DOCSLIB.ORG

The Old Saxon Language Grammar, Epic Narrative, Linguistic Interference

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Irmengard.Rauch The Old Saxon Language Grammar, Epic Narrative, Linguistic Interference PETER LANG New York • San Francisco • Bern • Baltimore Frankfurt am Main • Berlin • Wien • Paris Contents Plate I Ms. C Fit 1: lines 1-18a xvii Plate II Ms. M Fit 2-3: lines 117-179a x vi i i -x ix Plate III Ms. S Fit 7: lines 558b-582a; Fit 8: lines 675-683a; lines 692-698 xx-xxi Plate IV Versus de Poeta & interprete huius codicis xxii Plate V Map of Old Saxon Speech Area x x i i i Introduction xxv Symbols and Abbreviations xli Chapter One Reading an Old Saxon Text; Early Cognitive Decisions; The Verb in the Lexicon; The Strong Verb Dictionary Finder Chart 1. The Old Saxon Text: Narrative Discourse 1 2. The OS Sentence, Grammatical Constituents, Lexicon 2 3. The Verb in the Lexicon 3 3.1 The Fundamental Identifying Form (FIF) of the Verb 3 3.2 Strong, Weak, Modal Auxiliary, Anomalous Verb Types 4 VIII 3.3 Strong Verb ABLAUT 5 3.3.1 The Strong Verb Dictionary Finder Chart 6 3.3.2 Variation in the Seven Strong Verb Sets 12 Chapter Two After the First Search; Diachronic Synchrony and Linguistic Explanation; Linear Syntax: Independent Sentence; Pragmatic Strategies; Nonlinear Micro-syntax: Morphology; Inflection of Verb Present Tense 4. Linguistic Generalization in Diachronic Synchrony 19 5. Completing the Search 23 6. Linear Syntax: The Independent Sentence 24 6.1 The Independent Declarative Sentence: (X)VbSO 24 6.2 The Unmarked Interrogative and the Unmarked Imperative Sentence: (X)VbSO 25 6.3 The Marked Independent Sentence: (X)SVbO and (X)SOVb 26 6.4 Textual and Pragmatic Strategies in Linear Syntax 27 7. Nonlinear Micro-syntax: Morphology 31 8. Inflection of Verb Present Tense Indicative 35 8.1 Present Tense Indicative Suffix 35 8.2 Present Tense Plural Types: Membership and Root Modifications 36 8.2.1 The -(a)d Plural Verbs . 37 8.2.2 The -un Plural Verbs 38 8.2.3 Anomalous Verbs 39 Chapter Three Prepositional Meaning and Valence; The Noun and its Grammatical Categories; Inflection of the Masculine Strong Noun; Inflection of the Neuter Strong Noun IX 9. Propositional Meaning and Valence 43 10. The Argument(s) 46 10.1 The Noun and Its Categories 46 11. The Inflection of the Masculine Strong Noun 48 11.1 Masculine Strong Noun Suffix 48 11.2 Masculine Strong Noun Plural Types: Root and Suffix Variations 50 11.2.1 Masculine Strong Noun 0-Plural Subset Contaminations; Anomalies 52 12. The Inflection of the Neuter Strong Noun 53 12.1 Neuter Strong Noun Suffix 53 12.2 Neuter Strong Noun Plural Types: Root and Suffix Variations 54 12.2.1 Neuter Strong Noun 0-Plural Subset Contaminations; Anomalies 56 Chapter Four Primary Evidence in Reading the OS Text; Graphemics and the Interpretation of Desinences; Inflection of the Feminine Strong Noun; Inflection of the Masculine, Neuter, and Feminine Weak Nouns 13. Graphemics " 57 13.1 Graphic Variation 58 13.2 Reading the Inflectional Syllable: Reality in Diachronic Synchrony 59 14. The Inflection of the Feminine Strong Noun 63 14.1 Feminine Strong Noun Suffix 63 14.2 Feminine Strong Noun Plural Types: Root and Suffix Variations 65 14.2.1 Feminine Strong Noun /-Plural Subset Contaminations; Anomalies 67 15. The Inflection of the Trigender Weak Noun 68 15.1 Trigender Weak Noun Suffix 68 15.2 Trigender Weak Noun: Root and Suffix Variations 70 Chapter Five Hearing the Old Saxon Text; Articulatory/Acoustic Features of the Sounds; Systematic Segmental Phonemes; Suprasegmental Phonemes; Alliterative Verse Form; Syllable 16. Sounds in Historical Language 73 16.1 Articulatory Phonetics 74 16.1.1 Consonant 75 16.1.2 Vowel 77 16.2 Acoustic Phonetics 79 16.2.1 Consonant 80 16.2.2 Vowel 82 17. The Old Saxon Sound System 83 17.1 Segmental Phonemes of Old Saxon 85 17.2 Old Saxon Systematic Phonemes 85 17.3 