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Terrorism, Law, and Sovereignty in India and the League of Nations, 1897-1945

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Terrorism, Law, and Sovereignty in India and the League of Nations, 1897-1945 Terrorism, Law, and Sovereignty in India and the League of Nations, 1897-1945 Joseph McQuade Trinity Hall Submitted: 9 May 2017 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 1 Terrorism, Law, and Sovereignty in India and the League of Nations, 1897-1945 Joseph McQuade Abstract This research examines the emergence of terrorism as a legal and political category in late colonial India from 1897 to 1946. Chapter 1 traces debates surrounding laws of sedition from the 19th century and follows these laws into the early twentieth century, where they come to be viewed as increasingly inadequate in dealing with the unprecedented challenge presented to the colonial regime by secret societies using bomb assassinations against the government. Chapter 2 then examines how these discussions change in the context of the First World War, when a language of war and concerns regarding third party German involvement provide the opportunity for the imperial government to strengthen its emergency laws by legislating against 'conspiracy'. Chapter 3 demonstrates how, following the end of the war, conspiracy became itself viewed as an inadequate term and officials made a conscious decision to present revolutionaries under the label of 'terrorism' in subsequent speeches. This continued into the early 1930s, where laws in India began to target terrorism as a discrete category of crime, in legislation such as the Suppression of Terrorism Outrages Act of 1932. Chapter 4 situates this process within the context of the international system of the interwar period, first exploring India's under-studied relationship with the League of Nations and then indicating how this relationship became a point of critique for those labelled by the government as terrorists, particularly the Bengali revolutionary Rash Behari Bose. Chapter 5 shows how the discussions surrounding the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism in 1937, the world's first international law to target terrorism as a discrete category of crime, reflected many of the concerns that animated discussions in India. The chapter also examines India's role in the Convention, as the only member-state of the League to ultimately ratify the treaty. 2 Preface This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. 3 Contents Acknowledgements 5 Abbreviations 7 Glossary 8 Introduction 9 Chapter 1 – Sedition and Assassination in Bengal, 1905-1913 26 Chapter 2 – War Measures in British India, 1914-1919 61 Chapter 3 – Constructing ‘the terrorist’ in Bengal, 1919-1935 95 Chapter 4 – Empire and the International in India, 1919-1946 132 Chapter 5 – India, the League of Nations, and International Terrorism 172 Conclusion 202 Bibliography 206 4 Acknowledgements Throughout the process of researching and writing this dissertation, I have accumulated a wide range of debts, both intellectual and personal. Tim Harper has been a generous and insightful supervisor who helped me see this project to completion. I’d also like to thank my examiners, Clare Anderson and Saul Dubow, for their helpful feedback. I am grateful to my instructors at the University of Toronto, who helped get me started down the road of South Asian history and have continued to provide guidance along the way, particularly Ritu Birla and Nonica Datta. For critical feedback on earlier drafts of this work, I would like to thank Sandra den Otter, Shruti Kapila, Alison Bashford, Christopher Andrew, Susan Pedersen, Kim Wagner, and Upendra Baxi. Amitava Chowdhury has seen this research develop since its first inception and has provided a constant source of support. I am also thankful to the participants of over a dozen workshops and conferences who provided useful and timely advice that helped strengthen the final product, including Deanna Heath, Anand Yang, Radhika Singha, Neeladri Bhattacharya, Durba Ghosh, as well as numerous others. This research would simply not have been possible without the generous funding provided by the Gates Cambridge Trust. I would also like to thank the Trust staff for reliable and prompt responses to all matters, whether logistical, financial, or otherwise. They made it possible for me to proceed with my doctorate with confidence and peace of mind. Other sources of funding over the course of my doctoral research include travel grants from Trinity Hall and from the Smuts Memorial Fund and a foreign language instruction grant from the Schools of Arts & Humanities and Humanities & Social Sciences at the University of Cambridge. The Master’s research that provided the initial spark for this dissertation was funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada. The global scope of this research required visits to archives around the world, where I encountered helpful and informative staff who made this project possible. First and foremost, Kevin Greenbank, Rachel Rowe, and Barbara Roe at the Centre for South Asian Studies, Cambridge always provided cheerful assistance with any inquiry, no matter how big or small. The staff at the National Library, Kolkata, helped me track down an out of print collection of the writings of Rash Behari Bose, which I have not seen cited anywhere else. Sugata Bose and Krishna Bose from the Netaji Research Bureau were prompt and gracious in responding to my inquiries. Jacques Oberson and his colleagues at the League of Nations Archives in Geneva provided such efficient guidance that what was intended as a preliminary one week reconnaissance trip ended up furnishing far more useful material than I anticipated. Naoya 5 Inaba from Waseda University Library helped me track down the full collection of New Asia volumes, justifying my trip to Tokyo. Thanks are also due to the many archivists and librarians who responded to countless inquiries at the British Library, National Archives, Kew, and the National Archives of India, as well as the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. I am grateful to Shachi Chotia for her patient attempts to teach me Hindi, and to her family for their hospitality and kindness. The University of Cambridge provided an unparalleled community of fellow scholars and graduate students that I count myself very fortunate to have worked alongside. Members of the World History Workshop and my co-conveners in the Violence and Conflict Workshop offered interesting and provocative perspectives that shaped my thinking on a regular basis. Colleagues at the Centre for South Asian Studies were among the finest company that one could hope for, both intellectually and personally. Special thanks are in order to Devyani Gupta for reading my work and providing some last minute advice near submission. I’d also like to thank Michael Sugarman for long talks about everything from archives to global history. Sophie-Jung Kim was always a ready source of support, as well as a provocative thinker and loyal confidante. As an interlocutor, adviser, travel companion, and roommate, Alastair McClure is unmatched. Although there is no space to mention them all by name, a wide-ranging network of friends, teachers, and colleagues from Toronto to Tokyo have enriched this experience in more ways than I can count. On a personal note, I would like to thank my father for gifting me with his passion for history, and my mother for her love of reading. Thanks also to my sister Katherine for encouraging me to embark on this unforgettable journey, and to my grandfather, Richard Jennings, whose stories of the past started it all. Last, but far from least, I owe more than I can say to Emily LeDuc, my partner in all things, who has been my staunchest supporter and closest companion throughout this entire process. From providing a sounding board to countless ideas, to navigating a seemingly endless array of airplanes and time zones, to attempting with near-superhuman perseverance to expunge the passive voice from my drafts, she has made this dissertation possible. Our dog Finnegan, as always, gets the last word. I am grateful for his constant companionship both as an attentive listener and as the most reliable alarm clock I have ever ha 6 Abbreviations BL – British Library CID – Criminal Investigation Department CRT – Comité Répression Internationale du Terrorisme CUL – Cambridge University Library HC – House of Commons HL – House of Lords IOR – Indian Office Records, British Library LNA – League of Nations Archives, Geneva NAI – National Archives of India, New Delhi NLI – National Library of India, Kolkata PRO – Public Records Office, Kew SAAA – Sri Aurobindo Ashram Archives SAADA – South Asian American Digital Archive 7 Glossary Ahimsa – Principle of non-violence found in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Bhadralok – Bengali middle class. Dacoit – Bandit. Jihad – A spiritual or physical struggle in the Islamic tradition. Khilafat – A transnational movement that protested the removal of the Ottoman caliph. Lathi – Bamboo stave. Samiti – Society or association. Satyagraha – Literally truth-force, also refers to Gandhi’s non-violence campaign. Sepoy – Indian soldier. Swadeshi – Self-sufficiency, also refers to economic boycott of British goods. Swaraj – Self-rule, can carry either personal or political connotations. 8 Introduction Authority is, it seems, at one all the world over, and we must recognize that there is now no longer the least illogical loophole of escape for a fleeing man on this earth or in its waters; it is merely a question of which uniform shall arrest him.
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