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Leptodiaptomus Ashlandi) Following the 107 Krist et al.: Life History in a Copepod (Leptodiaptomus Ashlandi) Following the 107 LIFE HISTORY IN A COPEPOD (LEPTODIAPTOMUS ASHLANDI) FOLLOWING THE INVASION OF LAKE TROUT IN YELLOWSTONE LAKE, WYOMING AMY KRIST LUSHA TRONSTAD HEATHER JULIEN UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING LARAMIE TODD KOEL CENTER FOR RESOURCES YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK INTRODUCTION prey based on body size, selection on life-history traits may be altered for one or more organisms in the Introduced, non-native predators often food web because size-selective predation typically impact native species and ecosystems. These effects causes mortality rates to differ between adults and can be particularly devastating to native organisms juveniles. Size-selective predation is a powerful because they are often naïve to the effects of non- selective agent on life histories. Many studies have native predators (Park 2004, Lockwood et al. 2007). shown shifts in life-history traits from size-specific Interestingly, naïve prey are more common in mortality as a result of fishing and hunting practices freshwater than in terrestrial ecosystems (Cox and (e.g., Coltman, O‘Donoghue et al. 2003, Law 2007) Lima 2006). For example, introduced predators in and in many natural systems (e.g., Reznick and lakes have caused local extinctions of native animals Endler 1982; Reznick et al. 1990, Fisk et al. 2007). (e.g., Brooks and Dodson 1965, Witte et al. 1992) and altered food webs (e.g., Witte et al. 1992; Assuming that size-selective predation is Tronstad, Hall, Koel, in review). Because predators age-specific, theoretical and empirical work on life- eliminate a prey's fitness, predation is an important history evolution predicts that mortality of large selective force. Selection on prey can occur directly individuals should select for earlier maturity (Stearns on morphology, behavior and life-history traits by and Koella, 1986, Kozlowski and Uchmanski 1987, altering the mean expression of a trait in a Kozlowski, Wiegert 1987, Kawecki and Stearns population. Selection on prey can also act indirectly, 1993), higher reproductive effort (Gadgil and Bossert favoring phenotypic plasticity which ameliorates the 1970, Schaffer 1974, Charlesworth and Leon 1976, effects of predation. Thus, among the many impacts Law 1979, Michod 1979, Kozlowski and Uchmanski of non-native predators in their introduced range, 1987) and smaller offspring (Reznick and Endler these animals can alter the morphology, behavior and 1982, Reznick et al. 1990). Furthermore, when early life-history traits of their prey (e.g., Reznick and maturity occurs at a smaller size, mature adults can Endler 1982, Crowl and Covich 1990, Skelly and have smaller body sizes in species with determinate Werner 1990, Krist 2002). or asymptotic growth. Evolutionary consequences of invasive Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity is predators should be widespread because invasive another common consequence of predation. For species often alter natural selection on native species example, zooplankton in lakes use kairomones to (Sakai et al. 2001). When introduced predators select detect potential predators (Dodson 1989b). In Published by Wyoming Scholars Repository, 2009 1 University of Wyoming National Park Service Research Center Annual Report, Vol. 32 [2009], Art. 17 108 zooplankton, predator-induced responses can alter more benthic invertebrates when these fish were less morphology, behavior or life-histories traits (Larsson abundant. Cutthroat trout primarily consume large and Dodson 1993, Lass and Spaak 2003) and often zooplankton because they are retained in their gill protect the animals from predation. For example, rakers while small individuals pass through uneaten. within 11 years after the introduction of a size- Longer cutthroat trout have wider inter-gill raker selective predator, body size, size at first spaces and can filter only larger zooplankton. Thus, reproduction, and clutch size of Daphnia spp. and cutthroat trout are size-selective predators of Bosmina longirostris changed relative to pre- zooplankton in Yellowstone Lake. Consequently, introduction (Amundsen, Siwertsson, Primicerio, and after the introduction of lake trout and decline of Bohn, 2009). These traits are likely beneficial to cutthroat trout, zooplankton in Yellowstone Lake zooplankton in the presence of predators, because were largely released from size-selective predation. they reduce the chance of being consumed. For Therefore, after the decline of cutthroat trout, example, in cladocerans, smaller clutch sizes and a zooplankton should have experienced relaxed smaller size at first reproduction (which leads to selection for life-history traits that were favored by smaller adult body sizes) decreased their visibility to