DOCSLIB.ORG

Downloaded 10/04/21 09:37 AM UTC SW-NE Axis for a Distance of 800 Km

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Downloaded 10/04/21 09:37 AM UTC SW-NE Axis for a Distance of 800 Km The New Zealand *** Southern Alps Experiment ^ D. S. Wratt,* R. N. Ridley,* M. R. Sinclair,* H. Larsen,* S. M. Thompson,* R. Henderson/ G. L. Austin,* S. G. Bradley,* A. Auer,@ A. P. Sturman,& I. Owens,& B. Fitzharris,** B. F. Ryan,++ and J.-F. Gayet** ABSTRACT The Southern Alps Experiment is being mounted to study the influence of New Zealand's Southern Alps on local weather and climate. This paper describes these alpine influences and outlines proposed field and modeling experi- ments. Experiment goals include understanding and quantifying factors that govern the intensity and spatial distribu- tion of heavy rainfall, the west to east distribution of precipitation across the mountains, and the intensity of lee wind storms and warming. Linked research will explore the use of deterministic rainfall models to predict river flows from mountain watersheds. 1. Introduction 95), mountain influences on South Island weather have been explored using archived weather data and The Southern Alps Experiment (SALPEX) is a new mesoscale models, and two initial field campaigns study of the processes through which the Alps influ- have been mounted. Results from this first phase are ence the weather and climate of New Zealand. The being used to refine experimental plans and develop Southern Alps form a long, narrow barrier across the hypotheses for testing during the second phase, which predominantly western flow over New Zealand's will include the main field work component (1996- South Island. In the first phase of SALPEX (1993- 97). In the final phase the experimental and model- ing results will be consolidated into an improved quan- *National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, titative understanding of mountain influences on New Wellington, New Zealand. Zealand weather. +National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Orographic influences on weather have been ad- Christchurch, New Zealand. dressed in several major international research cam- # Physics Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New paigns. For example, lee cyclogenesis, local winds, Zealand. @Meteorological Service of New Zealand, Wellington, New mountain drag, and effects of differential heating were Zealand. examined in the European Alps during the Alpine &Geography Department, Canterbury University, Christchurch, Experiment (Kuettner 1982; Smith 1986). Orographic New Zealand. influences on flow, mountain waves, wave breaking, **Geography Department, Otago University, Dunedin, New and fohn effects are topics for the Pyrenees Experi- Zealand. ment (Bougeault et al. 1993). The new European Me- ++Division of Atmospheric Research, CSIRO, Aspendale, Aus- tralia. soscale Alpine Program (Kuettner 1995) will inves- ##Laboratoire de Meteorologie Physique, Universite Blaise Pas- tigate orographically influenced precipitation events, cal, Clemont-Ferrand, France. and the three-dimensional structure of fohn-related Corresponding author address: Dr. David S. Wratt, National In- flow and wave features. stitute of Water and Atmospheric Research, 69-B Gracefield Rd., While results from such experiments provide valu- P.O. Box 31311, Lower Hutt, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] able guidance for New Zealand, regional research on In final form 13 November 1995. mountain meteorology is still required because of © 1996 American Meteorological Society particular aspects of the local geography and environ- Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 683 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/04/21 09:37 AM UTC SW-NE axis for a distance of 800 km. Cook Strait forms a break between the two islands, with a further mountain chain extending from southwest to north- east up the North Island. The North Island mountains are not generally as high as those in the South Island, but there are still extensive areas above 1000 m and many peaks over 1500 m. New Zealand's topography has an obvious effect on the climate and weather. Figure 2 (Henderson 1993) shows how annual rainfall varies across the mountains. Annual average rainfall is 3.5 m at Haast on the west coast, peaks at around 11 m in the moun- FIG. la. Map showing eastern Australia, the Tasman Sea, and tains, and is only 0.7 m at Christchurch on the east New Zealand. coast. In 1777, an early