Suprasegmental Phonemes of Old Saxon 88 17.3.1 Old Saxon Alliterative Verse Form 88 17.3.2 Word Stress Phonemes 91 17.3.3 Syntactic Stress 93 17.4 Old Saxon Syllable 96 Chapter Six Sorting out the Graphemic Variation; Heliand and Genesis Manuscripts; Latin Prefaces; Old Saxon Speech Area, Dialects and Megadialects; Phonemic, Allophonic, Graphemic Fit 18. The Sound:Symbol Fit 99 19. Time/Space Setting of the Primary Old Saxon Data 100 XI 19.1 The Heliand Manuscripts 100 19.2 The Role of the Latin Heliand and Genesis Prefaces 101 19.3 Dialects and Megadialects 103 19.3.1 The Old Saxon Speech Area 103 19.3.2 Heliand Dialects and Register 105 19.3.3 Old Frisian, Old English, Old High German Megadialect Interference 108 19.4 Phoneme, Allophone, Grapheme 112 19.4.1 /p/ 113 19.4.2 /b/ 113 19.4.3 /f/ 114 19.4.4 /m/ 115 19.4.5 /w/ 115 19.4.6 /t/ 116 19.4.7 /d/ 117 19.4.8 /th/ 118 19.4.9 /s/ 120 19.4.10 /n/ 120 19.4.11 /I/ 121 19.4.12 /r/ 121 19.4.13 /k/ 122 19.4.14 /g/ 124 19.4.15 /x/ 125 19.4.16 /}/ 126 19.4.17 /h/ 127 19.4.18 IV 128 19.4.19 /u/ 128 19.4.20 /i/ 128 19.4.21 /u/ 129 19.4.22 /e/ 129 19.4.23 /o/ 130 19.4.24 /e/ 131 XII 19.4.25 /p7 131 19.4.26 /e/ 131 19.4.27 /o/ 133 19.4.28 /s/ 134 19.4.29 /a/ 134 19.4.30 /a/ 135 19.4.31 Diphthongs 135 19.5 Old Saxon Systematic Phones 137 Chapter Seven Configurating the Morphology; Nonlinear Macro-syntax; Subcategorization Rules in the Predicate, Argument, Modality Constituents 20. Nonlinear Macro-syntax 139 21. Subcategorization Rules 140 22. Predicate Constituent 140 22.1 Simple Nominal Complement 143 22.2 Complex Nominal Complement 145 22.3 Case Transformed to Prepositional Phrase 147 22.4 Adverbial Complement by Case or Case Transformed to Prepositional Phrase 149 22.5 Infinitive Complement 151 22.6 Present Participle Complement 153 22.7 Preterite Participle Complement 154 22.8 Sentence Complement 155 23. Argument Constituent 156 23.1 Article Determiner 157 23.2 Quantifier Determiner 157 23.3 Possessive Pronoun Determiner, Intensifier Pronoun, Possessive Noun 158 23.4 NP Expansion by Adjective 1 59 23.5 NP Expansion by Sentence 160 24. Modality Constituent 162 XIII 24.1 Tense 162 24.2 Mood 170 24.3 Aspect 176 24.4 Polarity 179 24.5 Diathesis 182 Chapter Eight The Lexicon: Derivation and Compounding; Nonnoun Nominal Inflection; Weakly Stressed Vowels; Inflection of the Verb Preterite Tense; Inflection of the Imperative and Subjunctive 25. Noninflectional Morphology 185 25.1 Derivation 187 25.2 Compounding 189 26. The Inflection of Nonnoun Nominals 191 26.1 Trigender Strong Nonnoun Nominal Suffix 192 26.1.1 Trigender Pronoun 194 26.1.2 Trigender Strong Adjective 199 26.1.3 Trigender Weak Adjective 201 26.1.4 Nonfinite Verb 203 27. Weakly Stressed Vowels 205 28. Inflection of Verb Preterite Tense Indicative 207 28.1 Preterite Tense Indicative Suffix 208 28.2 Preterite Tense Plural Types 209 28.2.1 The Nondental Preterite 210 28.2.2 The Dental Preterite 211 28.2.3 Anomalous Verbs 214 29. The Inflection of the Nonindicative Verb Moods 214 29.1 The Imperative 214 29.2 The Subjunctive 215 29.2.1 Present 215 29.2.2 Preterite 216 30. Further Linear and Nonlinear Syntax Rules 218 30.1 Linear Order 218 XIV 30.1.1 The Dependent Sentence 218 30.1.2 Lexical Category Phrases 219 30.2 Occasional Optional Congruence Rules 221 Selected Readings 223 Old Saxon Heliand. Fits I, II, VII, VIII, XXXII, XXXVII, XXXVIII, XXXIX, Lll, Llll 225 Genesis Fragment 250 Minor Documents: Charms, Psalm V.9. Explication 251 Latin Prose Preface(s) 253 Verse Preface 255 Old High German Charm Against Worms 257 Notker. Psalm V.9. Explication 257 Tatian: Luke 1.5-25 257 Otfrid: 1, 17 258 Muspilli 262 Old English Genesis Passages 267 Caedmon 273 Old Saxon Glossary 277 Latin Glossary 315 Old High German Glossary 333 XV Old English Glossary 357 Linguistic Technical Terms 373 Selected Bibliography 401 Index 409.
Recommended publications
  • Tip #4 INFINITIVES 不定詞

