Auc Geographica 55 2/2020

Home , Dawn (Slovakia), Erythropotamos, Pezinok, VZDOR, We Are Family (Slovakia)

ACTA UNIVERSITATIS CAROLINAE

AUC GEOGRAPHICA 55 2/2020

CHARLES UNIVERSITY • KAROLINUM PRESS AUC Geographica is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development, Centre for Urban and Regional Research, Czechia * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the integration process of Russian immigrants into Czech society. The integration of immigrants into Czech society is a key topic in the public debate as well as a political issue. Ukrainians, Slovaks, Vietnamese, and Russians are the most numerous groups within the half-million migrant population. Czechia is therefore predominantly attractive to non-EU immigrants. Representing highly educated and financially well-secured migrants who come as entire families, the Russians are distinct from other Eastern European immigrants. However, various factors hinder their integration. The article discusses the factors that shape symbolic and social boundaries in this integration process: (1) the development of Czech-Russian relationships that have been influenced by dramatic past events, (2) the representation of Russians in Czech media, (3) their specific socio-economic status, and (4) Czech immigration and integration policies. Negative experience, socio-economic inequalities, strict implementation of immigration policies towards third-country immigrants, and an unfavourable media discourse affect the attitudes of the majority toward the Russians and limit meaningful encounters.

KEYWORDS symbolic and social boundaries; immigration and integration policies; media discourse; Russian immigrants; Czechia

Received: 24 April 2019 Accepted: 20 May 2020 Published online: 3 July 2020

Ignatyeva, E. (2020): Symbolic and social boundaries of the integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia. AUC Geographica 55(2), 137–148 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.10 © 2020 The Author. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 138 Ekaterina Ignatyeva

1. Introduction countries, Czechia is the country with the most negative attitudes towards immigrants. Concerning the With the rapid growth of immigrants in Czechia, the situation inside Czechia, the assessment of majority issue of their integration becomes important at the attitudes indicates that 64 percent of Czechs consid- institutional level through the implementation of er immigrants a problem (Public Opinion Research immigration policy, as well as at the social level due Centre 2017). Interestingly, this indicator has never to its impact on public opinion in society. During the since 2003. With regard to Russians, the Czech major- way in different areas of life within a host country. itydropped manifests below more fifty antipathy percent overthan thesympathy past ten towards years, Meanwhile,integration process,members immigrants of the majority try to may find not their hinder, own them, and, moreover, the attitude of Czechs towards but rather, they may aid and support societal new- the Russians has grown worse in recent years (Public comers. Hence, integration is considered a two-way Opinion Research Centre 2017). as well as a reciprocal process (Bosswick, Heckmann Pettigrew (1998) argues that not only social con- 2006), where both immigrants and the majority may tacts, but also cultural, economic, political factors, participate. On both sides, participation is necessarily - conditioned by mutual interaction that mostly mani- ence majority attitudes towards immigrants. Similar- fests in coexistence at the local level, where encoun- ly,media several discourse, different and factors dramatic that contribute social events to making influ ters between foreigners and members of the majority - society come about most often. sians, and therefore, slow down or block integration Prague increasingly attracts foreigners and belongs processes.boundaries In influence this article, Czech I discuss attitudes factors towards (historical, Rus to regions with their highest concentration (Czech discursive, socio-economic, and institutional) that capital of Czechia into a cosmopolitan city. The most of Russian immigrants into Czech society. numerousStatistical groupsOffice 2019). of up to Immigrants half a million transform migrants the in haveThe a significantaim of the articleimpact ison to the explore integration the context process of whole Czechia include Ukrainians (23%), Slovaks the integration process through the concept of sym- (21%), Vietnamese (11%), and Russians (7%)1. In bolic and social boundaries (Lamont, Molnár 2002) this article, I focus on Russian immigrants living in with an emphasis on (1) the historical development Czechia. Russians are particularly distinct from other of Czech-Russian relationships, which has undergone foreigners from Eastern Europe, especially in terms of both positive and negative events in the past; (2) rep- their composition. They represent a group of highly resentation of Russians in Czech media discourse; educated, economically well-resourced immigrants of (3) the socio-economic status of Russians that dis- working age who migrate as whole families (Drbohlav tinguish them from ‘others’; and (4) modes of Czech et al. 2010; Drbohlav, Janská 2004). immigration and integration policies that disadvan- According to the intergroup contact hypothesis tage the legal status of Russians as third-country (Pettigrew 1998; Allport 1954), in countries with - larger numbers of immigrants, there are better oppor- cantly contributes to understanding how symbolic tunities for encountering and social interaction that andimmigrants social boundaries over EU immigrants. between Russian This article immigrants signifi improve the majority attitudes towards immigrants through prejudice reduction. Even though today the everyday negotiation by limiting encounters that hin- number of immigrants in Czechia is 14 times higher derand the the integration Czech majority of immigrants. are created The andresults influence will be than in 1989 and is continuously growing, members useful predominantly for integration policymakers in of the Czech majority society, particularly of the older the setting, development, and improvement of inte- generation, still have negative attitudes towards for- gration activities for foreigners. eigners. In contrast, the younger generation comes First, the article discusses the theoretical frame- into contact with foreigners more so; and most of work, which is built around the concept of symbolic them have foreigners as work colleagues or school- and social boundaries (Lamont, Molnár 2002). After mates – a common circumstance today. Some of the reasons for this impact on the attitudes of the older the methodological point of view, in regard to research majority generation are (1) a lack of experience with onthis, the I briefly development introduce of Czech-Russianthe research methods. relationships, From international migration in Czechia, and thus, locals I study the available literature on this subject. Next, have not become used to the presence of ‘others’ yet, an analysis of the Czech press serves as a methodi- and (2) relatively recent dramatic events in Czech cal approach to investigating the discourse of media history, such as the Soviet military intervention and coverage concerning Russian immigrants. A descrip- occupation of Czechoslovakia, that are remembered by elders to this day. The results of the 2017 Euro- immigrants follows. Finally, there is an attempt to barometer survey show that, in a comparison of EU explaintion of the the specific institutional socio-economic status of Russians status of throughRussian an analysis of the development of Czech immigration 1 According to data from the Directorate of the Alien Police Service from 31 December 2018. are in the following section, and in conclusion, there and integration policies. The article’s main findings Integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia 139 is a summary of the research results and an explana- Caviedes 2015; Estrada et al. 2016) which limit mutu- tion of how the discussed factors impact the attitudes of the majority towards Russians and, consequently, Boundaries may become exaggerated by frames how they hinder the integration process of Russian basedal encounters on stereotyping and influence or which immigrant emphasise incorporation. the ‘oth- immigrants into Czech society. erness’ of the immigrant (Estrada et al. 2016). In

may lead to distinguishing society as ‘us’ and ‘them’. 2. Theoretical and methodological Asparticular, a result, definingthere is no who favourable ‘we’ are environmentand who ‘they’ where are frameworks fruitful social interactions can arise. Importantly, the immigrant voice is generally almost always missing 2.1 Symbolic and social boundaries in media coverage as well. Immigrants belong to the ‘others’ as well as poor, handicapped people, sexual In this article, I use the concept of symbolic and social and ethnic minorities, who exclude from the ‘normal boundaries by Lamont and Molnár (2002) to describe values of Western culture’ (Spivak 1999). Simultane- barriers in the process of Russian integration into ously immigrants belong to the discourse powerless Czech society as well as to evaluate the incorpora- salient social group, that less quoted or that have less tion process through the historically developed atti- to say (van Dijk 1988). As van Dijk (1988) asserts, people who are neglected in the press are people socio-economic status of Russian immigrants, and who are neglected in social life. According to van Dijk thetudes implementation of the majority, of mediaimmigration discourse, policies. the specificBy cat- (1988: 140) ‘there is not much difference between egorising objects, people, practices, time, and space, the free press of the Western countries or the more people draw symbolic boundaries that help individ- controlled press in most communist and many Third uals and social groups identify each other and, at the World countries’. Thus, by ignoring the opinion of same time, to determine their belonging within a particular group during the negotiation of everyday life and, on the other hand, provides readers a biased (Lamont, Molnár 2002). Thus, symbolic boundaries viewimmigrants, of immigrants. the media deprives them of justification, contribute to the emergence and maintenance of a How immigrants are described or labelled in media dichotomy of ‘us’ and ‘them’ or the in-group and the coverage creates public opinion and policy outcomes out-group. (Sohoni, Sohoni 2014; Bleich et al. 2015; Estrada et Symbolic boundaries, however, could transform al. 2016); in other words, media discourse may have into social boundaries, which are broadly accepted an impact on immigration policies. In particular, rep- in society (Lamont, Molnár 2002). Unequal access resentations of restrictive immigration legislation to resources, their distribution, and different social in media contribute to the maintenance of symbolic opportunities shape social boundaries in a society, boundaries, especially when readers rely principally on the media discourse in place of the original legisla- (Lamont, Molnár 2002: 168). Social boundaries are tive resources or actual law texts (Estrada et al. 2016). oftenwhich institutionalised are ‘objectified (Bail forms 2008; of social Heizmann differences’ 2016) Nevertheless, I will discuss immigration legislation as and policy-oriented (Neumann, Moy 2018), determin- a separate dimension of boundary-making below. ing who in a society can or cannot access resources According to Estrada et al. (2016), the government - continues to be a key player in drawing boundaries nities (Lamont, Molnár 2002), and consolidate social among groups of immigrants and natives through inequalities.(material and Even non-material), though symbolic define and social social opportu bound- immigration law-making. Social boundaries are man- aries are closely connected and ‘should be viewed ifested by restrictive immigration policies that ‘draw equally as real’ (Lamont, Molnár 2002: 169), symbolic a sharper line between “us” and “them”, highlighting or brightening boundaries’ (Heizmann 2016: 1793). for the existence of social boundaries’ (Lamont, Mol- Immigration legislation provides immigrants with boundariesnár 2002: 169). are a ‘necessary but insufficient condition unequal rights in comparison to those that citizens Symbolic boundaries are formed discursively based enjoy. Immigrants may have different rights even within one country. For instance, in the European by representations from the outside. Today, the depic- context, there is a distinction between immigrants tionon our of immigrantssubjective perceptions in media discourse and are also plays influenced an active from the EU and non-EU countries and third countries role in shaping and reinforcing symbolic boundaries. (Heizmann, Böhnke 2018). This distinction between Media might represent immigrants in different ways – immigrants and natives results in the creation of positive, negative, or neutral. However, negative por- social boundaries. However, for third-country immi- trayals mostly contribute to the drawing of symbolic grants living in the EU, there is an extra layer of social boundaries. Frames, where immigrants are linked with crime or terrorism, represent them as a threat to as non-EU immigrants. Contrarily, integration policies the receiving society, creating negative attitudes in the endeavourboundaries tothat reduce define inequalities them as both and as foreignersachieve equi and- majority towards newcomers (Sohoni, Sohoni 2014; librium between immigrants and non-immigrants. 140 Ekaterina Ignatyeva

Here it is necessary to mention the importance of implementation of Czech immigration and integration the time aspect, respectively the time of arrival and policies that shape social boundaries by distinguishing among immigrants from EU and non-EU countries difference in the time when migrant arrived in a new and reinforces them at the institutional level. In the country,duration preciselytime that itinfluence depends boundary-making. on how many migrants It is a this country has? How more restrictive immigration policy towards newcomers? How many experienc- next2.2 Research section, Idesign briefly discuss the research methods. es locals have with living in a multicultural society and which attitudes they have towards foreigners? The article offers the results of three-part research. etc. Another important aspect is the duration time of Firstly, a historical development overview of the foreigner’s stay. First, as time goes on, it comes Czech-Russian relationships provides a summary of about a mutual habit and adaptation, on both part, previous detailed academic research and studies built of foreigners and locals. Second, and more important upon the memories of immigrant descendants, analy- is, with increasing a duration time in a new country, ses of documents from historical archives, as well as a the migrant acquires more and more rights in society, discussion of the current situation. and at the same time, has to overcome less and less - boundaries. covered through an analysis of Russian immigrant This article examines symbolic boundaries found coverageSecondly, in the the online representation version of Czech findings newspapers. were dis in the Czech media coverage of Russian immigrants. The media analysis focused on four of the most read The perception of historical experiences with Rus- Czech national daily newspapers, such as Lidové novi- sians as well as the current conditions of Czech-Rus- ny, Deník, Blesk, and Reflex, whose articles have been - under observation throughout an eight-year period tion of Russians. Moreover, Czechia, as a post-socialist (2011–2018). The important reason for choosing country,sian relations is in transition influence andthe Czechis still media’sdealing withrepresenta its her- these newspapers was the simple logical claim that - the most read sources have a wider target audience tions of Czech society, especially human mentality and which could be affected by reading its content. behaviouritage. Večerník patterns (2002) that points are not to the completed social transforma yet (Sýko- Newspapers articles were searched using the key- - words ‘Russian’ and ‘Russians’ on newspapers’ web- self with the shaping of symbolic boundaries between sites which archives were available online. The key- Russianra, Bouzarovski speaking 2012). immigrants Klvaňová and (2018) Czechs concerns through her an words ‘migrant’ and ‘immigrant’ were not using for examination of collective memory – in particular, the the purpose to reduce or eliminate the useless inci- cultural trauma caused by the Soviet military inter- dence of found articles that deal with immigrants in vention and occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968. general. The selection of articles had to concern infor- She found that Czech society perceives immigrants mation about Russian immigrants as a main require- from the former Soviet Union as ‘colonizers’, devolves ment. Each found article was read and its information responsibility for past acts of occupational violence value detected. Articles that did not directly deal with to current immigrants, marks them as ‘others’, and Russian immigrants living in Czechia were excluded. keeps them at a distance due to the former dominance For instance, articles about tourism, sport, culture, and international politics. If the article contained trauma in Czech society contributes to the stigmatisa- relevant information, it was included in the database tionof the of Soviet newcomers regime through (Klvaňová past 2018). negative Thus, experienc cultural- of articles in the form of a simple Excel spreadsheet. Articles were categorised by topic in order to ascer- Russia’s current geopolitical behaviour (for example, tain what is written and spoken of in the Czech press itses andviolation draws of symbolic international boundaries law in the(Klvaňová annexation 2018). of in relation to Russian immigrants. The total number of found articles revealed whether the Russians are the majority attitudes towards its citizens. popular in the Czech media discourse or not. Subse- anotherSocial state’s boundaries territory) are primarily also significantly represented influences by an immigrant’s socio-economic status. Most Russians for each article: geographic level (national, regional, come to Czechia with a high-level socio-economic local),quently, type the followingof narrative characteristics with the numbers were identified of each status and try to keep or enhance it upon arrival. This type, and the possible participation of Russians. points to the differences between Russian immigrants Finally, the article offers (1) a discussion of the and other Russian-speaking foreigners from the East. socio-economic status of Russian immigrants based On the other hand, Russians belong to third-country immigrants; thus, unlike immigrants from EU with emphasis on three features – income, educa- - tion,on 2011 and occupation census data – and from (2) Czech an assessment Statistical of Office their ditions, access to the labour market, and limited legal status via an evaluation of Czech immigration countries, they have much more difficult entry con and integration policies, which was based on an over- access to public health insurance, the right to vote, view of their general development from 1990 and any etc.).possibilities On that to account, use other it isstate necessary benefits to (for examine instance, the