European explorer, Captain James Cook, noted that northwesterly storms in the Cook Strait region were (Kerr 1974), ment. For example, the upwind fetch for many of the severe storms in New Zealand's mountains comprises ... sometimes violent and troublesome, owing at least 2000 km of ocean, almost devoid of direct to the neighbouring mountains (always at these meteorological observations or soundings. Before times laden with vapour's) which, not only in- crease the force of the wind but alter its direc- SALPEX, almost no measurements had been made of tion in such a manner that no two blasts follow the physical properties of the clouds impinging on the each other from the same quarter. Southern Alps, or the precipitation physics taking place within them as they travel over the mountains. The Southern Alps lie within the northern periph- Since mesoscale numerical weather prediction ery of the midlatitude Southern Hemisphere wester- models have not yet been used operationally for lies. Migrating anticyclones, typically in the 33°-40°S weather forecasting in New Zealand, tests are needed latitude band, pass eastward at 3-7-day intervals of model predictions against observed rainfall, snow- (Coulter 1975; Sinclair 1996). Low pressure "troughs" fall, and winds. We need to understand the processes pass over New Zealand between pairs of anticyclones. occurring when moist oceanic air is forced up abruptly These troughs are often associated with low pressure over our mountains, to investigate the density, type, centers that migrate eastward at latitudes south of New and mix of observations (including satellite sound- Zealand (Sinclair 1994b). Meridionally or NW-SE- ings) that should be assimilated into mesoscale mod- oriented fronts in the troughs are a common weather els for the New Zealand region, and to determine the disturbance in New Zealand. As these fronts approach suitability of large-scale prognoses from global mod- the country from the west, they are commonly pre- els for initializing and guiding mesoscale models ceded by northerly winds, increasing cloud, and oro- nested over New Zealand. graphic rain upwind of and near to the main alpine divide. This rain in the mountains generally occurs for a. Geography and weather at least several hours up to and including the passage New Zealand comprises two long, narrow moun- of the front, which is generally followed by colder tainous islands extending from 34° to 47°S, together southerly to southwesterly winds and showery with various small offshore islands (Fig. 1). The domi- weather. More details of typical New Zealand weather nant mountains in the South Island are the Southern sequences are documented by Ryan (1984). Alps, with many peaks exceeding 2500 m and the The storms, which give heavy rainfalls on the west- highest (Mt. Cook) extending to 3754 m. In the cen- ern side of the Alps, generate mountain waves (Cherry tral part of the South Island the main range is within 1972; Auer 1992) and often cause strong northwest- 40 km of the west coast, and a substantial plain oc- erly winds in the lee of the mountains. Northwesterly curs to the east of the mountains. Farther north and flows across the mountains also give rise to high fohn south, the mountains extend across more of the island. temperatures in the east (Ryan 1987). While north- The Southern Alps, and the associated mountains westerly winds are common in the inland parts of the that extend to the top of the South Island, run along a South Island, they do not always reach the east coast. 684 Vol. 77, No. 4, April 1 996 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/04/21 09:37 AM UTC Air is deflected around the top of the South Island and through Cook Strait by the mountains, and a lee trough develops downwind of the mountains as part of the mountain wave structure. These fea- tures, together with land-sea tempera- ture differences, often lead to a north- easterly flow over coastal Canterbury (Coulter 1975; McKendry et al. 1986). b. Economic impacts Interactions between the mountains and the large-scale atmospheric circula- tion patterns and weather systems have important economic impacts. For ex- ample, northwesterly storms interact best with the mountains to produce spillover of heavy precipitation across the main alpine divide into New Zealand's major hydroelectricity watersheds. A reduction in the frequency of upper-level north- westerlies through 1992 and 1993 asso- ciated with a persistent El Nino led to ^ South Island, New Zealand, showing the