    Tip #4 INFINITIVES 不定詞

    Tip #4 INFINITIVES 不定詞 Basic Guidelines Infinitive means “without limit”, and is one of a group of three special word forms called “verbals”: Verbal Type Functions Forms 1) infinitive （不定詞） (weak) noun to + verb (to) verb to find help (to) do 2) gerund （動名詞） (strong) noun verb-ing finding 3) participle （分詞） adjective verb-ing verb-ed having verb-ed finding found having found acting acted having acted To conquer unknown areas of science is Taro’s desire. “to conquer” = noun（名詞） and is used as the subject of the sentence The desire to conquer unknown areas of science is Taro’s. “to conquer” = adjective（形容詞） and describes what kind of desire Taro desires to conquer unknown areas of science. “to conquer” = a noun phrase that actually functions to describe “desire” Writers too often misuse the infinitive because they were mistaught, or because the concepts were never learned properly. When thinking of the word “infinitive”, associate the word “infinity” “without limitations”. Infinitive use more commonly communicates uncertainty and doubt—though more psychologically—and is often used in situations in which logic and future possibilities are stressed. The gerund（V-ing 動名詞）—likely mistaught as well—stresses the concept of certainty much more the infinitive, and often refers to things done or finished in the past; thus, things that are known or certain. In short many writers overuse the infinitive in today’s technical, scientific, and even business writing; and use the gerund too little. For numerous reasons dating back to the 1980s, the gerund has become more and more frequently used for stressing facts or factual-like information.
  • Old English: 450 - 1150 18 August 2013