relevant changes. The analysis focuses specifically Integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia 141 on immigrants from the third countries (including state organised an unprecedented humanitarian Russians) and their institutional position in society action for Russians (the so-called ‘Russian Action’) as a result of implemented immigration policies. To that set up and secured not only the basic needs of compare with EU immigrants, I discuss the limits and the immigrants but also provided temporary asylum disadvantages of Czech immigration policies towards and the opportunity to study and work. The respon- immigrants from non-EU countries that contribute to sive Czechoslovak policy emphasised the cultural the creation of social boundaries in the integration enrichment of Europe due to the presence of Russian process. refugees who carried with them the traditional Rus- Nevertheless, there are some limitations of the sian culture. The relationships between Czechs and Russians were mostly friendly at the beginning when development overview is limited by the lack of num- all these actions appeared as a temporary situation. bersstudy. of The academic first part studies which about deals Czech-Russian with the historical rela- However, when Russians realised the way back was tionships. The Russians are not much explored immigrants’ groups in Czechia for instance in contrast to to their new home while the Czechs had to come to Ukrainians or Vietnamese minorities. The analysis termsdefinitely with closed, the permanent they had presenceto accustom of new themselves citizens of media discourse about Russian immigrants based and learn to live together. At this point, Russians start- on the research of newspapers only – it is the second ed to build their own community, establishing soci- limitation of this research. It may be better to include eties, organisations, and institutions, some of which the other media sources – TV, radio, and social net- still function today (the Slavic Library in Prague, for works on the Internet (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Insta- instance). Sládek (1999) notes a disadvantage in the gram, etc.). On the other hand, this would lead to the existence of these societies: the hermetic closeness of overshoot an extent of the article and would make it the Russians to the host society represented a major possible to create another independent article, hence barrier to the process of their integration. Keeping the media discourse of this article is represented only their own Russian culture and traditions without an by analysis of the press. effort to assimilate to that of Czechs led to the shaping of symbolic boundaries by Russians themselves towards the receiving society. 3. Results Top among positive Czech-Russian relationships was a victory in World War II, and especially the lib- 3.1 Heritage of the past: Development eration of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Army; Czech of Czech-Russian relationships people appreciated and were grateful towards Rus- sian as well as Soviet soldiers. After the end of the Sec- - ond World War in 1945, there was a certain euphoria tudes of Czechs towards Russian immigrants. Since theDifferent establishment historical eventsof the influenceCzechoslovak the current and Czech atti of the Soviet Union helped the Communist Party gain Republics, there have been three waves of Russian politicalin Czech-Russian power in relations. Czechoslovakia The significant and establish influence a immigration. Sládek (2010) gave names to these communist totality in 1948. Although according to waves according to the periods in which they took - place: the First Republic wave (1918–1948), the cessful and could not enter deep inside into the Czech socialist wave (1948–1989), and the post-socialist Večerník (2002) the communist regime was not suc wave (1989–present). The individual waves differ Czech population, and these negative experiences are from each other by volume and structure of immi- stillsociety, passed it significantly on from generation influenced to the generation. behaviour During of the grants, their motivation to move, and the attitudes of socialism, Czechs and Russians were connected by the Czech receiving society. Moreover, the migration a lot of common things, for instance, economic and history of Russians is characterised itself by alternat- cultural relations (Sládek 2010). Eventually, previous ing voluntary and involuntary migration periods. open and fruitful mutual everyday interaction and Czech-Russian relationships arose in 1918, during collaboration have changed into pragmatic economic - - dents, professors, scientists, and wealthier intelligen- the first Czechoslovak Republic, when Russian stu Sovietcooperation power. (Kratochvíl The subordination et al. 2006), and and the subsequent increasing Russia for political reasons (Sládek 2010) after the dependencely, it has moved on the towards Soviet theUnion negative led to influencethe gradual of Bolsheviktsia (Kopřivová coup. 2001) Later, were they forced were tojoined flee from by Russian Tsarist destruction and backwardness of the Czechoslovak soldiers who did not want to return after the First economy, which once was one of the most advanced World War, and therefore, stayed in Czechoslovakia. in post-war Europe. The largest concentration of Russian students and Unfortunately, in 1968, the Prague Spring was professors was in the capital of Czechoslovakia where followed by the tragic Soviet occupation of Warsaw most universities were located. Hence the reason Pact troops, which ruled Czechoslovakia under orders 1920s Prague was nicknamed the ‘Russian Oxford’ from Moscow from that point on. Gratitude to the (Sládek 2010). The newly established Czechoslovak Russians for the liberation of Czechoslovakia in the 142 Ekaterina Ignatyeva

Second World War was replaced by hatred towards any that had Russian roots due to the invasion. The the representations of Russians in the Czech media negative experiences of the communist totality peri- willThe beinfluence discussed of thesein the negativefollowing past section. experiences on od form the foundation of the symbolic boundaries towards Russians and everything of Russian genesis. 3.2 Media coverage of Russian immigrants - in the Czech press ma of communism in the majority society tends to According to Klvaňová (2018), this collective trau The media discourse analysis found 68 articles: 30 in responsibility onto contemporary Russian and/or Lidové noviny, 19 in Deník, 11 in Blesk, and 8 in Reflex. Russian-speakingreflect these events immigrants. into the present and to devolve Considering this fact, we can claim that Russian immi- After the events of 1989 took place, a third Russian grants are not the dominant object of Czech newspa- migration wave began which continues to this day per coverage. In terms of geographical scale (Fig. 1), (Sládek 2010). At present, negative attitudes persist 37% of the articles reported on Russians in the Czech within Czech-Russian relations. And there are rea- national context. The regional level was represented sons for that. First, today’s Russian immigrants inher- in 56% of the articles; most of them dealt with Rus- it a ‘collective guilt’ for the 1968 occupation. A sec- sian immigrants in Prague and Karlovy Vary, which is towards foreigners in general within Czech society. in these two cities. Written about less frequently were Thisond reasonnegative reflects reaction the triggers typical axenophobic connection attitudesbetween Russiansexplained in by other the significant Czech cities, concentration such as Brno, of Russians Hradec Králové, and Kunovice. In terms of the local level, Russians as agents of Putin or the Kremlin. only 7% of articles in the case of Prague focused on Russians and the mafia, espionage, and perception of threat of contemporary Russian imperialism, which - is intenselyKlvaňová perceived (2018) alsoand monitored points to in the Central potential and ice.Russian In a comparison immigrants betweenliving in thenational districts and oflocal Bubeneč, levels, Eastern Europe. The Russian occupation of Crimea in Nové Butovice, Zličín, Stodůlky, Letňany, and Vršov 2014 and the subsequent war in the Donbas region claiming that media discourse on immigrants is gen- evokes Czech memories of the 1968 invasion when erallythe same much findings more were nationalised discovered and by mostly Lawlor neglects (2015), every Czechoslovak was considered a victim and at the local context. However, in my analysis, the region- the same time, every Russian had been perceived al level emerged and was represented more often (56%) than others. deep-seeded post-communist collective trauma, contemporaryas a perpetrator Russia’s (Klvaňová geopolitical 2018). As behaviour a result ofin the the participation of Russians in the media debate. The questionThe next is howfinding often in the Russians discourse are analyses given the concerns oppor- attitudes of the Czech majority towards Russian immi- tunity and space to express themselves in the Czech grantsinternational due to anarena equation is largely of Russians reflected with by Russia. negative In press? The media discourse analysis found only 16% August, Czech people annually remember the tragic of all articles include the opinions of Russian entre- events of 1968 – the 50th anniversary of the Soviet preneurs, students, and journalists living in Czechia. invasion of Czechoslovakia passed in 2018, stirring a Most of these articles are informative narratives, great response in Czech public discourse. In the fol- where Russians descript why Czechia is attractive to lowing section, the issues of the portrayal of Russians them. For instance, the high achiever Russian entre- in Czech media will be discussed in more detail. Not- preneur presents: withstanding, it seems the more time passes, the more the events of 1968 have been made into a represen- Czechia is attractive to the Russians because there is a tative reminder of the post-communist trauma, thus close mentality … Western European societies are very sustaining the symbolic boundaries which are then reinforced and transferred onto the next generation. communism. New traditions and relationships are now beingmuch built based in onEastern tradition Europe. and Here, are notRussian influenced integrates by common. Today, Russian students, intellectuals, and into society faster. In Western Europe, no matter how wealthyThe first entrepreneurs and last waves choose of migration Czechia as have a migration much in much money Russian has, he will always be a foreigner - there. (Lidové noviny, 23.12.2018) lic period. This tradition, however, today contains a destination, similarly to the first Czechoslovak Repub 7% eventssignificant of the critical communism point, where period. positive The experiencescommunist 37% National regimefrom the and past the have Soviet been occupation influenced of byCzechoslovakia the negative 56% Regional - Local slovak nation, which is still one of the primary causes havebehind left the a significant existence trail of symbolic in the history boundaries of the Czecho in the process of negotiation between Czechs and Russians. Fig. 1 Percentage of all articles by geographical levels. Integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia 143

Media which offers the majority an immigrant’s (2015: 861–862) noted that ‘media outlets, especially - print media in Europe, are often associated with par- ation and improvement of an individual’s perception ticular political viewpoints’. As a result, an equation asperspective well as public directly opinion has aboutsignificant immigrants value inin general.the cre takes place between Russian immigrants living in Cze- Thus, an immigrant voice in media discourse can be chia and the political force in their motherland. These used as a tool in the elimination of symbolic and/or representations of Russians as spies create a partic- social boundaries as well as in the prevention of their ular perception within the majority society, which is formation. accompanied by feelings of suspicion and mistrust Found articles about Russians covered various towards the whole Russian immigrant population. narratives (Tab. 1), the most often discussed is their This is yet another example of how boundaries can be cohesion with the majority (21%), entrepreneurship created in the negotiation between the majority and (16%), activity on the real estate market (15%), and immigrants. It is also worth mentioning that almost criminality (15%). Articles dealing with everyday no attention was paid to the themes such as the Rus- negotiations between Russians with Czechs never - tion (1%), discrimination (1%), and emigration from - Russiasian financial (1%). crisis (3%), debts (1%), church restitu providedtions. Nonetheless, information it is about remarkable conflicts that or tensions,articles con but- rathercerning they the representedeveryday life non-conflictual of Russians in Czechia social interac sever- Tab. 1 Percentage of all articles about Russian immigrants al times (29%) made mention of the 1968 occupation. by narrative type. For instance, a resident from Carlsbad narrates about Narrative % of articles cohabitation Russians with locals, and about some- Cohesion with the majority, everyday life1 21 times provocative behaviour from the Russian side: Entrepreneurship 16

The Russians still claim that Carlsbad is beautiful and Real estate market activity 15 that they are very well here. And gradually the local Criminality 15 people from Carlsbad are getting used to them. Never- Stereotypes 12 theless, the Russians can dial locals almost reliably. For Participation and election preferences 8 of Russians abroad August 21st or when the Russians defeat the Czechs Espionage 6 example, when they (Russians) indulge in fireworks on in hockey. The locals here do not forgive that. Russian financial crisis 3 10.12.2011) (Deník, Debts 1 Church restitution 1 This demonstrates that media discourse maintains and reinforces symbolic boundaries which were ini- Discrimination 1 tially created by negative past experiences. In articles Emigration 1 about the housing or real estate market, Russians Source: own research were usually described as owners of expensive lux- 1 29% of these narrative type articles mentioned the 1968 occupation. ury apartments – mostly in Karlovy Vary but Prague as well. This title of the article is a very good example that captures the nature of fondness for luxury prop- collectivises Russians when covering other Rus- erty: ‘Russians love Czechia. Castles are cheaper here’ sian-speakingAnother interesting immigrants finding from former is that Soviet Czech Union print (Lidové noviny, 15.11.2011) Czech media discourse countries. Therefore, the narratives in these articles largely accuses Russian immigrants of raising prop- lead to a misrepresentation of reality, shaping media erty prices in such a way that others cannot afford bias towards Russians. Only three articles of this sort them. Less attention was paid to topics dealing with were discovered in the research, but it is noteworthy the presence of Russians in Czechia generally and that two of them deal with criminality. For instance, which related to outdated stereotypes from time to the title in Blesk newspaper introduces the crime as time (12%). committed by Russians: ‘Two Russians raided a mon- Only 6% of found articles connected the Russians ey truck: They neutralized the drivers with tear gas’, with espionage. This happened thanks to informa- but the content of the article tells us that they were tion within reports of the Security Information Ser- not actual Russians and instead were possibly Rus- vice of Czechia (BIS), which mostly have a political sian-speaking foreigners or even people who speak a context and are built on fears of Russia’s geopolitical language similar to Russian: ‘According to witnesses, behaviour in the international arena (for more infor- one of them was nervously and loudly telephoning in mation about the securitisation of European media Russian or similar language’ (Blesk, 22.6.2015). discourse see, for example, Caviedes 2015). 8% of the The question is how many people read only titles articles dealt with the Russian presidential elections, with this distorted reality, which therefore create a or rather they portrayed the participation and elec- negative public perception of Russians and shape the tion preferences of Russians living abroad. Bleich et al. majority attitudes towards them? Bleich et al. (2015) 144 Ekaterina Ignatyeva note that articles about immigrant individuals with a from other foreigners but also from the Czech major- criminal or economic threat context can lead to repre- ity. For instance, a survey provided by Schebelle et al. sentation of the whole group of immigrants as deeply (2015) found that Russians had the highest monthly problematic for society. income and lowest debt in comparison to Ukrainian

