Notes Note of Explanation 1. Richard Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of São Paulo, Brazil (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1958); Annibal Villanova Villela and Wilson Suzigan, Política do governo e crescimento da economia brasileira, 1889–1945 (Rio de Janeiro: Instituto de Planejamento Econômico e Social/Instituto de Pesquisas, 1977); and Carlos Manuel Peláez and Wilson Suzigan, História monetária do Brasil: análise da política, comportamento e instituições monetárias (Brasília: Editora da Universidade de Brasília, 1981). Introduction 1. Throughout the book, these three groups are referred to as the Escritório (F.P. Ramos de Azevedo Technical Firm), DOP (Municipal Works Department), and Cia City (City of São Paulo Improvements and Freehold Land Company Limited), respectively. 2. Historians have positioned themselves within different paradigms in the discipline, as seen in Stanley Stein’s “The Historiography of Brazil: 1808–1889,” Hispanic American Historical Review 40, no. 2, (1960): 234–78; Thomas Skidmore’s “Studying the History of Latin America: A Case of Hemispheric Convergence,” Latin American Research Review 1998; and John Johnson’s “One Hundred Years of Historical Writing on Modern Latin America by U.S. Historians,” Hispanic American Historical Review 65, no. 4 (1985): 745–766. The study of the history of Brazil was at first diachronic- ally divided into periods—colonial (from encounter to 1816), empire (1816–1889), the “Old Republic” (1889–1930), the first time Vargas was in power (1930–1945), the democratic era (1945–1964), military dictatorship (1964–1985), and the New Republic (1985 to present)—and then saw its emphasis gradually move from periodization to other methodological approaches. The focus on themes marked a transition to a more interdisciplinary approach and a pluralist methodology. When Stein wrote his article, the colonial period enjoyed more research than the modern period and historical work was mostly descriptive. In the 1970s, descriptive approaches were deemed conventional as opposed to the dependency theory or Marxian-oriented analyses introduced in the field. The latter led to a radical critique and the former came to express “the older generation rooted in a liberal consensus,” quoted in Skidmore (1998) 15. The 1980s 174 NOTES and 1990s called “traditional” the studies developed under politico-economic history and foreign relations approaches that focused on studies of the state and local politics. As opposed to these, studies devoted to labor, the left, messianic movements, race relations, and gender received a “sociocultural” label. 3. This can be seen in influential historiographical articles, such as Sam Adamo, “Recent Works on Modern Brazilian History,” Latin American Research Review 27, no. 1 (1992): 192–204; David Dent, “Past and Present Trends in Research on Latin American Politics, 1950–1980,” Latin American Research Review 21, no. 1 (1986): 139–151; David Bushnell, “South America” Hispanic American Historical Review 65 (1985) no. 4: 767–787; Joseph Tulchin, “Emerging Patterns of Research in the Study of Latin America,” Latin American Research Review 18, no. 1 (1983): 85–94; and Túlio Donghi-Halperin, “Dependency Theory and Latin American Historiography,” Latin American Research Review 17, no. 1 (1982): 115–130. 4. Richard Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of São Paulo. Brazil (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1958); Glenn Beyer, ed. The Urban Explosion in Latin America: A Continent in Process of Modernization (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967); and Jorge Hardoy, Las ciudades de America Latina: Seis ensaios sobre la urbanización contemporanea (Buenos Aires: Paidos, 1972). 5. James Scobie, Buenos Aires: From Plaza to Suburb, 1870–1910 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Eulália Lobo, História do Rio de Janeiro: da capital comercial ao capital industrial e financeiro (Rio de Janeiro: IBMEC, 1978); and Richard Morse, “Los intelectuales latinoamericanos y la ciudad 1860–1940,” in Ensayos histórico sociales sobre la urbanizacions in America Latina, Jorge E. Hardoy and Richard Morse, eds. (Buenos Aires: Ediciones SIAP, 1978): 91–112. 6. Thomas Waverly Palmer, Jr., “S. Paulo in the Brazilian Federation. A State Out of Balance” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1950); Warren Dean, The Industrialization of São Paulo, 1880–1945 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969); Frederick Vincent Gifun, “Ribeirão Preto 1880–1914” (PhD diss., University of Florida, 1972); Luis Gonzalez, San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974). 7. Paul Israel Singer, Economia política da urbanização (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1973). 