topography and the South considerabl• i e stres, s on ,hydroelectricit i , , . y Island locations mentioned in the text, generation (Fitzharris 1992). Agricultural activities and forestry are affected by rainfall patterns, floods, strong winds, and disrupt transport. They also provide stored water for high temperatures. Heavy snowfalls in the mountains hydroelectricity generation, irrigation for agriculture, cause problems for farmers, produce avalanches, and and snow for the tourism industry. Therefore, better weather forecasts, improved seasonal outlooks, and guidance on possible future regional manifestations of global climate change would all be of considerable practical benefit. These depend on better understand- ing and modeling of alpine effects on New Zealand's weather and climate. 2.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Pollen-Based Temperature and Precipitation Records of the Past
    University of Wollongong Research Online Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health - Papers Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health 2017 Pollen-based temperature and precipitation records of the past 14,600 years in northern New Zealand (37°S) and their linkages with the Southern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation Ignacio Jara Victoria University of Wellington Rewi Newnham Victoria University of Wellington Brent V. Alloway University of Wollongong Janet M. Wilmshurst Landcare Research NZ Andrew Rees Victoria University of Wellington Publication Details Jara, I. A., Newnham, R. M., Alloway, B. V., Wilmshurst, J. M. & Rees, A. B.H. (2017). Pollen-based temperature and precipitation records of the past 14,600 years in northern New Zealand (37°S) and their linkages with the Southern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation. The oH locene: a major interdisciplinary journal focusing on recent environmental change, 27 (11), 1756-1768. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Pollen-based temperature and precipitation records of the past 14,600 years in northern New Zealand (37°S) and their linkages with the Southern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation Abstract Regional vegetation, climate history, and local water table fluctuations for the past 14,600 years are reconstructed from pollen and charcoal records of an ombrogenous peatbog in northern New Zealand (38°S). A long-term warming trend between 14,600 and 10,000 cal. yr BP is punctuated by two brief plateaux between 14,200-13,800 and 13,500-12,000 cal. yr BP. Periods of relatively drier conditions are inferred between 14,000-13,400 and 12,000-10,000 cal.
    [Show full text]
  • On the Repatriation of Māori Toi Moko Colleen Murphy a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requi
    Talking Heads: On the Repatriation of Māori Toi Moko Colleen Murphy A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honors in the History of Art THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN April 2016 Murphy 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Whakawhetai (Acknowledgements) . 03 Text Introduction: Detached Heads . 04 Ta Moko Tattooing . 07 Early Contact with Europeans . 09 Changing Attitudes . 16 General H.G. Robley . 19 People on Display . 26 Western Displays of Māori Art and Artifacts . 30 The Māori Renaissance . 34 Repatriation Practices . 37 Legislation Related to Repatriation . 39 Conclusion: Ceremonial Repatriation . 41 Endnotes . 42 Bibliography . 46 Images . 50 Murphy 3 Whakawhetai (Acknowledgements) I would like to sincerely thank my faculty advisor Dr. David Doris for his indispensable guidance during this process. He continuously found time in his busy schedule to help me with my research, and I am incredibly grateful for his generosity, sense of humor and support. I am also grateful to Dr. Howard Lay for his assistance both in this project and throughout my career at the University of Michigan. He reaffirmed my love for the History of Art in his lectures both at Michigan and throughout France, and demonstrated unbelievable dedication to our seminar class. I am certain that my experience at Michigan would not have been the same without his mentorship. I am greatly appreciative of the staff at Te Papa Tongawera for their online resources and responses to my specific questions regarding their Repatriation Program, and the Library of the University of Wellington, New Zealand, which generously makes portions of the New Zealand Text Collection freely available online.