3.3 Socio-economic status of Russian immigrants in Czechia averageand Vietnamese and median immigrants gross monthly in Czechia. salary Vavrečkováof Russians inand Czechia Dobiášová exceeded (2015) the discovered average and that median in 2013 gross the - monthly salary of domestic inhabitants. ries is the socio-economic status (SES) of immigrants, whichA significant can be factorseen as in a thesource shaping of various of social inequalities. bounda status discussed above rank them among the most Russian immigrants living in Czechia are perceived The specific features of Russian socio-economic them from others, including the Czech majority. This 2010) as an elite group of immigrants. They differ socio-economicself-sufficient immigrants division of in ‘us’ Czechia, and ‘them’ distinguishing leads to a fromby some the immigrantsscholars (e.g. of Drbohlavother former et al. Soviet 2010; countries Janičko deepening of inequalities in society and, therefore, to in the following ways. First of all, there is a high lev- the creation of social boundaries to which Russians el of education among Russians. Most of them (43%) contribute themselves. carry a university degree, which exceeds the Czech national average by more than three times (Czech 3.4 Czech immigration policies that foreigners from Western Europe and the United The history of Czech immigration policy is thirty StatesStatistical also Officecome with2011). a high However, education it should level. beRussians added also care about the education of their children and pay close attention to it. Believing in the European years old. Some scholars (e.g. Barša, Baršová 2005;- education system, which in their opinion is better eralDrbohlav and restrictive et al. 2010; approaches Kušniráková, cyclically Čižinský alternated. 2011) and cheaper than Russian, they send their children distinguish five historical periods during which lib when Czechia did not regulate or limit entry to its ter- share of Russian students attending Czech univer- The first period took place between 1990 and 1996 sitiesto study from abroad. 4.9% This in 2007 is confirmed to 12.9% by in an 2019 increase (Czech of 222) approach towards all foreigners in Czech immi- grationritory. This policy ‘liberal enabled tolerance’ free entry (Barša, to the Baršová country 2005: but, high level of education provides better opportunities as Drbohlav et al. (2009: 46) note, ‘without a legal way inStatistical obtaining Office well-paying 2019). Russians jobs and aregeneral confident well-being. that a for permanent residence or naturalization, except for - marriage with a Czech citizen’. sians in Czechia is their high economic activity and Between 1996 and 1999, due to the deterioration typeThe of nextoccupation. specific Mostfeature of themthat characterises run a business Rus or of the socio-economic situation in Czechia as well as do a highly-skilled job in a position that corresponds increasing numbers of illegal foreign workers, Czech to their education level. As 2011 census data shows, immigration policy turned to a restrictive approach 16.2% of Russians are frequently employed in whole- through a tightening of the rules. At the same time, sale or retail; 13.1% in the real estate sector; almost Czechia became an EU candidate country and therefore sought to adapt its entry requirements accord- technical activities; 8% are in manufacturing, 7.5% ingly. As a result, an amendment to Act No. 326/1999 in9% information of Russians and carry communication out qualified, technologies; scientific, and Coll., on the Residence of Foreign Nationals in the 6.4% carry out administrative and support activities. Czech Republic, came into force, which complicated This differs among Russians; for instance, Ukrainians, the lives of immigrants via the implementation of a who are mostly employed in Czechia as construction visa requirement before entering Czechia (Drbohlav workers or in manufactories, do lower-skilled jobs in comparison to the jobs they performed in their home for a permanent residence permit were permissible country (Drbohlav, Janská 2004). Furthermore, it is afteret al. 2009;ten years Kušniráková, of continuous Čižinský stay 2011). in CzechiaApplications and typical of Russians to create an immigrant economy, - which focuses on their compatriots or other Rus- ment/entrepreneurship, and humanitarian cases. In sian-speaking foreigners, allowing them to remain only for the purpose of family reunification, employ- relatively independent and, at the same time, limiting alised (Bail 2008; Heizmann2016) and politicised their interaction with the Czech majority. In this case, (Neumann,essence, this Moy was the2018) first social step in boundaries creating institution towards Russians initiate the shaping of social boundaries newcomers through the regulation of their entrance themselves through the creation of their own small and residence. world with strong inner ties that help them to sepa- The third period – 2000 to 2004 according to rate and close off from others, including Czechs. Several studies show that Russian immigrants in Czechia are distinguished by their incomes not just partialBarša and liberalisation. Baršová (2005) In 2004, or 2006Czechia in joinedkeeping the with EU Kušniráková and Čižinský (2011) – was marked by a Integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia 145 and the most important change in the Czech immi- to be employed as a pedagogical/academic worker gration policy came into force: a division of all immi- at a Czech university; or (c) have been posted to Cze- grants into foreigners from EU and non-EU countries. chia for the provision of services by his or her foreign Free entry, movement, and access to the Czech labour employer based in some other EU state. market was given to EU citizens and their family mem- Two years later, in 2016, the next amendment to the Alien Act was implemented. Two types of permit - residence newly came into existence: (1) a short- cantbers change– essential to bring benefits disadvantages distinct fromleading immigrants to institu- term visa for seasonal workers and (2) a long-term tionallycoming fromrooted non-EU social countries. boundaries, It was especially the first towards signifi residence permit for investment purposes. However, third-country immigrants (include Russians). there were also restrictive changes. For instance, a further restrictive step was taken in terms of acquiring a permanent residence permit by children in cas- wasThe called next a neoliberal period, from immigration 2005 to policy. 2007 A (Barša, conse- Baršováquence of 2005) economic or 2008 growth, (Kušniráková, Czechia Čižinskýwas faced 2011), with underage children. Such an unhappy implementation a labour shortage, and the solution to this problem ofes immigrationof family reunification policy leads when to the those division eligible of family were was the implementation of a green card as a way to members and seriously impacts Russians, who often attract a cheap labour force quickly (Drbohlav et al. move with the whole family. Therefore, one of the 2010). The green card project existed from 2007 to - 2009. As Drbohlav et al. (2010) note, Russians as well cure Russians is to send their child to be educated in as foreigners from Vietnam, Moldavia, and Mongo- most common migration strategies for financially-se lia could not apply for a green card. Given the high In 2018, a recent amendment of the Alien Act socio-economic status of Russians, it was likely that broughtCzechia first some and liberal then move changes to them. related to students they would not have been interested in this type of visa, which primarily targeted those doing low-skilled remain in Czechia for nine months for the purpose of and poorly paid jobs. Despite this fact, this deprival of seekingand scientists employment who, after or practising finishing theirentrepreneurship studies, may the opportunity to apply was the next brick in the wall of disadvantages and the drawing of social boundaries of foreign nationals into which it invests consider- towards immigrants from Russia. In the middle of this able– finally funds Czechia (a foreigner has considered may study the in Czech human language capital period, in 2006, the length of a continuous stay in Cze- free of charge and after graduation they now have free access to the national labour market). Today, at et al. 2009). least in small steps, the permeability of social bound- chiaThe was latest shortened period fromof Czech ten immigrationto five years policy(Drbohlav dis- aries has begun to be relaxed, even though it is only cussed in academic literature started in 2008 and con- for select groups of foreigners. Additionally, every foreigner has an obligation to complete an integration call this time a neo-restrictive period during which entrytinues and to thisstay day.requirements Kušniráková have and been Čižinský tightened (2011) and arrival in Czechia. entrance to Czechia for some nationals, such as Mon- and adaptation course during the first year after their- golians, Moldavians, Thais, Ukrainians, and Vietnam- ty is related to the division in voting rights of immi- ese, has been temporarily cancelled. grantsAnother who significantare living in type Czechia. of institutional In accordance inequali with In 2011, the next amendment brought new, stricter the Election Acts (No. 491/2001 Coll., No. 62/2003 application requirements. Every applicant must now Coll.), EU citizens with a permanent residence permit provide proof of secure accommodation, health insur- have the right to vote in municipal elections as well ance, and funds for their stay in the country. More- as the European Parliament elections. On the oth- over, personal attendance when applying, as well as er hand, citizens of third countries do not have any voting rights, except holders of Czech citizenship. process longer and more apprehensive than before. It means not all immigrants who live long-term in Finally,an interview the newly with implemented a police officer, permit makes card the with whole bio- metric data increases expenditures for immigrants. living conditions in the receiving country. The govern- So as to attract a high-skilled labour force to Cze- mentCzechia enables have anforeigners equal possibility to come, work, of influencing and live in their the chia, a blue card was later implemented and, in 2014, country while limiting opportunities and withholding an employee card for all types of labour (includ- the right to change and enhance them until citizen- ing low-skilled) replaced the previous green card. ship is obtained. According to the Ministry of Interior, there are two Even though Czechia does not have a self-standing modes of the employee card: (1) dual, which contains integration law, its integration strategy has recently residence and employment permits, and (2) non-dual, been intensively developing. The Ministry of the Inte- which offers a residence permit only – for foreign- - ers with free access to the Czech labour market who tion policy in 2000 when the Alien Act came in force. (a) have obtained secondary, tertiary, tertiary profes- Focusingrior drafted on theequal first opportunities version of an and immigrant non-discrimina integra- sional, or university education in Czechia; (b) wish tion, immigrant integration policy struggles towards 146 Ekaterina Ignatyeva similar rights for long-term residents as those means they belong to a powerless salient social group received by Czech citizens. In 2006, 2011, and 2016, (van Dijk 1988) or in general to the ‘others’ (Spivak there were fundamental updates in the integration policy which paid attention primarily to social inter- Russians as a general term, pertaining not only to for- action between the majority population and immi- eigners1999; Estrada from Russia et al. 2016). but also And other finally, Russian-speaking the media use grants by supporting good relations in everyday life immigrants; such a generalisation can lead to the dis- negotiation. Since 2010, the Czech government has tortion of reality. annually published an action plan which contains pri- In summary, negative experiences from the past feed the present majority perception through media of the action plan in the previous year. representations, which help identify and determine orities, goals and means, and reports on the fulfilment in-group and out-group members. These practices contribute to the ‘otherness’ (Spivak 1999; Estrada et 4. Conclusion people in society as ‘us’ and ‘them’ and draw symbol- This article has investigated the symbolic and social ical. boundaries2016) of Russians (Lamont, and Molnár enable 2002). the classification Linking with of boundaries that hinder the integration process of a crime as well as a constant return to the past and Russian immigrants in Czechia. This study contributes a reminder of the events of 1968 classify Russians in to the literature on boundary-making, and particu- Czech media as a threat. Thus, the power of media larly the case of Russian immigrants, in Czechia. The and strengthening of symbolic boundaries in major- itydiscourse attitudes has towards a significant Russians impact that might on the lead creation to the werefindings (1) of the this development study are summarised of Czech-Russian henceforth. relation The- reinforcement of negative attitudes (Sohoni, Sohoni significantships, (2) the factors depiction that create of Russians boundaries in Czech discussed media 2014; Caviedes 2015; Estrada et al. 2016), limit their discourse, (3) the socio-economic status of Russian encounters, and therefore, obstruct their fruitful immigrants, and (4) the implementation of immigra- integration. tion and integration policies. The higher education of Russians provides them The positive attitudes towards the presence of the opportunity to get high-paying employment, and Russians in Czechia as well as Czech-Russian collab- therefore, a better position on the social ladder. This oration were disturbed by the negative experiences combination of high education level and high econom- during the communist regime. In particular, the inva- ic activity ranks Russians as an elite immigrant group sion and military occupation of Czechoslovakia by the that differentiates them from others and the Czech Soviet Army in 1968 left a dramatic footprint in the majority as well, leading to the consolidation of social souls of the Czech people. Unfortunately, this collec- inequalities. It is a next example of the ‘otherness’ tive trauma persists in the minds of elderly Czechs to (Spivak 1999; Estrada et al. 2016), but in this case to - which Russians contribute themselves. Thus, they are temporary Russia’s geopolitical behaviour saturates the presentnegative day. majority As Klvaňová attitudes (2018) due to indicated, a fear of conhis- However, Russians, as third-country immigrants, tory repeating itself. Collective trauma turns to col- haveable toan create unequal social legal boundaries status in comparisonby their specificity. to for- lective guilt, for which current Russian immigrants eigners from EU countries. The results of the research are deemed responsible in Czechia. Memories of the further show that the restrictive implementation of negative historical events, as well as the majority per- Czech immigration policy towards Russians, as well as other third-country immigrants, regulates their depiction of Russians. entrance, limits their access to the labour market, and ceptionAccording of the to current the media status, discourse can influence analysis, the ‘Russian media immigrants’ are not a popular topic in the Czech press. of previous studies (e.g. Heizmann, Böhnke 2018), a However, the frequency is not so important in con- detaileddefines them investigation as ‘they’ orof ‘others’.Czech immigration As with the findingspolicies trast to the narrative context, which created an overall - impression on readers. In this regard, based on the leged EU immigrants in comparison with immigrants most common narratives in the media, we can com- fromconfirms third that countries there is who an emphasisare legally on disadvantaged. legally privi pile a typical image of a Russian immigrant in Czechia. In sum, on the one hand, Russian immigrants create Probably he will be an entrepreneur who operates in the real estate market and owns a large number of - luxury apartments or castles, he is maybe involved in tunitiessocial boundaries in society (Lamont, themselves Molnár through 2002). their On thespecific oth- crime, or even he is a Russian spy; he gets along with erself-sufficient hand, other statussources that of inequalitiesdefines their that social lead oppor to the the majority without any problems, even though he creation of social boundaries are the implementation is sometimes able to provoke them, for example on of immigration policies that are broadly accepted in the anniversary of the occupation of Czechoslovakia. society (Lamont, Molnár 2002). A further result indicated that Russians rarely receive Based on this study I suggest some concluding space in the Czech media to express their opinions, it remarks that would help to make the process of Integration of Russian immigrants in Czechia 147 integration easier for foreigners and fruitful for soci- and Migration Studies 41, 857–873, https://doi.org ety in whole. First, members of the Czech majority /10.1080/1369183X.2014.1002197. society should intensify social contact with foreign- Bosswick, W., Heckmann, F. (2006): Integration of migrants: ers living in Czechia and behave towards newcom- Contribution of local and regional authorities. European ers with understanding and tolerance, regardless of Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin. their country of origin. Current immigrants cannot be Caviedes, A. (2015): An Emerging ‘European’ News responsible for past mistakes made by their predeces- Portrayal of Immigration? Journal of Ethnic and sors. Moreover, in everyday negotiations and attitudes Migration Studies 41, 897–917, https://doi.org/10.1080 towards foreigners, it is incorrect to connect immi- /1369183X.2014.1002199. grants with political affairs taking place in their origin countries as they have left their motherland and Republic. Prague. live abroad. Second, the media should pay attention Drbohlav,Czech Statistical D., Janská, Office E. (2004):(2019): CurrentForeigners Ukrainian in the Czech and to how they represent immigrants who live among us Russian Migration to the Czech Republic: Mutual and how that may impact their lives. At the same time, Similarities and Differences. In: Górny, A., Ruspini, P. foreigners should be offered more avenues in which (eds.): Migration in the New Europe, East-West Revisited. to express their opinions, and interest in them should Palgrave Macmillan, London, 49–64. be shown. In the process of building attitudes towards foreigners, readers should rely on their own experi- Drbohlav,on its way D., Lachmanová-Medová,from emigration to immigration L., Čermák, country. Z., Janská, IDEA E., ences, not a mediated perception of news served by WorkingČermáková, Papers. D., Dzúrová, D. (2009): The Czech Republic: quick changes in legislation, Czech immigration andthe media.integration Third, policies although might it is adapt difficult to allto imagineforeign- EuropeanDrbohlav, D.Comission et al. (2010): (2017): Migrace Special a (i)migranti Eurobarometer v Česku. 469 – ers staying on its territory and intending to remain IntegrationKdo jsme, odkud of Immigrants přicházíme, in thekam European jdeme? Praha, Union. SLON. here. /index.cfm/survey/getsurveydetail/instruments /special/surveyky/2169.https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion Acknowledgements Heizmann, B. (2016): Symbolic boundaries, incorporation policies, and anti-immigrant attitudes: what drives This research was supported by Grant Agency of exclusionary policy preferences? Ethnic and Racial Studies 39(10), 1791–1811, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080 Charles University (grant project ‘Multilevel separa- /01419870.2015.1124128. tion of Russian immigrants in the post-socialist city’, Heizmann, B., Böhnke, P. (2018): Immigrant life satisfaction - in Europe: the role of social and symbolic boundaries. tre program UNCE/HUM/018. I would like to thank Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45(7), thereg. two № 192418) anonymous and reviewersCharles University whose comments/sug Research Cen- 1027–1050, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X gestions helped improve this paper. .2018.1438252.

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Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin with the aid of Remote Sensing and GIS Christos Domakinis1,*, Antonios Mouratidis1, Kostas Voudouris1, Theodore Astaras1, Maria Chara Karypidou2

1 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Environmental and Physical Geography, Greece 2 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Meteorology and Climatology, Greece * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Erythropotamos is a tributary of river Evros and during the last decade its drainage basin flooded many times, causing extensive damage on properties. In order to assess flood susceptibility in the aforementioned study area, the inundated areas of floods that occurred in 2010, 2017 and 2018 were initially delineated with the aid of SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imagery by applying an established flood delineation methodology. Subsequently, flood susceptibility mapping was conducted for the study area by applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Topographical, hydrological and meteorological factors were used and each one of them was classified into three (3) flood susceptibility categories (low, medium and high). The determination of the importance for each factor over the others, which is the main objective of this research, was decided according to the proportion of the 2010 inundated area, captured by ENVISAT/ASAR imagery, which intersected with each factor’s high susceptibility class. Finally, the resulting flood susceptibility map was validated according with the inundated areas of the 2017 and 2018 flood events, captured by SENTINEL – 1 A/B imagery, indicating that approximately 60% of both of these areas intersected with the map’s high susceptibility zone.