    Old English: 450 - 1150 18 August 2013

    Chapter 4 Old English: 450 - 1150 18 August 2013 As discussed in Chapter 1, the English language had its start around 449, when Germanic tribes came to England and settled there. Initially, the native Celtic inhabitants and newcomers presumably lived side-by-side and the Germanic speakers adopted some linguistic features from the original inhabitants. During this period, there is Latin influence as well, mainly through missionaries from Rome and Ireland. The existing evidence about the nature of Old English comes from a collection of texts from a variety of regions: some are preserved on stone and wood monuments, others in manuscript form. The current chapter focusses on the characteristics of Old English. In section 1, we examine some of the written sources in Old English, look at some special spelling symbols, and try to read the runic alphabet that was sometimes used. In section 2, we consider (and listen to) the sounds of Old English. In sections 3, 4, and 5, we discuss some Old English grammar. Its most salient feature is the system of endings on nouns and verbs, i.e. its synthetic nature. Old English vocabulary is very interesting and creative, as section 6 shows. Dialects are discussed briefly in section 7 and the chapter will conclude with several well-known Old English texts to be read and analyzed. 1 Sources and spelling We can learn a great deal about Old English culture by reading Old English recipes, charms, riddles, descriptions of saints’ lives, and epics such as Beowulf. Most remaining texts in Old English are religious, legal, medical, or literary in nature.
  • Saxony: Landscapes/Rivers and Lakes/Climate

    Saxony: Landscapes/Rivers and Lakes/Climate

    Freistaat Sachsen State Chancellery Message and Greeting ................................................................................................................................................. 2 State and People Delightful Saxony: Landscapes/Rivers and Lakes/Climate ......................................................................................... 5 The Saxons – A people unto themselves: Spatial distribution/Population structure/Religion .......................... 7 The Sorbs – Much more than folklore ............................................................................................................ 11 Then and Now Saxony makes history: From early days to the modern era ..................................................................................... 13 Tabular Overview ........................................................................................................................................................ 17 Constitution and Legislature Saxony in fine constitutional shape: Saxony as Free State/Constitution/Coat of arms/Flag/Anthem ....................... 21 Saxony’s strong forces: State assembly/Political parties/Associations/Civic commitment ..................................... 23 Administrations and Politics Saxony’s lean administration: Prime minister, ministries/State administration/ State budget/Local government/E-government/Simplification of the law ............................................................................... 29 Saxony in Europe and in the world: Federalism/Europe/International
  • AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR of OLD ENGLISH Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies

    AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR of OLD ENGLISH Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies

    AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR OF OLD ENGLISH MEDievaL AND Renaissance Texts anD STUDies VOLUME 463 MRTS TEXTS FOR TEACHING VOLUme 8 An Introductory Grammar of Old English with an Anthology of Readings by R. D. Fulk Tempe, Arizona 2014 © Copyright 2020 R. D. Fulk This book was originally published in 2014 by the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at Arizona State University, Tempe Arizona. When the book went out of print, the press kindly allowed the copyright to revert to the author, so that this corrected reprint could be made freely available as an Open Access book. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE viii ABBREVIATIONS ix WORKS CITED xi I. GRAMMAR INTRODUCTION (§§1–8) 3 CHAP. I (§§9–24) Phonology and Orthography 8 CHAP. II (§§25–31) Grammatical Gender • Case Functions • Masculine a-Stems • Anglo-Frisian Brightening and Restoration of a 16 CHAP. III (§§32–8) Neuter a-Stems • Uses of Demonstratives • Dual-Case Prepositions • Strong and Weak Verbs • First and Second Person Pronouns 21 CHAP. IV (§§39–45) ō-Stems • Third Person and Reflexive Pronouns • Verbal Rection • Subjunctive Mood 26 CHAP. V (§§46–53) Weak Nouns • Tense and Aspect • Forms of bēon 31 CHAP. VI (§§54–8) Strong and Weak Adjectives • Infinitives 35 CHAP. VII (§§59–66) Numerals • Demonstrative þēs • Breaking • Final Fricatives • Degemination • Impersonal Verbs 40 CHAP. VIII (§§67–72) West Germanic Consonant Gemination and Loss of j • wa-, wō-, ja-, and jō-Stem Nouns • Dipthongization by Initial Palatal Consonants 44 CHAP. IX (§§73–8) Proto-Germanic e before i and j • Front Mutation • hwā • Verb-Second Syntax 48 CHAP.
  • Old Frisian, an Introduction To