    [Show full text]
  • A Review of Topoclimatology in New Zealand
    Weather and Climate (1989) 9: 7-13 7 A REVIEW OF TOPOCLIMATOLOGY IN NEW ZEALAND B. B. Rtzharris Department of Geography, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand ABSTRACT Because New Zealand is such a hilly country it contains a wide range of topoclimates but these have received surprisingly little attention. Development of horticulture, continued hydroelectric power developments, irrigation planning, large industrial proposals, and investigations into local air pollution problems have stimulated interest in topoclimates. Studies which examine the spatial variation of climate by using the network of climate stations in New Zealand are reviewed, but it is concluded that these give only a general indication of topoclimates. Some papers attempt to fill in the gaps between climate stations with temporary special purpose measurements, or by finding relationships that allow mapping. The main topics discussed in the New Zealand literature are local airflows, wind and shelter, growing degree days, effectiveness of various frost fighting techniques, measurement of vertical temperature structure of the boundary layer, and winter chill units. Unlike the case for other natural resources, such as soils, there is no systematic programme for the mapping of topoclimates at scales that might be useful to horticulture. INTRODUCTION areas of the South Island the climate is dis- This review first outlines the topography tinctly continental in character, despite the and climate of New Zealand and their control fact that they are no more than 130 km from on topoclimates, then notes an increasing in- the ocean. In addition, abrupt changes in to- terest in the topic. The few attempts to map pography, and the strength of the westerlies topoclimates are outlined, together with other ensure that many places are windy.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Change, Forest Conservation and Science: a Case Study of New Zealand, 1860S-19201
    History of Meteorology 5 (2009) 1 Climate Change, Forest Conservation and Science: A Case Study of New Zealand, 1860s-19201 James Beattie2 Department of History University of Waikato [email protected] Introduction To most of its European settlers, New Zealand was a land blessed by Providence. A temperate climate and year-round rainfall, easy availability of land and myriad work opportunities attracted many to the new colony. Climate and health figured prominently in migration considerations and many writers took delight in pointing out, as propagandist John Ward did to intending migrants in 1839, that in New Zealand: A never-failing moisture is dispersed over the country by the clouds which collect on the mountain-tops, without the occurrence of rainy seasons, beyond storms of a few days’ duration. This refreshing moisture, combined with the influence of the sea-breezes, renders the climate very favourable to the health, and development, of the human frame. And vegetation is, from the same cause, highly luxuriant, and the verdure almost perpetual.3 New Zealand compared favourably to its nearest neighbour – and rival migrant destination – the Australian colonies. New Zealand, observed Pacific traveller George F. Angas (1822-1886) in 1866, ‘has the mild winters, the clear sky, and pure atmosphere of’ Australia, but was ‘free from its hot winds and long-continued droughts…and in the winter [enjoys] very heavy rains, with rough tempestuous weather’.4 As environmental historian Don Garden notes in his fascinating study of the impact of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on Australasia, despite localised evidence to the contrary, New Zealand’s more regular rainfall largely surpassed Australia’s droughty land.5 Despite lower rainfall over the ensuing year, the New Zealand Farmer in 1911 still expressed confidence in the climate of New Zealand to supply the needs of its farmers.
    [Show full text]
  • Kidson's Synoptic Weather Types and Surface Climate Variability Over
    Weather and Climate, 31, 3-23 3 Kidson’s Synoptic Weather Types and Surface Climate Variability over New Zealand James A. Renwick∗ National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand Abstract Daily synoptic classifications developed by Kidson in the late 1990s have been updated through mid-2010. This paper documents the update in terms of the relative frequency of occurrence of the synoptic types and associated regimes, demonstrating that on average, synoptic type frequencies have not changed significantly over the past decade, although some long-term trends in occurrence frequency have been reported elsewhere. The regimes are associated in dynamically reasonable ways to the phase of the ENSO cycle and to the polarity of the SAM, with more zonal flow during El Niño and more blocking types during La Niña, more trough types during the negative SAM and more zonal and blocking types during the positive SAM. The synoptic types and regimes are closely associated with coherent daily climate anomalies, as illustrated using the high- resolution Virtual Climate Station Network dataset. The mean magnitude of the daily climate anomalies associated with the Kidson types and regimes is much larger than suggested by Kidson’s original results, because Kidson’s results were based on regional averages and mixtures of the effects of different regimes within months. 1. Introduction Synoptic-climatological classification is a well-known technique for defining surface climate and local atmospheric circulation variability over a region (e.g., Yarnal 1993). Such a classification analysis for New Zealand was carried out in the late 1990s, as ∗ Corresponding author address: Dr J.
