooktook allall ofof thithiss intointo considerationconsideration asas welwelll asas recommendationsrecommendations fromfrom theitheirr alliesallies andand proposedproposed anan emendationemendation ttoo Philip.Philip. TheThe AtheniaAtheniann suggestedsuggested thatthat therethere shouldshould bbee peacpeacee withouwithoutt alliancealliance andand thithiss peacepeace shouldshould bbee openopen toto allall GreeksGreeks ttoo joijoinn forfor threthreee months.112112 IInn thisthis wayway,, ththee negotiatednegotiated peacepeace wouldwould bbee a commoncommon agreementagreement amongamong alalll participantsparticipants ttoo support,support, militarilymilitarily ifif necessary,necessary, thethe statusstatus quo.quo. ThisThis waswas immediatelyimmediately

108108 Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 19.158.19.158. 109109 Dcmosthenes,Demosthenes, 12.2,12.2, 7.14.7.14. 110110 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.822.82;; DemosthenesDemosthenes 19.7819.78.. III111 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.42,19.42, 19.321.19.321. 112112 AeschinesAcschines,, 3.69.3.69. 4848

113 rejected by Philip, who wanted a peace between Athens and himself, or none at all. I 13 rejected by Philip, who wanted a peace between Athens and himself, or none at all. The Athenians, seeing that their choice was between a devastating war with Philip and a The Athenians, seeing that their choice was between a devastating war with Philip and a potentially beneficial peace with Philip, consented to the peace terms. potentially beneficial peace with Philip, consented to the peace terms. The peace was confirmed at a second conference in Pella, where many The peace was confirmed at a second conference in Pella, where many representatives from central and southern Greece came to negotiate with Philip regarding representatives from central and southern Greece came to negotiate with Philip regarding his impending action against Phocis. J J4 Though the sources that allow us any insight into his impending action against Phocis.114 Though the sources that allow us any insight into this second conference are all Athenian and therefore relate an attitude that Athenian this second conference are all Athenian and therefore relate an attitude that Athenian interactions were the most important, it is likely that Philip was interested in the attitudes interactions were the most important, it is likely that Philip was interested in the attitudes of all the cities as he prepared to move into central Greece. Aeschines gives us evidence of all the cities as he prepared to move into central Greece. Aeschines gives us evidence that supports this in relating quarrels from the conference between the Athenians, that supports this in relating quarrels from the conference between the Athenians, Thebans, Thessalians, and Spartans. I IS It seems that each group was advocating its own Thebans, Thessalians, and Spartans.115 It seems that each group was advocating its own interests in the Sacred War and arguing amongst themselves. It was a chance for Philip to interests in the Sacred War and arguing amongst themselves. It was a chance for Philip to get a first-hand look at the political situation in central Greece and the Peloponnese. get a first-hand look at the political situation in central Greece and the Peloponnese. Moreover, as Griffith notes, there is no record of Philip making any speeches Moreover, as Griffith notes, there is no record of Philip making any speeches during this assembly, which supports the theory that Philip brought this conference during this assembly, which supports the theory that Philip brought this conference together to feel out the political climate. 116 In this process, Philip attempted to placate together to feel out the political climate.116 In this process, Philip attempted to placate everyone privately. Through private conversations with at least his high ranking everyone privately. Through private conversations with at least his high ranking companions, the Athenians were told that Philip would punish the Phocians and the companions, the Athenians were told that Philip would punish the Phocians and the Thebans. 117 On the other hand, he made certain to reassure Phocis that he would turn to Thebans.117 On the other hand, he made certain to reassure Phocis that he would turn to support them. In short, Philip displayed to every ambassador present an air of support them. In short, Philip displayed to every ambassador present an air of

113113 AeschinesAeschines,, 3.72.3.72. J11 144 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.112.2.112. 115115 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.136.2.136. 1160riffith,116Griffith, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 342.342. 117117 AeschinesAeschines,, 2.137.2.137. 4949 friendship.1l8friendship.118 IItt seemeseemedd thathatt hehe distancedistancedd himselhimselff onlyonly fromfrom ththee ThebansThebans,, bubutt eveevenn soso aatt nnoo poinpointt dididd hhee taktakee a specificspecific politicapoliticall stancestance durinduringg ththee conferenceconference.. IInn factfact,, PhilipPhilip wentwent aass fafarr asas nonott signingsigning ththee alliancalliancee witwithh ththee AthenianAthenianss untiuntill hehe anandd alalll ththee envoyenvoyss hadhad leftleft

PellPellaa andand arrivedarrived inin Pherae;Pherae; a two-datwo-dayy marcmarchh frofromm ThermopylaeThermopylae.. IInn thithiss wayway,, PhiliPhilipp putput offoff ananyy andand allall politicalpolitical commitmentscommitments untiuntill hhee wawass iinn a positionposition ttoo taktakee ThermopylaeThermopylae nono mattematterr hohoww ththee politicapoliticall structurestructure ofof GreeceGreece mighmightt shift.shift.

BByy ththee timtimee ththee AtheniaAtheniann envoysenvoys hahadd returnereturnedd frofromm PellaPella ttoo finalizfinalizee ththee peacepeace witwithh PhilipPhilip atat AthensAthens,, PhilipPhilip hahadd taketakenn ThermopylaThermopylaee anandd wawass beginninbeginningg ttoo implementimplement hishis planplanss foforr endinendingg ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred War. I11 199 AlreadAlreadyy travelintravelingg witwithh ThessaliaThessaliann cavalrcavalryy andand

120 aatt closclosee rangrangee toto Thebes, 120 alalll PhiliPhilipp hahadd lefleftt ttoo ddoo wawass ttoo brinbringg AthenAthenss bbyy hihiss sidsidee soso hehe couldcould bebe seenseen asas ththee liberatorliberator ooff DelphiDelphi atat ththee heaheadd ooff a Pan-HelleniPan-Hellenicc alliancealliance anandd ssoo hehe sentsent a requesrequestt toto AthenAthenss foforr soldiers.soldiers. HiHiss requesrequestt wawass denieddenied byby ththee AtheniansAthenians,, bubutt theirtheir denialdenial becambecamee irrelevanirrelevantt whewhenn PhalaecusPhalaecus,, ththee leaderleader ooff thethe Phocians'Phocians' hirehiredd mercenaries,mercenaries, andand hishis mercenariemercenariess surrenderesurrenderedd ttoo PhilipPhilip,, followefollowedd quicklquicklyy bbyy theitheirr employers,employers, thethe

i • 121 Phocians themselves. 121 Phocians themselves. Thus ended the Third Sacred War and all that was left for the stability of Greece Thus ended the Third Sacred War and all that was left for the stability of Greece 1ll Philip's eyes was the final punishment of Phocis and reorganization of the in Philip's eyes was the final punishment of Phocis and reorganization of the Amphictyony.122 Regarding the latter, Philip was voted two honors. First, he would be Amphictyony.122 Regarding the latter, Philip was voted two honors. First, he would be

111188 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 9.119.11 119119 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.51;19.51; EllisEllis,, 116.116. 120120 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 6.14.6.14. 121121 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.61;19.61; AeschinesAeschines,, 2.1302.130;; JustinJustin,, 8.5.8.5. 122122 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.60.1-3;16.60.1-3; PausaniusPausanius,, 10.3.3;10.3.3; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 452-45452-4533 GriffitGriffithh pointpointss ououtt thatthat Philip'sPhilip's ambitionambitionss iinn controllingcontrolling ththee AmphictyonAmphictyonyy cannocannott bbee interpreteinterpretedd asas ththee first stepstep inin a plaplann toto subjugatesubjugate allall ooff GreeceGreece sincesince ththee councilcouncil itselitselff wawass nonott Pan-helleniPan-hellenicc andand wawass nonott a relevanrelevantt powepowerr entityentity toto thosthosee outsidoutsidee ofof thethe clubclub.. InIn factfact itit wawass formeformedd frofromm tietiess betweebetweenn groupgroupss iinn anandd arounaroundd DelphDelphii andand Thermopolyae.Thermopolyae. ThusThus iitt wawass onlyonly reallreallyy effectiveeffective atat politicallpoliticallyy manipulatinmanipulatingg centracentrall Greece.Greece. 5050 givegivenn thethe twotwo votevotess onon ththee councilcouncil thatthat previouslypreviously werewere heldheld bbyy Phocis.Phocis. ThisThis rightright wouldwould alsalsoo extendextend ttoo hishis descendants.descendants. Secondly,Secondly, hhee wawass votevotedd presidenpresidentt ofof ththee PythianPythian Games,Games, whicwhichh hahadd nonott occurredoccurred sincesince thethe beginninbeginningg ofof thethe ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar.. RegardingRegarding thethe

PhocianPhocian punishment,punishment, PhilipPhilip useusedd hishis influenceinfluence ttoo lessenlessen theirtheir punishmentpunishment.. TheThe traditionaltraditional punishmenpunishmentt forfor despoilingdespoiling a templetemple waswas ttoo bbee castcast fromfrom a cliffcliff andand thithiss punishmentpunishment waswas soughtsought byby somesome ofof Phocis'Phocis' mormoree diredire enemies.123enemies. TheThe endend resultresult,, howeverhowever,, waswas lessless devastating.devastating. AllAll bubutt oneone PhocianPhocian towntown wawass razed,razed, thethe peoplpeoplee themselvesthemselves werweree relocatedrelocated intointo smallsmall villagesvillages ofof fiftyfifty househousess allall separatedseparated fromfrom eacheach other,other, andand finallyfinally theythey werewere requiredrequired ttoo reparepayy thethe amountamount ofof moneymoney thathatt thetheyy hadhad taketakenn fromfrom ththee templetemple.. TheseThese punishmentpunishmentss woulwouldd bbee overseenoverseen bbyy ththee AmphictyonyAmphictyony,, butbut thethe reareall enforcementenforcement ofof thethe decreesdecrees wawass dondonee bbyy PhiliPhilipp whwhoo basedbased MacedoniaMacedoniann garrisonsgarrisons inin ththee neneww PhocianPhocian towns.124124

HerHeree atat thethe endend ofof 346,346, havinhavingg anan officialofficial alliancealliance witwithh Athens,Athens, endingending thethe ThirdThird

SacredSacred War,War, holdingholding a majoritymajority ofof ththee votevotess onon ththee AmphictyonicAmphictyonic Council,Council, andand establishingestablishing a generalgeneral peacepeace throughouthroughoutt Greece,Greece, isis ththee traditionaltraditional pointpoint forfor takintakingg pausepause toto assessassess Philip.Philip. Diodoms,Diodorus, perhapperhapss thethe fatherfather ofof thithiss traditionatraditionall pauspausee inin thethe narrative,narrative, commentscomments atat thisthis poinpointt thatthat PhilipPhilip wawass anxiousanxious toto becomebecome captaincaptain ofof HellaHellass toto makemake warwar onon behalfbehalf ofof thethe GreeksGreeks againstagainst Persia. 125125 SoSo iitt waswas thatthat DiodomsDiodorus believedbelieved PhilipPhilip hahadd notnot

123lZi AeschinesAeschines,, 2.142.2.142. 124124 Ellis,Ellis, 124;124; Cf.Cf. Worthington,Worthington, 102;102; BuckleBucklerr 84-85.84-85. EllisEllis suggestssuggests thatthat Philip'sPhilip's onlyonly intentionintention inin thethe MacedonianMacedonian garrisongarrisonss wawass ttoo tempertemper possiblpossiblee vindictivenessvindictiveness againstagainst ththee defeatedefeatedd Phocis.Phocis. WorthingtonWorthington suggestssuggests thathatt thethe purpospurposee ooff thesthesee trooptroopss wawass putput iinn placplacee asas a backubackupp planplan inin casecase ThebesThebes needeneededd ttoo bebe dealtdealt witwithh asas wellwell aass ttoo intimidatintimidatee ththee AtheniansAthenians.. BucklerBuckler positpositss thatthat thesthesee trooptroopss werewere parpartt ofof Philip'sPhilip's plan,plan, thoughthough nonott fullyfully developeddeveloped atat thithiss point,point, toto taketake overover ththee wholewhole ofof Greece.Greece. 125125 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.60.5.16.60.5. 5151 hadhad anyany aggreSSIveaggressive intentionintentionss foforr GreecGreecee andand bbyy 346346 wawass fullyfully intentintent oonn aann AsianAsian campaign,campaign, anandd ththee evidencevidencee supportssupports thithiss conclusion.conclusion.

TheThe firsfirstt phasphasee inin Philip'Philip'ss careercareer asas kinkingg waswas ththee preservatiopreservationn ofof MacedoniMacedoniaa itselfitself andand hihiss kingshipkingship.. IInn hihiss firsfirstt yeayearr aass kingking,, fromfrom 359359 ttoo 358,358, iitt wawass anan alalll outout mamadd dashdash ofof politicapoliticall andand militarmilitaryy geniugeniuss focusedfocused exclusivelyexclusively onon thithiss endend.. HHee thethenn movemovedd ttoo a secondsecond phasephase,, whicwhichh involveinvolvedd ththee removalremoval ooff meddlinmeddlingg influencesinfluences witwithh ththee potentiapotentiall ttoo stistirr upup troubletrouble iinn MacedoniaMacedonia.. InIn doingdoing soso,, hhee madmadee evereveryy efforteffort nonott ttoo irrevocablirrevocablyy alienatealienate

AthenAthenss andand alsoalso acquireacquiredd significantsignificant influenceinfluence inin ThessalyThessaly bbyy diplomaticdiplomatic meansmeans.. Finally,Finally,

Philip'Philip'ss thirthirdd objectivobjectivee wawass ttoo brinbringg ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WaWarr ttoo anan endend inin a wawayy thatthat promotepromotedd generalgeneral peacpeacee amongamong ththee GreekGreekss andand thereforthereforee indirectlyindirectly protecteprotectedd MacedonianMacedonian interestsinterests.. HavinHavingg closelyclosely examinedexamined Philip'Philip'ss interactioninteractionss witwithh ththee powerpowerss ttoo ththee southsouth iitt mustmust thereforthereforee bbee concludedconcluded thathatt ttoo 343466 PhiliPhilipp hahadd nnoo intentionsintentions ofof annexingannexing ananyy partpart ofof ththee GreeGreekk mainlandmainland.. ThuThuss DiodoruDiodoruss wawass correctcorrect whewhenn hhee concludedconcluded that:that:

WheWhenn PhiliPhilipp hahadd dealtdealt courteouslycourteously witwithh allall,, hhee returnereturnedd ttoo Macedonia,Macedonia, havinhavingg nonott merelmerelyy wowonn foforr himselhimselff a reputatioreputationn foforr pietpietyy anandd excellentexcellent generalship,generalship, bubutt havinhavingg alsalsoo madmadee importanimportantt preparationpreparationss foforr thethe aggrandizementaggrandizement thathatt wawass destinedestinedd ttoo bbee hishis.. FoForr hhee wawass ambitiouambitiouss ttoo bebe designatedesignatedd generagenerall ofof HellaHellass iinn supremesupreme commandcommand andand asas suchsuch toto 126 prosecute the war against the Persians. 126 prosecute the war against the Persians.

126 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.60.4-516.60.4-5.. CHAPTERCHAPTER IVIV

PHILIPHll..IPP ANANDD GREECEGREECE

WelWelll beforbeforee Philip'Philip'ss kingshikingshipp anandd ironicallironicallyy jusjustt twtwoo yearyearss afteafterr hihiss ownown birtbirthh thethe ideaidea ooff a uniteunitedd GreeGreekk campaigcampaignn againsagainstt PersiPersiaa wawass bornborn.. InIn 380380 IsocrateIsocratess publishepublishedd hishis

Panegyricus anandd foforr ththee firsfirstt timtimee puputt forwarforwardd ththee ideideaa ooff a cooperativecooperative efforteffort ooff GreekGreek statestatess againsagainstt ththee PersiansPersians.. ThusThus itit iiss bbyy nnoo stretchstretch ooff ththee imaginatioimaginationn thatthat PhiliPhilipp inin 346346 hahadd aatt leastleast somesome ideideaa ooff ththee benefitbenefitss ofof takintakingg wawarr intintoo AsiaAsia.. InIn fact,fact, IsocrateIsocratess himselfhimself madmadee suresure thathatt PhiliPhilipp wawass awareaware ofof thithiss whewhenn hhee publishepublishedd hihiss LetteLetterr ttoo PhiliPhilipp beseechingbeseeching

PhiliPhilipp ttoo lealeadd ththee GreekGreekss iinn suchsuch a campaigcampaignn iinn 346.346. 12727 IItt shoulshouldd nonott bbee concludedconcluded,, however,however, thathatt thithiss wawass ththee firsfirstt instanceinstance iinn whicwhichh PhiliPhilipp considereconsideredd a PersiaPersiann campaign.campaign.

PhiliPhilipp alreadalreadyy hadhad hishis firsfirstt tasttastee ooff thethe profitprofitss ooff expansioexpansionn anandd colonizatiocolonizationn fromfrom hishis experiencexperiencee witwithh PhilippoiPhilippoi.. MoreoverMoreover,, PhiliPhilipp coulcouldd nonott havhavee turneturnedd hihiss blinblindd eyeyee ttoo thethe vasvastt monetarmonetaryy rewardrewardss ooff AsiaAsiann conquest. 12R128 AlsoAlso,, ifif PhiliPhilipp hahadd conceivedconceived ooff a PersianPersian campaigcampaignn pre-34pre-3466 hhee woulwouldd neeneedd anan alliealliedd AtheniaAtheniann navnavyy andand thithiss neeneedd woulwouldd ggoo a longlong

129 way in explaining his almost inexplicable laxity in dealing with the Athenians. 129 way in explaining his almost inexplicable laxity in dealing with the Athenians. So it seems that the idea of a Persian campaign had most certainly crossed So it seems that the idea of a Persian campaign had most certainly crossed Philip's mind by 346, but how far his plans had progressed to this point is a matter of Philip's mind by 346, but how far his plans had progressed to this point is a matter of

127111 Isocrates,Isocrates, To Philip, 3030,120,122,154., 120, 122, 154. 128128 GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 460.460. 129129 GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 461461.. GriffithGriffith notenotess thathatt PhiliPhilipp hahadd manmanyy opportunitiesopportunities ttoo prespresss a militarymilitary advantagadvantagee againsagainstt ththee AthenianAthenianss suchsuch asas followinfollowingg ththee falfalll ooff OlynthusOlynthus,, oror iinn a SacreSacredd WaWarr afterafter AthensAthens refuserefusedd ttoo supporsupportt hihiss actionactionss iinn 346.346. 5353

debatedebate.. ThThee besbestt evidenceevidence iinn discerningdiscerning Philip'Philip'ss trutruee intentionintentionss araree hihiss actionsactions,, andand hishis

actionactionss ttoo thithiss pointpoint,, asas discussediscussedd above,above, hahadd beebeenn defensivdefensivee expansionexpansion.. PhiliPhilipp hahadd beenbeen

securingsecuring hihiss kingdokingdomm usinusingg differendifferentt strategiesstrategies frofromm ththee dadayy hhee tootookk ththee thronethrone,, andand

movinmovingg intintoo aann alalll outout offensivoffensivee wawarr withouwithoutt achievingachieving thithiss primarprimaryy goagoall woulwouldd havehave

beebeenn extremelyextremely uncharacteristiuncharacteristicc ooff himhim.. ItIt thereforthereforee standsstands ttoo reasoreasonn thathatt PhiliPhilipp waswas

simplysimply waitinwaitingg foforr ththee righrightt momenmomentt toto movmovee hihiss attentioattentionn ttoo ththee easteast.. HHee needeneededd a securesecure

kingdokingdomm asas welwelll aass amicablamicablee neighborneighborss ttoo movmovee hihiss forceforcess abroadabroad,, andand achievingachieving bothboth

thesthesee endsends becambecamee hishis primarprimaryy goalgoal bbyy aatt leastleast 346.346.