KEYWORDS GIS; Susceptibility mapping; Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP); floods; remote sensing

Received: 15 May 2019 Accepted: 7 May 2020 Published online: 31 July 2020

Domakinis, C., Mouratidis, A., Voudouris, K., Astaras, T., Karypidou, M. C. (2020): Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin with the aid of Remote Sensing and GIS. AUC Geographica 55(2), 149–164 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.11 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 150 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

1. Introduction to become more effective. Inundation and susceptibility mapping are among the main procedures that Floods can potentially cause fatalities, displacement of people and damage to the environment, to severely its goals. compromise economic development and to under- floodRegarding hazard assessmentinundation follows,mapping, in SARorder systems to achieve are mine the economic activities of every community that particularly suitable, thanks to the synoptic view, the suffers the effects of these destructive environmental capability to operate in almost all-weather conditions hazards (Patrikaki et al. 2018; Zhong et al. 2018; Birk- and during both day-time and night-time, as well as holz et al. 2014; Mouratidis and Sarti 2013; Yésou et the sensitivity of the microwave radiation to water al. 2013; Astaras et al. 2011). During the last decade, (Pierdicca et al. 2013). Furthermore, various methods such phenomena have also plagued Greece, with their majority occurring in the eastern part of the region of water from SAR data. Change detection highlights the Thrace (Kazakis et al. 2015; Nikolaidou et al. 2015; temporalhave been changesused within in theland literature cover by to comparing delineate flood the Mouratidis 2011; Mouratidis et al. 2011). Most such cases are attributed to the river Evros, which is the Psomiadis 2016; Schlaffer et al. 2015). The differ- natural borderline between Greece and Turkey, and, enceflood between scene to thea previous images candry be image combined (Li et withal. 2018; oth- along with its tributaries, has burst its banks on sever image segmentation techniques to identify areas eral occasions during the aforementioned time peri- producing an unusually low backscatter response, od. Erythropotamos is one of Evros’ tributaries and when compared to the single image methodologies been observed within its river basin, there is a lack (Matgenimproving et al. the 2011). reliability of the flood delineation although, in many occasions, flood phenomena have - catchment. ing to the current literature, the contemporary of floodDuring hazard the last assessment few decades, studies advances referring in remote to this trendConcerning involves flood mostly susceptibility the creation mapping, of ensemble accord models, which are based on the combination of sensing and GIS have helped flood hazard assessment

Fig. 1 a) Location of the study area (drainage basin of Erythropotamos), b) Geological formations within the drainage basin of Erythropotamos river (CoG 1989, I.G.M.E. 2002), c) Spatial distribution of elevation within the catchment of Erythropotamos river (E.E.A. 2017) and d) Spatial distribution of slope angle values within the drainage basin of Erythropotamos river. Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 151 different data-driven (machine learning), statistical or Tab. 1 Distribution of elevation into categories according to Dikau’s multi-criteria methods. This approach aims in achiev- classification (Dikau 1989). ing higher accuracy of the delineated susceptibility Elevation Description Area (km2) Percent (%) <150 Lowland 429.6 26.543 mapping methodologies that employ a single meth- odzones, or model in comparison (Costache etwith al. 2020;the flood Kanani-Sadat susceptibility et al. 150–600 Hilly 969.1 59.876 2019; Wang et al. 2019; Khosravi et al. 2016). How- 600–900 Semi-mountainous 197.3 12.190 ever, there is a plethora of methodologies that can be 900> Mountainous 22.5 1.390 - tistical and data-driven approaches (Ettinger et al. 2016;used in Nandi flood et susceptibility al. 2016; Tehrany assessment, et al. 2015; such Tehrany as sta Tab. 2 Slope angle categorization within the study area according et al. 2014; Pulvirenti et al. 2011). Among them, the to Demek’s classification (Demek 1972). analytic hierarchy process (AHP) (Kazakis et al. 2015; Slope Angle Description Area (km2) Percent (%) Stefanidis and Stathis 2013) is considered as the most (°) widely used and, because of its simplicity, continues 0–2 Plain to slightly sloping 147.5 9.11 Seejata et al. 2018; Tang et al. 2018). Additionally, this 2–5 Gently inclined 390.3 24.11 methodologyto be popular haseven proved in recent many works times (Lyu that et it al.can 2018; han- 5–15 Strongly inclined 864.9 53.44 dle sparse or poor quality data and that it can operate 15–35 Steep 215.7 13.33

Wang et al. 2011). >35 Precipitous 0.1 0.01 efficientlyThe main in regionalaim of this studies research (Chen iset toal. 2015,introduce 2013; a methodology that deals with the subjectivity that involves the determination of the hierarchy of factors 2. Location of the study area

To this end, the proposed methodology employed the Erythropotamos is a tributary of Evros River, which resultsin flood of susceptibility SAR-based inundation mapping with mapping the use that of delin AHP.- is the longest river that runs solely in the interior

- of 1,618.5 km2. The largest part of its river basin eatedtors was the determined flood extent according of the 2010 to flood.the proportion Specifically, of belongsof the Balkans, to Greece and and its particularly catchment tocovers the geographic an extent the aforementionedhierarchy between inundated the flood areas susceptibility that intersected fac region of Thrace in Northern Greece, while the rest with each factor’s high susceptibility class. of its drainage basin belongs to Bulgaria (Figure 1a).

Fig. 2 Spatial distribution of land cover in the catchment of Erythropotamos river (Copernicus 2017). 152 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

Fig. 3 General flowchart of the applied methodology.

Regarding administrative distribution within nation- - al borders, the Greek part of Erythropotamos’ river nicus 2020) data layer, is chronologically closer to the basin belongs to the Prefectures of Evros and Rhodopi. which, instead of the Corine Land Cover 2018 (Coper- The drainage basin of Erythropotamos River potamos River is dominated by forests and semi nat- belongs to both the Circum – Rhodope geotectonic uralgauged areas 2010 (Figure flood 2).event, Along the with catchment agricultural of Erythro areas, zone and the Rhodope massif. The geological formation that covers the largest part of the study area consists of orthogneissess and augen gneisses (Fig- these two land cover categories occupy approximately ure 1b). the 98% of the total extent of the study area (Table 3). Elevation in the drainage basin of Erythropotamos 3. Materials and methodology river ranges from 16 m to about 1,258 m above mean The materials that were used and the methodology area can be described as hilly according to Dikau’s that was followed in order to achieve the aims of this sea level (M.S.L.), and the largest part of the study Additionally, the spatial distribution of slope angle inundation mapping with the use of SAR images, while valuesclassification within (Dikauthe study 1989) area, (Figure indicates 1c and that Table most 1). of study can be divided into two parts. The first involves its terrain belongs to the strongly inclined category isthe given second in Figure part is 3. concerned with flood susceptibility angles (Demek 1972) (Figure 1d and Table 2). mapping with the use of AHP. The general flowchart (5°–15°)Finally, according based on toinformation Demek’s classification provided by theof slope data 3.1 Inundation mapping with SAR imagery

Eleven ENVISAT/ASAR and twenty seven SENTI- Tab.layer 3 Distributionof Corine Landof Land Cover within 2012 the (Copernicus river basin of 2017), - Erythropotamos according to Corine Land Cover 2012 (Copernicus 2017). NEL – 1 A/B images of VV (Vertical transmit – Verti cal receive) polarization were used to map the flood Land Cover Area (km2) Percent (%) - isticsextents appear of the on February Table 4. 2010, April 2017 and March Artificial surfaces 18.4 1.137 2018The flood aforementioned events. Their SARdetailed images product were character pre-pro- Agricultural areas 586.2 36.219 cessed with the aid of ESA’s SAR satellite image anal- Forest and semi natural areas 1007.9 62.274 ysis software SNAP (Sentinel Application Platform). Wetlands 0.1 0.006 - Water bodies 5.9 0.365 Initially, they were calibrated to σ° backscatter coef ficient values and despeckled using a 3 × 3 Gamma map filter. Regarding the co-registration step, the SAR Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 153

Tab. 4 Product information of ENVISAT/ASAR and SENTINEL – 1 A/B imagery.

Satellite ENVISAT SENTINEL – 1 andcategorizes non-water as flooded land cover only classes. areas that On arethe temporarilyother hand, Flood image: Flood images: 18/4/2017 NDFVIcovered was by water,used in excluding order to permanent detect shallow water water bodies in 16/2/2010 (1) & 26/3/2018 (2) low vegetation. Dates Reference images: Reference images: According to Cian et al. (2018) NDFI values that 5/8/2008 to 8/10/2016 to are greater than 0.7 and NDFVI values that are great- 27/4/2010 (10) 28/9/2018 (25) er than 0.75 can be used to delineate inundated areas Spatial 11.1 m × 11.1 m 8.8 m × 8.8 m in open land and in low vegetation respectively. How- Resolution - Pass Ascending Descending cessing according to the following criteria: Mode N/A IW ever, the resulting flooded areas require further pro Type N/A GRD 1. becauseFlooded theyareas can with be extent considered smaller as thanspurious the size (Cian of Level 1 1 et10 al. pixels 2018). in NDFI and NDFVI images were excluded Polarization VV VV Relative Orbit 14 109 < 0.015), which correspond to permanent water 2. Pixels with σο(mean) values less valuesthan 0.015 greater (σο(mean) than - images were co-registered with the use of EU-DEM, sistentlybodies, and decrease pixels with their σ ο(min)backscatter during the which is the Digital Surface Model (DSM) of European 0.03 (σο(min) > 0.03) that represent pixels that con Environment Agency (EEA) member and cooperating - - flood, indicating that something happened, but not- nated by the sensors. It is a hybrid product based on enoughdation maps to reach (Cian a σ etο(min) al. 2018). value typical of water pix countriesSRTM and that ASTER represents GDEM datathe first fused surface by a asweighted illumi Moreover,els, have to the be filteredadverse out weather from theconditions resulting during inun averaging approach (EEA 2017). Its horizontal spa- optical imagery and aerial vehicles from capturing the while its absolute and relative vertical accuracy are the 2010, 2017 and 2018 floods prevented satellite- 3.6tial mresolution and 5.3 m, is respectively1 arc second (Mouratidis (approximately et al. 2019).25 m), tion of their SAR-based inundation mapping results The Change Detection And Thresholding (CDAT) wasextents not offeasible. the corresponding floods and thus valida methodology by Cian et al. (2018), based on the work - 3.2 Flood susceptibility mapping with the use of AHP and with the aid of GIS and satellite imagery events.of Long This et al. procedure (2014), was involved applied the in calculation order to delinof the eate the inundated areas of the aforementioned flood The compilation of the susceptibility map can be achieved by conducting multi-criteria analysis (MCA), (NDFVI),Normalized which Difference are based Flood on the Index multi-temporal (NDFI) and stathe- which involves the selection of criteria whose weights tisticalNormalized analysis Difference of two setsFlood of inimages, low Vegetation one containing Index will be determined via the AHP. In this process, the only the images before or after the event, and anoth- selection of criteria is very important. A plethora of er one containing images both before or after the event and during the occurrence of the event. NDFI criteria has been used in previous research on flood susceptibility mapping (Hong et al. 2018; Lyu et al.

Tab. 5 Details regarding the data from which each factor was compiled.

Original Map scale or spatial Primary input data Source Derived map format resolution EU-DEM Raster 25 m × 25 m EEA Elevation EU-DEM Raster 25 m × 25 m EEA Slope Angle Corine Land Cover 2012 Vector Better than 100 m Copernicus Land Cover EU-DEM Raster 25 m × 25 m EEA Drainage Density EU-DEM Raster 25 m × 25 m EEA TWI 1) Geologic Map of SE 1) 1:200,000 Institute of Geology and 1) 1:200,000 Rhodope – Thrace Raster Mineral Exploration (IGME) of Greece Geology 2) 1:50,000 2) Geologic map of Bulgaria 2) 1:50,000 Committee of Geology (CoG) WorldClim Raster 825 m × 825 m Fick et al. 2017 Rainfall Distance from EU-DEM Raster 25 m × 25 m EEA Streams 154 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

2018; Seejata et al. 2018; Tang et al. 2018; Xiao et 3.2.2 Hydrological indicators al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2018; Kazakis et al. 2015). Their main characteristics being that they should be con- 3.2.2.1 Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) - tion mechanism, they can be measured or quickly cal- the indices of soil erosion, since it is used to relate the nectedculated with for the the whole physical study process area andof the that flood they genera ought effectsThis index of runoff according with togeomorphometry. Miliaresis (2011) It belongs is used toin to have simple interpretability (Papaioannou et al. 2015). Beven and Kirkby (1979) equation: According to Xiao et al. (2018) and Zhao et al. order to assess soil moisture and it is defined by the = ln (2) tan( ) availability, three types of indicators were considered in(2018), the present the factor’s research, effect i.e.on thetopographical, flood hazard hydrolog and data- � � area draining through a certain point per unit con- indicators (Xiao et al. 2018) provide information of In equation (2), α stands for the local upslope ical and meteorological. Specifically, topographical High values of TWI indicate areas more susceptible to the impact of the terrain. In the current study they tour length and tan(β) is the local slope in radians. consistthe flow of or elevation, stagnating slope of the angle water and on drainage the ground densi due- ty. On the other hand, hydrological indicators (Xiao et to3.2.2.2 flooding. Distance from streams - The drainage network of the drainage basin of Eryth- tration and accumulation of the water and the river ropotamos river has been produced by the EU-DEM al. 2018) provide information of the intercept, infil data layer with the use of raster-processing routines (TWI), distance from streams, land cover and geolo- (Voudouris et al. 2007). Furthermore, the distance gy.network. Finally, They the meteorologicalconsist of Topographic indicators Wetness (Zhao Index et al. from the streams of the drainage network data lay- 2018) provide information on the spatial distribution er was compiled through the use of geoprocessing of precipitation in the study area and were represent- - ed by the annual total rainfall. ceptibility mapping, because areas that are closer to The input data, their original format, the source buffer routines. This factor is crucial to flood sus from which the input data originated and their map event. scale or spatial resolution for each factor are synopti- streams are more likely to be inundated during a flood cally presented in the following table (Table 5). 3.2.2.3 Geology The synoptic geologic map of SE Rhodope – Thrace 3.2.1 Topographical indicators - tion (IGME) of Greece, at a scale of 1:200,000 (I.G.M.E. 3.2.1.1 Elevation 2002),from the was Institute used in of order Geology to produce and Mineral the part Explora of the Elevation is considered as an important factor for data layer that belongs to Greece. Accordingly, the geologic map of Bulgaria from the Department of drainage basin areas with low elevation values. The Geophysical Prospecting and Geological Mapping datafloods, layer because of elevation flood-prone was derived areas from tend EU-DEM. to occupy of the Committee of Geology (CoG 1989), at a scale of 1:50,000, was used in order to produce the part of the 3.2.1.2 Slope Angle data layer that belongs to Bulgaria. The slope angle data layer was produced by the - EU-DEM data layer with the aid of raster-processing - routines. Slope angle is also an important factor when calGeology formations is considered favor surface a significant runoff. factorOn the in other determin hand, ing flood-prone areas, because impermeable geologi it comes to discerning flood-prone areas, because 3.2.2.4permeable Land geological Cover formations favor infiltration. surfaceareas in terrain. a river basin that occupy flat terrain surfaces tend to flood more easily than areas with more steep 2017) was used to determine the land cover classes 3.2.1.3 Drainage Density withinThe data the layer limits of Corine of the Landstudy Cover area. 2012 It is worth(Copernicus men- length per unit area, which can be calculated as shown inThe the drainage following density equation is defined(1) (Zhou as et the al. total2014): stream ittioning depicts that more Corine closely Land the Cover surface 2012 relief’s was chosen land cover over Corine Land Cover 2018 (Copernicus 2020), because 1 = (1) by the station on Didymoteicho’s bridge. Addition- ally,conditions regarding during the the catchment 2010 flood, of which Erythropotamos was gauged DD stands∑ for drainage density, while S represents River, the differences between the aforementioned S the area of the grid and Li represents the length of river i within the grid. Areas with high drainage den- 2 - lateddata layersland cover are insignificant classes with sinceManning’s they covern roughness a total extent of approximately 2 km . Vieux (2004) corre sity indicate high flood susceptibility. Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 155

annual precipitation sums were considered as more formula: coefficient1 (Table2 1 6), which participates in Manning’s = 3 2 (3) prone3.3 Analytical to flooding. Hierarchy Process (AHP)

In equation (3), V 3/s), 3.3.1 Determination of flood susceptibility classes n A is the “wetted” for each factor cross-sectional area stands (m2), rfor stands discharge/flow for the hydraulic (m In order to apply the AHP methodology, which was radius is Manning’s and S is roughnessthe slope of coefficient, hydraulic grade or the lin- introduced by Saaty (1980), the data layer of each ear head loss (m/m). Moreover, Manning’s n rough- which means that low Manning’s n values correspond factor was classified into three classes according to toness high coefficient discharge is inverselyvalues. In proportional that way, areas to discharge, suscepti- assignedhow prone a ratingeach one of three of these (3), classes while those was to that flooding. are of n values. mediumClasses that susceptibility are highly were susceptible assigned to aflooding rating of were two (2) and those of low susceptibility were assigned a 3.2.3ble to Meteorological floods can be related indicators to low Manning’s rating of one (1).