    [Show full text]
  • Ecological Restoration of New Zealand Islands
    CONTENTS Introduction D.R. Towns, I.A.E. Atkinson, and C.H. Daugherty .... ... .. .... .. .... ... .... ... .... .... iii SECTION I: RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT New Zealand as an archipelago: An international perspective Jared M. Diamond . 3 The significance of the biological resources of New Zealand islands for ecological restoration C.H. Daugherty, D.R. Towns, I.A.E. Atkinson, G.W. Gibbs . 9 The significance of island reserves for ecological restoration of marine communities W.J.Ballantine. 22 Reconstructing the ambiguous: Can island ecosystems be restored? Daniel Simberloff. 37 How representative can restored islands really be? An analysis of climo-edaphic environments in New Zealand Colin D. Meurk and Paul M. Blaschke . 52 Ecological restoration on islands: Prerequisites for success I.A.E Atkinson . 73 The potential for ecological restoration in the Mercury Islands D.R. Towns, I.A.E. Atkinson, C.H. Daugherty . 91 Motuhora: A whale of an island S. Smale and K. Owen . ... ... .. ... .... .. ... .. ... ... ... ... ... .... ... .... ..... 109 Mana Island revegetation: Data from late Holocene pollen analysis P.I. Chester and J.I. Raine ... ... ... .... .... ... .. ... .. .... ... .... .. .... ..... 113 The silent majority: A plea for the consideration of invertebrates in New Zealand island management - George W. Gibbs .. ... .. ... .. .... ... .. .... ... .. ... ... ... ... .... ... ..... ..... 123 Community effects of biological introductions and their implications for restoration Daniel Simberloff . 128 Eradication of introduced animals from the islands of New Zealand C.R. Veitch and Brian D. Bell . 137 Mapara: Island management "mainland" style Alan Saunders . 147 Key archaeological features of the offshore islands of New Zealand Janet Davidson . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... .. .... ... .. ... .. .... .. ..... .. .... ...... 150 Potential for ecological restoration of islands for indigenous fauna and flora John L. Craig .. .. ... .. ... ... ... .... .. ... ... .. ... .. .... ... ... .... .... ..... .. 156 Public involvement in island restoration Mark Bellingham .
    [Show full text]
  • Late Quaternary Climate Variability and Change from Aotearoa
    quaternary Article Late Quaternary Climate Variability and Change from Aotearoa New Zealand Speleothems: Progress in Age Modelling, Oxygen Isotope Master Record Construction and Proxy-Model Comparisons Andrew M. Lorrey 1,*, Paul W. Williams 2, John-Mark Woolley 1, Nicolas C. Fauchereau 1, Adam Hartland 3 , Helen Bostock 4, Shaun Eaves 5, Matthew S. Lachniet 6 , James A. Renwick 5 and Vidya Varma 1 1 National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., Auckland 1010, New Zealand; [email protected] (J.-M.W.); [email protected] (N.C.F.); [email protected] (V.V.) 2 School of Environment, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; [email protected] 3 Environmental Research Institute, School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; [email protected] 4 School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia; [email protected] 5 School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University Wellington, Wellington 6140, New Zealand; [email protected] (S.E.); [email protected] (J.A.R.) 6 Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 19 July 2019; Accepted: 7 August 2020; Published: 16 August 2020 Abstract: We re-evaluated speleothem isotope series from Aotearoa New Zealand that were recently contributed to the Speleothem Isotopes Synthesis and AnaLysis (SISAL) database. COnstructing Proxy Records from Age Models (COPRA) software was used to produce Bayesian age models for those speleothems.