TowardTowardss thethe goalgoal ooff keepinkeepingg googoodd relationrelationss witwithh hihiss neighborneighborss ttoo ththee soutsouthh PhilipPhilip

hahadd madmadee solidsolid gainsgains inin hihiss resolutioresolutionn ooff ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred War.War. HHee hahadd beebeenn personallypersonally

votedvoted intointo ththee AmphictyonicAmphictyonic council,council, aass welwelll aass electeelectedd ttoo presidpresidee overover ththee firsfirstt PythianPythian

GameGamess sincesince ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee ThirThirdd SacreSacredd War. 130130 BotBothh ofof thesthesee werewere greagreatt honors,honors,

butbut,, unfortunatelunfortunatelyy foforr PhilipPhilip,, thetheyy dididd nonott constitutconstitutee ananyy sortsort ofof permanenpermanentt oorr eveevenn long-long-

tertermm vovoww ooff friendshifriendshipp frofromm hihiss southernsouthern neighborsneighbors.. IInn factfact,, despitdespitee Philip'Philip'ss hopeshopes,, thethe peacpeacee hhee hahadd engineereengineeredd wawass aann incrediblincrediblyy tenuoutenuouss oneone.. FirstFirst,, ThessalThessalyy anandd ThebeThebess werewere nonott fullyfully satisfiesatisfiedd wit withh Philip'Philip'ss conclusioconclusionn ooff ththee warwar.131. Second,Second, AthensAthens,, CorinthCorinth andand

SpartaSparta hadhad alalll beebeenn slighteslightedd bbyy thethe AmphictyonyAmphictyony,, a grougroupp nonoww leledd bbyy PhilipPhilip,, followingfollowing the war. 131322 Finally, Athens was clearly still unsure about whether or not to endorse the the war. Finally, Athens was clearly still unsure about whether or not to endorse the new peace in Greece as shown in the court cases between Aeschines and Demosthenes as new peace in Greece as shown in the court cases between Aeschines and Demosthenes as well as Demosthenes' address to the assembly On the peace. It was not until an envoy well as Demosthenes' address to the assembly On the peace. It was not until an envoy

1303 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.60.1;16.60.1; Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 5.14.5.14. 131131 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 5.12,5.12, 2020;; SeeSee alsalsoo EllisEllis,, 124124 fnl64fnl64;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 104.104. 132132 DiodoruDiodoruss 16.60.2;16.60.2; PausaniasPausanias,, 10.8.210.8.2;; DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.327;19.327; EllisEllis,, 124124 fnfn.. 165,165, 156156.. 5454 fromfrom thethe AmphictyonAmphictyonyy arrivearrivedd iinn AthenAthenss thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss decidedecidedd thathatt ththee peacpeacee wawass inin theitheirr besbestt interests.interests.

SSoo itit wawass thathatt ththee peacpeacee wawass a delicatdelicatee oneone anandd PhiliPhilipp spenspentt ththee majoritmajorityy ooff thethe followinfollowingg fivfivee yearyearss tendintendingg ttoo ititss maintenancemaintenance.. TheThe firstfirst probleproblemm camcamee iinn 345345 whewhenn thethe

DeliansOelians,, seekingseeking ttoo capitalizcapitalizee oonn anti-Atheniananti-Athenian sentimentsentiment withinwithin ththee AmphictyonicAmphictyonic

CouncilCouncil,, broughbroughtt a suitsuit ttoo ththee AmphictyonAmphictyonyy protestinprotestingg AtheniaAtheniann subjugationsubjugation ooff thethe island. 133133 Athens had gained control of the island in the mid-fifth century as she moved island. ~ Athens had gained control of the island in the mid-fifth century as she moved from leading member of the Delian League to master of an Athenian empire. The Oelians from leading member of the Delian League to master of an Athenian empire. The Delians now took this up with the council and somewhat surprisingly, all of the anti-Athenian now took this up with the council and somewhat surprisingly, all of the anti-Athenian sentiment did not carry the vote. Rather it seems that Philip must have used his own sentiment did not carry the vote. Rather it seems that Philip must have used his own influence in the council to uphold Athenian claims to the island. In doing so Philip was influence in the council to uphold Athenian claims to the island. In doing so Philip was following his own precedent of pacifying the Athenians whenever it was convenient for following his own precedent of pacifying the Athenians whenever it was convenient for him to do so. him to do so. The Delian suit had been but a minor hiccup in the peace, but developments in The Delian suit had been but a minor hiccup in the peace, but developments in Thessaly threatened to damage the very foundation of Philip's southern security. In his Thessaly threatened to damage the very foundation of Philip's southern security. In his resolution of the Third Sacred War and the reestablishment of the Amphictyony, Philip, resolution of the Third Sacred War and the reestablishment of the Amphictyony, Philip, being Archon of Thessaly, had favored Thessalian interests heavily by increasing being Archon of Thessaly, had favored Thessalian interests heavily by increasing Thessaly's power within the council and in the power structures of central Greece. 134 Thessaly's power within the council and in the power structures of central Greece.134 Despite his efforts, opposition against Philip formed in its traditional locale, Pherae, and Despite his efforts, opposition against Philip formed in its traditional locale, Pherae, and more surprisingly in Larisa. The Aleuadian family began asserting itself in these cities more surprisingly in Larisa. The Aleuadian family began asserting itself in these cities

133133 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 18.134-135;18.134-135; ElliElliss 130-134;130-134; WorthingtonWorthington,, 107-108.107-108. 134134 EllisEllis,, 137;137; JJ.. Buckler,Buckler, Aegean Greece in the Fourth Century BC (Boston(Boston:: BrillBrill,, 2003)2003),, 451.Cf.451.Cf. WorthingtonWorthington,, 110.110. 5555 andand takintakingg stepssteps ttoo challengechallenge Philip'Philip'ss authority.13Sauthority.135 IInn 344344 PhiliPhilipp responderespondedd quicklyquickly andand decisivelydecisively witwithh militarmilitaryy force.force. HeHe expelleexpelledd ththee AleuadaAlcuadaee alongalong witwithh anyany otheotherr oppositionopposition ttoo hihimm iinn thethe citiescities.. AfterAfter removinremovingg thethe immediatimmediatee threatthreatss ttoo hihiss powepowerr hhee solidifiesolidifiedd hishis gainsgains militarilmilitarilyy bbyy installinginstalling a MacedoniaMacedoniann garrisogarrisonn iinn Pherae.Pherae.

HavinHavingg quelledquelled ananyy potentiapotentiall militarmilitaryy uprisinuprisingg iinn ThessalyThessaly,, PhiliPhilipp nonoww turneturnedd toto eliminatineliminatingg ththee possibilitpossibilityy ooff furtherfurther dissentiondissention iinn thithiss regionregion.. HHee dididd ssoo througthroughh a massivemassive restructurinrestructuringg ooff ththee ThessaliaThessaliann government.l36136 PhiliPhilipp subsequentlysubsequently reviverevivedd thethe positiopositionn ooff tetrarctetrarchh withiwithinn thethe governancgovernancee ooff ThessalyThessaly.. IInn ththee fifthfifth centurcenturyy ThessalThessalyy hadhad beebeenn a bettebetterr organizeorganizedd territorterritoryy capablcapablee ooff politicapoliticall andand militarmilitaryy unityunity.. IInn ththee interim,interim, however,however, polipoliss rivalrrivalryy hadhad impedeimpededd ananyy coordinationcoordination ofof thethe territorterritoryy aass a wholewhole.. PhilipPhilip counteredcountered thithiss bbyy hihiss reinstatemenreinstatementt ofof ththee tetrarchstetrarchs:: foufourr governorgovernorss foforr ththee foufourr traditionaltraditional regionregionss ofof Thessaly.Thessaly. ThereThere wawass ononee majomajorr differencedifference iinn thesthesee tetrarchtetrarchss comparecomparedd withwith theitheirr fifth-centurfifth-centuryy counterparts:counterparts: nonoww thetheyy werweree appointeappointedd bbyy PhiliPhilipp andand responsiblresponsiblee onlyonly toto Philip.Philip. MoreoverMoreover,, PhiliPhilipp largel largelyy replacereplacedd anyany independenindependentt coinagecoinage witwithh MacedonianMacedonian currencycurrency.. InIn thithiss way,way, PhiliPhilipp puputt anan endend ttoo ananyy ooff ththee politicapoliticall meanmeanss bbyy whicwhichh rebellionrebellion inin ThessalyThessaly couldcould bbee achieved.achieved. TheThe insurrectioinsurrectionn againstagainst PhilipPhilip leledd bbyy PheraPheraee andand LarisaLarisa hahadd movemovedd ThessalyThessaly frofromm valuevaluedd ally,ally, supportesupportedd generouslgenerouslyy iinn ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar,, toto a MacedonianMacedonian subjectsubject state.state.

PerhapPerhapss influencedinfluenced bbyy politicapoliticall fluctuationfluctuationss occurringoccurring iinn eveneven a trustetrustedd allyally suchsuch aass LarisaLarisa,, PhilipPhilip decidedecidedd toto taktakee stepssteps ttoo reinforcreinforcee ththee tenuoutenuouss peacpeacee betweebetweenn MacedoniaMacedonia

135135 PolyaenusPolyaenus,, 4.2.114.2.11;; AristotleAristotle,, Politics, 5.1306a;Diodorus,5.1306a;Diodorus, 16.69.8;16.69.8; EllisEllis,, 137;137; Buckler,Buckler, Aegean Greece,Greece, 453453.. 136136 DemosthenesDemosthenes;; 6.22,6.22, 9.33,9.33, 19.26;19.26; EllisEllis;; 139-143;139-143; WorthingtonWorthington,, 111;111; GriffithGriffith,, MacedoniMacedoniaa vv.. IIII,, 533533.. GriffithGriffith,, howeverhowever,, datedatess Philip'sPhilip's reformreformss ttoo 342342 ratheratherr thathann 344.344. 5656

andand Athens. \37137 Philip'sPhilip's influenceinfluence hahadd beebeenn growinggrowing iinn ththee PeloponnesPeloponnesee aass hhee wawass thethe

guarantoguarantorr ofof freedomfreedom frofromm SpartSpartaa forfor manmanyy smallersmaller statesstates.. AAss a resulresultt thertheree wcrewere

grumblinggrumblingss iinn AthenAthenss thathatt thithiss growingrowingg influencinfluencee wawass parpartt ooff a ploplott bbyy PhiliPhilipp ttoo movemove

againsagainstt AthensAthens.. PhilipPhilip addresseaddressedd thesthesee rumorrumorss througthroughh anan envoenvoyy ooff hihiss alliealliess ttoo AthensAthens

headeheadedd bbyy PythoPythonn ooff ByzantiumByzantium.. Philip'Philip'ss ambassadoambassadorr spokespoke beforbeforee aann assemblyassembly ofof thethe

AthenianAthenianss anandd begabegann bbyy expressingexpressing Philip'Philip'ss disappointmentdisappointment aatt AtheniaAtheniann distrustdistrust.. PhilipPhilip

hadhad spentspent ththee majoritmajorityy ofof hishis kingshikingshipp seekingseeking alliancealliance witwithh thethe AthenianAthenianss anandd inin

responsresponsee hhee wawass constantlconstantlyy accuseaccusedd ooff conspiringconspiring againsagainstt themthem.. IfIf thetheyy werewere concernedconcerned

abouaboutt hihiss growinggrowing influenceinfluence ttoo ththee southsouth thetheyy shoulshouldd joijoinn hihimm iinn hihiss protectioprotectionn ooff thethe

freedomfreedom ooff thosthosee statesstates againsagainstt Sparta.Sparta. ThiThiss havinhavingg been,been, saidsaid,, PythonPython concludedconcluded byby

conveyingconveying Philip'Philip'ss offer ttoo ththee AthenianAthenianss thathatt thetheyy shoulshouldd proposproposee amendmentamendmentss ttoo theirtheir

peacpeacee witwithh PhiliPhilipp soso thathatt thetheyy mighmightt bbee reassurereassuredd ofof hihiss intentions.intentions.

ThThee AthenianAthenianss werweree welwelll disposedisposedd towardtoward ththee envoenvoyy followingfollowing hihiss speech.speech. HeHe hadhad

calmecalmedd ththee majoritmajorityy ofof theitheirr fearfearss regardinregardingg Philip'Philip'ss intentionsintentions,, bubutt iitt seemsseems ththee demosdemos

wawass stillstill unablunablee ttoo executeexecute ananyy rationarationall politicapoliticall maneuverinmaneuveringg aatt thithiss pointpoint.. IInn responsresponsee toto

Philip'Philip'ss requesrequestt forfor amendmentsamendments ttoo ththee alreadalreadyy existingexisting peacepeace,, ththee AthenianAthenianss madmadee twotwo proposalsproposals:: FirsFirstt thathatt ththee originaloriginal wordwordss ofof ththee peacpeacee thathatt "each"each sideside havhavee whawhatt theythey hold,"hold,"

should be changed to "each side have what belongs to them.,,138138 Second, that their should be changed to "each side have what belongs to them." Second, that their original request for a common peace amongst all of Greece be granted with the terms that original request for a common peace amongst all of Greece be granted with the terms that

lil 137 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 7.18-7.227.18-7.22,, 7.30,7.30, 12.18,12.18, 18.136;18.136; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v.//v.II,, 489-495489-495;; EllisEllis,, 144-147;144-147; Worthington,Worthington, 112-114;112-114; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 458-451.458-451. 13IJ88 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 7.187.18,, 7.26.7.26. 5757 iiff anyany statstatee werweree ttoo taktakee actionaction againstagainst ananyy otheotherr state,state, includinincludingg thosthosee nonott includedincluded iinn thethe

139 treaty, those states bound by the treaty would move against the aggressor. 139 treaty, those states bound by the treaty would move against the aggressor. Philip granted the second of these requests, but for any Athenian to believe Philip Philip granted the second of these requests, but for any Athenian to believe Philip would accept the proposed word change was foolish to say the least. The rhetoric seemed would accept the proposed word change was foolish to say the least. The rhetoric seemed harmless on the surface, but the implication of the change was transparent. The Athenians harmless on the surface, but the implication of the change was transparent. The Athenians were once again attempting to lay claim to Amphipolis. l4o To conceive of this as a were once again attempting to lay claim to Amphipolis.140 To conceive of this as a possibility was naIve, but to have the effrontery to make the claim while Philip was once possibility was naive, but to have the effrontery to make the claim while Philip was once again reaching out in peace was offensive at the very least. Philip's reaction to the envoy again reaching out in peace was offensive at the very least. Philip's reaction to the envoy from Athens, which conveyed the Athenian proposed amendments, was less than from Athens, which conveyed the Athenian proposed amendments, was less than favorable. 141 Nevertheless, he collected himself enough to give a counter offer to the favorable.141 Nevertheless, he collected himself enough to give a counter offer to the Athenians, agreeing to the proposed common peace and offering to give them the island Athenians, agreeing to the proposed common peace and offering to give them the island of Halonnesus. The negotiation took a turn for the worse as the Athenians denied Philip's of Halonnesus. The negotiation took a turn for the worse as the Athenians denied Philip's 'gift' of Halonnesus since they did not believe it was his to give. 142 This was all the 'gift' of Halonnesus since they did not believe it was his to give.]42 This was all the arrogance that Philip could take for the moment, and the discussion between Macedonia arrogance that Philip could take for the moment, and the discussion between Macedonia and Athens was suspended with a less than courteous dismissal of the Athenian envoy and Athens was suspended with a less than courteous dismissal of the Athenian envoy from Pella. from Pella. Philip's next correspondence with the Athenians came in a letter he addressed to Philip's next correspondence with the Athenians came in a letter he addressed to them in 343/2. Known simply as Philip's letter, the letter itself largely complains of them in 343/2. Known simply as Philip's letter, the letter itself largely complains of

139139 TherTheree isis a debatedebate oveoverr whethewhetherr oorr nonott PhiliPhilipp wawass actuallactuallyy ththee ononee whwhoo suggestedsuggested a commoncommon peacpeacee atat thisthis timetime.. GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 494900 anandd BucklerBuckler,, AegeanAegean,, 464600 botbothh contendcontend thathatt thethe ideaidea forfor commoncommon peacpeacee wawass initiateinitiatedd bbyy ththee AthenianAthenianss whilwhilee EllisEllis,, 145145 anandd WorthingtonWorthington,, 112112 botbothh purporpurportt thathatt iitt wawass a propositiopropositionn frofromm PhiliPhilipp ttoo ththee AtheniansAthenians.. TheThe evidenceevidence doedoess nonott seeseemm adequateadequate ttoo supporsupportt ththee conclusionconclusion thathatt ththee initiativeinitiative ooff ththee commocommonn peacpeacee wawass anyoneanyone else'else'ss otherother thathann thethe AtheniansAthenians.. SeeSee Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 7.30,7.30, 7.187.18.. BotBothh ooff thesthesee supporsupportt anan AtheniaAtheniann initiative.initiative. 140140 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 7.23-24.7.23-24. 141141 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 19.331.19.331. 142142 AeschinesAeschines,, 3.83.3.83 ... 5858

AtheniaAtheniann laclackk ooff cooperatiocooperationn witwithh hihiss manmanyy attemptattemptss ttoo establishestablish amicablamicablee relationsrelations betweebetweenn thethe twotwo.. PhilipPhilip iiss clearclear oonn thithiss poinpointt frofromm ththee ververyy firsfirstt sentencesentence ooff ththee letter,letter, whicwhichh readsreads,, "Since"Since I havhavee sentsent envoysenvoys agaiagainn andand againagain,, ttoo ensureensure thathatt wwee remairemainn faithfulfaithful ttoo ouourr oathoathss andand agreements,agreements, andand yoyouu havhavee madmadee nono reply,reply, I thoughthoughtt thathatt iitt waswas necessarynecessary ttoo sendsend yoyouu a letteletterr abouaboutt thosthosee mattermatterss oonn whicwhichh I believbelievee I havhavee beebeenn wronged.,,143wronged."143

PhiliPhilipp taketakess painpainss forfor overover halfhalf ththee letterletter (from(from 12.112.1 ttoo 12.16)12.16) toto outlinoutlinee ththee manymany grievancesgrievances hhee hashas againstagainst ththee AtheniansAthenians includingincluding theitheirr mosmostt recenrecentt affrontaffront iinn refusingrefusing hishis giftgift ofof HalonessuHalonessuss onon accountaccount ooff semantics.semantics.

AfteAfterr a longlong haranguharanguee againstagainst ththee paspastt actionactionss ofof AthensAthens,, hhee comecomess ttoo ththee poinpointt ofof thethe letterletter:: ttoo submitsubmit thathatt allall ththee grievancegrievancess betweebetweenn himselhimselff anandd AthenAthenss shouldshould bbee decideddecided byby arbitration. 144144 PhiliPhilipp makesmakes thithiss poinpointt anandd reinforcereinforcess hihiss desirdesiree foforr a peacefulpeaceful resolutioresolutionn betweebetweenn ththee twtwoo aass hhee asksasks ththee AthenianAthenianss ttoo "consider"consider thisthis particulaparticularr pointpoint:: isis itit bettebetterr ttoo reacreachh a judgmenjudgmentt bbyy armarmss oorr wordswords,, iiss iitt bettebetterr ttoo bbee persuadepersuadedd bbyy arbiterarbiterss oror bbyy others?,,145others?"145 MoreoverMoreover,, hhee notenotess thathatt "arbitration"arbitration woulwouldd bbee ttoo ththee advantageadvantage ofof thethe peoplpeoplee [of[of Athens]Athens]"" anandd followfollowss thithiss poinpointt bbyy determinindeterminingg thathatt iitt isis,, iinn fact,fact, ththee oratororatorss ofof

AthenAthenss whwhoo areare effectivelyeffectively preventinpreventingg a peacefulpeaceful relationshiprelationship,, whicwhichh iiss actuallyactually desireddesired bbyy ththee AthenianAthenianss aass a whole.146146 HavinHavingg thuthuss addresseaddressedd hihiss grievancegrievancess anandd hihiss wisheswishes

PhiliPhilipp finallfinallyy concludeconcludedd hihiss letterletter requestinrequestingg arbitrationarbitrationss ooff disputesdisputes bbyy writingwriting,, "I"I willwill defendefendd mmyy jusjustt interests,interests, witwithh ththee godsgods aass mmyy witnesseswitnesses,, andand I wilwilll supportsupport yourS.,,147yours."147

143 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.112.1.. 144 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.16.12.16. 145 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.17.12.17. 146 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.19.12.19. 147 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.23.12.23. 5959

TherTheree araree varyinvaryingg interpretationinterpretationss ofof Philip'Philip'ss objectiveobjectivess iinn thithiss correspondence.correspondence.