    Old Frisian, an Introduction To

    An Introduction to Old Frisian An Introduction to Old Frisian History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary Rolf H. Bremmer, Jr. University of Leiden John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of 8 American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bremmer, Rolf H. (Rolf Hendrik), 1950- An introduction to Old Frisian : history, grammar, reader, glossary / Rolf H. Bremmer, Jr. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Frisian language--To 1500--Grammar. 2. Frisian language--To 1500--History. 3. Frisian language--To 1550--Texts. I. Title. PF1421.B74 2009 439’.2--dc22 2008045390 isbn 978 90 272 3255 7 (Hb; alk. paper) isbn 978 90 272 3256 4 (Pb; alk. paper) © 2009 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Co. · P.O. Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O. Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa Table of contents Preface ix chapter i History: The when, where and what of Old Frisian 1 The Frisians. A short history (§§1–8); Texts and manuscripts (§§9–14); Language (§§15–18); The scope of Old Frisian studies (§§19–21) chapter ii Phonology: The sounds of Old Frisian 21 A. Introductory remarks (§§22–27): Spelling and pronunciation (§§22–23); Axioms and method (§§24–25); West Germanic vowel inventory (§26); A common West Germanic sound-change: gemination (§27) B.
  • Prototype-Driven Alternations: the Case of German Weak Nouns to Appear in Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory

    Prototype-Driven Alternations: the Case of German Weak Nouns to Appear in Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory

    Prototype-driven alternations: the case of German weak nouns To appear in Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory Roland Schäfer Abstract: Over the past years, multifactorial corpus-based explorations of alternations in grammar have become an accepted major tool in cognitively oriented corpus lin- guistics. For example, prototype theory as a theory of similarity-based and inherently probabilistic linguistic categorization has received support from studies showing that alternating constructions and items often occur with probabilities influenced by proto- typical formal, semantic or contextual factors. In this paper, I analyze a low-frequency alternation effect in German noun inflection in terms of prototype theory, based on strong hypotheses from the existing literature that I integrate into an established theo- retical framework of usage-based probabilistic morphology, which allows us to ac- count for similarity effects even in seemingly regular areas of the grammar. Specifical- ly, the so-called weak masculine nouns in German, which follow an unusual pattern of case marking and often have characteristic lexical properties, sporadically occur in forms of the dominant strong masculine nouns. Using data from the nine-billion-token DECOW12A web corpus of contemporary German, I demonstrate that the probability of the alternation is influenced by the presence or absence of semantic, phonotactic, and paradigmatic features. Token frequency is also shown to have an effect on the al- ternation, in line with common assumptions about the relation between frequency and entrenchment. I use a version of prototype theory with weighted features and polycen- tric categories, but I also discuss the question of whether such corpus data can be taken as strong evidence for or against specific models of cognitive representation (proto- types vs.
  • The Finnish Noun Phrase

    The Finnish Noun Phrase

    Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Corso di Laurea Specialistica in Scienze del Linguaggio The Finnish Noun Phrase Relatore: Prof.ssa Giuliana Giusti Correlatore: Prof. Guglielmo Cinque Laureanda: Lena Dal Pozzo Matricola: 803546 ANNO ACCADEMICO: 2006/2007 A mia madre Table of contents Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………….…….…… III Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………........ V Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………………VII 1. Word order in Finnish …………………………………………………………………1 1.1 The order of constituents in the clause …………………………………………...2 1.2 Word order and interpretation .......……………………………………………… 8 1.3 The order of constituents in the Nominal Expression ………………………… 11 1.3.1. Determiners and Possessors …………………………………………………12 1.3.2. Adjectives and other modifiers …………………………………………..… 17 1.3.2.1 Adjectival hierarchy…………………………………………………………23 1.3.2.2 Predicative structures and complements …………………………………26 1.3.3 Relative clauses …………………………………………………………….... 28 1.4 Conclusions ............……………………………………………………………. 30 2. Thematic relations in nominal expressions ……………………………………….. 32 2.1 Observations on Argument Structure ………………………………….……. 32 2.1.1 Result and Event nouns…………………………………………………… 36 2.2 Transitive nouns ………………………………………………………………... 38 2.2.1 Compound nouns ……………….……………………………………... 40 2.2.2 Intransitive nouns derived from transitive verbs …………………… 41 2.3 Passive nouns …………………………………………………………………… 42 2.4 Psychological predicates ……………………………………………………….. 46 2.4.1 Psych verbs ……………………………………………………………….
  • Semantic Shift in Old English and Old Saxon Identity Terms