    [Show full text]
  • Fire Weather and Climate of New Zealand* H
    Fires and forests Fire weather and climate of New Zealand* H. Grant Pearce and Veronica Clifford1 Abstract Each year in New Zealand, seasonal weather conditions contribute to elevated fire dangers and therefore an increased risk of wildfires in most parts of the country. Weather is a key component of the fire environment, and an essential element of fire behaviour and fire danger. In particular, strong winds, high temperatures, low humidity and seasonal drought can combine to produce dangerous fire weather situations. To effectively manage this risk, an appreciation of the severity of fire weather and fire danger conditions is essential. A database has been developed of long-term daily fire weather and fire danger records from a network of more than 170 weather stations located across the country. The fire weather monitoring network comprises a mix of stations from the Meteorological Service of New Zealand (MetService), National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) and Rural Fire Authorities. This database has formed the basis for a series of analyses comparing the severity of fire climates in different parts of the country, predicting the severity of fire seasons, and for projecting the likely effects of climate change on future fire dangers. This paper gives a brief overview of research undertaken to describe and predict New Zealand’s fire climate. Background (FWI) System (Figure 1b) provides numerical ratings of relative ignition potential and fire behaviour, based solely The New Zealand fire danger rating system on weather data (Van Wagner 1987, Anderson 2005). Observations of temperature, relative humidity, wind speed The New Zealand Fire Danger Rating System and 24-hour accumulated rainfall are collected daily by a (NZFDRS) has been developed as an aid to support fire network of automatic weather stations.
    [Show full text]
  • Meteorological Society of New Zealand (Inc.)
    Meteorological Society of New Zealand Newsletter - Sep 2011 - Page 1 ISSN 0111-1736 Meteorological Society Of New Zealand (Inc.) NEWSLETTER 126 SEPTEMBER 2011 Meteorological Society of New Zealand Newsletter - Sep 2011 - Page 2 Meteorological Society Of New Zealand (Inc.) NEWSLETTER 126 SEPTEMBER 2011 PO Box 6523, Marion Square, Wellington 6141, New Zealand Please forward contributions to Bob McDavitt, [email protected] CONTENTS Page AGM + other notices 3 Wairarapa Weather Watchers 4-7 Avondale Tornado 7-8 Winter 2011 (NIWA + Ben Tichborne) 9-18 Autumn – in the media 19-47 Your Committee until the AGM President Andrew Tait [email protected] Immediate Past President Kim Dirks [email protected] Auckland VP Jennifer Salmond [email protected] Wellington VP James Renwick [email protected] Christchurch VP Colin Simpson Dunedin VP vacant Secretary Sam Dean [email protected] Treasurer Alan Porteous [email protected] Circulation Manager Sylvia Nichol [email protected] Journal Editor Brian Giles [email protected] Newsletter Editor Bob McDavitt [email protected] Wed Editor Peter Knudsen Hydrological Soc Liaison Charles Pearson [email protected] General Committee Jim Salinger [email protected] Mike Revell [email protected] Katrina Richards [email protected] Gareth Renowden [email protected] Duncan Ackerley Views and endorsements expressed in this newsletter are those of the contributors and advertisers, and not necessarily those of the Meteorological Society of New Zealand. The mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the Society.
    [Show full text]
  • OVERVIEW of the GRASSLANDS of OCEANIA 3R3
    Gillison, A.N. (1994 *Oo"*i"* of the Gtasslands of Oceania. In Ihtwai Taprate Grasslatf,s: Evasia, Africa, tuuth Arerica and Oreania, etl. R.T. Corplantl In firaslestens of the l/orJd ed-in-chief D.ll. cmdalL, 88. pp. 303-313. Elserrier Scientific hrblishing Co., Amsterdam. Chapterl2 OVERVIEWOF THE GRASSLANDSOF OCEANIA A.N. CILLISON INT'RODUCTION foundedby variationin climatc,soils, tcrrain, is- land size and patternsof land use. Some of the The grasslandsof Oceania arc distributedin land areastreated here are outside Oceaniascnsrl fragmcntcd units over a region extending some stricto and includc "outlicrs" such as Hawaii, the 105degrees longitudinally [from Australia(120'E) Philippinesand the sub-Antarcticislands. These to Pitcairn Island (13,5'W)]and 78 degreeslat- havebeen includcd to providc a morc appropriatc itudinally Ifrom thc Northern Mariana Islands regional biogeographicframework. A broad indi- (23"N)to the sub-Antarcticislands (55'S)1. Within cation of the regional distribution of major grass this vast territory, the land arca of approximately tribcsis givcnin Thble12.1. 8 509400 km2 supports a human population of Comparativestudies of grasslandswithin Ocea- about 2-5060000,the area per head ranging from nia are made complex by extreme variation in nearly 0.3 ha in Tirvalu zrnd Nauru to 14 ha in physical environmcnts: although semiarid Aus- Papua Ncw Guinea and 44 ha in Australia.Al- tralia containsextensive areas of "pure" grassland, though thc proportion of land which has been the south-wcstPacific island grasslands are mostly convertedto grasslandtcnds to vary directly with fragmentedmosaics distributed along locally vari- populationpressure, clirect relationships are con- able - often steep - physical environmental TABLE I2.I Compositionof the grassflora (?, contributcd by cach major tribc) in sclectedlocalitics in and near Oceania.compared with the gkrbal avcragcl Locality Agrostcac Andropogoncae Avcncae Eragrostoac Fcstuccire Paniceae Others Ilawaii (belowr'.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Windows for Polynesian Voyaging to New Zealand and Easter Island
    Climate windows for Polynesian voyaging to New Zealand and Easter Island Ian D. Goodwina,1, Stuart A. Browninga, and Atholl J. Andersonb aMarine Climate Risk Group and Department of Environment and Geography, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; and bResearch School of Asia-Pacific, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2001, Australia Edited by Patrick V. Kirch, University of California, Berkeley, CA, and approved August 13, 2014 (received for review May 14, 2014) Debate about initial human migration across the immense area of passages off-wind could have occurred when westerly winds un- East Polynesia has focused upon seafaring technology, both of der very strong El Niño conditions created extensive subtropical navigation and canoe capabilities, while temporal variation in tradewind reversals, but these were probably brief episodes and sailing conditions, notably through climate change, has received quite unpredictable (5, 7, 13–15). While the drivers of Polynesian less attention. One model of Polynesian voyaging observes that as migration are not known, any intentional or systematic sailing tradewind easterlies are currently dominant in the central Pacific, involved in colonization voyaging, whether by vessels with only prehistoric colonization canoes voyaging eastward to and through a downwind capacity or those with greater capability, would have central East Polynesia (CEP: Society, Tuamotu, Marquesas, Gambier, benefited from multidecadal-scale shifts to favorably fair winds. Southern Cook, and Austral Islands) and to Easter Island probably Such conditions occur for sailing into the extratropics when had a windward capacity. Similar arguments have been applied to tropical and subpolar air masses, traveling as high-pressure sys- tems, migrated poleward from their mean climate position in the voyaging from CEP to New Zealand against prevailing westerlies.
    [Show full text]
  • Weather, Climate and Tourism: a New Zealand Perspective
    , and Tourism: A New Zealand Perspective Susanne Becken Jude Wilson Andy Reisinger Report No. 20 ...--....... LE P LAND ENVIRONMENT & PEOPLE Weather, Climate and Tourism A New Zealand Perspective Susanne Becken Jude Wilson Andy Reisinger Land Environment and People Research Report No. 20 July 2010 ISSN 1172-0859 (Print) ISSN 1172-0891 (Online) ISBN 978-0-86476-240-5 (Print) ISBN 978-0-86476-243-6 (Online) Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand Weather, Climate and Tourism: A New Zealand Perspective Reviewed by: This report has been reviewed by Dr Andy Reisinger. In recognition of his significant contribution to the report, and his earlier input into questionnaire development, he has been added as a co-author. Acknowledgements We are grateful to KEA Campers for assisting in the distribution of the tourist survey in the summer 2009/10 season. We also thank the Ministry of Tourism for allowing access to relevant sections of the International Visitor Survey data. This report is part of a lager project on “Preparing the Tourism Sector for Climate Change” (LINX0903), funded by the New Zealand Foundation of Research, Science & Technology funded project. ©LEaP, Lincoln University, New Zealand 2010 This information may be copied or reproduced electronically and distributed to others without restriction, provided LEaP, Lincoln University is acknowledged as the source of information. Under no circumstances may a charge be made for this information without the express permission of LEaP, Lincoln University, New Zealand. Series URL: http:hdl.handle.net/10182/580 Weather, Climate and Tourism: A New Zealand Perspective Table of Contents Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... i List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]