WaWass ththee letterletter simplsimplyy anan announcemenannouncementt thathatt hhee hahadd hahadd enoughenough ooff ththee AthenianAthenianss andand warwar wawass oonn ththee horizonhorizon oorr wawass ththee letteletterr a genuingenuinee laslastt plepleaa ttoo ththee AtheniaAtheniann democracydemocracy ttoo seesee reason?148reason?148 ThThee evidencevidencee suggestssuggests ththee latterlatter.. DespitDespitee Philip'Philip'ss lonlongg accountaccount ofof ththee wrongswrongs dondonee ttoo hihimm bbyy AthenAthenss thithiss lislistt actuallactuallyy functionsfunctions aass a rhetoricarhetoricall devicedevice bbyy settingsetting upup

Philip'sPhilip's requesrequestt toto havehave allall theitheirr mutuamutuall grievancegrievancess decidedecidedd bbyy arbitrationarbitration.. Moreover,Moreover, arbitrationarbitration wawass a perfecperfectt solutionsolution foforr PhilipPhilip ttoo seeseekk sincsincee whatevewhateverr decisiondecision wawass mademade regardinregardingg HalonessusHalonessus,, ththee AthenianAthenianss woulwouldd stilstilll bbee placateplacatedd andand ifif thetheyy raiseraisedd issuissuee overover

AmphipoliAmphipoliss Philip'Philip'ss claiclaimm ttoo ththee citcityy wawass muchmuch strongerstronger aass hhee pointpointss ououtt inin ththee finalfinal portioportionn ooff hihiss letter.149149 ThiThiss letteletterr thereforetherefore representrepresentss Philip'Philip'ss finalfinal plepleaa ttoo ththee AthenianAthenian peoplepeople.. BByy usinusingg ththee formatformat ofof a letteletterr hhee wawass bypassinbypassingg ththee middlmiddlee memenn (the(the AthenianAthenian orators)orators) anandd deliverindeliveringg a messagmessagee directlydirectly ttoo ththee AtheniaAtheniann peoplpeoplee iinn ththee hopehopess thathatt anan unadulterateunadulteratedd messagmessagee frofromm ththee KinKingg mighmightt alloalloww ththee demos ttoo seesee reasoreasonn ratherrather thathann a politicapoliticall picturpicturee manglemangledd bbyy ththee misrepresentatiomisrepresentationn ooff anti-Macedoniaanti-Macedoniann rhetoricrhetoric.. IInn thethe endend,, PhiliPhilipp hahadd nothinnothingg ttoo loslosee andand everythineverythingg ttoo gaigainn fromfrom thithiss letter.letter. ShouldShould thethe

AthenianAthenianss finallyfinally acceptaccept hihiss efforteffortss atat peacpeacee asas genuinegenuine,, thethenn hhee woulwouldd finallyfinally havehave establishedestablished ththee peacpeacee hhee hahadd hopehopedd forfor sincesince 348348.. If,If, oonn ththee otheotherr handhand,, ththee AthenianAthenianss diddid nonott changchangee theitheirr demeanordemeanor,, thethenn atat leasleastt hhee hahadd addedadded fuefuell forfor ththee debatdebatee andand iinn thithiss wayway couldcould keekeepp AthenAthenss indecisiveindecisive untiuntill wawarr becambecamee aann absolutabsolutee necessitynecessity.. AAss fortunefortune wouldwould

148 148 GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 495495;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 117;117; EllisEllis,, 154-157;154-157; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 469469.. GriffitGriffithh andand WorthingtoWorthingtonn araree ooff ththee opinioopinionn thathatt Philip'sPhilip's letteletterr wawass reallreallyy jusjustt a preludpreludee ttoo whawhatt PhiliPhilipp sasaww aass anan inevitablinevitablee wawarr witwithh AthensAthens.. ElliElliss an andd BuckleBucklerr oonn ththee otheotherr hanhandd believbelievee thatthat ththee letteletterr wawass a genuinegenuine attempattemptt ttoo persuadpersuadee ththee AtheniaAtheniann peoplpeoplee directldirectlyy thathatt peacpeacee witwithh PhiliPhilipp wawass nonott onlyonly possiblepossible,, bubutt iinn theirtheir besbestt interest.interest. BuckleBucklerr makemakess ththee besbestt argumenargumentt statingstating,, "Even"Even thougthoughh ththee AtheniaAtheniann temporartemporaryy retentioretentionn ofof ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann garrisogarrisonn brokbrokee ththee PeacePeace,, therebtherebyy providinprovidingg PhiliPhilipp witwithh a provocatioprovocationn ttoo warwar,, foforr thethe momenmomentt hhee declinedeclinedd confrontation.confrontation."" pp.. 469469 149149 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.20-2312.20-23.. 6060 havehave itit,, ththee lattelatterr becambecamee realityreality,, bubutt jusjustt becausbecausee thithiss iiss ththee cascasee doedoess nonott negatnegatee thethe likelihoodlikelihood thathatt PhilipPhilip wawass hedginhedgingg hihiss betsbets,, hopinhopingg foforr peacepeace,, bubutt preparinprcparingg foforr war.war.

IIff Philip'Philip'ss letteletterr wawass anan expressionexpression ooff hihiss hophopee thathatt reconciliatioreconciliationn mighmightt bebe possible,possible, thethenn thathatt hophopee wawass short-lived.short-lived. FollowinFollowingg hihiss correspondencecorrespondence ttoo ththee AtheniansAthenians inin 342342 PhilipPhilip begabegann takintakingg stepssteps ttoo protecprotectt MacedoniMacedoniaa frofromm anyany potentiapotentiall dangerdanger posedposed byby

Athens.Athens. AAtt thithiss timtimee PhiliPhilipp involveinvolvedd himselhimselff politicallpoliticallyy andand possiblpossiblyy militarilmilitarilyy iinn threethree

150 regionregionss ooff southernsouthern Greece:Greece: EuboeaEuboea,, ElisElis,, andand Megara. ISO PhiliPhilipp movemovedd hihiss militarmilitaryy intointo

EuboeaEuboea toto setset uupp a pro-Macedonianpro-Macedonian tyrannytyranny iinn ththee citcityy ooff Oreus. ISI151 HHee alsoalso expelleexpelledd thethe pro-Athenianpro-Athenian factionfaction fromfrom EretiaEretia andand subsequentlysubsequently Porthmus,Porthmus, againagain installinginstalling a tyranttyrant favorablefavorable ttoo MacedoniaMacedonia iinn EretiaEretia.. 152 InIn ElisElis,, PhiliPhilipp confinedconfined hihiss actionsactions ttoo financialfinancial support of a pro-Macedonian faction involved in civil strife. 153153 Finally, his involvement support of a pro-Macedonian faction involved in civil strife. ~~ Finally, his involvement in Megara is historically spotty in the sources, but Demosthenes gives us evidence that a in Megara is historically spotty in the sources, but Demosthenes gives us evidence that a leader in the city, Perillus, sought Philip's aid in deciding some civil strife. I54 It seems leader in the city, Perillus, sought Philip's aid in deciding some civil strife.1'4 It seems that on this front, at least, Philip was unsuccessful. that on this front, at least, Philip was unsuccessful. Philip's relationship with Athens continued its downward spiral the following Philip's relationship with Athens continued its downward spiral the following year as the situation in the Chersonese heated up. While Philip was campaIgnmg m year as the situation in the Chersonese heated up. While Philip was campaigning in Thrace in 341, the Athenians sent their general Diopithes to solidify their holdings in the Thrace in 341, the Athenians sent their general Diopithes to solidify their holdings in the Chersonese. I55 He did more than merely protect Athenian assets. Diopithes attacked Chersonese.155 He did more than merely protect Athenian assets. Diopithes attacked Crobyle and Tiristasis, areas adjacent to Cardia, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Crobyle and Tiristasis, areas adjacent to Cardia, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. 150150 Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 496-504496-504;; EllisEllis,, 162-166;162-166; WorthingtonWorthington,, 125125 151151 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 9.33.9.33. 152152 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 9.57-58,9.57-58, 19.87,19.87, 19.324-326;19.324-326; DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.74.IThe16.74.IThe pro-Atheniapro-Atheniann partpartyy hahadd flefledd fromfrom EretiaEretia ttoo PorthmuPorthmuss asas PhiliPhilipp hahadd approachedapproached theitheirr city.city. 153153 DemostheneDemostheness 9.279.27,10.10,19.260-261;, 10.10, 19.260-261; PausaniasPausanias,, 4.28.44.28.4,5.4.9., 5.4.9. 154154 Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 19.87,19.87, 19.294-296.19.294-296. 155155 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 8.6,8.6, 9.159.15;; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 564-566564-566;; EllisEllis,, 168-170;168-170; WorthingtonWorthington,, 126-128;126-128; Buckler,Buckler, Aegean, 470-473470-473.. 6611

ThisThis movmovee waswas clearlclearlyy aggressivaggressivee inin naturnaturee towardtowardss ththee CardiansCardians,, whwhoo responderespondedd byby callingcalling forfor anandd receivinreceivingg supportsupport frofromm Philip.Philip.156156 DiopeithesDiopeithes'' transgressiontransgressionss diddid nonott stopstop therethere.. UpoUponn thesthesee difficultiesdifficulties,, PhiliPhilipp sentsent anan ambassadorambassador namenamedd AmphilochuAmphilochuss ttoo discussdiscuss thesethese mattermatterss witwithh DiopeithesDiopeithes.. WheWhenn hhee arrived,arrived, DiopeitheDiopeithess arrestedarrested anandd torturedtortured

AmphilochusAmphilochus,, releasinreleasingg hihimm onlyonly afteafterr exactinexactingg a nine-talennine-talentt ransoransomm frofromm PhilipPhilip,, hardlyhardly

157 anan 0oliv Ilve· e bbrancranc h considerinconSI'd' enng g tth he Clfcumstancescircumstances. . ..157

MeanwhilMeanwhilee ththee AthenianAthenian positiopositionn hadhad,, atat leasleastt marginallymarginally,, recovered.recovered.

DemostheneDemostheness inin collusioncollusion witwithh CalliasCallias ooff ChalkisChalkis wawass promisinpromisingg a uniteunitedd frontfront ooff resistance from Megara and Euboea against Philip's aggression. 158158 The Euboeans were resistance from Megara and Euboea against Philip's aggression. ~ The Euboeans were uniting and they would do so against the Macedonians standing side by side with Athens. uniting and they would do so against the Macedonians standing side by side with Athens. A successful military venture added to this success. Phocian the Athenian was able to A successful military venture added to this success. Phocian the Athenian was able to dispose the tyrant Philip had installed in Eretia replacing him with a pro-Athenian dispose the tyrant Philip had installed in Eretia replacing him with a pro-Athenian government. Both of these events, if completely true, would have been major victories for government. Both of these events, if completely true, would have been major victories for the Athenians, but it seems that Demosthenes and Callias had overstated their case the Athenians, but it seems that Demosthenes and Callias had overstated their case somewhat. Aeschines points out Demosthenes' inability to follow through on all of his somewhat. Aeschines points out Demosthenes' inability to follow through on all of his promises in his speech 'Against Ctesiphon.' From Aeschines we learn that the armies promises in his speech 'Against Ctesiphon.' From Aeschines we learn that the armies Calli as and Demosthenes promised did not materialize, and furthermore, Euboea never Callias and Demosthenes promised did not materialize, and furthermore, Euboea never entered into alliance, but rather had formed into a league of her own, which just happened entered into alliance, but rather had formed into a league of her own, which just happened to hold the same anti-Macedonian sentiment as Athens. Thus while in some respects the to hold the same anti-Macedonian sentiment as Athens. Thus while in some respects the

156150 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 12.11.12.11. 157157 Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 12.312.3.. 158158 FoForr accountaccountss oonn thethe relationrelationss betweebetweenn AthenAthenss anandd EuboeEuboeaa seseee DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.74.116.74.1;; AeschineAeschiness 3.95-105;3.95-105; EllisEllis,, 173-174;173-174; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 565565;; BucklerBuckler,, 473-474473-474;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 128128.. 6622

AthenianAthenianss hahadd madmadee somesome gaingainss iinn Euboea,Euboea, thosthosee gaingainss werweree closecloserr ttoo marginamarginall thanthan major.major.

PhiliPhilipp forfor hishis parpartt wawass nonott inactivinactivee durinduringg thithiss perioperiodd eithereither,, makinmakingg gainsgains ooff hishis own.159159 HeHe hahadd pressedpressed onon subduingsubduing ThraceThrace anandd nonoww stoodstood oonn ththee doorstedoorstepp ooff Perinthus.Perinthus.

PerinthuPerinthuss hahadd beebeenn Philip'Philip'ss allyally,, bubutt aass ththee situatiosituationn betweebetweenn PhiliPhilipp andand AthenAthenss hadhad polarized,polarized, hishis previoupreviouss allallyy begabegann ttoo swinswingg towartowardd ththee AtheniaAtheniann sideside ratheratherr thathann thethe

Macedonian.Macedonian. OOnn thesthesee groundgroundss PhiliPhilipp laidlaid siegsiegee ttoo PerinthusPerinthus,, bubutt iitt provedproved nono easyeasy task.task.

TheThe PerinthianPerinthianss puputt uupp a stoustoutt resistancresistancee ttoo PhilipPhilip,, whwhoo builbuiltt hughugee towertowerss ttoo shootshoot downdown onon ththee defenderdefenderss aass hishis armarmyy continuouslycontinuously beltebeltedd ththee masonrmasonryy ooff ththee wallwallss witwithh Philip'sPhilip's neneww torsiotorsionn catapults.catapults. ThThee battlbattlee wawass a slowslow oneone,, bubutt PhiliPhilipp wawass makinmakingg headwayheadway.. HeHe wawass ablablee toto breacbreachh ththee walls,walls, aass welwelll aass ththee secondarysecondary wallwallss builbuiltt behinbehindd ththee firstfirst.. TheThe battlebattle,, howeverhowever,, stilstilll proveprovedd difficultdifficult asas ththee buildingbuildingss withiwithinn ththee citcityy werweree situatedsituated onon a hillhill,, andand thuthuss ththee attacattackk wawass uphiluphilll througthroughh narronarroww streets.streets.

DespitDespitee thethe stubbornstubborn resistancresistancee ooff ththee defenderdefenderss PhiliPhilipp wawass gainingainingg ground.ground.

PerinthuPerinthuss hahadd sufferesufferedd manmanyy casualtiescasualties anandd wawass havinhavingg heherr ownown supplsupplyy problems.1160 0

PerinthuPerinthuss wawass hanginhangingg bbyy a threathreadd andand iinn thithiss instancinstancee thetheyy turneturnedd ttoo theitheirr neighboneighborr upup shore,shore, ByzantiumByzantium.. Philip'Philip'ss intentionintentionss atat thithiss poinpointt werweree clearlclearlyy nonott limitelimitedd ttoo ththee capturecapture ofof a singlesingle citycity,, andand thisthis wawass nnoo secretsecret ttoo ththee peoplpeoplee ooff ByzantiumByzantium.. ThuThuss iitt shouldshould comecome aass nnoo surprisesurprise thathatt thetheyy decideddecided ttoo helhelpp theitheirr neighborneighborss inin resistinresistingg andand begabegann pouringpouring theitheirr resourcesresources intintoo ththee defensedefense ofof PerinthusPerinthus.. SuddenlySuddenly findinfindingg themselvethemselvess fullfullyy equippedequipped

159159 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.74.2-4;16.74.2-4; Ellis,Ellis, 174-176;174-176; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 571-572;571-572; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 479-480;479-480; WorthingtonWorthington,, 131131 . 160160 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.74.4-76.2;16.74.4-76.2; EllisEllis,, 178-179;178-179; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. 11,573-575;//, 573-575; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 480-481;480-481; Worthington,Worthington, 131-132.131-132. 6363

Inin suppliessupplies andand memenn frofromm ByzantiumByzantium,, ththee PerinthianPerinthianss redoubleredoubledd theitheirr efforteffortss againstagainst

PhiliPhilipp andand begabegann holdingholding firm.firm. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee PersiaPersiann KingKing,, ArtaxerxesArtaxerxes,, ordereorderedd thathatt thethe

PerinthianPerinthian causecause bbee supportedsupported withwith alalll thathatt hihiss satrasatrapp coulcouldd spare.spare. ThThee resulresultt wawass thatthat

Philip'Philip'ss siegesiege begabegann ttoo stagnatstagnatee againstagainst ththee combinecombinedd forceforcess ooff PerinthusPerinthus,, ByzantiuByzantiumm andand

Persia.Persia. HHee coulcouldd nnoo longelongerr makemake anyany headwaheadwayy whilwhilee ththee citycity wawass supportesupportedd throughthrough

ByzantiumByzantium..

WitWithh hishis siegesiege falteringfaltering,, PhiliPhilipp madmadee ononee lastlast ditcditchh efforeffortt ttoo cutcut ththee Perinthians'Perinthians' supportsupport frofromm Byzantium.161161 HiHiss navynavy wawass fafarr totooo weaweakk toto prevenpreventt ththee supplysupply ofof ththee city,city, bubutt PhiliPhilipp judgejudgedd thathatt ththee alliealliedd citycity ooff ByzantiuByzantiumm hahadd dangerousldangerouslyy overcommitteovercommittedd herher trooptroopss toto ththee defensdefensee ofof PerinthusPerinthus.. ItIt mighmightt bbee possiblpossiblee thenthen,, utilizinutilizingg ththee tactitacticc ooff speed,speed, ttoo movmovee ththee bodbodyy ofof hihiss attacattackk againstagainst ththee wallwallss ooff ByzantiuByzantiumm anandd subduesubdue thathatt citcityy duduee ttoo itsits sheersheer laclackk ofof immediatimmediatee resourcesresources.. PhilipPhilip,, thereforetherefore,, lefleftt a smallsmall forcforcee aatt Perinthus,Perinthus, investeinvestedd anandd tootookk Byzantium'Byzantium'ss closestclosest ally,ally, Selymbria,Selymbria, anandd felfelll upouponn ththee gategatess ooff

Byzantium.Byzantium. AAss iitt turneturnedd outout,, Philip'Philip'ss surprisesurprise tactitacticc borboree nnoo fruitfruit.. HHee foundfound thithiss secondsecond citcityy asas welwelll fortifiedfortified asas PerinthusPerin thus,, iiff nonott betterbetter.. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee inhabitantsinhabitants,, thoughthough

"embarrassed""embarrassed" atat theirtheir momentarmomentaryy laclackk ooff suppliessupplies,, neverthelesneverthelesss dredreww confidencconfidencee fromfrom

Philip'sPhilip's laclackk ooff navanavall powepowerr andand helheldd ououtt againstagainst him.him.