3.2.3.1 Rainfall 3.3.2 Determination of the hierarchy between The annual total rainfall layer was derived using raw the flood susceptibility factors with the aid data that were retrieved from the WorldClim data- of the results of SAR-based inundation mapping base (Fick et al. 2017). The raw data involve monthly Having to deal with the subjectivity that often accom- precipitation totals, which refer to the climatological panies this step of AHP, the importance of each factor - was determined according to the proportion of the byperiod 824 1970–2000m) grid (Fick and et are al. 2017).available The as totalan approxi annual of 6.84 km2 for both open water and shallow water precipitationmately 30 seconds layer by was 30 constructedseconds (approximately by summing 824 all ininundated low vegetation) areas of that the intersected2010 flood withevent each (total factor’s area 12 monthly precipitation totals with the aid of map high susceptibility class (Figure 4 and Table 7). This algebra. Subsequently, the aforementioned rainfall concept was based on the idea that a SAR image that

water is concentrated. Moreover, the factors or indi- oflayer 25 wasm, was converted derived. to The a point downscaling shapefile, of from the whichorigi- is taken during a flood indicates the areas where flood- the final rainfall data layer, with a spatial resolution to the layer that was eventually used in the current cators of flood susceptibility all coexist in these are nal WorldClim layer (824 × 824 m grid resolution) as and it is known how each factor influences floods. by employing the universal kriging spatial interpola- For example it is known that, regarding e.g. slope analysis (25 × 25 m grid resolution), was performed whereangle, flatthe areasmost tendfavourable to flood conditions more easily. for Thus,most facthe- were the total annual precipitation values obtained at areas where flood water is concentrating are those tion method (Li et al. 2014). The interpolated values- for most factors or indicators intersect. Subsequent- iary variables used were elevation, slope, aspect and ly,tors the coexist, more i.e.a high where susceptibility the high susceptibility class of a factor classes or distanceeach point from of the the original sea. The WorldClim elevation grid.data Theused auxil was indicator is encountered in inundated areas, the more

Monitoring Services data portal (EEA 2017) and is susceptibility. providedthe EU-DEM on a obtained 25 by 25 mfrom grid. the Slope COPERNICUS and aspect Landwere influential this factor or indicator is in terms of flood derived from the EU-DEM using the available raster-processing routines. Distance from the sea was - Tab. 7 Proportion of the total inundated area of the 2010 flood tines, at a spatial resolution of 25 m. Areas with high event that intersects with each factor’s high susceptibility class. also computed, by applying proximity analysis rou Extent of inundated Percent Factor area (km2) ratio (%) Tab. 6 Manning’s n roughness coefficients for certain land cover Land Cover 0.15 2.19 types according to Vieux (2004). TWI 0.12 1.75 Land Cover Manning’s n coefficient Geology 0.39 5.70 Artificial surfaces 0.015 Distance from streams 3.44 50.29 Agricultural areas 0.035 Rainfall 0.01 0.15 Forest and semi natural areas 0.100 Slope Angle 5.59 81.73 Wetlands 0.700 Drainage Density 0.99 14.47 Water bodies 0.030 Elevation 6.66 97.37 156 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

Fig. 4 The data layer of the inundated areas of the 2010 flood event has been superimposed upon the flood susceptibility classes of the factors’ data layers: a) Elevation, b) Slope angle, c) TWI, d) Distance from streams, e) Geology, f) Land cover, g) Rainfall and h) Drainage density. Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 157

Tab. 8 Pairwise comparison of the factors that affect flood susceptibility.

Distance Slope Drainage Land Elevation from Geology TWI Rainfall angle Density Cover streams Elevation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Slope angle 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Distance from streams 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Drainage Density 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 Geology 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 4 Land Cover 1/6 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 TWI 1/7 1/6 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 Rainfall 1/8 1/7 1/6 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 Total 2.718 4.593 7.5 11.28 16.08 21.83 28.5 36

Tab. 9 Calculation of the factor weights with the use of the arithmetic mean method.

Distance Slope Drainage Land Elevation from Geology TWI Rainfall Mean angle Density Cover streams Elevation 0.368 0.435 0.403 0.355 0.311 0.275 0.246 0.222 0.327 (32.7%) Slope angle 0.184 0.218 0.268 0.266 0.249 0.229 0.211 0.194 0.227 (22.7%) Distance 0.123 0.109 0.134 0.177 0.187 0.183 0.175 0.167 0.157 (15.7%) from streams Drainage 0.092 0.073 0.067 0.089 0.124 0.137 0.140 0.139 0.108 (10.8%) Density Geology 0.074 0.054 0.045 0.044 0.062 0.092 0.105 0.111 0.073 (7.32%) Land Cover 0.061 0.044 0.034 0.030 0.031 0.046 0.070 0.083 0.050 (5%) TWI 0.053 0.036 0.027 0.022 0.021 0.023 0.035 0.056 0.034 (3.4%) Rainfall 0.046 0.031 0.022 0.018 0.016 0.015 0.018 0.028 0.024 (2.4%)

- because the measurements from the gauging station The 2010 flood extent was chosen for that purpose, theresulting corresponding matrix table, column an arithmetic factor with value which of 8 it indi has beencates compared,that a row whilefactor an is mucharithmetic more value significant of 1 means than wason Didymoteicho’s taken on 16/2/2010, bridge confirmed Erythropotamos that during indeed the date and time that the ENVISAT/ASAR’s flood image completion of Table 8, the arithmetic mean method lower spatial resolution when compared with SENTI- hasthat been both applied factors to are its equally results significant. and the weights After thefor flooded. Additionally, ENVISAT/ASAR’s imagery has- each factor were calculated (Table 9). ing station went out of order in 2012, the only way To sum up, Table 10 presents synoptically the fac- NEL-1 A/B imagery. Since the aforementioned gaug events was to rely on statements from members of the Departmentto collect information of Civil Protection for the 2017of the and region 2018 of Evrosflood classtors, theand classes the weight of flood that susceptibility was calculated into for which each they fac- (C. Papapostolou, Department of Civil Protection of torwere via classified, the application the rating of AHP that methodologywas assigned (Kazakisfor each the region of Evros, personal communication, 2018). et al. 2015).

3.3.3 Pairwise comparison between the flood 3.3.4 Consistency ratio susceptibility factors and determination In order to check the consistency of the eigenvector of their weights with the use of the arithmetic mean method according to the following formula: The factors were paired with each other and follow- matrix of AHP, the consistency ratio was calculated ing that, each factor was given an arithmetic value = (4) agreement with Table 7, when compared to the other In mathematic formula (4), CR stands for consis- factor,between with 1 which and 8, it according formed the to pair its (Table significance, 8). In the in tency ratio, CI RI

stands for consistency index, and 158 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

Tab. 10 Synoptic table presenting the factors, their flood the weigh for each factor and Xi are the rating values susceptibility classes, the rating that was assigned for each class and the weight for each factor that was assigned through AHP methodology. referred. forThe each resulting pixel according susceptibility to the map factor was to validated which it by is Factor Class Rating Weight calculating, with the aid of geoprocessing routines, >600 1 the proportion of the inundated areas of the April Elevation 150–600 2 0.327 (m) 0–150 3 with its high susceptibility areas. This procedure indi- cated2017 thatand 59%March and 2018 58% flood of the events inundated that intersectedareas of the >15 1 Slope angle 2–5 2 0.227 (°) - 0–2 3 ing2018 map. and 2017 floods respectively coincided spatially Distance >500 1 with the high flood susceptibility zones of the result from 200–500 2 0.157 streams (m) 0–200 3 4. Results

Drainage 2.15–9.68 1 density 9.68–17.21 2 0.108 - 2 (m/m ) 17.21–24.74 3 According to the results that were produced by flood Permeable formations 1 event,extent covermapping, a total the of inundated 6.84 km2 , areaswhile withinthe inundated Erytro Geology Semi – permeable formations 2 0.073 potamos’ drainage basin, regarding the 2010 flood 2 and Impermeable formations 3 areas20.60 ofkm the2 respectively. flood events The that proportions occurred on of April the inun2017- Forests and wetlands 1 and March 2018 cover a total extent of 18.23 km Land Agricultural areas and water bodies 2 0.050 Cover areas and as shallow water in low vegetation areas Artificial surfaces 3 aredated presented areas that in morewere detaildetected in Table in open-land 11. flooded Regarding susceptibility mapping, the resulting −0.22–6.06 1 - TWI 6.06–12.34 2 0.034 tained areas of high, medium, and low susceptibility 12.34–18.62 3 (Figuremap was 5). classified Moreover, into the three application categories, of AHP which method con- 579.34–623.25 1 ology produced the criteria weight for each indicator. Rainfall 623.25–667.18 2 0.024 According to these results elevation was considered (mm) as the most important indicator with the weight value 667.18–711.10 3 of 0.327, followed by the slope angle with the weight value of 0.227. Distance from stream and drainage density are respectively considered as the third and RI depends on the number fourth most important criteria, and their weight val- of factor that are used to perform AHP and in our case, ues are 0.157 and 0.108, respectively. The weights of stands for random index.RI= 1.41 (Saaty 1980), while RI the remaining indicators are below 0.1, which indi- can be calculated by the following equation: cates that they present less important than aforemen- for an 8 by 8 matrix, tioned four indicators. The criteria weight value of = max (5) geology, land cover, TWI and rainfall are 0.073, 0.05, 1 − 0.034 and 0.024, respectively (Tables 8 and 9). Finally, by superimposing the delineated areas of − - the April 2017 and March 2018 inundation mapping In equation (5), λmax is the = maximum 8.41 and n eigenvalue = 8, there- onto the resulting susceptibility map, with the aid of offore the CR comparison = 0.042. According matrix andto Saaty n is the(1980), number if CR ofis lessfac geoprocessing routines, calculations indicated that tors. In the current study, λmax

3.3.5than 0.1,Calculation then the weights’of flood consistencysusceptibilityand is affirmed. the largest part of the aforementioned estimated flood validation of the results Tab. 11 Flood extents of the inundated areas for February 2010, Finally, the data layers for each factor were added April 2017 and March 2018 flood events. together in accordance with the mathematical equa- NDFI based NDFVI based Total tion (6): Flood event inundated area inundated area inundated area (km2) (km2) (km2) = (6) 2010 February 6.49 0.35 6.84 =1 2017 April 17.52 0.71 18.23 � ∗ 2018 March 19.28 1.32 20.60 i is In equation (6), S is the value for each pixel of the final flood susceptibility map of the study area, w Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 159

Fig. 5 Flood susceptibility map upon which are superimposed: a) the data layer of the April 2017 inundated areas (both NDFI and NDFVI based), and b) the data layer of the March 2018 inundated areas (both NDFI and NDFVI based).

class, while high and medium susceptibility classes susceptibility of the resulting map (Figure 5). Regard- intersected with 19.73 km2 (95.8%) of the resulting extents coincided with the areas of high and medium2 of the total inundated area in both open-land and in inglow thevegetation, April 2017 10.6 flood, km2 from(58.17%) the total intersected of 18.23 withkm flood extent (Table 12). 5. Discussion and medium susceptibility classes intersected with 17.54the high km flood2 susceptibility class. Additionally, high Correspondingly, from the total of 20.60 km2 of the appeared that the inundated areas of 2010 are consid- March 2018 (96.22%) inundated of area,the resulting 12.22 km flood2 (59.33%) extent. erablyBy comparing smaller thethan flood the inundatedextents of theareas flood of 2018events, and it 2, were included within the high flood susceptibility 2017. The 2010 flood covered an extent of 6.84 km 160 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

Tab. 12 Area extent and percentage of the part of the March such as TWI (Arabameri et al. 2019; Das 2018; Tang 2018 and April 2017 inundated areas, which intersect with high to medium classes of the susceptibility map. Das 2018; Mahmoud et al. 2018; Kazakis et al. 2015), Inundated area Percentage Flood susceptibility classes drainageet al. 2018), density flow (Arabameriaccumulation et (Vojtekal. 2019; et Souissi al. 2019; et (km2) (%) al. 2019; Vojtek et al. 2019; Das 2018; Mahmoud 2018 March flood et al. 2018; Seejata et al. 2018) and rainfall (Souis- High 12.22 59.33 si et al. 2019; Mahmoud et al. 2018; Seejata et al. High and medium 19.73 95.80 2018; Tang et al. 2018; Kazakis et al. 2015) appear in most works. On the contrary, curvature (Arabameri 2017 April flood et al. 2019; Das 2018), NDVI (Normalized Difference High 10.60 58.17 High and medium 17.54 96.22 (Curve Numbers) (Vojtek et al. 2019; Mahmoud et al. Vegetation Index) (Arabameri et al. 2019), runoff/CN 2019) and groundwater depth (Souissi et al. 2019) 2018), SPI (Stream Power Index) (Arabameri et al. in comparison with the inundated areas of the 2017 Moreover, the number of the factors that are used in appear rarely on flood susceptibility mapping works. km2 and 20.60 km2 respectively; however, as it was et al. 2018; Rahmati et al. 2015) with the most com- andmentioned 2018 flood earlier, events, validation which of covered these results areas ofwas 18.23 not monflood numbersusceptibility of factors mapping ranging varies from greatly seven (Mahmoud to nine. feasible due to unfavourable weather conditions. At This paper tries to employ the most common and - first place, these differences in flood extents might- included,important since factors its datathat layercan be was used indirectly in flood employed suscep thermore,indicate that it is theworth 2010 mentioning flood had that probably according a lowerto the tibility mapping. Thus, flow accumulation was not gaugingreturn period station than on Didymoteicho’sthe other two flood bridge, events. the 2010 Fur 3/s, utilizedby the TWIbecause, factor. according Likewise, to Miliaresis Stream Power(2006), Indexthese while, on the other hand, such gauges were not avail- are,(SPI) like and TWI, Sediment indices Transport of soil erosion Index with(STI) very were simi not- flood reached a peak discharge of 1,255.05 m similar results. Curvature is considered to have a inundationable for the mapping2017 and with 2018 the floods. use of Remote Sensing lar mathematical expressions and thus they produce andRegarding especially theSAR, uncertainties it has to be mentioned that exist that in floodsuch and therefore it was not included in the factors that techniques and methodologies suffer mostly from minor impact on the occurrence of a flood (Das 2018)-