size-selective predation. We addressed whether life- predators (Gliwicz 1981, Latta et al. 2007). history traits differed between pre-lake trout and Similarly, female Cyclops (Copepoda) carrying large post-lake trout invasion in Leptodiaptomus ashlandi, numbers of eggs are more susceptible to predation by the most common copepod species in Yellowstone planktivorous brook trout (Dawidowicz and Gliwicz Lake. 1983). Thus, another possible outcome of the introduction of non-native predators is adaptive Changes in life-history traits between (beneficial; sensu Gotthard and Nylin 1995) changes copepods from before and after the introduction of in life-history traits resulting from phenotypic lake trout could be either genetically based or plasticity. phenotypically plastic shifts or a combination of both. Genetically based changes are possible because The introduction of predaceous lake trout of changes in selection pressure from the recent may have indirectly altered the life histories of release of zooplankton from size-selective predation. zooplankton in Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone Plasticity is possible because the number of cutthroat National Park, Wyoming. Non-native lake trout trout releasing cues have changed between the past (Salvelinus namaycush) were illegally introduced to and recent. For either changes in genotype Yellowstone Lake (Kaeding et al. 1996) around 1985 frequencies or phenotypically plastic traits, size- (Munro et al. 2005). Following the introduction of selective predation is predicted to lead to a smaller this piscivorous fish, which primarily eat native size at first reproduction, larger clutch sizes, and Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki smaller offspring. First, under adult-specific bouvieri) in Yellowstone Lake (Ruzycki et al. 2003), mortality, life-history theory predicts earlier maturity the abundance of cutthroat trout declined. In fact, (Stearns and Koella 1986, Kozlowski and Uchmanski cutthroat trout abundance decreased by 60% in 1987, Kozlowski and Wiegert 1987, Kawecki and Yellowstone Lake and 99% in Clear Creek, a Stearns 1993). Because copepods do not grow after spawning stream since 1990 (Koel et al. 2005). they become mature (Williamson and Reid 2001), Presently indices of cutthroat trout abundance are the earlier maturity should also lead to a smaller adult lowest in the historical record (Koel et al. 2007). size. Likewise, if adaptive plasticity is occurring, This decline is of grave concern because Yellowstone smaller size at first reproduction is predicted because Lake is the largest remaining stronghold of smaller cladocerans are less conspicuous to predators Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Varley and Gresswell (Gliwicz 1981, Latta et al. 2007). Presumably 1988). smaller copepods are also less conspicuous to visual predators like cutthroat trout. Second, both selection The extreme decline in Yellowstone for genetically based traits and for adaptive cutthroat trout abundance has severely reduced phenotypic plasticity predict larger clutch sizes. predation on zooplankton in Yellowstone Lake Under adult-specific mortality, life-history theory because a large proportion of the diet of these fish predicts higher reproductive effort (Gadgil and consists of zooplankton. For example, Jones et al., Bossert 1970, Schaffer 1974, Charlesworth and Leon (1990) found that 80% of the volume of food in 1976, Law 1979, Michod 1979, Kozlowski and cutthroat trout stomachs were zooplankton. Uchmanski 1987). Larger clutch sizes are one metric Furthermore, Tronstad et al. (in prep) discovered that of greater investment in reproduction. Likewise, with cutthroat trout ate more zooplankton when these fish adaptive plasticity, larger clutches are predicted were abundant. However, cutthroat trout consumed under size-specific predation of large individuals. In 2 Krist et al.: Life History in a Copepod (Leptodiaptomus Ashlandi) Following the 109 this case, larger clutch sizes are a side effect of small species of cladocerans (Daphnia schødleri and D. size at maturity. In cladocerans, small Daphnia pulicaria). We chose to study L. ashlandi, because produce smaller offspring (Lampert 1993). this species is much more abundant than the other Assuming a trade-off between number and size of copepods. Also, for both past and present samples, offspring (Stearns 1992), organisms producing we had an adequate number of reproducing smaller offspring make more of them. Finally, individuals that we could analyze for total length, several empirical studies have shown that selection number of eggs, and egg size. We did not measure by adult-specific mortality leads to smaller offspring the response of cladocerans because previous (Reznick and Endler 1982, Reznick et al. 1990). preservation methods may have caused eggs to be These differences
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