Philip'Philip'ss attemptattempt atat besieginbesiegingg ththee routroutee ttoo ththee HellesponHellespontt hahadd failedfailed.. TheThe motivatiomotivationn behinbehindd hihiss attemptattempt aatt ththee areaarea wawass likelylikely a combinatiocombinationn ooff botbothh anti-Atheniananti-Athenian policpolicyy andand a desiredesire ttoo securesecure a routroutee bbyy whicwhichh ttoo movmovee ttoo ththee easteast.. DespitDespitee hihiss lacklack ooff successuccesss iinn capturingcapturing ththee citiecitiess themselves,themselves, PhiliPhilipp dididd atat leasleastt havhavee somsomee successsuccess inin

l6l161 Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.76.3-4;16.76.3-4; Justin,Justin, 9.1;9.1; EllisEllis,, 178-179;178-179; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 573-574;573-574; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean,Aegean, 483-485483-485;; Worthington,Worthington, 132-133132-133.. 6464 impedingimpeding thethe AtheniaAtheniann graigrainn tradetrade.. 162 SometimeSometime duringduring ththee secondsecond siegesiege ooff Byzantium,Byzantium, ththee warshipswarships inin chargchargee ooff escortingescorting ththee graigrainn shipshipss werweree callecalledd awaawayy ttoo a conferencconferencee inin

Perinthus.Perinthus. InIn theitheirr absenceabsence Philip'sPhilip's meagemeagerr navnavyy fellfell upouponn ththee unguardeunguardedd shipsships andand tooktook everyevery singlesingle ship,ship, a totatotall ooff 230230.. ForFor ththee AthenianAthenianss thithiss wawass ththee lastlast strawstraw.. ThThee AthenianAthenian assemblassemblyy declaredeclaredd wawarr oonn Philip,Philip, andand ssoo iinn 343400 ththee fragilefragile peac peacee betweebetweenn AthensAthens andand

MacedoniaMacedonia finallyfinally shattered.shattered. 163

ForFor ththee momentmoment,, howeverhowever,, wawarr witwithh AthenAthenss wawass eclipsedeclipsed bbyy mormoree immediateimmediate problemsproblems.. FollowinFollowingg Philip'sPhilip's seizureseizure ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann graingrain fleetfleet,, ththee AtheniaAtheniann navynavy rusherushedd outout ttoo meemeett Philip'sPhilip's navnavyy iinn battlebattle.. Philip'Philip'ss forceforce wawass ououtt matchematchedd anandd easilyeasily defeated.defeated. AAss a resulresultt ooff ththee battlebattle Philip'Philip'ss fleefleett hahadd beebeenn pushepushedd bacbackk intointo ththee BlackBlack SeaSea

164 andand thenthen trappetrappedd thertheree byby ththee Athenians.Athenians. 164 PhiliPhilipp wawass nonoww oonn ththee losinlosingg enendd ooff twtwoo siegesiegess witwithh nnoo navanavall supportsupport anandd wawass thuthuss forcedforced toto changchangee hihiss direction.direction. HeHe decidedecidedd toto cutcut hishis losseslosses andand leaveleave PerinthusPerinthus andand ByzantiumByzantium,, bubutt hhee coulcouldd ill-afforill-affordd ttoo chalchalkk uupp hishis entireentire navynavy,, howevehoweverr meagermeager,, asas a loss.loss. HHee thereforthereforee devisedevisedd a plaplann iinn whicwhichh a falsefalse correspondenccorrespondencee fellfell intintoo AtheniaAtheniann handshands,, whicwhichh indicateindicatedd thathatt hhee wawass withdrawinwithdrawingg toto

ThraceThrace.. UpoUponn receivinreceivingg thisthis newsnews thethe AtheniaAtheniann fleetfleet guardinguardingg ththee entrancentrancee ttoo ththee BlackBlack

SeaSea rusherushedd ttoo supportsupport aann attacattackk oonn PhiliPhilipp atat Thrace.Thrace. PhilipPhilip,, forfor hihiss partpart,, hahadd iinn factfact leftleft thethe

162 DidymusDidymus,, On Demosthenes, 10.45ff1O.45ff;; DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 18.13918.139 EllisEllis,, 179-180;179-180; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v. II,II, 575-577;575-577; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 485-486485-486;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 133-135.133-135. 163163 Demosthenes,Demosthenes, 18.73,18.73, 18.139;18.139; cfcf.. DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.77.216.77.2 OOnn ononee hanhandd DiodoruDiodoruss supportsupportss thithiss chaichainn ofof eventsevents whewhenn hhee writewritess thatthat AthenAthenss declaredeclaredd warwar oonn PhiliPhilipp asas soosoonn aass hhee hahadd besiegebesiegedd ththee citiescities ooff PerinthuPerinthuss andand Byznatium.Byznatium. ThisThis woulwouldd makmakee ththee declaratiodeclarationn ththee samsamee timtimee asas ththee seizurseizuree ofof thethe graigrainn shipsships,, bubutt DiodorusDiodorus followfollowss thithiss bbyy writinwritingg thathatt PhiliPhilipp droppedroppedd ththee siegsiegee oonn accounaccountt ofof thithiss developmendevelopmentt andand madmadee peacpeacee withwith ththee AtheniansAthenians.. ThisThis isis incorrecincorrectt becausbecausee DiodoruDiodoruss omitomitss ththee seizureseizure ooff ththee graigrainn fleetfleet altogetheraltogether.. DiodorusDiodorus appearsappears ttoo bbee creatingcreating a versioversionn ofof eventeventss ttoo puputt PhiliPhilipp iinn a mormoree favorablefavorable lightlight.. SeeSee GriffithGriffith,, MacedoniaMacedonia v. //,577frII, 577 fni 1;1; EllisEllis,, 184.184. 164164 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.77.2;16.77.2; JustinJustin,, 9.19.1;; FrontinusFrontinus,, Stratagems, 1.4.13;1.4.13; Ellis,Ellis, 182-185;182-185; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. II,//, 579-581579-581;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 133-134.133-134. 6565 besiegebesiegedd citiescities,, bubutt instea insteadd ooff movinmovingg ttoo ThracThracee hhee hahadd movemovedd ttoo rendezvourendezvouss witwithh hishis fleetfleet,, nonoww frefreee ttoo meemeett hihimm soutsouthh ooff ththee BosporusBospoms,, anandd escorescortt thethe fleefleett toto safesafe waters.waters.

InIn thisthis wayway ththee siegessieges ofof PerinthusPerinthus andand ByzantiumByzantium camecame ttoo anan endend.. Philip'sPhilip's prestigprestigee hahadd beebeenn damagedamagedd ttoo somsomee degreedegree,, bubutt hishis powepowerr wawass stillstill largelylargely intact.intact. OneOne mighmightt expectexpect PhiliPhilipp ttoo makmakee preparationpreparationss ttoo movmovee intintoo centralcentral Greece,Greece, nonoww havinhavingg openopen wawarr witwithh AthensAthens.. ThisThis,, howeverhowever,, dididd nonott happenhappen.. Philip'Philip'ss nexnextt movmovee wawass ttoo taktakee carcaree ofof looseloose endendss iinn ScythiaScythia ttoo hihiss north.165165 HiHiss movemenmovementt nortnorthh atat thithiss poinpointt isis problematiproblematicc forfor thosethose whwhoo puspushh ththee theortheoryy thatthat Phili Philipp hahadd alwayalwayss hahadd long-terlong-termm designdesignss onon GreeceGreece proper.166166 HaHadd thisthis beebeenn hihiss intent,intent, PhiliPhilipp shouldshould havehave movemovedd witwithh allall speespeedd southsouth toto finallfinallyy achievachievee hihiss endsends.. RatheRatherr hehe setset ofofff nortnorthh ttoo furtherfurther securesecure hihiss bordersborders.. NoNott onlyonly that,that, bubutt iitt seemsseems thathatt PhiliPhilipp alsoalso launchedlaunched intointo peacepeace negotiationnegotiationss witwithh Athens.167167 InIn anyany event,event, thethe negotiationnegotiationss failed,failed, anandd afterafter a yeayearr inin ththee nortnorthh tyintyingg uupp looseloose endendss PhiliPhilipp waswas finallyfinally forcedforced ttoo movmovee soutsouthh andand confronconfrontt hihiss differencesdifferences witwithh AthensAthens militarily.militarily.

WhileWhile PhilipPhilip wawass inin ththee northnorth,, ththee AmphictyoniAmphictyonicc Council,Council, possiblpossiblyy aatt thethe behestbehest ooff PhilipPhilip,, causedcaused furtherfurther problemproblemss foforr AthensAthens.. ThThee LokriansLokrians ofof AmphissaAmphissa,, a smallsmall populatiopopulationn locatedlocated jusjustt weswestt ooff DelphiDelphi,, proposeproposedd a motiomotionn toto ththee AmphictyonyAmphictyony condemnincondemningg AthenAthenss forfor impietyimpiety.. 161688 ThThee allegeallegedd acactt ooff sacrilegsacrilegee occurreoccurredd durinduringg ththee

ThirdThird SacredSacred WarWar whenwhen AthenAthenss rededicaterededicatedd thethe capturecapturedd ThebanTheban anandd PersianPersian shieldsshields fromfrom ththee PersiaPersiann WarWar.. ThiThiss acactt wawass nonoww consideredconsidered inappropriatinappropriatee sincesince ththee sanctuarsanctuaryy atat

DelphiDelphi wawass nonott reconsecratereconsecratedd untiuntill afterafter PhociPhociss hadhad loslostt ththee war.war. ThThee LokriansLokrians'' proposalproposal

165165 JustinJustin,, 9.2.9.2. 166166 Buckler,Buckler, Designs on Greece, 9191.. 167167 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.77.216.77.2;; PlutarchPlutarch,, Phocian, 16.1;16.1; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia v.v. //11,579, 579 ffnn 5.5. 168168 AeschinesAeschines,, 3.116-1293.116-129;; DemostheneDemosthenesI8.148-151;s 18.148-151; Ellis,Ellis, 186-188;186-188; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia v. 11,585-587;II, 585-587; BucklerBuckler,, AegeanAegean,, 489-491489-491;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 136.136. 6666 wawass thuthuss a proposaproposall forfor a sacredsacred wawarr againstagainst AthensAthens.. AeschinesAeschines,, welwelll respectedrespected bbyy thethe

AmphictyonyAmphictyony,, memett thesthesee challengechallengess aatt a meetinmeetingg ooff ththee CouncilCouncil iinn 339339 anandd wawass ablablee toto swaysway thethe votvotee againsagainstt ththee proposeproposedd measuremeasure.. UnfortunatelUnfortunatelyy forfor AthensAthens,, howeverhowever,, thithiss diddid nonott enendd AtheniaAtheniann troubletroubless iinn DelphiDelphi.. ThThee morninmorningg followinfollowingg AeschinesAeschines'' defencedefence ofof

AtheniaAtheniann actionsactions,, aann AmphictyoniAmphictyonicc processionprocession,, headeheadedd dowdownn fromfrom thethe TempleTemple ofof ApolloApollo ououtt ttoo ththee plainsplains,, waswas attackeattackedd bbyy AmphissaAmphissa.. ThiThiss dididd nonott directlydirectly endangerendanger AthenianAthenian relationrelationss witwithh ththee councilcouncil,, bubutt indirectlindirectlyy itit begabegann a chaichainn ooff eventsevents thatthat would.would.

IInn attackingattacking ththee processioprocessionn fromfrom DelphiDelphi,, AmphissAmphissaa hahadd insuredinsured retributioretributionn fromfrom ththee AmphictyonyAmphictyony.. AAtt firstfirst AmphissAmphissaa wawass fined,fined, bubutt whewhenn thetheyy refuserefusedd ttoo paypay,, opeopenn warwar wawass declared.declared. ThThee situatiosituationn wawass complicatecomplicatedd bbyy Thebes,Thebes, whwhoo alignealignedd herselherselff oonn ththee sideside ooff AmphissaAmphissa andand thereforthereforee againsagainstt ththee AmphictyonyAmphictyony anandd PhilipPhilip.. Essentially,Essentially, ththee ThebansThebans werweree takintakingg a laslastt stanstandd toto keekeepp MacedoniMacedoniaa ououtt ooff BoeotiBoeotiaa andand inin thithiss hophopee thetheyy tooktook

16169 controcontroll ooff NicaeNicaeaa anandd ththee hohott gategatess aatt Thermopylae.

169169 DidymusDidymus,, On Demosthenes, 11.44;11.44; GriffithGriffith,, 588588;; EllisEllis,, 188.188. GriffitGriffithh believebelievess thathatt theThebantheThebanss sidedsided witwithh AmphissAmphissaa becausbecausee thetheyy recognizerecognizedd thathatt iiff PhiliPhilipp werweree allowedallowed toto intervenintervenee againsagainstt AmphissaAmphissa thenthen thetheyy woulwouldd neveneverr agaiagainn exercisexercisee ththee samsamee freedofreedomm thetheyy hahadd beebeenn accustomeaccustomedd tootoo.. ElliElliss oonn ththee otherother handhand pointpointss ttoo theitheirr previoupreviouss affiliationaffiliation duringduring ththee ThirdThird SacreSacredd WarWar.. GriffitGriffithh mamayy bbee creditingcrediting ththee ThebansThebans withwith mormoree foresightforesight thathann the theyy deserve,deserve, bubutt iitt doedoess seeseemm probablprobablee thathatt thetheyy likedliked theirtheir chancechancess ofof defendingdefending centracentrall GreecGreecee againstagainst PhiliPhilipp sincsincee hhee anandd hihiss majomajorr forcforcee werweree allall ththee wawayy nortnorthh iinn ScythiaScythia andand takingtaking ThermopylaThermopylaee poseposedd nnoo problemproblem.. IfIf thithiss werweree theitheirr reasoningreasoning,, thetheyy erreerredd merelmerelyy inin thinkinthinkingg thetheyy controlledcontrolled ththee onlonlyy entrancentrancee ttoo centracentrall Greece.Greece. 170170 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.84.5;16.84.5; PlutarchPlutarch,, Demosthenes, 18.118.1.. 6767

ThThee assemblassemblyy sidedsided witwithh DemostheneDemostheness andand sensentt everyevery soldiesoldierr thetheyy couldcould mustemusterr toto

171 • Eleusis as they sent their representatives ahead to negotiate with Thebes. 171 Upon arriving Eleusis as they sent their representatives ahead to negotiate with Thebes. Upon arriving in Thebes, the Athenian envoys, which included Demosthenes, were surprised to find in Thebes, the Athenian envoys, which included Demosthenes, were surprised to find envoys of Philip already present and offering Thebes an opportunity to avoid war. Like envoys of Philip already present and offering Thebes an opportunity to avoid war. Like the assembly at Athens, Philip had also been active during this period in an effort to the assembly at Athens, Philip had also been active during this period in an effort to ensure his own interests. Learning that Thermopylae was blocked to him, Philip and his ensure his own interests. Learning that Thermopylae was blocked to him, Philip and his army had bypassed the main entrance to central Greece by entering through a army had bypassed the main entrance to central Greece by entering through a mountainous pass to the west. As soon as he was through the mountains he made haste mountainous pass to the west. As soon as he was through the mountains he made haste for the town of Elateia, took the town and made the Theban position at Thermopylae for the town of Elateia, took the town and made the Theban position at Thermopylae inconsequential. He then sent representatives to Thebes with a last offer of peace.172172 If

Thebesinconsequential would only. He remainthen sen neutralt representative while Philips to undertookThebes wit ah wara las againstt offer Amphissaof peace. andIf

Thebegive ups woulher dposition only remai at Nicaia,n neutra thenl whil theree Phili couldp undertoo be a renewedk a wa rpeace agains betweent Amphiss thea twoand powers.give up her position at Nicaia, then there could be a renewed peace between the two powers.The proposed peace was intended to be palatable to the Thebans. Their position at

ThermopylaeThe propose was uselessd peac enow was anywayintende dsince to b ePhilip palatabl hade tbypassedo the Thebans it and. Thei merer positio inactivityn at

Thermopylaon their parte waswa sno useles difficults no wrequest. anywa Buty sinc at ethe Phili veryp hamomentd bypasse thatd peaceit and might mere haveinactivit beeny opossible,n their par thet waAthenians no difficul envoyst request arrived,. Bu t andat th Demosthenese very momen tbegan that peacofferinge migh ant havAtheniane been possiblealliance ,to th thee AtheniaThebans.n envoyEventually,s arrived Demosthenes', and Demosthene rhetorics persuadedbegan offerin the Thebansg an Athenia to allyn themselvesalliance to th withe Thebans Athens. Eventuallyand resist, Philip,Demosthenes but only' rhetori after cthe persuade Atheniansd the madeTheban numerouss to ally concessionsthemselves witregardingh Athen sthe an deventual resist Philip conduct, bu t ofonl they aftewar.r th173e ThebesAthenian wass mad to e benumerou in soles 173 controlconcession of sground regardin forcesg th ande eventua hold al jointconduc commandt of the overwar .the navalThebe forces.s was tSecondly,o be in solthee

contro171 Demosthenes,l of groun 18.177;d force Diodorus,s and hol 16.85.I.d a join t command over the naval forces. Secondly, the 172171 DemosthenesDemosthenes,, 18.213;18.177; Plutarch,Diodorus ,Demosthenes, 16.85.1. 18.3. 173172 Aeschines,Demosthenes 3.106,, 18.213 3.142.; Plutarch , Demosthenes, 18.3. 173 Aeschines, 3.106, 3.142. 6688

AthenianAthenianss werweree forcedforced ttoo confirmconfirm ThebaThebann dominatiodominationn overover alalll otherother BoeotianBoeotian citiescities withwith ththee expectationexpectation thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss woulwouldd helhelpp subdusubduee anyany citycity thathatt stoodstood againsagainstt Thebes.Thebes.

FinallyFinally,, ththee ThebanThebanss werweree onlonlyy ttoo beabearr ononee thirthirdd ooff ththee financiafinanciall responsibilitresponsibilityy forfor thethe landland forcesforces anandd havhavee nnoo financiafinanciall responsibilitresponsibilityy towardtowardss ththee navanavall forces.forces. WithWith thesethese termtermss ththee AtheniansAthenians,, specificallyspecifically Demosthenes,Demosthenes, hahadd boughboughtt anan alliancealliance witwithh ThebesThebes,, butbut aatt a steepsteep cost.cost.

NoNoww thertheree wawass nothingnothing lefleftt foforr PhiliPhilipp bubutt a full-scalefull-scale militarmilitaryy settlemensettlementt witwithh bothboth

ThebeThebess anandd Athens.174174 TheThe newlnewlyy formeformedd alliancealliance tootookk uupp defensivdefensivee positionpositionss nortnorthh ofof thethe GraviaGraviass PassPass andand inin ththee acropoliacropoliss ooff Parapotamio.Parapotamio. TheTheyy alsalsoo sentsent smallsmall detachmentsdetachments ttoo holholdd ananyy smallersmaller mountaimountainn roadroadss thathatt PhiliPhilipp mighmightt ususee ttoo bypasbypasss theitheirr defensesdefenses.. PhilipPhilip respondedresponded witwithh anotheanotherr fakfakee correspondencecorrespondence.. WheWhenn ththee alliealliess gogott holholdd ooff itit,, thetheyy learnedlearned ooff Philip'Philip'ss 'intention''intention' ttoo withdrawithdraww hihiss troopstroops.. AAss nighnightt fellfell PhiliPhilipp ordereorderedd ParmenioParmenionn onon a fulfulll scalescale thrusthrustt througthroughh ththee GraviasGravias PasPasss anandd ththee rusrusee borboree fruitfruit.. ThThee AthenianAthenianss andand

ThebansThebans werweree caughcaughtt offoff guarguardd anandd werweree forceforcedd ttoo retreatretreat.. WithouWithoutt controcontroll ofof thethe passpass theitheirr positiopositionn atat ParapotamiParapotamioo alsalsoo becambecamee uselessuseless,, andand soso thetheyy werweree forceforcedd ttoo regroupregroup outsideoutside ofof ththee towtownn ofof ChaeroneaChaeronea.. ItIt wawass herheree thathatt thethe finafinall battlbattlee tootookk place.place.

ThThee twtwoo armiesarmies memett aatt ChaeroneaChaeronea iinn ththee summersummer ofof 338338.. PhiliPhilipp stationestationedd hihiss sonson oonn hihiss extremextremee lefleftt aatt ththee heaheadd ofof ththee companiocompanionn cavalry,cavalry, oppositoppositee ththee ThebanTheban SacredSacred

171755 Band. 1 Philip himself was on the extreme right, facing the Athenian phalanx. As the Band. "' Philip himself was on the extreme right, facing the Athenian phalanx. As the

174174 AeschinesAeschines,, 3.1463.146;; PolyaenusPolyaenus,, Stratagems, 4.2.84.2.8;; EllisEllis,, 183183 ffnn 17;17; Griffith,Griffith, Macedonia v. II, 585800 ffnn 33.. BothBoth EllisEllis anandd GriffithGriffith notnotee ththee similaritsimilarityy ofof thithiss incidenincidentt ttoo Philip'Philip'ss rusrusee ttoo freefree hihiss fleefleett aatt ththee Bosphorus.Bosphorus. BothBoth thinthinkk thathatt iitt iiss unlikelunlikelyy thathatt thithiss deceptiodeceptionn woulwouldd worworkk twicetwice,, bubutt neitheneitherr cancan definitiveldefinitivelyy decidedecide whethewhetherr thithiss referencreferencee inin PolyPolyanu anuss iiss actuallyactually referrinreferringg ttoo thethe eventsevents atat ththee HellasponHellaspontt oror iiss correctcorrect iinn itsits referencreferencee ttoo Philip'sPhilip's penetratiopenetrationn ofof ththee GraviaGraviass Pass.Pass. 175175 ForFor mormoree extensivextensivee accountaccountss ooff ththee BattlBattlee ofof ChaeroneaChaeronea seesee Griffith,Griffith, MacedoniaMacedonia vv.. II,II, 396-603;396-603; Ellis,Ellis, 197-201;197-201; BucklerBuckler,, Aegean, 500-505500-505;; WorthingtonWorthington,, 147-151.147-151. 6969 armiearmiess stoodstood acrosacrosss ththee fieldfield fromfrom oneone anotheranother,, PhiliPhilipp ordereorderedd a controllecontrolledd retrearetreatt ooff hishis forcesforces,, baitinbaitingg ththee AthenianAthenianss intintoo pursuitpursuit.. ThThee AthenianAthenianss tooktook thethe baitbait,, andand iinn ththee hasthastee ofof theitheirr chaschasee ththee AthenianAthenianss brokbrokee ththee continuitcontinuityy ooff theitheirr linlinee witwithh ththee ThebanThebanss andand thusthus allowedallowed AlexandeAlexanderr ttoo lealeadd a devastatingdevastating cavalrycavalry chargecharge intointo ththee gapgap betweebetweenn thethe stationarystationary ThebansThebans anandd ththee advancinadvancingg Athenians.Athenians. PhiliPhilipp thethenn stoppedstopped hihiss retreatretreat,, turnedturned hihiss rightright flanflankk ttoo faceface ththee AtheniaAtheniann chargecharge anandd wawass ableable ttoo cruscrushh ththee ThebansThebans anandd thethe

AthenianAthenianss betweebetweenn hihiss hardnosehardnosedd infantrinfantryy anandd nonoww flankinflankingg cavalrycavalry.. WheWhenn ththee fightingfighting subsided,subsided, a thousanthousandd AthenianAthenianss hahadd diediedd andand twtwoo thousanthousandd werweree taketakenn prisonerprisoner,, anandd thethe

BoeotiansBoeotians hahadd alsalsoo incurredincurred heavheavyy losselossess thougthoughh ourour sourcesourcess araree nonott specific.specific.