- were utilized in the assessment of flood susceptibili rentlyspeckle there and fromis no undermethodology or over-detection that can overcome of flood ty. Additionally, Topographic position index (TPI) and- extents especially in urban and vegetated areas. Cur lyTopographic appear to be roughness more important index (TRI) than theare factorsrarely usedwith mapping is still considered appropriate for validation whichin flood they susceptibility are compared, mapping so they and were even too more omitted. rare these difficulties entirely. However, flood inundation- Finally, the curve numbers (CN) data layer was not ping. (Giustarini et al. 2015a; Giustarini et al. 2015b; feasible to be compiled since there were no available Schumannin cases of floodet al. 2015)susceptibility and flood hazard map maps depicting the spatial distribution of the hydrological soil groups. wide variety of works that utilize the AHP methodol- The determination of the importance between the ogyConcerning for its implementation. flood susceptibility The main mapping, differences there and is a similarities of these works with the present research susceptibility mapping can be achieved by applying focus on the following points: 1) the factors that are variousfactors thatprocedures. are used Many in AHP researches when conducting use sensitivity flood employed by the research, 2) the determination of the analysis in order to overcome the subjectivity of AHP importance between the factors that are used by the (Souissi et al. 2019; Mahmoud et al. 2018; Tang et al. 2018), while weight linear combination is also a pop- factors of the study area and 4) the validation of the ular approach (Vojtek et al. 2019; Kazakis et al. 2015). AHP procedure, 3) the dominant flood susceptibility There is also a great number of works that employ The number and type of factors that are used in resulting flood susceptibility map. (Das 2018; Seejata et al. 2018; Rahmati et al. 2015). susceptibility, with the use of AHP, depend heavily on However,expert opinion the current in dealing trend with involves the hierarchy the use of of factors train- dataorder availability to determine (Xiao the et spatial al. 2018; distribution Zhao et al. of 2018). flood ing algorithms over a part of the elements that will be However, it can be observed that certain factors such used for the validation of the resulting susceptibility as elevation, slope angle, land cover, lithology and map, which usually involves a database of historical distance from streams are used in the vast majority of works due to being easily produced via Digital The present paper is introducing the use of the results Elevation Models (DEMs), geological maps and the points where floods occurred (Arabameri et al. 2019).

of SAR-based inundation mapping, of a confirmed various Corine Land Cover data layers. Other factors via gauges flood event, in the determination of the Flood susceptibility mapping in Erythropotamos river basin 161

- data layer of rainfall had to be downscaled in order to reach the spatial analysis of the EU-DEM data lay- importance of the factors that affect flood susceptibil er. However, the aforementioned spatial variations of ity in AHP. Specifically, the aforementioned hierarchy- edwas with determined each factor’s according highest to susceptibility the part of the class, extent thus of effect on the resulting susceptibility map since they overcomingthe inundated the area subjectivity of the 2010 of AHP. flood that intersect these data layers do not appear to have a significant- When it comes to the determination of the most thewere study ranked area among involved the least a considerably important flood large suscep drain- results of AHP in various researches indicate that agetibility basin, factors which, (Table in terms 10). Additionally,of size, allowed the the extent use of thereimportant is no factorfactor into floodhave clearsusceptibility dominance mapping, over other the small scale data, which are widely used in likewise factors. Many papers indicate slope angle as the most - important factor (Arabameri et al. 2019; Vojtek et al. 2015).cases according to the existing literature regard elevation (Souissi et al. 2019) or even rainfall (Seejata ing AHP flood susceptibility mapping (Kazakis et al. et2019), al. 2018) while have flow accumulationbeen determined (Kazakis as the et dominant al. 2015), 6. Conclusions flood susceptibility factors in certain regions and by The present research paper introduced the idea to susceptibilitycertain methodologies. factor, but Likewise it can be the observed present researchthat the resultsdetermined depend elevation heavily as on the both most the important procedure flood that SAR imagery in order to determine the importance is employed in the determination of the hierarchy of use the extent of a flood that has been captured by factors and the conditions that lie within the studied with the subjectivity that involves the determination region. ofbetween the hierarchy flood susceptibility of factors in AHP.factors The and larger thus the dealing part of the inundated area that intersects with the factor’s susceptibility mapping with the use of AHP, the vast high susceptibility zone, the more important the fac- majorityRegarding of works the validationinvolves the of compilationthe results of aflood his- tor is considered over the others. torical database that includes, in the form of points, According to the results of the applied methodolo- sites where according to eye-witnesses or Remote susceptibility factor in the catchment of Erythropota- 2019; Souissi et al. 2019; Vojtek et al. 2019; Mahmoud mos.gy, elevation However, was this found has to to be be the further most dominantascertained flood by etSensing al. 2018). techniques The present floods work occurred handles (Arabameri this matter et byal. utilizing the results of SAR-based inundation map- and by taking advantage of the current and prospec- considering more future flood events in the same area- over, the resulting susceptibility map appeared to be wereping fornot specific involved flood in the occurrences. determination To ofthis the end, impor the- intive consistency availability with of SENTINEL-1 the, April 2017 imagery and Marchdata. More 2018 tanceinundated between areas the of factors the 2017 in AHP,and 2018were floods,used in whichorder - - bilityflood classextents, of the since resulting the aforementioned map. inundated tibilityto provide zones the of proportions the resulting of map. their Furthermore, respective flood the areasIt appears coincided that mostly the suggested with the methodology, high flood suscepti regard- extents that intersected with the high flood suscep- - ed that the areas of high susceptibility are located on ceptibility factors, via the results of SAR-based inun- resulting flood susceptibility map (Figure 5), indicat dationing the mapping,determination in AHP of producedthe hierarchy some of interesting flood sus results. Nevertheless, more thorough testing of this the basineastern mouth. part of the study area, specifically in the proposed methodology is required, while it also firstMoreover, half of main the streamscores thatand wereappear achieved increased by thetoward val- remains to be seen if its application on other drainage idation of the susceptibility map were quite high. In basins shall indicate each time another factor as more

- withparticular, the high approximately susceptibility 60% zones of theof the inundated map. The areas per- tibilityprevalent are in unique flood susceptibility,for each catchment. thus maintaining the from the April 2017 and March 2018 floods intersect argument that the conditions that affect flood suscep the aforementioned inundated areas intersect with thecentage map’s rises high to to approximately moderate susceptibility 96% in the zones. case that References Finally, it is worth mentioning that the source data - Arabameri, A., Rezaei, K., Cerdà, A., Conoscenti, C., bility mapping, in terms of scale and spatial resolu- Kalantari, Z. (2019): A comparison of statistical methods tion,layers were of the quite factors consistent that were since used the in majority flood suscepti of them were derived from EU-DEM that has a spatial resolu- susceptibility in Northern Iran. Science of the Total tion of 25 m. The data layers of geology and Corine Environmentand multi-criteria 660, decision443–458, making https://doi.org/10.1016 to map flood hazard /j.scitotenv.2019.01.021.

Land Cover 2012 involved a smaller scale, while the 162 Christos Domakinis, Antonios Mouratidis, Kostas Voudouris, Theodore Astaras, Maria Chara Karypidou

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University of Isfahan, Faculty of Geographical and planning, Iran * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The knowledge of actual evapotranspiration at farm level is a prerequisite for irrigation planning, farm management, to increase production and reduce water consumption. To accomplish this, comprehensive and accurate assessment methods should be applied. In order to evaluate accurately evapotranspiration processes we compared lysimeter evapotranspiration data with MODIS (Aqua and Terra satellites) and LANDSAT (SEBAL algorithm) satellite images as well as with the FAO Penman-Montith method. The findings indicate the low error rate, high correlation (1) and appropriateness of SEBAL in estimating actual evapotranspiration. The error values MAD, MSE and RMSE between lysimeter and the SEBAL algorithm were 0.59, 0.36 and 0.60 respectively. The second best performance was established for the FAO Penman-Montith method. The obtained error values MAD, MSE and RMSE between the lysimeter and FAO-Penman-Montith method are 0.91, 1.29 and 1.13, respectively.

KEYWORDS actual evapotranspiration; SEBAL algorithm; Landsat; MODIS; Penman-Montith; Wheat; lysimeter

Received: 4 October 2019 Accepted: 8 May 2020 Published online: 18 September 2020

Tofigh, S., Rahimi, D., Zakerinejad, R. (2020): A comparison of actual evapotranspiration estimates based on Remote Sensing approaches with a classical climate data driven method. AUC Geographica 55(2), 165–182 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.12 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 166 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

1. Introduction pixels. The low value of MSE, MAE, MAD, and RMSE - Water need is one of the most important parame- ings mentioned above (e.g. Karbasi et al. 2016; Ghor- ters in crop cultivation and in terms of planning the baniobtained et al. in 2015; different Morshedi other et studies al. 2016; sustain Rezaei the Banaf find- sheh et al. 2014; Kamali and Nazari 2018; Atasever are one of the major challenges in dry and semi-ar- and Ozkan 2018; Fu et al. 2018; Rawat et al. 2017). idirrigation regions calendar. like Iran Waterwhich Sourceis due todeficit the lowestimations amount The results obtained by Wagle et al. (2017) on the of precipitation (248 mm), high temperatures (aver- - age temperature 18 °C, which is 3 °C higher than the els of (SEBAL), (METRIC), (SEBS), (S-SEBI (SSEBop)) global average) long dry season (in some areas up to foroperation evapotranspiration of five of surface of sorghum energy predictionbalance SEB, indicate mod 8 months), high evaporation, inappropriate cultiva- that the S-SEBI, SEBAL and SEBS outperform METRIC tion pattern and irregular irrigation methods (Aliza- and SSEBop models with higher accuracy. deh 2016; Zakerinejad and Masoudi 2019). In the In this study we estimate evapotranspiration current condition, the phenomenon of global warm- through: i) the SEBAL algorithm, ii) the FAO-Pen- ing and the occurrence of severe and continuous man-Montith method and iii) MODIS evapotranspiration products and compare the obtained results con (Zakerinejad and Maerker 2015). Consequently, due observed lysimeter data. The study area is located in todroughts the high and impact desertification of evapotranspiration aggravate the processes problem the Shahrekord plain that is characterized by a tem- in plant and water resources management we assess perate climate and wheat cropping as dominant agri- different models for the Iranian conditions. Especially, cultural production. we focus in our study on the main crop cultivation in Iran, which is namely wheat. Evapotranspiration is highly affecting the hydro- 2. Study area logical cycle and water balance equations. Meas- uring, calculating and estimating the evapotran- The Centre of Shahrekord plain is located at 32°29' to spiration volume are essential in water resource 32°38' N and 50°46' to 50°55' E at 2066 m above sea management. Different methods exist on the marked level (Fig. 1). The annual average precipitation of the such as: direct measurements (Lysimeter), multiple plain is 330 mm and the annual temperature average models like Priestley-Taylor, Jensen-Haise, Thornth- is of 12 °C. The test farm is located at Farrokhshahr Waite, Blaney-Criddle, FAO-Pennman Monteith, Har- Agricultural Meteorological Research Center (AMRC). greaves-Samani, Turc, Making and Ritchie (Allen et al. The farm is equipped with a drainage lysimeter with 1998; Zare Haghi et al. 2016). In addition, evapotran- a diameter of 3 m and area of 7.60 m2 and a cover spiration can be estimatedusing remotely sensed data consisting of 1200 wheat seeds. This farm is one of and respective modelling approaches such as SEBI, the experimental farms that estimats the actual evap- SEBAL, S-SEBI, SEBS, METRIC, S-TSEB and P-TSEB otranspiration data through the SEBAL algorithm and (Alizadeh et al. 2016). Moreover, the MODIS sensor we compare the results with that of the nearest wheat also measures evapotranspiration, that is represented farm (Fig. 1). in a 8-day composite dataset. The results of many studies in different countries like China, Poland, Slovakia, Iraq, and Brazil indi- 3. Method and materials cate that the SEBAL algorithm is suitable to estimate evapotranspiration even in areas with climate data The method applied in this study is comparative and shortage (Santos et al. 2017; Ndou et al. 2018; Li et illustrated in the following. al. 2013; Santos 2017; Jaber 2016; Jian 2015; Bezer- ra 2015; Sun 2011). The MODIS evapotranspiration 3.1 Method - tions of evapotranspiration over a wide area. Exten- According to the available databases, the observation- siveproduct research provides has been significant done in information this context onby e.g.varia Yu al data (lysimeter) is used a reference data. We esti- et al. (2019), Rasmussen et al. (2014), or Sun et al. mate the evapotranspiration processes following the (2012). SEBAL algorithm given by Eq. 1–20, and the FAO-Pen- In this context, the results obtained through the man-Monteith model reported by Eq. 21. To test the SEBAL algorithm where compared with experimen- accuracy of these models and select the optimal mod- tal methods like Hargrevi-Samani, Blaney-Criddle, el the RMSE Eq. 23, MES Eq. 24, MAD Eq. 25 and R Eq. FAO Penman-Monteith, Metric, SWAT and lysimeter 22 indexes are calculated. data in countries like Turkey, India and some cities in Iran (Zanjan, Mazandaran, Neyshabur). Particularly, 3.2 Materials the SEBAL algorithm has been compared with actual lysimeter data showing small errors, which main- The data bases consist of three data groups: i) mete- ly related to the determination of the cold and hot orological data collected from Farokhshahr station Actual evapotranspiration 167

Fig. 1 Geographical locationof the study area and sample farm.

2 which include average, minimum and maximum tem- Where λET ), Rn is the perature, average, minimum and maximum precipita- 2), G is the soil tion, relative humidity (RH), wind speed, sunny hours, is2 the latent heat flux (W/m ii) evapotranspiration data measured by the lysime- net radiation2). flux at the surface (W/m ter, iii) Landsat satellite images (2016–2017), and vi) heatThe flux surface (W/m ),energy and H isbudget the sensible equation heat isflux further to the the MODIS evapotranspiration product (2016–2017) explainedair (W/m in part 4 of this section. Table 1. n) represents the actual radiant energy available at the surface. It is The net radiation flux at the surface (R Tab. 1 Specification of the applied satellite images - (LANDSATandMODIS). tratedcomputed in the by surface subtracting radiation all outgoing balance equation:radiant fluxes Image type Imaging time(D/M/Y) Julian Day from all incoming radiant fluxes (Figure 2) as illus R + R )R (2) Landsat7 25/07/2017 205 n 0 Landsat7 22/05/2017 143 Where = (1 −R α)R iss� the L�incoming − RL� − (1 shortwave − ε L� radiation Landsat7 11/11/2016 314 2), α is the surface albedo (dimensionless), R S� 2), R is the 2 L� (W/m o is the 3.2.1 SEBAL algorithm issurface the incoming thermal long emissivity wave radiation (dimensionless) (W/m (WatersL� In the SEBAL model, ET is computed from satellite outgoinget al. 2002). long wave radiation (W/m ), and ε images and weather data using the surface energy balance. Since the satellite image provides informa- Surface Albedo (α): The albedo at the top of the tion for the overpass time only, SEBAL computes an atmosphere is compute as follows: is calculated for each pixel of the image as a “residual” αtoa ωλ × ρλ) (3) ofinstantaneous the surface energy ET flux budget for the equation: image time. The ET flux = Σ( is a weighting n Where ρλ is the reflectivity and ωλ λET = R − G − H (1) coefficient for each band compute as follows: 168 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

Tab. 2 Component of atmospheric transmissivity.