8. Any attempt to compress the development of a cultural approach in Latin American and Brazilian history into a brief introduction would inevitably provoke cries of protest from those who see their own contributions constrained, distorted, or ignored. The best recent effort tackling this task is Barbara Weinstein, “Brazilian Historiography Beyond the Cultural Turn: Rethinking Elite and Subaltern in a Postcolonial Society,” in Jose C. Moya, ed., Latin American History and Historiography (Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2006). On the development of a trajectory of urban history, see Diego Armus and John Lear, “The Trajectory of Latin American Urban History,” Journal of Urban History 24, no. 3 (1998): 291–301. 9. Ronn F. Pineo and James A. Baer, Cities of Hope and Dispair, Urbanization in Latin America, 1870–1930: Daily Life and the Patterns of Working Class Politics (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998); George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1988–1998. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); Diego Armus Mundo urbano y cultura popular. Estudios de história social Argentina. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1990); Samuel Baily, “The Adjustments of Italian Immigration in Buenos Aires and New York, 1870–1914,” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 281–305. 10. Pablo Piccato, “La experiencia penal de la ciudad de Mexico,” Carlos Illades ed. Ciudad de Mexico: instituiciones, actores sociales y conflicto politico, 1774–1931 NOTES 175 (Zamorra: El Colegio de Michoacan, 1996); Thomas H. Holloway, Policing Rio de Janeiro: Repression and Resistance in a 19th Century City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Donna Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991); Margareth Rago, Os prazeres da noite: prostituição e códigos da sexualidade feminina em São Paulo, 1890– 1930 (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1991); Lucia Helena Gama, Nos bares da vida: prod- ucao cultural e sociabilidade em SP, 1940–1950 (São Paulo: Editora SENAC, 1998); Sarah Feldman, “A territorialização da prostituição feminina em São Paulo” (Master’s thesis: FAU/USP, 1989). 11. James N. Green, Beyond Carnival: Male Homosexuality in Twentieth-Century Brazil (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999). 12. Joel Wolfe, Working Women, Working Men: São Paulo and the Rise of Brazil’s Industrial Working Class, 1900–1955 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993); John French. The Brazilian Workers’ ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). 13. June Hahner, Poverty and Politics. The Urban Poor in Brazil (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986); Sidney Chalhoub, Trabalho, lar e botequim (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1986); Silvia Marina Arrom, The Women of Mexico City, 1790–1857 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985). 14. Silvia Marina Arrom and Servando Ortoll, eds. Riots in the Cities: Popular Politics and the Urban Poor in Latin America, 1765–1910, (Willmington: Scholarly Resources, 1996); Teresa Meade, “Living Worse and Costing More, 1890–1917,” Journal of Latin American History 21 (1989); David Sowell, “The 1893 Bogotazo,” Journal of Latin American Studies 21 (1989); José Álvaro Moisés, Cidade, Povo e Poder (Rio de Janeiro: Coleção CEDEC/Paz e Terra, 1982). 15. John D. French, Drowning in Laws: Labor Law and Brazilian Political Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); and “The Populist Gamble of Getulio Vargas in 1945: Political and Ideological Transitions in Brazil,” in David Rock, ed., Latin America in the 1940s: War and Post-War Adjustments (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). 16. In Sueann Caulfield, Sarah C. Chambers, and Lara Putnam, eds. Honor, Status, and Law in Modern Latin America (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), the contribu- tors wrote about the convergence of status, honor, and law by exploring how gen- der- and class-based notions of honor were transmitted from traditional to modern societies, as well as how liberal ideologies and republican polities molded principles of social exclusion. 17. Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Mexico at the World’s Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation. The New Historicism: Studies in Cultural Poetics Series 35 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Diego Armus, Huelgas, habitat y salud en el Rosario de Novecientos. (Rosario: Universidad Federal de Rosario, 1995); Jeffrey Needell, A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture in Turn-of-the-Century Rio (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Nicolau Sevcenko, Literatura como missão: tensões sociais e criação cultural na primeira república (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1983). 18. Barbara Weinstein, For Social Peace in Brazil. Industrialists and the Remaking of the Working Class in São Paulo, 1920–1964 (Chapel