PhiliPhilipp wawass nonoww iinn firfirmm controlcontrol ofof GreeceGreece andand hhee wawass facefacedd witwithh ththee challengechallenge ofof personallypersonally bringinbringingg stabilitystability ttoo a regioregionn thathatt hahadd nonott enjoyedenjoyed anythinganything ofof ththee liklikee foforr allall ofof recorderecordedd history.history. HiHiss firsfirstt actioactionn wawass ttoo settlesettle upup witwithh hihiss majomajorr enemies.176176 ThebesThebes waswas forceforcedd ttoo papayy ransoransomm ttoo recoverecoverr herher dead,dead, endureendure a MacedonianMacedonian garrison,garrison, recalrecalll allall ooff herher exilesexiles anandd accepacceptt a pro-Macedoniapro-Macedoniann governmentgovernment ooff threthreee hundredhundred,, appointedappointed fromfrom amongamong thesthesee exiles.exiles. PhiliPhilipp dididd nonott disbandisbandd ththee BoeotianBoeotian League,League, bubutt hehe dididd significantlysignificantly reducereduce

ThebanTheban influencinfluencee withiwithinn ththee LeagueLeague soso thathatt iitt woulwouldd nonoww functiofunctionn trultrulyy aass a league,league, ratheratherr thathann a conglomeratioconglomerationn ttoo bbee manipulatemanipulatedd bbyy ThebaThebann influences.influences.

ThThee AtheniansAthenians,, aass wawass Philip'sPhilip's traditiontradition,, werweree sparedspared ththee harsharshh treatmentreatmentt PhilipPhilip coulcouldd havhavee enactedenacted upouponn themthem.. 177 ForFor starters,starters, PhiliPhilipp honorehonoredd ththee AtheniaAtheniann deadeadd byby returninreturningg thethemm undeunderr ththee escortescort ofof AlexanderAlexander,, AntipatroAntipatross anandd AlkimachosAlkimachos,, threthreee highlyhighly

176 176 DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.87.316.87.3;; JustinJustin,, 9.4;9.4; Pausanias,Pausanias, 9.1.89.1.8,, 9.6.59.6.5.. FoForr Philip'Philip'ss settlementsettlementss witwithh AthenAthenss anandd Thebes,Thebes, seesee EllisEllis,, 199-201199-201;; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, AthensAthens:: 606-609.606-609. ThebesThebes:: 611-615;611-615; WorthingtonWorthington,, 154-157.154-157. 177 177DemadesDemades,, On the XII Years, 1.9-10;1.9-10; DemosthenesDcmosthenes,, 18.282;18.282; AeschinesAeschines,, 3.227;3.227; PausaniasPausanias,, 1.25.3,1.25.3, 1.34.1;1.34.1; ArrianArrian,, 1.71.7.11 .11.. 7070 rankerankedd MacedoniansMacedonians.. AthenAthenss iinn kinkindd sentsent embassembassyy ttoo PhiliPhilipp iinn ChaironeiaChaironeia ttoo negotiatnegotiatee thethe termtermss ooff thethe surrender.surrender. AAss ththee talktalkss begabegann PhiliPhilipp dididd nonott begibeginn witwithh punishmentspunishments,, butbut ratheratherr presentepresentedd thethe AthenianAthenianss witwithh a gifgiftt aass hhee informeinformedd thethemm thathatt ththee citycity ooff OroposOropos woulwouldd bbee taketakenn frofromm BoeotiBoeotiaa anandd givengiven ttoo AthensAthens.. IInn fact,fact, Philip'Philip'ss onlonlyy punishmenpunishmentt ofof

AthenAthenss wawass ttoo dissolvdissolvee ththee AtheniaAtheniann navanavall alliance,alliance, bubutt eveevenn iinn requirinrequiringg thisthis hehe stillstill alloweallowedd ththee AthenianAthenianss ttoo retairetainn possessiopossessionn ofof LemnosLemnos,, ImbroImbross Skyron,Skyron, SamosSamos anandd Delos.Delos.

FinallyFinally,, PhilipPhilip promisedpromised,, AthensAthens woulwouldd remairemainn free anandd autonomouautonomouss witwithh nnoo interferenceinterference fromfrom Macedonia.Macedonia.

AlAlll thatthat waswas leftleft forfor PhiliPhilipp ttoo dodo wawass ttoo presenpresentt hishis planplanss ttoo ththee wholwholee ooff Greece,Greece, anandd hhee dididd thithiss bbyy conveninconveningg twtwoo pan-Hellenipan-Hellenicc conferencesconferences atat CorintCorinthh iinn 338/7.33817.178178 AAtt thethe firsfirstt conferenceconference PhiliPhilipp gatheregatheredd representativesrepresentatives fromfrom alalll ooff GreeceGreece ttoo layoutlay out hishis plaplann foforr a commoncommon peacepeace amongstamongst GreekGreek statesstates.. TheThe primarprimaryy purpospurposee ooff ththee peacpeacee wawass ththee samsamee asas whawhatt hhee hahadd envisioneenvisionedd iinn 346346:: AllAll statestatess thathatt joijoinn woulwouldd bbee frefreee anandd autonomousautonomous,, andand

179 their governments were to be supported along with the territorial claims of each state. 179 their governments were to be supported along with the territorial claims of each state. In essence, the status quo would be enforced perpetually in Greece. In essence, the status quo would be enforced perpetually in Greece. To ensure that these goals were met in a manner that did not require him to To ensure that these goals were met in a manner that did not require him to constantly oversee the Greek mainland, Philip designed a system that would enforce the constantly oversee the Greek mainland, Philip designed a system that would enforce the peace even in his absence. 180 First, there would be a council of allies made up of elected peace even in his absence.180 First, there would be a council of allies made up of elected representatives from each member in Greece in charge of broadly overseeing the peace. representatives from each member in Greece in charge of broadly overseeing the peace. All matters would first be referred to this group in order to settle any disputes. If a breach All matters would first be referred to this group in order to settle any disputes. If a breach

178178 Justin, 9.5; Diodorus, 16.89.1-3; Demosthenes, 17.30; Ellis, 204-209; Griffith, Macedonia v. ll, 623- Justin, 9.5; Diodorus, 16.89.1-3; Demosthenes, 17.30; Ellis, 204-209; Griffith, Macedonia v. II, 623- 646;646; Worthington,Worthington, 158-159.158-159. 179179 M.N. Tod, Greek Historical Inscriptions v. I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), 177, 5-15; M.N. Tod, Greek Historical Inscriptions v. I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), 177, 5-15; DiodorusDiodorus,17.8.10, 17.8.10 180180 For descriptions and analysis of Philip's creation of the Leagues see Griffith, Macedonia v. ll, 623-646; For descriptions and analysis of Philip's creation of the Leagues see Griffith, Macedonia v. II, 623-646; WorthingtonWorthington,, 158-159158-159;; EllisEllis,, 204-209.204-209. 7171

ofof ththee peacpeacee wawass unavoidableunavoidable,, oorr ifif perhapperhapss thethe councilcouncil decideddecided toto makmakee wawarr againstagainst somesome

outsideoutside powerpower,, ththee councicouncill woulwouldd thethenn votvotee ttoo elecelectt a Hegemon ttoo lealeadd ththee membermemberss ofof

ththee peacpeacee againstagainst ththee enemyenemy.. TheThe votevotess allowedallowed ttoo eaceachh statstatee werweree ttoo bbee determinedeterminedd byby thethe militarmilitaryy contributiocontributionn madmadee bbyy eacheach state.state.

TherTheree wawass alsoalso anotheranother groupgroup importantimportant ttoo ththee maintenancmaintenancee ooff ththee peacepeace,, bubutt notnot fullyfully explainedexplained bbyy ouourr sourcessources.. TherTheree wawass a groupgroup ooff DefensDefensee OfficersOfficers whwhoo werweree chargedcharged

1 Q 1 witwithh atat leasleastt twtwoo responsibilitiesresponsibilities.. 181 FirstFirst,, thetheyy werweree inin chargchargee ofof havinhavingg ththee decreesdecrees ooff thethe council inscribed and set up at the temple of Athena at Pydna. 182182 This was a necessary, if council inscribed and set up at the temple of Athena at Pydna. This was a necessary, if not overly important function, to carry out, but their second known responsibility points not overly important function, to carry out, but their second known responsibility points to their real significance in the maintenance of the peace. In a speech, Demosthenes to their real significance in the maintenance of the peace. In a speech, Demosthenes writes that the council and the Defense Officers are in charge of ensuring that the writes that the council and the Defense Officers are in charge of ensuring that the members of the peace do not exile or put to death any citizens in a manner not consistent members of the peace do not exile or put to death any citizens in a manner not consistent with the law, confiscate any property, redistribute land, cancel any debts, or free slaves to with the law, confiscate any property, redistribute land, cancel any debts, or free slaves to promote revolution. 183 This group seems then to represent a small force of soldiers, promote revolution. ~ This group seems then to represent a small force of soldiers, directly involved with the council (how exactly, the sources do not convey), who were directly involved with the council (how exactly, the sources do not convey), who were specifically responsible as a first response team to quell any instigation against the peace specifically responsible as a first response team to quell any instigation against the peace before they became full-fledged rebellions. before they became full-fledged rebellions. Thus Philip had created a structured and constitutionally backed system intended Thus Philip had created a structured and constitutionally backed system intended as a self-stabilizing device for the whole of Greece. Overseeing the peace were the as a self-stabilizing device for the whole of Greece. Overseeing the peace were the Greeks themselves in the form of the council, and this council was not without teeth. If Greeks themselves in the form of the council, and this council was not without teeth. If needed, the council could either dispatch or count on the Defense Officers, who would needed, the council could either dispatch or count on the Defense Officers, who would 181181 ForFor anan extensivextensivee studstudyy ofof ththee rolrolee ooff ththee DefensDefensee OfficerOfficerss seesee:: GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia vv.. //II,, 639-646.639-646. 182182 TodTod,, 183,183, 12ff.12ff. 183Demosthenes,17.15.183Demosthenes, 17.15. 7272 maintaimaintainn ththee peacepeace byby force.force. AAnn escalationescalation ofof thethe situationsituation beyonbeyondd ththee abilitiesabilities ofof thesethese officersofficers wouldwould beginbegin a procesprocesss ofof bringinbringingg ththee fullfull forceforce ofof ththee commoncommon peacpeacee againstagainst anan agitator.agitator. TheThe besbestt part,part, forfor PhiliPhilipp atat least,least, waswas thathatt thethe leaderleader ofof thisthis forceforce mustmust alwaysalways bebe electeelectedd bbyy officialsofficials fromfrom statesstates militarilymilitarily contributingcontributing toto ththee army.army. ThusThus,, sincesince PhilipPhilip woulwouldd alwaysalways bbee thethe largestlargest contributocontributorr toto ththee maintenancemaintenance ofof thethe peacepeace,, hehe couldcould alwaysalways bbee suresure ofof hihiss electionelection asas Hegemon.Hegemon.

WithWith ththee peacepeace inin place,place, PhilipPhilip calledcalled thethe firstfirst meetinmeetingg ofof ththee councilcouncil laterlater thatthat yearyear.. HiHiss agendaagenda forfor ththee meetinmeetingg wawass toto proposproposee a warwar ofof retributionretribution againstagainst PersiaPersia andand elect a Hegemon of the league to carry out this initiative. 1841 84 The motion for war, not elect a Hegemon of the league to carry out this initiative. The motion for war, not surprisingly, was accepted and Greece was now at war with Persia. All that was left to do surprisingly, was accepted and Greece was now at war with Persia. All that was left to do was to elect the Hegemon of Greece, who would carry the war into Persia, and again was to elect the Hegemon of Greece, who would carry the war into Persia, and again there was no surprise in this election. Philip was made Hegemon and retired to Pella there was no surprise in this election. Philip was made Hegemon and retired to Pella believing he had finally achieved circumstances that would allow him to look solely to believing he had finally achieved circumstances that would allow him to look solely to the east. As fate would have it, however, Philip would never see the war he had worked the east. As fate would have it, however, Philip would never see the war he had worked so long to make. Philip was assassinated later that year on the eve of his march into Asia so long to make. Philip was assassinated later that year on the eve of his march into Asia Minor, sending reverberations and revolt throughout the Greek world. It was now up to Minor, sending reverberations and revolt throughout the Greek world. It was now up to his son and successor, Alexander, to reestablish peace and stability within the Greek his son and successor, Alexander, to reestablish peace and stability within the Greek world. world.

PhilipPhilip II:II: AsiaAsiann ExpansionistExpansionist

TheThe previoupreviouss twtwoo chapterschapters werewere basebasedd onon thethe premispremisee thatthat findingfinding ththee constantconstant iinn

Philip'Philip'ss decisionsdecisions woulwouldd shedshed lighlightt onon hishis largerlarger aspirations.aspirations. Now,Now, lookinglooking bacbackk uponupon

184184 JustinJustin,, 9.5;9.5; Diodorus,Diodorus, 16.91.2,16.91.2, 16.93.6.16.93.6. 7373

Philip'sPhilip's careercareer aass a wholewhole,, thertheree isis ononee apparentapparent constant.constant. AthenAthenss committedcommitted transgressiotransgressionn afteafterr transgressiontransgression againsagainstt PhiliPhilipp anandd MacedoniaMacedonia,, yeyett PhiliPhilipp nevernever onconcee tooktook decisivedecisive actioactionn ttoo puputt ththee AthenianAthenianss dowdownn foforr goodgood.. EveEvenn afteafterr ththee AthenianAthenianss hahadd finallyfinally pushepushedd ThebeThebess ttoo wawarr witwithh PhiliPhilipp atat ChaeroneaChaeronea,, PhiliPhilipp inflicteinflictedd harsharshh penaltiepenaltiess upouponn thethe

ThebanThebanss ratheratherr thathann ththee AtheniansAthenians,, thithiss despitedespite ththee factfact thathatt iitt hahadd beebeenn AthenAthenss whowho pushepushedd harhardd foforr wawarr anandd thuthuss continuecontinuedd a lonlongg traditiotraditionn ofof lashinlashingg outout atat MacedoniMacedoniaa asas

PhiliPhilipp himselhimselff pointepointedd ououtt iinn hihiss letterletter.. Philip'Philip'ss unwaverinunwaveringg leniencleniencyy towardtowardss AthenAthenss isis ththee variablvariablee thathatt explainexplainss hishis ambitions.ambitions.

AsAs PhiliPhilipp camcamee ttoo powerpower,, a courtshipcourtship ofof AthenAthenss wawass a necessitynecessity,, aass alreadyalready discussediscussedd aboveabove.. HHee preventepreventedd AtheniaAtheniann interventiointerventionn iinn hihiss kingdokingdomm witwithh promises,promises, whilwhilee atat ththee samesame timtimee eliminatingeliminating Athens'Athens' potentiapotentiall foforr aggressionaggression bbyy takintakingg allall

AtheniaAtheniann interestinterestss withiwithinn ththee immediateimmediate rangrangee ooff MacedoniaMacedonia.. ThiThiss fitfitss withiwithinn thethe conceptioconceptionn ooff Philip'Philip'ss 'thre'threee phasesphases'' ooff insuringinsuring ththee immediatimmediatee securitsecurityy ooff hihiss kingdomkingdom andand explainexplainss Philip'Philip'ss laxitlaxityy towardtoward AthensAthens beforbeforee sheshe finallfinallyy declareddeclared wawarr oonn hihimm inin 357.357.

FoForr ththee tetenn yearyearss thathatt followefollowedd thathatt declaration,declaration, Philip'Philip'ss contaccontactt witwithh ththee AthenianAthenianss waswas minimalminimal.. ItIt wawass nonott untiuntill 347347 thathatt hhee againagain hahadd direcdirectt contaccontactt witwithh AthensAthens,, whewhenn hehe capturedcaptured,, nonott killekilledd oorr ransomedransomed,, a forceforce ofof AtheniaAtheniann soldierssoldiers whilwhilee takintakingg ththee citcityy ofof

Olynthus.Olynthus. PhiliPhilipp thethenn sentsent CtesiphoCtesiphonn bacbackk ttoo AthenAthenss witwithh offerofferss ofof peacpeacee andand sentimentssentiments ooff regreregrett foforr ththee tetenn yearyearss ooff wawarr thathatt thetheyy hahadd enduredendured againsagainstt ononee anotheranother.. Now,Now, however,however, PhiliPhilipp wawass inin a mucmuchh differendifferentt positiopositionn politicallpoliticallyy frofromm ththee ononee hhee hahadd beenbeen whewhenn seekinseekingg AtheniaAtheniann goodwilgoodwilll iinn 353599 anandd 358.358. PhiliPhilipp wawass nnoo longelongerr a kinkingg fearinfearingg thethe collapscollapsee ofof hihiss kingdomkingdom.. NowNow,, atat ththee headhead ofof ThessalyThessaly anandd abouaboutt ttoo brinbringg ththee ThirdThird 7474

SacredSacred WarWar ttoo aann end,end, PhiliPhilipp wawass arguablarguablyy ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull mamann iinn GreeGreekk politicspolitics.. Yet,Yet, despitedespite hihiss improvementimprovement iinn fortune,fortune, hihiss laxitlaxityy towartowardd AthenAthenss continuecontinuedd unchanged.unchanged.

Philip'sPhilip's redoubleredoubledd tactitacticc ooff bringinbringingg AthenAthenss ttoo hihiss sideside frofromm 343477 ttoo 333377 provideprovidess a directdirect insighinsightt intintoo Philip'Philip'ss politicapoliticall strategy.strategy. SometimeSometime beforbeforee 347,347, bubutt afteafterr 353577 PhilipPhilip hahadd concludedconcluded thatthat hhee needeneededd AthenAthenss andand therethere wawass nothinnothingg otheotherr thathann aann expeditionexpedition againsagainstt PersiaPersia thathatt coulcouldd justifjustifyy thisthis needneed.. ThroughoutThroughout hihiss careercareer hhee hahadd alwaysalways recognizedrecognized ththee AtheniaAtheniann navnavyy asas aann incrediblincrediblee andand formidablformidablee asset.asset. IItt wawass iinn thisthis recognitiorecognitionn thathatt PhilipPhilip hahadd taketakenn actionaction ttoo blocblockk botbothh aann Athenian-OlynthiaAthenian-Olynthiann alliancealliance andand latelaterr a Theban-AtheniaTheban-Atheniann alliancealliance.. IfIf considerinconsideringg anan invasioinvasionn ooff AsiaAsia,, PhilipPhilip coulcouldd notnot hopehope ttoo safelysafely croscrosss ththee HellesponHellespontt anandd conductconduct a wawarr iinn PersiPersiaa whilwhilee riskinriskingg attackattack fromfrom ththee mosmostt formidableformidable navnavyy inin ththee AegeanAegean.. HHee hahadd nnoo intentionintention ofof leavingleaving behinbehindd hihiss hard­hard- foughtfought kingdokingdomm forfor thethe greenegreenerr pasturepasturess ooff AsiAsiaa (as(as hihiss sosonn eventualleventuallyy diddid)) anandd thereforetherefore coulcouldd nonott taktakee oonn thithiss wawarr withouwithoutt beinbeingg suresure ooff AtheniaAtheniann intentionsintentions.. Moreover,Moreover, hhee couldcould nonott simplysimply destrodestroyy AthensAthens'' navnavyy becausbecausee ttoo dodo soso woulwouldd causecause anotheranother productioproductionn ofof thethe

PeloponnesiaPeloponnesiann WarWar,, witwithh MacedoniMacedoniaa cascastt aass Sparta.Sparta. PhiliPhilipp witwithh hihiss eyeyee onon ththee easeastt diddid nonott havhavee thirtthirtyy yearyearss ttoo wastewaste.. ThuThuss PhilipPhilip hahadd comcomee ttoo neeneedd Athens.Athens.