(4) 2 Station τsw τ sw z (m) Where ESUN is elevation of the sun. Albedo is Shahrekord 0.79 0.62 2066

Tab. 3 Component of RS↓ Equation. thedefined incident as the light ratio emitted of the byelectromagnetic the sun. Surface radiation albedo 2 2 Date GCS (w/m ) cos θ dr τsw RS↓ (w/m ) isreflected computed from by the correcting surface of the the α soiltoa forand atmospheric the plant to transmissivity: 2016/11/11 1367 0.79 1.02 0.79 871.68 2017/05/22 1367 0.93 0.97 0.79 981.65 (5) 2017/07/25 1367 0.91 0.96 0.79 954.29

path_radiance range between 0.025 and 0.04 and for SEBAL we recommend a value of 0.03 basedValues on Bastiaanssen for α (1998). 2). Its value is computed as follows: sw includes the transmissivity of both direct solar radiation flux that actually reaches the earth’s surface beam radiation and diffuse (scattered) radiation to (W/mR GCS × cos θ × dr × τsw (7) theτ surface. We calculate τsw assuming clear sky and s� 2 relatively dry conditions using an elevation-based Where = Gsc ), cos relationship from FAO-56: above, dr is the is inverse the solar squared constant relative (1367 earth-sun W/m dis- –5 τsw × z (6) θ is the cosinesw isof thethe atmosphericsolar incidence transmissivity. angle as defined The value R Where = 0.75 z is × the 2 × elevation 10 above sea level (m). tance, and τ S� Incoming Shortwave Radiation (RS ): Incoming is computed for the days specified. shortwave radiation is the direct and diffuse solar � Sun Elevation = 37.84438276 (Metadata file) � θ = 90 − 37.84438276= 52.15561724 � cos θ = 0.79

Fig. 2 Surface Albedo of wheat farm (2016/11/11). Actual evapotranspiration 169

Fig. 3 Surface Albedo of wheat farm (2017/22/05).

The SAVI is an index that attempts to “subtract” the effects of background soil from NDVI so that impacts Sun Elevation = 68.00616546 (Metadata file) � of soil wetness are reduced in the index. It is comput- θ = 90 − 68.00616546= 21.99383 � cos θ = 0.93 ed as: Sun Elevation = 65.69948076 (Metadata file) � θ =Outgoing 90 − 65.69948076 Long wave = 24.300522 Radiation �(R cosL ): θThe = 0.91 outgo- SAVI L)(R1 2 1 + R2) (9)

� Where; = (1 L +is a constant − R )/(R for SAVI. If L is zero, SAVI ing long2). waveIt is computed radiation inis SEBALthe thermal through radiation the follow flux- becomes equal to NDVI. A value of 0.5 frequently emitteding steps: from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere appears in the literature for L. (W/m The LAI is the ratio of the total area of all leaves on 1. Computation of vegetation indices of Normal- a plant to the ground area represented by the plant. It ized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil Adjust- is an indicator of biomass and canopy resistance. LAI ed Vegetation Index (SAVI), and Leaf Area Index (LAI) is computed for southern Idaho using the following - empirical equation: ties for the near-infrared band (5) () and the red band (4)The () to NDVI their is sum: the ratio of the differences in reflectivi (10)

1 2 1 + R2) (8) Where; SAVIID is the SAVI calculated from Equation (9). NDVIThe NDVI = (R is− Ra sensitive)/(R indicator of the amount and condition of green vegetation. Values for NDVI between 0 and 1 and water and cloud are usually less energy2. Computation radiated by of the Surface surface emissivity to the thermal (ε) energy thanrange zero. between −1 and +1. Green surfaces have a NDVI radiatedSurface by emissivity a blackbody (ε) at is the the same ratio temperature. of the thermal 170 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

Fig. 4 NDVI of wheat farm (2016/11/11).

Fig. 5 NDVI of wheat farm (2017/22/05). Actual evapotranspiration 171

Fig. 6 LST of wheat farm (2016/11/11).

Fig. 7 LST of wheat farm (2017/22/05). 172 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

3. Computation of corrected thermal radiance (Rc) Tab. 4 Constant of K for Equation 12. The corrected thermal radiance (Rc) is the actual Landsat K1 K2 radiance emitted from the surface. Landsat 8 band 10,11 666.09 1282.71 4. Computation of surface temperature (Ts) The surface temperature (Ts) is compute using the Tab. 5 Components of the RL↓ Equation for different days. following equation: 4 2 Date Tα (K) ε0 RL↓ (W/m ) 2016/11/11 284.09 0.74 275.30 (11) 2017/05/22 296.15 0.74 326.47 2017/07/25 295.70 0.74 323.30 Where TB is the Brightness Temperature, wavelength of emitted radiance (the value of λ for bands 4 RL ε × σ × Tα (14) h × × 10 - � ο 6stant the (6.62607015 Landsat 4,5,7 × 10is−2 11.45.), e is emissivity, c2 = = (1.380649 c/s =1.4388 × 10 −34m K, where h = Planck’s con× Net surface radiation (Rn) is calculated is comput- 8 10 −23 J s), s = Boltzmann constant ed using Equation (2). 0.004 × J/K), c = velocity of lightmin (2.998max –NDVI m/s).min. The value of e is obtained from this relation Soil Heat Flux (G): Brightness Pv +0.986, Temperature where Pv = is NDVI obtained – NDVI from/NDVI the fol- storage into the soil and vegetation due to conduction. lowing relation: n for agriculture Soil heat flux surfaces is the rateis between of heat 0.05–0.15. Estimates of G/R (12) (15)

Where K1 and K2 are constants for Landsat imag- Sensible Heat Flux (H): es, Lλ (Lλ LQcal + AL) spectral radiance where ML rate of heat loss to the air by convection and conduction, due to a temperature difference. Sensible heat It is flux compute is the metadata, = Q Mcal is quantized and calibrated standard using the following equation for heat transport: productis band-specific pixel value multiplicative and AL rescaling factor from- caling factor from metadata.in this paper from Bright- (16) ness Temperature and wavelength is band-specific of emitted additive radi res- 3 ance recorded by the sensor (thermal band) is used. Where ρ ), cp - 5. Computation of Outgoing Long wave Radiation ence (T1 is2) airbetween density two (kg/m heights (z 1is and air zspecific2), and (RL heatrah is (1004 the aerodynamic J/kg/K), dT (K)resistance is the temperature to heat transport differ This is computed using the Stefan-Boltzmann 1 −is T the height just above the zero plane dis- equation:�) placement (d 0.67 × height of vegetation) for the (s/m).surface z or crop canopy and z2 is some distance above 4 RL ε × σ × T� (13) the zero plane≅ displacement, but below the height of the surface boundary layer. Based on experimental � ο = is the “broad-band” surface emissivity analysis, values of 0.1 meter for z1 and 2.0 meters for z2 are assigned. Temperature difference (dt) is given ο 2 4 (5.67Where × 10 ε ), and Ts is the surface temper- 1 – Tz2. The air temperature at each pixel is (dimensionless),ature (K). −8 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant unknown, along with explicit values for Tz1and Tz2. W/m /K Therefore,as dT = Tz only the difference dT is utilized. SEBAL Choosing the “Hot” and “Cold” Pixels: The “cold” computes dT for each pixel by assuming a linear rela- pixel is selected as a wet, well-irrigated crop surface tionship between dT and Ts s, where b and having full ground cover by vegetation. The sur- TS is the land surface temperature and near-surface air temperature face temperature. a is obtained: dt =by b subtracting+ aT the dT are assumed similar at this pixel. The “hot” pixel is a are the correlation coefficients and - assumed zero. and(dt hot cold pixel pixels − dt are cold separated pixel) and according the LST to(LST vegetation hot pix selected as a dry, bare agricultural field where ET is andel − LSTtemperature cold pixel). of theUsing pixels Envi and software, the dt arefirst calculat the hot- Incoming Long wave Radiation (RL ): The incom- ed based on the difference of two hot and cold pixels: ing long wave radiation is the downward thermal � 2). It is computed using the Stefan-Boltzmann equation: a = (dt hot pixel − dt cold pixel) / (LST hot pixel − LST radiation flux from the atmosphere (W/m cold pixel). b is obtained by multiplying −a in LST hot pixel and dt hot pixel: b = (−a) × LST(hot) + dt(hot). Actual evapotranspiration 173

Fig. 8 Rn of wheat farm (2016/11/11).

Fig. 9 Rn of wheat farm (2017/22/05). 174 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

Fig. 10 Soil Heat Flux of wheat farm (G) (2016/11/11).

Fig. 11 Soil Heat Flux (G) of wheat farm (2017/22/05). Actual evapotranspiration 175

By replacing the unknowns in the dt equation, the Tab. 6 Results obtained from compute of for different dates. temperature difference of z and z is obtained. 1 2 Date ETinst inst), 2017/07/25 0.15 and Reference ET Fraction (ETrF) computation Latent Latent Heat Flux (λET), Instantaneous ET (ET - 2017/05/22 0.20 face due to evapotranspiration. It can be computed for 2016/11/11 0.03 eachheat fluxpixel is using the rate the followingof latent heatEquation: loss from the sur

n The Reference ET Fraction (ETr λET = R − G − H ratio of the computed instantaneous ET (ETinst) for 2 ). each pixel to the reference ET (ETF)r) iscomputed defined as from the Where λET is an instantaneous value for the time weather data: of theAn instantaneoussatellite overpass value (W/m of ET in equivalent evaporation depth is computed as: ETrF (19)

ETinst (17) Daily= values of ET (ET24) are often more useful than instantaneous ET. Where = 3600ETinst 3600 is the time conversion from seconds to hours, ET24 ETrF × ETr–24 (20) and λ is the latent is theheat instantaneous of vaporization ET or (mm/hr), the heat Where = ETr-24 is the cumulative 24-hour ETr for is computed as: the day of the image. This is calculated by adding the absorbed when a kilogram of water evaporates (J/kg) hourly ETr values over the day of the image (Waters 6 S (18) et al. 2002).

λ = [2.501 − 0.00236(T − 273)] × 10

Fig. 12 Flow chart of the computational steps of SEBAL algorithm (Bezerra et al. 2015). 176 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

3.2.2 FAO Penman-Monteith method Evapotranspiration is obtained through Eq. 17 (Na RMSE (23) tional Irrigation and Drainage Committee 2008): = MSE (24) ETo (21) = MAD (25) = Where: ETo In all =these error detection indexes is the modeled Rn is the pure radiation entering the surface of the data and is the observational data and N is the data is the 2reference evapotranspiration (mm/day), count. 2 plantT is (MJ/m the mean/day), daily air temperature at 2 meters (°C),G is the soil heat flux (MJ/m /day), 4. Results u2 is the average daily wind speed at 2 m height In total the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province is es is the saturation vapor pressure (kPa), covered by circa 248,000 hectares of agricultural land, (m/s),ea is the real vapor pressure (kPa), 79,854 hectares of these are located in the Shahre- es a is the lack of saturation vapor pressure kord plain, of which, 58,553 hectares are under irri- (kPa), gation cultivation and 21,301 hectares are under rain Δ − e °C), fed cultivation. In total (in Shahrekord city), there γ are 29,917 hectares under cultivation of crops and is the slope of the vapor pressure curve (kPa/ 21,759 hectares dedicated to vegetable and garden 3.2.3 is MODIS the constant evapotranspiration coefficient. product farming. Evapotranspiration product is an 8-day composite According to the available statistics, the average dataset produced at 500-meter (m) pixel resolution. productivity of agricultural water use of the prov- The algorithm used for the Evapotranspiration data 3 while it should be increased to product collection is based on the logic of the Pen- 3 in the Iranian 5-years program and to man-Monteith equation, which includes inputs of ince is 0.873 in thekg/m Iranian 10-years planning. The water daily meteorological reanalysis data along with Mod- 1.51resources kg/m of this province decrease by 46 million m3 erate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 1.9in average, kg/m annually (Ministry of Agriculture 2016). remotely sensed data products such as vegetation Due to global warming, water demand and relat- property dynamics, albedo, and land cover. The down- ed tensions regarding water supply increased. Being load data set is the MODIS evapotranspiration prod- aware of the fact that the knowledge about the actual uct for Aqua Satellite MYD16A2 and for Terra Satellite evapotranspiration is essential in water supply and MOD16A2. The MOD16A2 and MYD16A2 layers pro- management in this research, we assess the produc- vide the following products: tivity and determine the appropriate pattern of pro- i) The composited Evapotranspiration (ET), portional water resources under the present day cli- ii) Latent Heat Flux (LE), matic and hydrological conditions. iii) Potential ET (PET), iv) Potential LE (PLE) along with a quality control 4.1 Lysimeter layer. The pixel values for the two Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration obtained for the initial growth layers (ET and PET) are the sum of all eight days within the composite period and the pixel values for the increases with the advance of the growth period and two Latent Heat layers (LE and PLE) are the average theperiod highest is 1.2 evapotranspiration mm/day. The evapotranspiration (4.09) is related volume to the of all eight days within the composite period. active growth period of the plants. Although the highest temperature is recorded at the end of the growth 3.2.4 Model evaluation period, the evapotranspiration volume of this stage is To assess model performance a comparison is run lower (Table 8). between observations obtained from applying the three models and the SEBAL algorithm. These indica- 4.2 FAO Penman-Monteith method tors include R (Eq. 18), RMSE (Eq. 19), MSE (Eq. 20) and MAD (Eq. 21), as follows: The FAO Penman-Monteith estimates, before applying the crop factor, the highest evapotranspiration volume

R (22) Because at this time of the growth period, the plant is(7.43 completely mm/day) ripe in andthe noharvest irrigation time takes (2017/07/25). place. The = largest volume of the plant consists of seed and chaff. Actual evapotranspiration 177

Consequently, to estimate the most accurate evapo- Tab. 7 Estimated Evapotranspiration without crop coefficient rate. transpiration volume, the volumes obtained from the Vegetable FAO Penman-Monteith Date FAO Penman-Monteith model are corrected through coefficient method (mm/day)

- 11/11/2016 0.40 1.60 otranspirationcrop coefficients volume as shown is obtained in Tables for 7 andactive 8. plantAfter 22/05/2017 1.19 3.72 growthapplying time. the The crop minimum coefficient, evapotranspiration the maximum evap volume is recorded in the initial period of growth. 25/07/2017 0.50 2.30

Fig. 13 Evapotranspiration of initial stage of wheat growth. 178 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

4.3 MODIS evapotranspiration product - The results of the study of variations of wheat evap- otranspirationand 1.09 mm/day per on day the forTerra Aqua satellite satellites (Table and 8). otranspiration on the sample plots through MODIS 0.58The final mm stageevapotranspiration of wheat growth per with day 0.59 for Terramm evap sat- images show that the maximum evapotranspira- ellites had the highest evapotranspiration after the middle wheat growth stage. The lowest evapotran- growth stage. The average evapotranspiration at spiration occurs in the initial stages of growth (Fig- tion of wheat in the field occurred in the middle ures 13–14). this stage is 1.13 mm/day based on Aqua satellite

Fig. 14 Evapotranspiration of mid stage of wheat growth. Actual evapotranspiration 179

4.4 SEBAL algorithm 4.5 Data evaluation

The obtained SEBAL parameters are illustrated in The results of the error comparison and the correla- - the NDVI, Rn and ET are expressed in hot and cold pix- lated in Table 10. We show that the SEBAL algorithm Tableels indicting 9. As observed one of the in figurescritical (4–5,functions 8–9 andof this 16–17), algo- togethertion coefficient with satelliteof the above-cited imagery andmethods the FAO are tabuPen- rithm. man-Monteith method, after applying the vegetation

Fig. 15 Evapotranspiration of end stage of wheat growth. 180 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

Fig. 16 Instantaneous ET of wheat farm (2016/11/11).

Fig. 17 Instantaneous ET of wheat farm (2017/22/05). Actual evapotranspiration 181

Tab. 8 Estimated Evapotranspiration with crop coefficient rate Tab. 10 Comparison of Lysimeter with Estimation of (mm/day). Evapotranspiration Methods. MODIS evapotranspiration FAO MODIS evapotranspiration FAO Evaluation SEBAL product Penman- product Penman Date Lysimeter criteria algorithm Monteith -Monteith Aqua Aqua method Aqua Terra R 1 0.86 0.98 0.98 11/11/2016 1.20 0.64 0.15 0.15 MAD 0.59 0.91 2.14 2.16 22/05/2017 4.09 4.42 1.13 1.09 MSE 0.36 1.29 5.24 5.34 25/07/2017 3.01 1.15 0.59 0.58 RMSE 0.60 1.13 2.29 2.31

Tab. 9 Results obtained from the farm for SEBAL algorithm index.