    Semantic Shift in Old English and Old Saxon Identity Terms

    Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 5-7-2019 1:00 PM Semantic Shift in Old English and Old Saxon Identity Terms David A. Carlton The University of Western Ontario Supervisor Toswell, M. J. The University of Western Ontario Graduate Program in English A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree in Doctor of Philosophy © David A. Carlton 2019 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the Medieval Studies Commons Recommended Citation Carlton, David A., "Semantic Shift in Old English and Old Saxon Identity Terms" (2019). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 6183. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/6183 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract Christianity substantially altered Germanic life during the early Middle Ages. However, no large-scale studies have attempted to visualize Christianization through macroscopic semantic trends, nor have any studies used Old Saxon as a control group to illustrate the role of Christianity in less obvious semantic contexts. The core question of this project, then, revolves around semantic corpora and their role in clarifying sociocultural phenomena: how can a cross-section of Old Saxon and Old English semantics help clarify Christianity's role in re-shaping early medieval Germanic identity? This study uses corpus linguistics, post-colonial/historical theory, and Digital Humanities approaches to schematize the processes underlying the semantic shift of eight Old English/Old Saxon lexeme pairs— ambiht/ambaht, facen/fekan, gædeling/gaduling, hosp–hosc/hosk, geneat/ginot, scyldig/skuldig, þegn/thegan, and wlanc/wlank—that illustrate how the Anglo-Saxons and Continental Saxons re- interpreted their social and moral “Self” between ca.
  • Minimum of English Grammar

    Minimum of English Grammar

    Parameters Morphological inflection carries with it a portmanteau of parameters, each individually shaping the very defining aspects of language typology. For instance, English is roughly considered a ‘weak inflectional language’ given its quite sparse inflectional paradigms (such as verb conjugation, agreement, etc.) Tracing languages throughout history, it is also worth noting that morphological systems tend to become less complex over time. For instance, if one were to exam (mother) Latin, tracing its morphological system over time leading to the Latin-based (daughter) Romance language split (Italian, French, Spanish, etc), one would find that the more recent romance languages involve much less complex morphological systems. The same could be said about Sanskrit (vs. Indian languages), etc. It is fair to say that, at as general rule, languages become less complex in their morphological system as they become more stable (say, in their syntax). Let’s consider two of the more basic morphological parameters below: The Bare Stem and Pro- drop parameters. Bare Stem Parameter. The Bare Stem Parameter is one such parameter that shows up cross-linguistically. It has to do with whether or not a verb stem (in its bare form) can be uttered. For example, English allows bare verb stems to be productive in the language. For instance, bare stems may be used both in finite conjugations (e.g., I/you/we/you/they speak-Ø) (where speak is the bare verb)—with the exception of third person singular/present tense (she speak-s) where a morphological affix{s}is required—as well as in an infinitival capacity (e.g., John can speak-Ø French).
  • Frisian Language, As It Is Probable That the Received Its Present Form Substantially at This Time

    Frisian Language, As It Is Probable That the Received Its Present Form Substantially at This Time

    T HE F RI S I A N LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE A HI S TORI CA L S T UD K A R L " E XT E N T F F RI S I A I . E O . 1 ‘ LA I CA L RE FE RENCE C SS S S . TO FRI IA 1 D “ lin . P 7 . : y , who wrote about A , says I n the Rhine itself is the most renowned islan d of the Batavi and the Can n en efate s and of Frisiav o n es S tu rii s other islands the Frisians , Chanci , , and Mar ii He lin iu m Fle v u m sac . , which are scattered between and These m on th are the names of the two s into which the Rhine divides . I t to empties its waters to the north into the lakes there , and the west ” l M a a tw o of into the s . The branches the Rhine here mentioned T he are the eastern and western . eastern was formed from the Sala or "ssel W l th which the waters of the Rhi n e were connected of L Ple v o by the canal Drusus, and which flowed through ake and o f entered the sea between the islands Terschelling and Ameland . m ’ I ts lower course bore later the na e of the Fli . The western 1 I n Rheno autem ips o nobili s s im a Ba tav o r u m in s ula e t Can n e n e fatiu m aliae F e t r isio r u m , Cha u co r u m , F r isiav o n u m , Stu r io r u m , M arsa cio ru m quae s te r n u n te r inter Helin iu m e t Fle v u m : ita appell an tu r o stia in quae ' e flu su s Rhe n u s a s e pte n tr io n e in Iacu s ab occidente in am n em Mo sam s e a it .
  • A Middle High German Primer, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

    A Middle High German Primer, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

    > 1053 MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PRIMER WITH GRAMMAR, NOTES, AND GLOSSARY BY JOSEPH WRIGHT M.A., PH.D., D.C.L., LL.D., L1TT.D. FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY CORPUS CHRISTI PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD THIRD EDITION RE-WRITTEN AND ENLARGED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1917 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY HUMPHREY MILFORD PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY pr EXTRACTS FROM THE PREFACES TO THE FIRST AND SECOND EDITIONS THE present book has been written in the hope that it will serve as an elementary introduction to the larger German works on the subject from which I have appro- priated whatever seemed necessary for the purpose. In the grammar much aid has been derived from Paul's Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik, second edition, Halle, 1884, and Weinhold's Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik, second edition, Paderborn, 1883. The former work, besides con- taining by far the most complete syntax, is also the only Middle High German Grammar which is based on the present state of German Philology. ... I believe that the day is not far distant when English students will take a much more lively interest in the study of their own and the other Germanic languages (especially German and Old Norse) than has hitherto been the case. And if this little book should contribute anything towards furthering the cause, it will have amply fulfilled its purpose. LONDON : January, 1888. WHEN I wrote the preface to the first edition of this primer in 1888, I ventured to predict that the interest of English students in the subject would grow and develop as time went on, but I hardly expected that it would grow so much that a second edition of the book would be required within iv Preface to the Second Edition so short a period.
  • Kashubian INDO-IRANIAN IRANIAN INDO-ARYAN WESTERN

    Kashubian INDO-IRANIAN IRANIAN INDO-ARYAN WESTERN

    2/27/2018 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg INDO-EUROPEAN ANATOLIAN Luwian Hittite Carian Lydian Lycian Palaic Pisidian HELLENIC INDO-IRANIAN DORIAN Mycenaean AEOLIC INDO-ARYAN Doric Attic ACHAEAN Aegean Northwest Greek Ionic Beotian Vedic Sanskrit Classical Greek Arcado Thessalian Tsakonian Koine Greek Epic Greek Cypriot Sanskrit Prakrit Greek Maharashtri Gandhari Shauraseni Magadhi Niya ITALIC INSULAR INDIC Konkani Paisaci Oriya Assamese BIHARI CELTIC Pali Bengali LATINO-FALISCAN SABELLIC Dhivehi Marathi Halbi Chittagonian Bhojpuri CONTINENTAL Sinhalese CENTRAL INDIC Magahi Faliscan Oscan Vedda Maithili Latin Umbrian Celtiberian WESTERN INDIC HINDUSTANI PAHARI INSULAR Galatian Classical Latin Aequian Gaulish NORTH Bhil DARDIC Hindi Urdu CENTRAL EASTERN Vulgar Latin Marsian GOIDELIC BRYTHONIC Lepontic Domari Ecclesiastical Latin Volscian Noric Dogri Gujarati Kashmiri Haryanvi Dakhini Garhwali Nepali Irish Common Brittonic Lahnda Rajasthani Nuristani Rekhta Kumaoni Palpa Manx Ivernic Potwari Romani Pashayi Scottish Gaelic Pictish Breton Punjabi Shina Cornish Sindhi IRANIAN ROMANCE Cumbric ITALO-WESTERN Welsh EASTERN Avestan WESTERN Sardinian EASTERN ITALO-DALMATIAN Corsican NORTH SOUTH NORTH Logudorese Aromanian Dalmatian Scythian Sogdian Campidanese Istro-Romanian Istriot Bactrian CASPIAN Megleno-Romanian Italian Khotanese Romanian GALLO-IBERIAN Neapolitan Ossetian Khwarezmian Yaghnobi Deilami Sassarese Saka Gilaki IBERIAN Sicilian Sarmatian Old Persian Mazanderani GALLIC SOUTH Shahmirzadi Alanic