WitWithh thithiss explanationexplanation ofof Philip'Philip'ss actionsactions towardtowardss AthensAthens,, hihiss intentionintentionss towartowardd thethe wholwholee ofof GreecGreecee cacann alsalsoo bbee inferredinferred.. PhiliPhilipp hahadd nnoo intentionintention ooff conquerinconqueringg ananyy ofof centralcentral oorr southersouthernn Greece.Greece. RatheRatherr hhee needeneededd onlonlyy ttoo brinbringg AthenAthenss ttoo hihiss sideside soso thathatt hhee couldcould engageengage iinn a wawarr witwithh AsiaAsia.. HiHiss attemptsattempts ttoo achievachievee thithiss endend,, combinecombinedd witwithh ththee ficklficklee andand obstinatobstinatee demeanodemeanorr ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann demos, leledd PhiliPhilipp furthefurtherr soutsouthh thathann hhee hahadd everever intendeintendedd ttoo gogo.. IInn ththee endend,, PhiliPhilipp coulcouldd notnot brinbringg AthenAthenss ttoo hihiss sidsidee diplomaticalldiplomaticallyy andand wawass forcedforced ttoo dealdeal witwithh GreecGreecee militarilymilitarily,, bubutt hhee diddid ssoo onlonlyy insofainsofarr aass iitt serveservedd hishis 7S75 purposepurposess forfor anan AsiaAsiann invasioninvasion.. HHee dididd nonott solidifsolidifyy hihiss conquestconquestss iinn GreecGreecee bbyy marchingmarching southsouth intointo ththee PeloponnesPeloponnesee andand destroyingdestroying ththee Spartans,Spartans, whwhoo refuserefusedd ttoo participatparticipatee iinn

Philip'Philip'ss settlementsettlement followingfollowing Chaeronea.Chaeronea. Rather,Rather, PhiliPhilipp merelmerelyy achievedachieved hihiss aiaimm ooff finallyfinally bringinbringingg ththee AthenianAthenianss ttoo hihiss side,side, setset uupp a commocommonn peacpeacee designeddesigned ttoo preservepreserve ththee statusstatus ququoo andand retiredretired ttoo PellPellaa ttoo begibeginn hihiss invasioninvasion plans.plans.

Philip'Philip'ss intentionintentionss regardinregardingg GreecGreecee araree thereforthereforee clearclear.. EarlEarlyy onon,, hhee wawass fearfulfearful ofof ththee GreeksGreeks'' interferencinterferencee iinn hihiss kingdokingdomm anandd limitedlimited theitheirr abilityability ttoo ddoo soso.. AAss hishis positiopositionn improveimprovedd anandd hihiss ambitionambitionss gregreww ttoo includeinclude expansionexpansion intintoo AsiaAsia,, PhiliPhilipp thenthen madmadee attemptattemptss ttoo brinbringg AthenAthenss andand mormoree importantly,importantly, heherr navynavy,, intointo alliancalliancee withwith

MacedoniaMacedonia.. HiHiss eventuaeventuall expansioexpansionn southwardsouthward wawass ththee unintendeunintendedd consequenceconsequence ofof thisthis goalgoal.. PhiliPhilipp wawass anan aggressivaggressivee imperialist,imperialist, bubutt nonott towartowardd Greece.Greece. HHee wantewantedd Asia.Asia. CHAPTERCHAPTER V

ALEXANDEALEXANDERR ANANDD THETHE GREEKSGREEKS

LikLikee hishis father,father, AlexanderAlexander facedfaced challengeschallenges fromfrom allall sidessides uponupon hihiss ascensionascension toto ththee thronthronee inin 336. 185185 HHee firstfirst dealtdealt witwithh hishis neighborsneighbors toto thethe north,north, butbut shortlyshortly thereafterthereafter

AlexanderAlexander hahadd toto faceface ththee simmeringsimmering dissentiondissention inin ThessalyThessaly andand GreeceGreece beforebefore itit becamebecame a boil.boil. InIn thisthis respect,respect, hehe dealtdealt firstfirst withwith Thessaly.186Thessaly.186 MarchingMarching southsouth fromfrom PellaPella

AlexandeAlexanderr camecame toto ththee paspasss ofof TempeTempe inin ThessalyThessaly andand foundfound itit blockeblockedd ttoo hihimm byby thethe

Thessalians.Thessalians. TheThe leadersleaders ofof ThessalyThessaly commandedcommanded AlexandeAlexanderr toto halthalt,, whilwhilee thetheyy discusseddiscussed theitheirr options.options. TheThe newnew MacedoniaMacedoniann king,king, however,however, hadhad otherother plans.plans. AlexanderAlexander orderedordered hihiss engineerengineerss ttoo cutcut stepssteps intointo thethe sideside ofof thethe mountaimountainn ttoo allowallow hishis armyarmy toto descenddescend uponupon thethe rearrear ofof thethe blockadingblockading ThessalianThessalian army.army. HisHis strategystrategy paipaidd off.off. AlexanderAlexander waswas ableable toto ououtt maneuvemaneuverr ththee ThessaliansThessalians andand findingfinding themselvethemselvess inin a ratherrather vulnerablvulnerablee positionposition thethe leadersleaders ofof ThessalyThessaly optedopted toto negotiatnegotiatee ratheratherr thanthan resistresist.. AfterAfter a remindereminderr fromfrom thethe KingKing aboutabout ththee prosperityprosperity ThessalyThessaly enjoyedenjoyed underunder hihiss father,father, AlexanderAlexander wawass votedvoted thethe archonarchon ofof ThessalyThessaly witwithh allall ofof thethe benefitsbenefits thatthat hadhad previouslypreviously belongebelongedd toto Philip.Philip.

TheThe nexnextt challengechallenge facingfacing AlexanderAlexander camecame fromfrom ThebesThebes andand AthensAthens.. TheThe anti-anti-

MacedonianMacedonian initiativeinitiative waswas headedheaded bbyy Thebes.Thebes. 187 InsideInside thethe city,city, agitatorsagitators hadhad overthrownoverthrown

185185 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.3.1-5;17.3.1-5; Plutarch,Plutarch, AlexanderAlexander,, 11.1-4;11.1-4; Cf.Cf. JustinJustin,, 11.111.1.. 186186 Diodorus,Diodorus, 1704.1;17.4.1; Justin,Justin, 11.3;11.3; PolyaenusPolyaenus,, 4.3.234.3.23.. 187187 RegardinRegardingg ththee rumorrumorss ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss deathdeath see:see: ArrianArrian,, 1.7;1.7; JustinJustin,, 11.2;11.2; J.C.J.C. YardleYardleyy andand WaldmarWaldmar Heckel,Heckel, Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus Books 11-12II-I2 (Oxford:(Oxford: ClarendonClarendon Press,Press, 1997),1997), 88-89;88-89; A.BA.B.. Bosworth,Bosworth, A Historical Commentary on Arrian's History of Alexander v.v. I/ (Oxford:(Oxford: ClarendonClarendon Press,Press, 1980),1980), 75.75. RegardinRegardingg ThebaThebann siegesiege ofof CadmeiaCadmeia see:see: DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.8.3-717.8.3-7 7777 thethe existinexistingg governmengovernmentt anandd pushedpushed ththee ThebaThebann peoplpeoplee ttoo risrisee againsagainstt MacedoniaMacedonia withwith claimsclaims thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr hahadd beebeenn killekilledd duringduring hihiss campaigncampaignss iinn ththee northnorth.. ThThee Thebans,Thebans, movemovedd bbyy ththee agitatoragitatorss andand theitheirr claimclaimss attemptedattempted ttoo expeexpell ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann garrisongarrison occupyinoccupyingg CadmeiCadmeiaa bbyy besieginbesiegingg ththee citadelcitadel ofof ththee city.city. TheTheyy dudugg deedeepp trenchetrenchess anandd builtbuilt larglargee stockadstockadee arounaroundd ththee citadel,citadel, bubutt werweree unablunablee ttoo removremovee ththee MacedoniaMacedoniann troopstroops fromfrom ththee strongholdstronghold.. NexNextt thetheyy soughsoughtt ththee supportsupport ooff neighborinneighboringg citiecitiess suchsuch aass AthensAthens.. UnderUnder ththee influencinfluencee ooff DemosthenesDemosthenes,, ththee demodemoss ofof AthenAthenss responderespondedd ttoo ththee ThebanTheban requesrequestt byby firstfirst sendinsendingg heavheavyy armoarmorr ttoo equipequip ththee ThebansThebans,, whwhoo coulcouldd nonott affordafford ththee necessarynecessary armamentarmament ttoo engagengagee iinn a siegesiege.. ThThee AthenianAthenianss thethenn votevotedd ttoo makmakee furtherfurther preparationpreparationss forfor a collaborativecollaborative warwar againstagainst Alexander,Alexander, whilewhile DemosthenesDemosthenes himselfhimself wrotewrote lettersletters toto

Alexander'Alexander'ss generalsgenerals inin AsiaAsia urginurgingg thethemm ttoo betrabetrayy Alexander.Alexander.

AlexandeAlexanderr responderespondedd ttoo thesthesee challengechallengess witwithh a lightinlightingg fastfast marcmarchh ttoo taketake

Thermopylae.Thermopylae. InIn sixsix daysdays,, immediatelimmediatelyy followingfollowing theitheirr marcmarchh oveoverr Alexander'Alexander'ss stepssteps aatt

TempeTempe,, a MacedoniaMacedoniann armarmyy ofof thirtthirtyy thousanthousandd infantrinfantryy anandd threthreee thousanthousandd cavalrcavalryy tooktook the Hot Gates. 18ISS8 By the next day the army was encamped right outside of Thebes. the Hot Gates. By the next day the army was encamped right outside of Thebes. Alexander, taking a page from his father, resorted first to diplomacy to resolve the Alexander, taking a page from his father, resorted first to diplomacy to resolve the situation. 189 He offered the revolting cities peace on the condition that they recognized situation.189 He offered the revolting cities peace on the condition that they recognized him as hegemon of the Hellenic League, accepted the garrison at Cadmeia, and handed him as hegemon of the Hellenic League, accepted the garrison at Cadmeia, and handed over the leaders responsible for the revolt. As long as the cities complied in this manner over the leaders responsible for the revolt. As long as the cities complied in this manner

(Oxford:(Oxford: ClarendoClarendonn PressPress,, 1980),1980), 75.75. RegardinRegardingg ThebaThebann siegsiegee ooff CadmeiaCadmeia seesee:: Diodorus,Diodorus, 17.8.3-717.8.3-7 RegardinRegardingg AtheniaAtheniann supporsupportt ooff ThebeThebess seesee:: PlutarchPlutarch,, Demosthenes, 23.223.2;; DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.8.5;17.8.5; Justin,Justin, 11.2-3;11.2-3; Bosworth,Bosworth, Justin, 89-90.89-90.

188188 Diodorus,Diodorus, 17.9.3;17.9.3; ArrianArrian,, 1.7;1.7; Bosworth,Bosworth, AArrian, man, 77.77. 189189 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.9.2-4;17.9.2-4; ArrianArrian,, 1.7.7;1.7.7; Plutarch,Plutarch, Alexander, 11.7,11.7, JustinJustin;; 11.3;11.3; BosworthBosworth,, Arrian, 78;78; Bosworth,Bosworth, Justin, 9393.. 7878

thertheree woulwouldd bebe nono neeneedd foforr forceforce andand thethe commoncommon peacpeacee establishedestablished byby PhilipPhilip forfor GreeceGreece

woulwouldd bbee restored.restored.

AthenAthenss andand ThebesThebes responderespondedd ververyy differentlydifferently ttoo Alexander'Alexander'ss offeroffer ofof peace.peace. OnOn

ththee ononee handhand,, AthenAthenss waswas quickquick toto complycomply withwith Alexander'sAlexander's demands.demands. TheyThey sentsent anan

apologeticapologetic embassyembassy ttoo ththee kingking toto agreeagree toto thethe terms,terms, whilwhilee extollingextolling thethe kingking forfor allall ofof hishis

youthfuyouthfull qualities. 190190 InIn lightlight ofof thisthis,, AlexanderAlexander madmadee goodgood onon hishis promisepromise andand peacefulpeaceful

relationsrelations betweebetweenn MacedoniaMacedonia andand AthensAthens werewere restoredrestored onon thethe conditioncondition thatthat thethe leadersleaders

responsiblresponsiblee forfor ththee rebellionrebellion (i.e.,(i.e., Demosthenes)Demosthenes) werweree handehandedd over.over. Thebes,Thebes, onon thethe otherother

1 1 handhand,, madmadee nnoo suchsuch conciliatoryconciliatory effort. 191 RatherRather,, ThebeThebess inciteincitedd AlexandeAlexanderr ttoo actioactionn

proposinproposingg thatthat hhee hanhandd overover AntipateAntipaterr anandd Philotas,Philotas, whilewhile proclaiminproclaimingg ttoo allall ofof GreeceGreece thathatt anyoneanyone whowho wishewishedd ttoo resisresistt MacedoniMacedoniaa shouldshould standstand bbyy theirtheir sideside.. ThisThis beinbeingg said,said,

AlexandeAlexanderr pourepouredd allall hihiss effortsefforts intointo makinmakingg anan exampleexample ofof ThebesThebes ttoo anyoneanyone whwhoo mightmight daredare ttoo resisresistt MacedoniaMacedoniann powerpower.. TheThe resultingresulting battlbattlee waswas devastatingdevastating forfor ththee defenders,defenders, whowho sufferedsuffered sixsix thousanthousandd casualtiescasualties iinn whawhatt becamebecame a massacre.massacre.

AfterAfter ththee citycity hahadd fallen,fallen, itit fellfell ttoo AlexandeAlexanderr ttoo determinedetermine ththee punishmenpunishmentt forfor thosthosee whwhoo survivedsurvived asas wellwell asas ththee citycity itself.l92itself. ActinActingg asas ththee headhead ofof ththee LeagueLeague ofof

CorinthCorinth,, AlexandeAlexanderr leftleft itit ttoo ththee leaguleaguee toto decidedecide ththee fatefate ofof thethe city.city. TheThe league,league, beingbeing madmadee upup ofof long-timelong-time enemiesenemies ofof Thebes,Thebes, decideddecided onon a harsharshh punishment.punishment. TheThe citycity wouldwould bbee razedrazed andand ththee citizenscitizens soldsold intointo slavery.slavery. TheThe onlyonly exceptionsexceptions toto thithiss verdicverdictt werewere

190190 JustinJustin,, 11.3;11.3; YardleYardleyy andand Heckel,Heckel, Justin, 9191.. 19l191DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.9.4;17.9.4; Plutarch,Plutarch, Alexander, 11.8;11.8; cf.cf. ArrianArrian,, 1.7;1.7; Bosworth,Bosworth, Arrian, 78-79.78-79. ArrianArrian makesmakes nono mentionmention ooff anan ultimatuultimatumm from AlexandeAlexanderr followedfollowed byby a counter-ultimatumcounter-ultimatum fromfrom Thebes.Thebes. BosworthBosworth notesnotes thisthis,, bubutt explainsexplains thatthat sincesince ArrianArrian isis employingemploying PtolemyPtolemy asas hihiss sourcesource forfor thisthis incidentincident itit makemakess sensesense thatthat ththee destructiondestruction ofof ThebesThebes wouldwould bbee portrayedportrayed asas outout ofof Alexander'sAlexander's hands,hands, ratherrather thathann a mattermatter ofof policpolicyy asas describedescribedd iinn thethe otherother sourcesource material.material. 192192 Diodorus,Diodorus, 17.14.2-4,17.14.2-4, PlutarchPlutarch,, Alexander, 11.11;11.11; ArrianArrian., 1.9.9-1.9.9-1010;; Bosworth,Bosworth, Arrian, 89-91.89-91. 7979 priestspriests,, priestesses,priestesses, supporterssupporters ofof Alexander,Alexander, and,and, bbyy personalpersonal requesrequestt ofof Alexander,Alexander, anyany relativerelativess ofof PindarPindar.. ThThee finafinall verdicverdictt ofof thethe councilcouncil havinhavingg beenbeen mademade,, AlexandeAlexanderr tooktook actionaction ttoo carrycarry iitt outout therebtherebyy puttingputting thethe finalfinal exclamationexclamation onon anan alreadyalready thunderousthunderous messagemessage ttoo allall ofof Greece:Greece: RebellionRebellion woulwouldd notnot bbee tolerated.tolerated.

ThThee messagmessagee AlexandeAlexanderr delivereddelivered ttoo thethe GreeksGreeks thatthat dayday wawass hearheardd throughoutthroughout

GreeceGreece andand echoedechoed iinn thethe annalsannals ofof historyhistory.. Alexander'Alexander'ss pointpoint,, however,however, waswas notnot merelmerelyy a violenviolentt threatthreat.. AlexanderAlexander hadhad alsoalso sentsent a veryvery diplomaticdiplomatic messagmessagee thatthat ththee finalfinal viciousnesviciousnesss ofof ththee hattIebattle overshadowed.overshadowed. LikeLike hishis fatherfather onon ththee eveeve ofof ththee battlebattle ofof

Chaeronea,Chaeronea, AlexandeAlexanderr hahadd issuedissued anan ultimatumultimatum intendedintended ttoo bebe anan easyeasy swallowswallow forfor thethe rebelliousrebellious states.states. ThoseThose whowho acceptedaccepted thithiss werewere graciouslgraciouslyy sparedspared toto ththee poinpointt wherewhere

AlexandeAlexanderr diddid nonott eveneven insisinsistt thathatt thetheyy followfollow througthroughh witwithh ththee actualactual termtermss ofof thethe ultimatumultimatum.. 193 AlexanderAlexander hadhad insistedinsisted thatthat AthenAthenss givgivee upup thosthosee individualsindividuals whowho hadhad instigateinstigatedd ththee rebellionrebellion,, bubutt AlexandeAlexanderr nevernever eveneven forcedforced thethe demodemoss toto givegive upup

DemosthenesDemosthenes,, thougthoughh hhee hahadd leledd thethe AthenianAthenian efforeffortt ttoo joijoinn witwithh ThebesThebes.. ThusThus itit isis importanimportantt notnot ttoo overlookoverlook thethe generositygenerosity thathatt precedeprecededd ththee carnagecarnage.. WhileWhile itit iinn nono wayway lessenlessenss thethe impactimpact ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss harshharsh treatmentreatmentt ofof Thebes,Thebes, itit doesdoes helhelpp rationalizerationalize it.it.

AlexanderAlexander,, inin hihiss resubjugationresubjugation ooff Greece,Greece, waswas implementingimplementing ththee samesame tacticstactics hishis fatherfather hahadd throughouthroughoutt hihiss careercareer.. A velvevelvett glovglovee ofof diplomacdiplomacyy coveredcovered ththee MacedonianMacedonian ironiron fistfist ofof conquestconquest andand ththee gloveglove waswas notnot toto bbee removedremoved unlessunless ththee GreekGreekss provoked.provoked.

HavinHavingg quelledquelled ththee rebellion,rebellion, AlexandeAlexanderr setset hihiss eyeseyes oonn Persia,Persia, bubutt bbyy 333333 thethe climatclimatee iinn thethe PeloponnesePeloponnese changed.changed. AlexandeAlexanderr hadhad jusjustt wowonn a majomajorr victoryvictory atat IssusIssus andand begabegann marchinmarchingg hihiss armyarmy southsouth intointo PhoeniciaPhoenicia,, whilwhilee hihiss regentregent inin MacedoniaMacedonia,, Antipater,Antipater,

193 193 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.15.2-5;17.15.2-5; Justin,Justin, 11.4;11.4; Arrian,Arrian, 1.10.6.1.10.6. 8080 wawass forcedforced ttoo movmovee hihiss armyarmy intintoo ThraceThrace.. ThThee SpartanSpartan KingKing,, AgiAgiss III,III, sasaww thethe movementsmovements ooff AlexandeAlexanderr anandd AntipateAntipaterr aass welwelll aass ththee demeanordemeanor ooff ththee PersiaPersiann KingKing followingfollowing ththee defeadefeatt aatt IssusIssus asas aann opportunity.194opportunity.194 AgiAgiss IIIIII touretouredd ththee GreekGreek islandsislands recruitingrecruiting supporsupportt foforr a LacedaemoniaLacedaemoniann ledled wawarr ooff liberatioliberationn againstagainst AlexandeAlexanderr iinn thethe

Peloponnese. 195195 HHee wowonn littllittlee supporsupportt frofromm ththee GreekGreekss themselvesthemselves,, bubutt hhee wawass ablablee toto finfindd supportsupport frofromm ththee recentlrecentlyy defeateddefeated PersiaPersiann KingKing,, DariusDarius.. DariuDariuss commandedcommanded thethe mercenariesmercenaries,, whwhoo hahadd fallefallenn bacbackk fromfrom ththee battlbattlee ooff IssuIssuss toto accompanaccompanyy AgiAgiss bacbackk toto

Greece,Greece, whilwhilee alsalsoo givingivingg ththee SpartanSpartan KinKingg larglargee sumsumss ofof monemoneyy toto supportsupport hihiss warwar efforteffort.. WheWhenn AlexandeAlexanderr hearheardd ooff thesthesee developmentdevelopmentss hhee sentsent reinforcementreinforcementss ttoo GreecGreecee iinn ththee forformm ooff a navanavall squadron. 196196 ThThee firsfirstt objectiveobjective ooff ththee forceforce waswas ttoo stostopp AgisAgis'' effortsefforts iinn ththee islandsislands.. TheTheyy thereforthereforee sailedsailed ttoo Crete,Crete, wherwheree AgiAgiss andand hihiss PersianPersian supportsupport hadhad rendezvousedrendezvoused,, iinn orderorder ttoo prevenpreventt ananyy eventuaeventuall wawarr thathatt mighmightt taktakee placplacee onon thethe mainlandmainland..

DespiteDespite Alexander'sAlexander's intentionintention,, howeverhowever,, wawarr oonn ththee mainlandmainland couldcould nonott bebe avoidedavoided.. AgiAgiss wawass determinedeterminedd ttoo brinbringg ththee battlbattlee ttoo AntipateAntipaterr andand hahadd alreadalreadyy movemovedd hishis armarmyy ttoo ththee PeloponnesePeloponnese.. ThThee SpartansSpartans hahadd accrueaccruedd enougenoughh supporsupportt ttoo boasboastt aann armarmyy ofof twenttwentyy thousanthousandd infantryinfantry anandd eigheightt thousanthousandd cavalry.197cavalry. MoreoverMoreover,, twtwoo eventsevents inin

MacedoniMacedoniaa transpiredtranspired,, whicwhichh pushepushedd AgiAgiss ttoo actact.. FirstFirst,, AntipateAntipaterr facedfaced anan uprisinuprisingg iinn

194194 TherTheree isis a debatdebatee overover ththee chronologchronologyy ofof AgiAgiss Ill'Ill'ss warwar.. ItIt revolverevolvess arounaroundd whethewhetherr thethe wawarr tootookk placeplace afteafterr ththee defeadefeatt ooff DariuDariuss aatt IssuIssuss asas suggestedsuggested bbyy ArriaArriann (3.6.3)(3.6.3) oror ifif ththee revolrevoltt tootookk plac placee afterafter Alexander'Alexander'ss victorvictoryy atat GaugamelGaugamelaa aass DiodoruDiodoruss suggestssuggests (17.62.4-63.4)(17.62.4-63.4).. TheThe chronologicalchronological debate,debate, howeverhowever,, isis irrelevanirrelevantt ttoo ththee presenpresentt study.study. ItIt doedoess nonott changchangee Alexander'Alexander'ss actionactionss iinn relatiorelationn toto thethe rebellionrebellion.. FoForr a fulfulll accountaccount ooff ththee debatdebatee see:see: YardleYardleyy andand HeckelHeckel,, Justin, 184-186;184-186; A.B.A.B. Bosworth,Bosworth, Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great, (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1988)1988) 200200 ffnn 1414.. 195195 ArrianArrian,, 2.132.13;; DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.62.6,17.62.6, 17.48.1-2.17.48.1-2. 191966 ArrianArrian,, 3.6.3;3.6.3; CurtiCurtius us,, 4.8.154.8.15;; BosworthBosworth,, Conquest, 200200.. 191977 CurtiusCurtius,, 6.16.1;; DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.48.1.17.48.1. 8181

ThraceThrace anandd wawass forceforcedd ttoo meemeett thithiss witwithh hihiss fulfulll militarymilitary force.198198 AAtt thethe veryvery samsamee time,time,

AlexandeAlexanderr ordereorderedd a levylevy ooff fifteefifteenn thousanthousandd infantrinfantryy ttoo begibeginn theitheirr marcmarchh easeastt ttoo hishis

position.position.1 19999 ThusThus AgiAgiss couldcould nonott hopehope forfor a bettebetterr timtimee ttoo attack.attack. AlexandeAlexanderr wawass movingmoving

awaawayy frofromm GreeceGreece anandd couldcould nonott bbee expecteexpectedd ttoo returreturnn iinn anyany timeltimelyy mannermanner,, AntipaterAntipater

wawass alreadalreadyy distractedistractedd bbyy aann uprisinuprisingg inin ThracThracee andand ttoo totopp allall ooff thatthat,, AlexandeAlexanderr hadhad

levieleviedd ououtt troops.troops.

WitWithh allall ooff thesthesee factorsfactors iinn hihiss favofavorr AgiAgiss acted.20o200 HHee gatheregatheredd hihiss army,army, attackedattacked

anandd defeatedefeatedd a MacedoniaMacedoniann forcforcee undeunderr ththee commandcommand ofof Corragus.Corragus. AAss a resulresultt ofof thisthis

victory,victory, Elis,Elis, AchaeAchaeaa andand laterlater Arcadia,Arcadia, excepexceptt forfor MegalopolisMegalopolis,, joinejoinedd iinn ththee SpartanSpartan

rebellionrebellion.. OutsidOutsidee thithiss support,support, however,however, alliealliess werweree harhardd ttoo comcomee byby.. ThThee SpartansSpartans hadhad

madmadee manmanyy enemieenemiess throughouthroughoutt GreeceGreece andand,, despitdespitee theitheirr victoryvictory,, couldcould nonott eveneven bringbring

thethe ficklefickle AthenianAthenianss ttoo theitheirr sideside.. HavinHavingg achieveachievedd moderatmoderatee successsuccess,, AgiAgiss nownow turnedturned

hihiss attentioattentionn ttoo ththee strategicallstrategicallyy importantimportant MegalopolisMegalopolis anandd laidlaid ththee citycity undeunderr siege.siege.

AgisAgis hahadd dondonee welwelll ttoo executexecutee hihiss planplanss asas welwelll asas hhee dididd toto thithiss pointpoint,, bubutt hehe hadhad

madmadee oneone severesevere miscalculationmiscalculation.. IfIf hhee hahadd believebelievedd thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr hadhad substantiallysubstantially weakeneweakenedd Antipater'Antipater'ss positiopositionn iinn GreecGreecee bbyy hihiss levlevyy ooff trooptroopss nonoww marchinmarchingg eastwards,eastwards,

AgiAgiss wawass deaddead wrongwrong.. UpoUponn ththee SpartaSpartann King'King'ss rebellionrebellion,, AntipateAntipaterr wawass ableable ttoo settlesettle hishis accountaccountss iinn ThracThracee witwithh a larglargee susumm ofof monemoneyy thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr hahadd sensentt anandd movmovee southsouth en forceforce ttoo deadeall witwithh ththee Spartans.Spartans. 201 AAss iitt turneturnedd outout,, ththee totatotall forcforcee ofof hihiss armyarmy wawass fortyforty

198 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.62.4-6.17.62.4-6. 199 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.49.1;17.49.1; CurtiusCUftius,, 4.6.30-14.6.30-1;; 7.1.37-40.7.1.37-40. 200 AeschinesAeschines,, 3.165.3.165. 201 ArrianArrian,, 3.16.103.16.10;; BosworthBosworth,, Arrian, 319.319. 8282 thousanthousandd soldierssoldiers.202. Alexander'Alexander'ss levlevyy hahadd clearlclearlyy nonott weakeneweakenedd ththee MacedonianMacedonian militarymilitary forceforce iinn Greece.Greece. ThThee twtwoo armiesarmies memett outsideoutside ththee citycity ofof MegalopoliMegalopoliss anandd a hardhard foughtfought battlbattlee ensued.203203 AgiAgiss demonstrateddemonstrated hihiss aptitudaptitudee aass a commandercommander.. AlAlll ththee ancienancientt sourcessources relatrelatee thathatt ththee SpartanSpartan forceforcess werweree ablablee ttoo holholdd ththee largelargerr MacedoniaMacedoniann armarmyy aatt babayy forfor nono shortshort whilewhile.. ThThee discrepancydiscrepancy iinn numbersnumbers,, howeverhowever,, proveprovedd fatalfatal andand eventualleventuallyy AntipaterAntipater wawass ablablee ttoo defeadefeatt ththee SpartanSpartanss andand kilkilll ththee rebelliourebelliouss kingking througthroughh purpuree brutebrute force.force.

AfterAfter ththee conclusioconclusionn ofof ththee battlebattle,, ththee tastaskk aatt hanhandd wawass decidingdeciding ththee fatefate ofof thethe rebelliourebelliouss statesstates.. AntipateAntipaterr tootookk a pagpagee outout ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss boohookk andand leftleft ththee decisiondecision upup

204204 ttoo ththee membermemberss ooff ththee CommoCommonn Peace. ThThee statestatess imposeimposedd anan indemnitindemnityy ofof 120120 talentstalents onon EliEliss anandd AchaeAchaeaa witwithh ththee intentiointentionn thathatt ththee monemoneyy bbee paipaidd ttoo MegalopolisMegalopolis.. TheThe

GreeksGreeks,, howeverhowever,, werweree unablunablee ttoo decidedecide whawhatt ttoo ddoo witwithh ththee instigatoinstigatorr ooff ththee rebellion,rebellion,

Sparta,Sparta, sincsincee sheshe wawass nonott a membememberr ooff ththee CommoCommonn PeacPeacee andand thereforthereforee askeaskedd theirtheir

Hegemon ttoo renderenderr a verdictverdict.. AlexandeAlexanderr ordereorderedd thathatt SpartSpartaa sendsend hostagehostagess anandd aann envoyenvoy ttoo defendefendd theitheirr actions.actions. AAss itit happenedhappened,, AlexanderAlexander,, liklikee hihiss fatherfather,, recognizerecognizedd thethe valuevalue ofof

Sparta'sSparta's existenceexistence iinn ththee Peloponnese.Peloponnese?05205 SpartSpartaa hahadd beebeenn unablunablee ttoo finfindd mucmuchh supportsupport fromfrom heherr neighborsneighbors,, whwhoo stilstilll helheldd Sparta'Sparta'ss actionactionss aass ththee leaderleader ofof ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian

LeaguLeaguee againstagainst herher.. Sparta,Sparta, thereforetherefore,, wawass a divisivdivisivee citcityy iinn aann areaarea wherwheree AlexanderAlexander coulcouldd nonott afforaffordd unityunity.. AAss a resultresult,, AlexandeAlexanderr dididd nonott makmakee SpartaSparta a secondsecond Thebes.Thebes.

TherTheree iiss nnoo recorrecordd ooff ththee specificsspecifics ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss decisiondecision,, bubutt equallyequally therethere iiss nnoo recordrecord

202022 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.63.1.17.63.1. 202033 FoForr descriptiondescriptionss ooff ththee battlbattlee see:see: DiodorusDiodorus,, 16.63.1-4;16.63.1-4; CurtiusCurtius,, 6.1.1-21;6.1.1-21; JustinJustin,, 12.112.1.. 202044 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.73-5-6;17.73-5-6; CurtiCurtius us,, 6.1.20.6.1.20. OOnn ththee debatdebatee overover ththee chronologychronology ooff ththee enendd ooff ththee SpartanSpartan rebelliorebellionn seesee:: BorzaBorza,, Eugene.Eugene. "The"The EnEndd ooff AgisAgis'' RevoltRevolt"" Classical Philology, VolVol.. 6666,, NoNo.4. 4 (Oct.(Oct.,, 1971)1971) 230-235;230-235; BadianBadian,, E.E. "Agi"Agiss III".III". Hermes vv.. 9955 nono.. 2 (1967(1967)) 170-192;170-192; A.BA.B.. BosworthBosworth,, "The"The MissioMissionn ofof AmphoteruAmphoteruss andand ththee OutbreaOuthreakk ofof AgisAgis'' War,War,"" Phoenix, v. 29, no. 1 (Spring(Spring,, 1975),27-43.1975), 27-43. 202055 N.G.LN.G.L.. HammondHammond,, Macedonia vv.. ///III,, 78;78; GriffinGriffin,, Macedonia v. II, 618;618; CarlCarl RoebuckRoebuck,, "The"The SettlementsSettlements ooff PhiliPhilipp IIII witwithh ththee GreeGreekk StateStatess iinn 333388 BCBe"" Classical Philology v. 43, no.IZO. 2 (April.(April.,, 48)48),, 89.89. 8383

ooff anyany punishmenpunishmentt beinbeingg handedhanded downdown.. ThuThuss iitt isis likelylikely thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr judgejudgedd thathatt theirtheir

defeadefeatt hahadd servedserved ititss purpospurposee andand SpartaSparta nnoo longelongerr representerepresentedd a threat.threat. 206206

FoForr nearlnearlyy a decadedecade followingfollowing Sparta'sSparta's rebellionrebellion,, AlexandeAlexanderr maintainemaintainedd minimalminimal

contaccontactt witwithh anythinganything weswestt ofof hihiss immediateimmediate positionposition,, lelett alonealone thethe GreekGreek mainlandmainland.. InIn

fact,fact, iitt waswas nonott untiuntill 323244 thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr agaiagainn turneturnedd hihiss attentioattentionn ttoo GreeceGreece.. ThaThatt yearyear

AlexandeAlexanderr madmadee twtwoo extremelextremelyy controversiacontroversiall announcementsannouncements.. TheThe KinKingg gatheredgathered

togethetogetherr whawhatt hahadd nonoww becombecomee hihiss travelintravelingg kingdokingdomm andand announceannouncedd ttoo alalll thatthat exilesexiles fromfrom thethe citiecitiess ooff Greece,Greece, excepexceptt thosthosee witwithh a bloobloodd cursecurse,, woulwouldd bbee restorerestoredd ttoo theirtheir

902077 citiescities.. MoreoverMoreover,, iitt wawass timetime foforr ththee GreeksGreeks ttoo recognizrecognizee hihiss accomplishmentsaccomplishments anandd toto do so, in Alexander's mind, meant proclaiming him a god. 90208R He drafted a letter of this do so, in Alexander's mind, meant proclaiming him a god. He drafted a letter of this announcement and dispatched it to be read to all of Greece at that summer's Olympic announcement and dispatched it to be read to all of Greece at that summer's Olympic Games. Games. The reaction in Greece was less than appreciative. The request for divine status, The reaction in Greece was less than appreciative. The request for divine status, while not without precedent, represented a hubris that was blasphemous to the Greeks. while not without precedent, represented a hubris that was blasphemous to the Greeks. Even so, they were willing to let Alexander be a god; it had no practical consequences for Even so, they were willing to let Alexander be a god; it had no practical consequences for them. The return of a city's exiled population, however, would cause a number of them. The return of a city's exiled population, however, would cause a number of problems in every city.209 First, their property had been confiscated upon their departure problems in every city.209 First, their property had been confiscated upon their departure and was now either owned by the state or had been sold to other landowning families. and was now either owned by the state or had been sold to other landowning families. Secondly, as was the case in Athens, the exiles had been exiled under the laws of the city Secondly, as was the case in Athens, the exiles had been exiled under the laws of the city

202066 HammondHammond,, Macedonia vv.. ///III,, 7878;; BosworthBosworth,, Conquest, 204204;; JameJamess RR.. AshleyAshley,, The Macedonian Empire:Empire: The Era of Warfare Under Philip II and Alexander the Great (Chapel(Chapel HillHill:: UniversitUniversityy ooff NortNorthh CarolinaCarolina Press,Press, 1998)1998) 182.182. 202077 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.109.1,17.109.1, 17.113.3,17.113.3, 18.8.2-5;18.8.2-5; JustinJustin,, 13.5.1-8;13.5.1-8; CurtiusCurtius,, 10.2.4-7.10.2.4-7. 202088 AelianAelian,, Varia Historia, 2.192.19,5.12,9.37;, 5.12, 9.37; PlutarchPlutarch,, Moralia, 21ge.219e. 202099 FoForr problemproblemss causecausedd bbyy ththee ExilesExiles DecreDecreee see:see: Bosworth,Bosworth, Conquest, 224-225224-225;; Hammond,Hammond, MacedoniaMacedonia v.lII,v.III, 81;81; JohnJohn MaxwelMaxwelll O'BrienO'Brien,, Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy (New(New YorkYork:: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1992)1992) 200-201.200-201. 8484 andand theitheirr returreturnn wawass antitheticalantithetical toto theitheirr constitution.constitution. Finally,Finally, mosmostt exilesexiles representedrepresented fallenfallen politicapoliticall factionsfactions thatthat hadhad beenbeen oustedousted inin thethe procesprocesss ofof politicalpolitical joustingjousting.. NaturallyNaturally then,then, thosthosee peoplepeople stillstill iinn ththee citiescities werweree ththee politicapoliticall opponentsopponents ofof manmanyy ofof ththee exilesexiles poisepoisedd ttoo returnreturn.. AlexandeAlexanderr wawass notnot deafdeaf ttoo theitheirr complaint,complaint, however,however, andand allowedallowed envoysenvoys toto comecome presentpresent theirtheir argumentsarguments regardinregardingg exilesexiles toto hihimm personally.personally.210210 InIn anyany event,event,

AlexandeAlexanderr dieddied jusjustt tetenn monthsmonths latelaterr andand ththee decreedecree wawass scrapped.scrapped.

Alexander:Alexander: HisHis Father'sFather's SonSon

ThThee ExileExile DecreeDecree andand Alexander'Alexander'ss requestrequest ttoo bbee declareddeclared a godgod areare veryvery interestinginteresting developmentsdevelopments inin hihiss relationshirelationshipp withwith thethe Greeks.Greeks. AfterAfter almostalmost a decadedecade ofof completcompletee neglect,neglect, AlexandeAlexanderr turneturnedd hihiss attentionattention wholeheartedlwholeheartedlyy towardtowardss Greece,Greece, orderinorderingg ththee returreturnn ofof thethe exilesexiles andand 'requesting''requesting' ttoo bbee recognizerecognizedd asas a god.god. RegardingRegarding hishis requesrequestt forfor divinity,divinity, itit isis beyondbeyond anyany historiahistoriann ttoo knowknow,, oror eveneven guesguesss atat whawhatt hehe hopedhoped toto gaingain.. TherTheree havehave beebeenn onlyonly a smallsmall fewfew throughoutthroughout ththee entireentire coursecourse ofof historyhistory whowho havehave beebeenn iinn a positiopositionn eveneven remotelremotelyy similarsimilar toto Alexander'sAlexander's andand nonnonee ofof thosthosee memenn werewere historianshistorians.. HeHe maymay havhavee beebeenn crazycrazy oror rationallrationallyy implementingimplementing a planplan towardtowardss somesome end.end.

IInn eitheeitherr casecase wewe willwill neveneverr knowknow exactly.exactly. WhetheWhetherr wwee decidedecide toto labelabell iitt insaneinsane oror ingenious,ingenious, whawhatt isis clearclear fromfrom thisthis actionaction isis thatthat AlexandeAlexanderr wawass nonoww veryvery concernedconcerned withwith hihiss standingstanding inin GreeceGreece andand iitt iiss withinwithin thithiss contextcontext thatthat wewe shouldshould viewview hishis requesrequestt forfor divinitydivinity andand ththee ExilExilee Decree.Decree.

WheWhenn AlexanderAlexander wawass finallyfinally forcedforced ttoo turnturn backback andand assessassess hihiss empireempire ttoo thethe westwest hishis mentalitymentality changed.changed. HeHe stillstill hadhad anan intenseintense desiredesire forfor conquest,conquest, butbut thethe corruptioncorruption

210 DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.113.3.17.113.3. 8585 withiwithinn hihiss governmengovernmentt anandd problemproblemss arisingarising frofromm ththee disbandindisbandingg ofof mercenarmercenaryy armiesarmies inin hishis kingdokingdomm forceforcedd AlexandeAlexanderr ttoo consideconsiderr ththee difficultiedifficultiess ooff consolidatedconsolidated suchsuch a massivemassive territorialterritorial gain.gain.2Il211 ThusThus whewhenn evaluatinevaluatingg GreeceGreece iinn particularparticular,, iitt wawass cleaclearr thathatt ththee tenuoustenuous stabilitystability inin GreeceGreece,, createcreatedd foforr ththee sakesake ooff ththee conquesconquestt ooff PersiaPersia,, waswas nownow outdated.outdated. InIn thithiss respectrespect thethenn hhee formeformedd ththee ExilExilee DecreDecreee ttoo resettlresettlee groupgroupss ofof hihiss subjectssubjects iinn a mannermanner reminiscentreminiscent ooff Philip'Philip'ss transpopulatiotranspopulationn movementmovementss iinn 345345..