Date NDVI Rn (W/m2) Ts (K) H (W/m2) G (W/m2) Evp (mm/day) 11/11/2016 0.27 515.19 297.42 428.00 67.80 0.72 22/05/2017 0.66 569.53 307.30 419.00 55.00 4.80 25/07/2017 0.41 567.58 295.80 361.23 70.78 3.60

- method with MSE equal to 1.29, an MAD of 0.91, and a RMSE of 1.13 compared to the lysimeter output. coefficient,obtaining evapotranspiration are considered the through best methods the installation for situa In general, the results of this study indicate that oftions the where Lysimeter. sufficient instruments are not provided in applying remote sensing and satellite images, allows Although the correlation between the evapo- estimating evapotranspiration volume in areas with transpiration measured through MODIS images and Lysimeter is high (0.98), the error between their dif- particularly, a high correlation between the SEBAL ferent outputs is also quite high. The error of evapo- algorithmdata deficits. and The the results lysimeter reported data. in Consequently, this study reveal we transpiration measured by the Aqua Satellite in com- suggest using data derived with the SEBAL algorithm parison to the Lysimeter data is less than for the Terra in areas with similar environmental conditions where satellite products. no data are available and as input information for a further assessment of hydrological process dynamics. We show that the results of this study can be applied 5. Conclusion in studies of water resources management and appropriate irrigation management on farm level. Agriculture development and food security are threatened by a decrease in rainfall, rising temperatures, droughts, a decrease in water table level and an increase in evaporation. Evapotranspiration is an References effective parameter in providing water balance and Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., Smith, M. (1998): Crop food security because of its contribution in deter- evapotranspiration – Guidelines computing crop water mining plant water need. Accurate estimations of the requirements. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper No. 56, water needs and water supply for plants, especially FAO. for wheat, as a strategic product in Iran, are of major Alizadeh, A. (2011): Principles of Applied Hydrology. interest. Evapotranspiration estimations by experimental methods and different algorithms as used in this 33rd ed. Imam Reza University, Mashhad. paper is an important step forward especially in data Atasever,Actual U.Evapotranspiration H., Ozkan, C. (2018): Mapping A New and SEBAL On-Site Approach scarce areas. However, a careful validation of the dif- Application.Modified with Journal Backtracking of the Indian Search Society Algorithm of Remote for ferent methods should be carried out using observed data e.g. from Lysimeter. The evapotranspiration esti- Bezerra,Sensing B. 46,G., Da 1213–1222, Silva, B. B., https://doi.org/10.1007 Dos Santos, C. A. C., Bezerra, mations obtained through the experimental models G./s12524-018-0816-9. R. C. (2015): Actual Evapotranspiration Estimation and the SEBAL algorithm revealed that the SEBAL algorithm have highest correlation and the least error Approaches. Advances in Remote Sensing 4, 234–247, with the observed Lysimeter data. The error values Using Remote Sensing: Comparison of SEBAL and SSEB of MSE is 0.36, of is MAD is 0.59, and of the RMSE is Fu, Q., Liu, W., Li, T., Liu, D., Cui, S. (2018): Study of the water 0.60 in terms of the SEBAL algorithm. Comparable savinghttps://doi.org/10.4236/ars.2015.43019. potential of an irrigation area based on a remote good values we found for the FAO penman Monteith sensing evapotranspiration model. Arabian Journal of 182 Soghra Tofigh, Dariush Rahimi, Reza Zakerinejad

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Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Economic and Social Geography, Demography and Territorial Development, Slovakia * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Based on the 2003–2019 electoral data, this article evaluates the level of pro-Europeanness in Czechia and Slovakia at the regional and sub-regional levels during and after their EU accession period. The TOPSIS multi-criteria evaluation method and cluster analysis were used to quantify the pro-European levels and to create the subsequent categories of territorial units. The results show support for the ideas of European integration primarily in large urban regions (Prague, Brno, Bratislava, Košice), territorial units with a higher concentration of ethnic minorities, larger scale agricultural activities (southwestern Slovakia), and a high degree of religiosity (northeastern Slovakia). The low level of pro-Europeanness was predominant in the less developed north-western Czechia and parts of Moravia. In Slovakia, the Eurosceptic regions were mostly located in the northwest, where the values of statism, egalitarianism and nationalism have a strong tradition. This approach can be used to identify areas of weak support for the EU project at a spatially disaggregated level in other EU countries.

KEYWORDS Pro-Europeanness; TOPSIS method; EU referendum; European Parliament elections; subnational level; Czechia; Slovakia

Received: 4 October 2019 Accepted: 16 July 2020 Published online: 30 September 2020

Plešivčák, M. (2020): Are the Czech or Slovak regions “closer to Europe”? Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective. AUC Geographica 55(2), 183–199 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.13 © 2020 The Author. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 184 Martin Plešivčák

1. Introduction real assistance from European structural and investment funds. Indeed, if we want to avoid disintegration Czechia, Slovakia and eight other mainly post-social- processes within the EU and the threat of its gradual ist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, joined decomposition, just in those regions which are char- the European Union on May 1, 2004. In the periods acterized by the highest degree of Euroscepticism, the before and after accession, the moods in the two EU’s contribution to the future should be the most vis- countries in relation to the European integration pro- - ject differed based on time, location, and the politi- - cal and socio-economic conditions. Public support ticismible. This at theis prevented regional and by the sub-regional knowledge levels. of “problem for the country’s accession to the EU, as well as the atic” regions and the reasons that can cause Euroscep referendum turnout itself differed for both countries, 2. Theoretical background can be said for the period after May 1, 2004, in the depending on their intraregional specifics. The same for Eurosceptic parties in the European Parliament politics, in the case of European elections, is the sec- (EP)case ofelections. the territorial specificities of turnout and votes ond-orderThe dominant national concept election of understanding theory (Reif and European Schmitt We have seen a gradual shift of Euroscepticism 1980). European Parliament elections were character- toward the centre of European politics since the ized as national elections taking place simultaneously in all the member states of the European Community. both enlargement and elections in 2004. For the new member1990s. Nevertheless, states, there it was gained high stronger public support influence for after the of major (general) national elections and are domi- European Union project; however, it began to decline natedThese byare the less same important parties elections that focus held more in theon national shadow after accession. In addition to contextual factors such interests than European issues or on the position of the national parties to the EU (Hix and Marsh 2011). rhetoric of several political actors could have con- Nevertheless, the results of the national and Europe- as the financial and migration crises, changes in the an elections are still different. Second-order elections right-wing political parties learned from the past and do not lead to national government formation and insteadtributed of to proclaiming the rise of radicalEuroscepticism. views (including The extreme xeno- are therefore of less interest to voters, the media and phobia, racism and anti-Semitism) they moved on to a somewhat milder and more tolerant populism and decision than if the national elections were organized thus Euroscepticism was addressed to a wider elec- political actors. This leads voters to make a different- ate votes on the basis of what they think about the values or Euroscepticism include citizens on the one country’son the same economic day (Hix situation, and Marsh the 2011). government’s The elector per- hand,torate and (Goodwin their political 2011). representatives,The bearers of pro-European political par- formance or the topics that move domestic politics at

- et al. 2011). For this reason, the campaigning and tac- tifyties andthe degreespecific ofcandidates pro-Europeaness on the other. of the public in ticsthat ofmoment political (Carrubba parties in and second-order Timpone 2005; elections De Vries are CzechiaThe main and Slovakiaobjective at of thethis time contribution of accession is to to iden the motivated by national themes (Reif and Schmitt 1980; EU and afterwards at the hierarchically lower, region- Cabada 2010). Also, media coverage of these elections al and sub-regional (district) levels, to create a typ- is usually limited. Furthermore, immediately after the election and the end of the campaign, the European long-term pro-European orientation and to charac- Parliament returns to obscurity (Lodge 2010). In the ificationterize the of groups partial formed territorial on theunits basis according of its indica to theis emphasized the fact that one of the main aspects of decision making method regarding the value distance theanalysis second-order of the first elections European is that elections there is(1979), less at therestake oftors. given For territorial this reason, unit we to apply the most TOPSIS positive multi-criteria and most negative value within the set of units under study. We the national parliament or the government, and the also try to outline possible factors related to pro-Eu- electorate(Reif and Schmitt is not 1980).highly Themotivated election to does participate not involve in ropeanness at the regional and district levels, dis- the election or to vote differently than they would if - - tion theory predicts that elections to the European Pinkcussing 2012; with Voda findings 2015; of Kostelecký previous studies et al. 2016; on elector Przy- Parliamentnational elections follow werethree held.main The formulas: second a orderlower elec rate al behaviour (e.g. Krivý et al. 1996; Madleňák 2012; of participation (lower turnout), a more positive out- of the sub-national units of these countries, which is come for small and new parties, and a loss of support particularlybyla 2019). Thus, important the aim in relationis to map to the running “Europeanity” an effec- for government parties stemming from the location of general elections in the national election cycle (Reif promotionaltive, place-specific activities, campaign and in focusing the context on EU of relevance regional of the theory in the context of post-socialist countries (cohesion)and benefits, policy, the also meaningful due to the dissemination proper direction of itsof hasand beenSchmitt addressed 1980; Hix by severaland Marsh authors, 2007). e.g. The Linek validity et al. Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 185

Šaradín (2008), Havlík and Hoskovec (2009),

(2007), Charlotdomestic 1986). and European Nevertheless, issues, their which importance was confirmed varies CabadaIn order (2010), to understand Klíma and theOutlý perception (2010), Kovář of the (2013), nature fromin the election first direct to election elections and in from 1979 place (Blumer to place. 1983; In Kovářof the Europeanand Kovář Parliament(2014). elections by the political general, however, the importance of European themes actors themselves (parties, politicians and voters), gains momentum over time, but this is in contrast to the connection of these elections with the concept of the declining voter participation in the European elec- Europeanization must be recognized. Europeaniza- - opment, food security, environment, foreign policy, and content of politics in such a way that the political immigration,tions. Traditional and economicissues, such and as industrial research policyand devel may andtion economicis defined dimensionsas a process ofof thechanging European the directionCommu- - ert Schuman Foundation 2004). Nevertheless, the cur- shape the content and scope of national policies (Lan- rentbe considered pan-European as “more themes European” of the (Budgegiven period, 2001; Robsuch drechnity influence 2002). It the is clear structure that European of national issues politics, have and an increasing effect on political debates at the national crisis, Brexit, migration, reviving debates on the con- level, but the response of national party systems is ceptas, the of aeconomic two-speed and Europe, financial the futurecrisis, ofGreece’s EU regional debt policy, etc., as well as the hot topics of the domestic - political scene, or analyses of election results in key very limited, without a more significant formation of- European integration countries play a no less impor- (new) parties built on a “European basis”. In this con tant role in this context. politicaltext, it is worthactors mentioninginvolved in the the term existing “European social struccleav- tureage”, should around ideally which be the shaped pre-election (ideally, strugglereal awareness of the In general, five basic forms of party Euroscepticism - majorcan be and identified government (Kopecký parties and with Mudde a critical 2002; attitudeTaggart trastof the to dimension the more traditional of the “Europeanness” concept of cleavages concerning (Lip- and Szczerbiak 2002). The first category concerns these elections). The term European cleavage, in con the functioning and direction of the Community itself. a concept for and against a territorial integration pro- towards the definition of European policies as regards jectset and within Rokkan Europe 1967), (the canEU as in a principle centrally be oriented defined and as - bureaucratic superstate, with a common economic or tationThis moderate of the socially form concerns oriented the EU attitude program, of whilethe social the strongerdemocratic form parties is represented toward the by inadequate conservative implemen or neo- one hand, or as a concept of a more lenient bundle of liberal parties who call for less regulation and inter- states,financial for (monetary, example onfiscal a customs or budgetary) union policybasis onor the vention by EU institutions. It therefore has a more ide- existence of a common market, on the other). Accord- also concerns government parties and deals with the on three levels: general (for and against the EU as a Europeanological character. integration The projectsecond typein terms of Euroscepticism of a reasona- territorialing to Bartolini integrator (2007), = thisindependence term can be / understoodintegration ble (or necessary) degree of Brussels interventions in dimension), constitutive (the cultural level – who can policies implemented at the national level. It is there- access, division of competences between EU insti- fore a pragmatic debate on the division of competenc- tutions and member states themselves, community es and agendas between EU institutions and member decision-making mechanism) and isomorphic (ide- - ological issues – liberalism, protectionism, welfare ed by a radical opposition to mainstream and govern- state, immigration policy, civil rights, etc.). We could mentstates. parties, The third in typethe senseof Euroscepticism of protest and is represent enforcing assume that those who evaluate the process of Euro- one’s own, far-right or far-left-oriented ideology, in pean integration in their particular life as a disap- the sense of maintaining national interests and iden- pointment tend to ignore the European Parliament tity on the one hand, and protesting against excessive elections, or they use the protest vote against the liberalization of the public sector and economic rela- mainstream parties and support Eurosceptic political forces of an extreme right- or left-wing orientation. - damentallytions with negative restoring social the functioning consequences of the on Communi the other.- electorate and the political parties in the European tyThe as fourth a whole, category the policy of Euroscepticism of exiting or refusing is aimed entry at fun to ParliamentThe question elections remains place regarding an emphasis how muchon address of the- the EU. However, in principle, parties of this type do ing internal political issues and how much the current challenges of European integration or the content of scene, but, somewhat paradoxically, in some countries - theynot have enjoy a significant a more prominent political impactrole particularly on the domestic in the ever, evidence that the Eurosceptic and pro-European - Europeanparties place policies importance themselves on European matter. issues,There is,and how this scepticism is relatively marginal in terms of political representationEuropean Parliament and time elections. span, andThe islast often type connect of Euro- in terms of better electoral results. An election cam- paignapproach for thehas European ideological Parliament and practical features significance a mix of ed to specific persons or “single use” parties. These formations do not require a fundamental reform of 186 Martin Plešivčák relations within the EU but rather focus on subtle ĽS-HZDS’s topics such as transparency and accountability for the staff of EU institutions, effective use of EU resources, laterEU at electorate, the time (“at along the withlast minute”); SNS and laterbut especially salaries of MEPs, etc. ĽS-NSpolicies in office as well as the profile of the eng.then Peo and- ple’s Party – Our Slovakia) proved to be Eurosceptic to the largest (Ľudová extent strana when – Našecomparing Slovensko, all of the major 3. Methodology in the case of the European Union membership ref- In the empirical part of the paper, we use two types of political parties in Slovakia (Gyárfášová 2007). Even electoral geographic data: the referenda on the coun- waserendum also presentin 2003, in a lowthe pastturnout (in comparison(52%) demonstrably with the European Parliament elections held in 2004, 2009, currentconfirmed ĽS-NS the factat the that time Euroscepticism of the impending in Slovakia mem- 2014try’s accession and 2019. to In the the EU second, in 2003 we (“yes also to work EU”) with and the bership in a more latent form). We do not consider results of the Eurosceptic parties. We put them into it to be strictly correct and the only possible to refer this group based on the work of several authors and to the divisions of various authors in this matter, as electoral programs of the parties themselves. In the Šárovec (2018) describe the SaS as case of the Czech political situation, we used several a Eurosceptic party, while a large part of its elector- atee.g. supportsHynčica and the EU project. We also consider it rel- Šaradín 2004; Baun et al. 2006; Fiala et al. 2006; Linek studies for the inclusion of the partiesík (Bradová and 2008; