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Corynocarpus Laevigatus) THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY PROTECTION OF AUTHOR ’S COPYRIGHT This copy has been supplied by the Library of the University of Otago on the understanding that the following conditions will be observed: 1. To comply with s56 of the Copyright Act 1994 [NZ], this thesis copy must only be used for the purposes of research or private study. 2. The author's permission must be obtained before any material in the thesis is reproduced, unless such reproduction falls within the fair dealing guidelines of the Copyright Act 1994. Due acknowledgement must be made to the author in any citation. 3. No further copies may be made without the permission of the Librarian of the University of Otago. August 2010 THEECOLOGYANDETHNOBOTANYOFKARAKA (CORYNOCARPUS LAEVIGATUS) Author: C. J. Stowe A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science (MSc) at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand 19 September, 2003 Abstract: The ecology and ethnobotany ofkaraka 111 Abstract Historically there has been considerable debate over the origin of karaka ( Corynocarpus laevigatus J.R. et G. Forst.) in New Zealand. In contrast, the extent and importance of pre­ historic arboriculture in New Zealand has received little attention in the literature. This study reviews the ecology and ethnobotany ofkaraka and investigates its cultural and natural biogeography. Maori migration traditions frequently state that karaka was introduced to New Zealand. However, molecular evidence and finds of fossil seeds of late Oligocene age show that karaka is endemic to New Zealand. Therefore, Maori traditions probably relate to the translocation and cultivation of karaka within the New Zealand region, for which there is abundant anecdotal evidence. Karaka fruits were a valuable addition to the Maori diet and were likely to have functioned as a replacement for traditional Polynesian tree crops. The preparation of karaka seeds also had Polynesian precedents and entailed a rigorous regime of steaming and soaking to rid the kernel of its toxic elements. There is data to suggest selection for fruit size and/or nutritional value in cultivated karaka populations. A database ofkaraka distribution was compiled and populations classified as 'cultural' or 'unknown' on the basis of spatial association with archaeological sites. Groves classed as cultural were assumed to be cultivated or translocated by pre-historic Maori. Lack of effective seed dispersal by birds and the longevity of the trees, mean that the contemporary distribution of karaka provides a reasonable template for the extent of its prehistoric translocation and cultivation within New Zealand. Karaka has a distinct cultural and natural biogeography. The greatest overlap between cultural and unknown trees occurred in the northern North Island while the majority of trees in the lower North Island, and all trees in the South Island were classed as cultural. Prior to the arrival of Polynesians in New Zealand, karaka was probably restricted in distribution to the Northland/Auckland region. Its natural range was then extended by human translocation Abstract: The ecology and ethnobotany ofkaraka IV and cultivation to the lower North Island, South Island, Kermadec Islands, Chatham Islands and many other in-shore islands off New Zealand. Climate variables were fitted to the distribution data and discriminant analysis used to further test the classification of karaka into cultural and unknown populations. Significant differences were found in climatic parameters between groups. Cultural karaka were found in environments with greater solar radiation seasonality, higher evaporative demands and greater soil moisture deficits than unknown karaka. The climate profile ofkaraka was closer to that of other tree species currently restricted to the northern North Island than with more widely distributed species. Furthermore, the climate profile and location of cultural karaka is biased towards the same environmental correlates of pa and pit site locations, further indicating that karaka was a cultivated tree crop. The extensive translocation of karaka by Maori means that it has the potential, with the application of molecular methods, to serve as a marker for prehistoric settlement and mobility. Preliminary work was begun on this aspect and a predictive model is presented of the possible relationships within and between populations ofkaraka. It is concluded that the importance and extent ofkaraka arboriculture, and probably that of other endemic tree species, has previously been overlooked. This has implications for our view of certain plant communities as unmodified by humans, and provides an impetus to protect surface vegetation as an integral part of some prehistoric archaeological sites. Acknowledgements: The ecology and ethnobotany ofkaraka V Acknowledgements A large number of people were exceedingly generous with their time, advice, information and data. Thank you all very much and ifl have neglected to mention anyone, please accept my apologies! For the use of archaeological sites databases a big thank you to Tony Walton for New Zealand Archaeological Association data and to Sarah Ross for information from the Auckland Regional Council database. Thanks to Owen Wilkes for supplying information on karaka distribution in the Waikato and for extracts from Native Land Court Minutes. John Sawyer kindly made available much of the distribution data in the Wellington/Wairarapa area. Thanks also to John Leathwick at Landcare Research for generating the climate data. I would also like to thank Landcare Research Herbarium (Lincoln), Auckland Museum Herbarium, Phillippa Scott at Te Papa Herbarium and Chris Eckroyd at the Forest Research Institute Herbarium for additional distribution data. Special thanks to Simon Moore for help with collecting permits. Thanks also to all who freely gave other information: Brian Molloy, Paul Pripp, Graham Harris, Tony Beauchamp, Fred Overmars, Fil Faletolu, Bruce McFadgen, Albert Chong, Hemi Terakau, Jim Williams, Dallas Mildenhall, Raewyn Solomon, Steve Wagstaff, Murray Dawson and Lisa Forester. For getting out and collecting samples I would like to thank: Perry Fletcher, Megan Willans, Carole Greensmith, Neil Fitzgerald, Kelvin Day, Pete Brady, Nikki Stowe, Ian Brown, Kate Johns, Foss Leach, Amanda Baird, Richard Griffiths, Mike Ambrose, Peter Griffin, Andy Basset, Pam Bain, David Havell, Steve Cranwell, Astrid Dijkgraaf, Meg & Hamish of Natural Solutions, Fiona Bancroft, the Lone Ranger on Little Barrier, and Roger Cawte. I would also like to thank my supervisors - Dr. Helen Leach, Dr. David Orlovich and Dr. Janice Lord - for their advice and expertise and the University of Otago for financial assistance. Last but not least, the biggest thank you goes to my partner Kiri Pullen and my family for their encouragement, support and love. Table of Contents: The ecology and ethnobotany ofkaraka VI Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................... ii Abstract ........................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ..............................................................................v Table of Contents ............................................................................ vi List of Tables ................................................................................. ix List of Figures ....................................................................... ......... x List of Plates ......................................................................... ......... xii Introductory Remarks ........................................................ 1 1.1 Impetus for the study ................................................................ 1 1.2 Aims and objectives .................................................................. 1 1.3 Structure of the thesis ................................................................ 2 Chapter One: Biogeography, taxonomy and ecology of Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka) 1.1 Biogeography, taxonomy and fossil history of Corynocarpaceae .............. 4 1.1.1 Taxonomy and Pacific biogeography of Corynocarpaceae ................... 4 1.1.2 Biogeography ofkaraka in New Zealand from the Tertiary to Holocene .. 5 1.2 Description and ecology of karaka .................................................. 6 1.2.1 Description .......................................................................... 6 1.2.2 Seed ecology and toxicology ...................................................... 6 1.2.3 Phenology ........................................................................... 7 1.2.4 Frost tolerance ...................................................................... 7 1.2.5 Population size structure and ageing ............................................ 8 1.2.6 Dispersal. ........................................................................... 8 1.2.7 Life history strategy ................................................................9 1.2.8 Naturalisation ....................................................................... 10 1.3 Summary ................................................................................. 11 Chapter Two: Karaka in Maori and Moriori economy and culture - role, importance, traditions, preparation and use 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 14 2.1.1 Plant translocations in Oceania ................................................... 14 2.1.2 Traditions concerning
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