PhiliPhilipp hahadd forciblyforcibly expandeexpandedd ththee borderborderss ooff MacedoniaMacedonia beforbeforee AlexanderAlexander anandd inin aann efforeffortt ttoo stabilizstabilizee ththee conqueredconquered territorterritoryy hhee hahadd movedmoved populationpopulationss iinn ordeorderr toto (1)(1) inhibitinhibit cohesiocohesionn ooff hihiss oppositionopposition anandd (2)(2) strengthenstrengthen hihiss kingdokingdomm aatt strategistrategicc points?12points.212

Before Philip, Alexander I as well as Amyntas had also done the same. 212133 Alexander had Before Philip, Alexander I as well as Amyntas had also done the same. " Alexander had implemented at least the latter of these strategies throughout his reign, setting up colonies implemented at least the latter of these strategies throughout his reign, setting up colonies and cities throughout his empire at places he saw fit. Now, however, he would use and cities throughout his empire at places he saw fit. Now, however, he would use resettlement to inhibit resistance to his reign and help him consolidate Greece into his resettlement to inhibit resistance to his reign and help him consolidate Greece into his empire.214 The Exile Decree would land the landless mercenaries now in Asia, align them empire.214 The Exile Decree would land the landless mercenaries now in Asia, align them directly with the king, and place this new body of support in the Greek mainland. Their directly with the king, and place this new body of support in the Greek mainland. Their

212111 FoForr DiodorusDiodorus'' discussiondiscussion onon governmentalgovernmental corruptiocorruptionn seesee 17.108.4-8;17.108.4-8; FoForr DiodorusDiodorus'' discussiodiscussionn onon problem~roblemss frofromm ththee disbandingdisbanding ooff mercenarmercenaryy armiesarmies,, 17.111.1.17.111.1. 1122 FoForr accountsaccounts ofof Philip'Philip'ss resettlementresettlementss ooff hihiss subjectsubjectss seesee:: JustinJustin,, 8.5-6;8.5-6; SecSee alsalsoo EllisEllis,, 134-137;134-137; WorthingtonWorthington,, 108-110108-110;; GriffithGriffith,, Macedonia v. II,II,660-661. 660-661. 213213 GriffithGriffith,, MacedoniMacedoniaa vv.. IIII,, 661-2.661-2. 214214 BosworthBosworth,, Conquest, 220-228;220-228; CfCf.. HammondHammond,, Macedonia v. Ill,lIf, 80-8180-81.. HammonHammondd arguearguess thathatt thethe decredecreee wawass a requesrequestt from AlexandeAlexanderr ttoo ththee GreekGreekss ttoo readmireadmitt theitheirr exilesexiles anandd supportsupportss thithiss usingusing DiodorusDiodorus,, 17.113.17.113.33 wherwheree DiodoruDiodoruss notenotess thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr wawass allowinallowingg representativerepresentativess frofromm thethe citiescities inin GreecGreecee ttoo arguarguee againstagainst readmittinreadmittingg exiles.exiles. TToo accepacceptt thithiss argumenargumentt basebasedd oonn oneone referencreferencee inin DiodoruDiodoruss isis incorrectincorrect.. BoswortBosworthh correctlcorrectlyy notenotess thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr ordereorderedd AntipateAntipaterr ttoo ususee forceforce ttoo coercecoerce thosthosee states,states, whwhoo woulwouldd nonott complycomply.. ThisThis waswas,, asas BoswortBosworthh putsputs it,it, "th"thee languaglanguagee ooff autocracy."autocracy." 8686

returreturnn ttoo ththee GreekGreek citiescities woulwouldd thereforthereforee bbee anan infusioninfusion ooff hihiss partisanpartisanss ttoo eacheach city,city,

weak enmg. any antl- . Md'ace oOian sentIment.. 212155 weakening any anti-Macedonian sentiment. Alexander's death prevented the Exile Decree from developing as he intended, Alexander's death prevented the Exile Decree from developing as he intended, but this initiative does represent a move by Alexander toward an autocratic rule of Greece but this initiative does represent a move by Alexander toward an autocratic rule of Greece rather than a leadership role within a common agreement. While it is true that this was a rather than a leadership role within a common agreement. While it is true that this was a total change from Philip's vision of the common peace, it was not a total deviation from total change from Philip's vision of the common peace, it was not a total deviation from Philip's, or perhaps more correctly, the Macedonian brand of power politics. Alexander Philip's, or perhaps more correctly, the Macedonian brand of power politics. Alexander was implementing the same strokes of political maneuvering that Philip and other past was implementing the same strokes of political maneuvering that Philip and other past Macedonian kings had used to consolidate his kingdom. The only difference was now Macedonian kings had used to consolidate his kingdom. The only difference was now Alexander had acquired a much larger canvas on which to work. The Greek states were Alexander had acquired a much larger canvas on which to work. The Greek states were now facing what would likely become a new arrangement. They would no longer be free now facing what would likely become a new arrangement. They would no longer be free members of a common agreement. Instead, they would now be reorganized into a members of a common agreement. Instead, they would now be reorganized into a cooperative district of Alexander's much larger empire. The decree, however, while a cooperative district of Alexander's much larger empire. The decree, however, while a turn in policy towards the autocratic, was not a new tactic for an experienced Macedonian turn in policy towards the autocratic, was not a new tactic for an experienced Macedonian king and the time had come for Alexander to remember his role as king after spending so king and the time had come for Alexander to remember his role as king after spending so much of his reign as conqueror. much of his reign as conqueror. This theory is supported by an incident in the spring of 323 between a group of This theory is supported by an incident in the spring of 323 between a group of 216 Greek envoys and Alexander. 91 fi Antipater had begun garrisoning cities in Greece as his Greek envoys and Alexander. Antipater had begun garrisoning cities in Greece as his

212155 Bosworth,Bosworth, Conquest, 224-225224-225;; Cf.Cf. Hammond,Hammond, Macedonia v. Ill, 81.81. IItt isis importanimportantt ttoo notnotee thathatt thosethose whwhoo hahadd beebeenn exiledexiled durinduringg ththee reignreignss ooff PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr woulwouldd nonott likelylikely bbee alloweallowedd ttoo returreturnn home.home. BosworthBosworth arguearguess thathatt mosmostt ooff thesthesee exileexiless woulwouldd bbee easileasilyy disqualifiedisqualifiedd frofromm ththee ExileExiless DecreDecreee byby AlexandeAlexanderr andand ththee KingKing couldcould thereforthereforee guaranteguaranteee thathatt thosthosee headeheadedd bacbackk ttoo GreeceGreece werweree allall hishis supporters.supporters. HammondHammond,, howeverhowever,, arguearguess thathatt AlexandeAlexanderr wawass merelmerelyy sendingsending anyoneanyone anandd everyoneveryonee bacbackk toto GreecGreecee anandd wawass willinwillingg ttoo endureendure ththee anyany "enmity"enmity"" hehe incurred.incurred. ThiThiss seemsseems extraordinarilextraordinarilyy unlikelyunlikely.. IfIf AlexandeAlexanderr wawass sinceresincere andand determinedeterminedd ttoo creatcreatee settlesettledd conditionsconditions inin GreecGreecee hhee coulcouldd nonott havhavee hopehopedd toto improvimprovee ththee stabilitstabilityy ofof ththee regioregionn bbyy concentratinconcentratingg larglargee numbernumberss ofof hihiss enemiesenemies inin Greece.Greece. 212166 Arrian,Arrian, 7.23.27.23.2;; PlutarchPlutarch,, Alexander, 7474;; Green,Green, 472472;; AdamsAdams,, 230-231.230-231. 8787 abilityability ttoo watcwatchh oveoverr GreeceGreece hadhad wanewanedd duedue ttoo Alexander'Alexander'ss manmanyy draftdraftss ofof soldiersoldierss fromfrom

MacedoniaMacedonia.. IInn doingdoing so,so, AntipateAntipaterr wawass damagingdamaging ththee GreekGreek conceptionconception ofof freedofreedomm andand autonomyautonomy promisepromisedd bbyy ththee LeaguLeaguee ooff CorintCorinthh andand ththee GreeksGreeks sentsent envoysenvoys ttoo pleapleadd theirtheir cascasee toto AlexanderAlexander.. AAtt ththee samesame timetime,, AlexanderAlexander commandecommandedd AntipateAntipaterr toto appeaappearr iinn

BabyloBabylonn iinn orderorder toto defendefendd hishis actions,actions, bubutt fearfulfearful ofof potentiapotentiall ulterioulteriorr motivemotivess foforr thisthis order,order, AntipateAntipaterr sentsent hihiss sonson CassanderCassander toto speakspeak oonn hihiss behalfbehalf.. WhenWhen ththee GreeGreekk envoysenvoys arrivedarrived thetheyy treatetreatedd AlexandeAlexanderr asas ifif thetheyy camcamee ttoo papayy hihimm divinedivine honorshonors,, anointinanointingg himhim witwithh crowncrownss ofof goldgold andand AlexandeAlexanderr graciouslgraciouslyy acceptedaccepted themthem.. CassandeCassanderr oonn ththee otherother handhand,, laughelaughedd whewhenn somesome PersiansPersians preformedpreformed proskynesis beforbeforee AlexandeAlexanderr andand

AlexandeAlexanderr responderespondedd bbyy bashingbashing Cassander'sCassander's headhead againstagainst a wallwall.. ClearlyClearly,, AlexanderAlexander wawass nonoww nurturingnurturing hihiss imageimage aass kinkingg anandd gogodd anandd an anyy slightslight againsagainstt thithiss efforeffortt wawass notnot lookelookedd upouponn kindlykindly.. ThThee actualactual resolutioresolutionn ofof ththee GreeksGreeks'' suitsuit againsagainstt AntipateAntipaterr wouldwould neveneverr bbee resolvedresolved.. AlexandeAlexanderr diediedd shortlshortlyy afteafterr thithiss incident.incident.

ThesThesee threthreee events,events, Alexander'Alexander'ss reconquestreconquest ofof GreeceGreece,, hishis handlinhandlingg ofof Sparta'sSparta's rebellionrebellion,, andand finallfinallyy ththee ExilExilee DecreDecreee andand requesrequestt foforr divinity,divinity, represenrepresentt Alexander'sAlexander's totatotall politicapoliticall policpolicyy towartowardd ththee GreeGreekk statesstates.. TheTheyy araree onlonlyy a smallsmall portioportionn ofof

Alexander'Alexander'ss careercareer,, yeyett iinn eaceachh ththee violenceviolence,, benevolencebenevolence,, vindictivenesvindictivenesss anandd generositygenerosity thathatt madmadee uupp AlexandeAlexanderr showshowss throughthrough.. WhaWhatt iiss mosmostt interestininterestingg isis thathatt eacheach episodeepisode cancan bbee comparedcompared soso easileasilyy ttoo episodesepisodes fromfrom ththee reigreignn ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss father,father, PhilipPhilip.. AlexanderAlexander implementeimplementedd Philip'Philip'ss tactictacticss repeatedlrepeatedlyy whilwhilee makinmakingg wawarr againsagainstt ththee easeastt anandd whewhenn hehe turneturnedd ttoo consolidatconsolidatee hihiss gainsgains,, AlexandeAlexanderr merelmerelyy implementeimplementedd a differendifferentt tactitacticc ooff rulerule useusedd successfullysuccessfully bbyy PhiliPhilipp iinn yearyearss pastpast.. DespitDespitee hihiss attemptattemptss ttoo conceaconceall iitt durinduringg hishis 8888 lifetimelifetime, , iinn hihiss approacapproachh ttoo ththee governancgovernancee ooff GreeceGreece,, AlexandeAlexanderr wawass trultrulyy hihiss father'father'ss sonson.. CHAPTECHAPTERR VIVI

CONCLUSIOCONCLUSIONN

MacedoniaMacedoniann relationrelationss witwithh GreecGreecee undeunderr PhiliPhilipp andand AlexandeAlexanderr represenrepresentt ononee ofof ththee greatesgreatestt rolrolee reversalreversalss iinn allall ooff historyhistory.. PhiliPhilipp tootookk a kingdokingdomm oonn ththee brinbrinkk ooff destructiodestructionn anandd turneturnedd itit intintoo ththee leadeleaderr ofof ththee GreekGreek worldworld.. TheThe precedinprecedingg studystudy hashas shown,shown, howeverhowever,, thathatt Philip'Philip'ss primarprimaryy concerconcernn wawass alwayalwayss ththee safetysafety anandd securitysecurity ofof hishis kingdomkingdom.. PhiliPhilipp dididd nonott comcomee ttoo thethe thronthronee witwithh ananyy long-termlong-term plaplann foforr thethe subjugatiosubjugationn ooff

GreecGreecee nonorr werweree thesthesee thoughtthoughtss a parpartt ooff Philip'Philip'ss conceptioconceptionn untiluntil hihiss full-scalefull-scale involvemeninvolvementt iinn ththee ThirThirdd SacredSacred WarWar.. ThThee evidencevidencee clearlclearlyy showshowss thathatt PhiliPhilipp developeddeveloped hihiss policiepoliciess towardtowardss GreecGreecee iinn threthreee stagestagess durinduringg hihiss kingshipkingship:: FirsFirstt stoppingstopping thethe

AtheniansAthenians frofromm supplantinsupplantingg himhim,, thethenn movinmovingg ttoo removremovee ththee potentiapotentiall threatthreatss ththee GreeksGreeks poseposedd ttoo hihiss immediatimmediatee securitsecurityy anandd finally,finally, creatincreatingg a peacefupeacefull settlementsettlement ofof affairsaffairs inin

GreeceGreece ttoo alloalloww himhim ttoo turturnn hihiss bacbackk anandd invadinvadee Asia.Asia.

PhiliPhilipp wawass immediatelimmediatelyy successfusuccessfull inin thesthesee firsfirstt twtwoo stagestagess ofof protectingprotecting

Macedonia,Macedonia, bubutt ththee thirthirdd stagestage proveprovedd a struggle.struggle. BeforBeforee hhee becambecamee involveinvolvedd inin settlingsettling

GreeGreekk affairsaffairs,, PhiliPhilipp wawass alalll totooo awarawaree ooff ththee difficultdifficultyy iitt woulwouldd posposee anandd avoidedavoided involvinginvolving himselhimselff totooo intimatelintimatelyy iinn GreecGreecee (i.e.(i.e.,, actuallyactually occupyinoccupyingg ananyy parpartt ofof GreeceGreece militarilymilitarily)) untiuntill iitt wawass absolutelabsolutelyy necessarynecessary.. PhiliPhilipp wawass draggedraggedd intointo ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred

WaWarr bbyy wawayy ooff hihiss obligationobligationss ttoo ThessalThessalyy alonalongg witwithh a requesrequestt fromfrom ThebesThebes.. IItt wawass atat thathatt pointpoint,, whewhenn PhiliPhilipp hahadd nnoo otherother optiooptionn thathatt directdirect confrontatioconfrontationn thatthat thethe stabilitystability ofof

GreecGreecee becambecamee a securitsecurityy concernconcern foforr Macedonia.Macedonia. 9090

Philip'sPhilip's firsfirstt efforteffort atat dealingdealing withwith thisthis mattematterr wawass a failure.failure. HiHiss powerpower withinwithin thethe

DelphicDelphic AmphictyonAmphictyonyy proveprovedd toto bbee insufficient.insufficient. HHee waswas notnot ableable toto appeaseappease alalll partiepartiess inin

hihiss settlemensettlementt ooff ththee ThirdThird SacredSacred WaWarr andand thethe peacpeacee hehe negotiatenegotiatedd afterward.afterward. Moreover,Moreover,

hihiss privilegeprivilegedd positiopositionn atat DelphiDelphi wawass notnot powerfupowerfull enoughenough ttoo calmcalm ththee unresunrestt andand soso afterafter

tendingtending ttoo a tenuoustenuous peacpeacee forfor fourfour yearyearss PhiliPhilipp waswas forcedforced ttoo beginbegin consideringconsidering

solidifyingsolidifying hihiss positiopositionn militarilymilitarily.. HeHe diddid thisthis welwelll andand hihiss victoryvictory atat ChaeroneaChaeronea allowedallowed

hihimm a secondsecond opportunityopportunity toto addressaddress ththee stabilitystability ofof Greece.Greece. HeHe diddid soso iinn ththee formform ofof thethe

CorinthianCorinthian League.League. BrilliantlyBrilliantly,, PhilipPhilip developeddeveloped a peacpeacee thatthat was,was, onon ththee surfacesurface atat least,least,

forfor GreeksGreeks andand bbyy Greeks.Greeks. ThusThus hehe savedsaved theitheirr sensibilitiessensibilities bbyy allowingallowing themthem a degreedegree ofof

freedomfreedom andand autonomyautonomy inin ththee forformm ofof a GreekGreek councilcouncil overseeingoverseeing ththee peacepeace,, bubutt alsoalso

provideprovidedd provisionprovisionss forfor large-scallarge-scalee MacedonianMacedonian militarymilitary interventiointerventionn shouldshould anyany problemproblemss arise.arise.

AfteAfterr Philip'sPhilip's death,death, Alexander'Alexander'ss continuedcontinued relationshiprelationship withwith thethe GreeksGreeks standsstands asas

a testamenttestament toto thethe successsuccess ofof Philip'sPhilip's politicalpolitical policiespolicies towardtoward Greece.Greece. WhenWhen AlexanderAlexander hahadd quelledquelled ththee initiainitiall disturbancesdisturbances resultinresultingg frofromm hihiss father'sfather's death,death, hhee merelymerely reinstatedreinstated alalll ththee politicalpolitical mechanismmechanismss thathatt hihiss fatherfather hadhad created,created, includingincluding thethe CorinthianCorinthian League.League.

ThisThis leagueleague,, overseenoverseen bbyy ththee councilcouncil ofof GreeksGreeks andand AntipaterAntipater,, servedserved hihimm welwelll forfor twelvetwelve ofof hihiss thirteethirteenn yearsyears asas king.king. Philip'sPhilip's systemsystem waswas ableable ttoo managmanagee a full-scale,full-scale, Spartan-led,Spartan-led,

Persian-backePersian-backedd rebellionrebellion withinwithin GreeceGreece allall whilwhilee ththee hegemon ooff ththee LeagueLeague waswas farfar offoff inin AsiaAsia.. WheWhenn AlexanderAlexander finallyfinally diddid beginbegin changingchanging hihiss father'sfather's policpolicyy towardtowardss GreeceGreece itit wawass nonott becausebecause ththee systemsystem PhilipPhilip hadhad createdcreated wawass nnoo longerlonger functioning,functioning, bubutt ratherrather becausbecausee AlexandeAlexanderr nownow envisionedenvisioned a largerlarger MacedonianMacedonian EmpireEmpire thathann hihiss fathefatherr everever had.had.

Alexander'sAlexander's MacedoniMacedoniaa hadhad engulfedengulfed ththee entireentire knownknown worlworldd andand GreeceGreece waswas butbut oneone 9191

partpart IIIin hihiss mucmuchh largerlarger empire.empire. HisHis decisiondecisionss duringduring thethe lastlast yeayearr ofof hihiss reigreignn areare consistentconsistent witwithh thithiss interpretationinterpretation asas hhee begabegann toto taktakee stepssteps ttoo makmakee GreeceGreece intintoo provinceprovince loyalloyal ttoo anan emperor.emperor.

BByy ththee timtimee ofof AlexanderAlexander''ss death,death, MacedoniaMacedonia hadhad comecome toto regulateregulate herher relationshirelationshipp witwithh GreecGreecee ttoo ththee poinpointt thathatt AlexanderAlexander couldcould considerconsider carryingcarrying outout decisionsdecisions outsideoutside ththee 'legal''legal' workingworkingss ofof ththee LeaguLeaguee ofof CorinthCorinth.. ThisThis levellevel ofof prominencprominencee waswas madmadee possiblpossiblee bbyy ththee politicapoliticall maneuverinmaneuveringg ofof Alexander'Alexander'ss father,father, Philip.Philip. Philip'sPhilip's expertexpert executionexecution ofof hihiss developmentaldevelopmental threethree stagesstages ofof securingsecuring MacedoniaMacedonia wawass nonott onlyonly thethe foundationfoundation ofof Macedonia'sMacedonia's politicalpolitical policiespolicies towardtowardss Greece;Greece; itit wawass thethe definitiondefinition ofof thosthosee policiepoliciess forfor almostalmost ththee entireentire perioperiodd ofof 359359 ttoo 323.323. FromFrom ragsrags ttoo riches,riches, MacedoniaMacedonia developeddeveloped fromfrom a backwatebackwaterr ofof GreeceGreece intointo ththee mostmost dominantdominant politicapoliticall entityentity inin allall ofof

Greece.. TheThe policiepoliciess implementeimplementedd andand executedexecuted bbyy PhilipPhilip andand AlexandeAlexanderr werewere largelylargely responsibleresponsible forfor thithiss result.result. BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

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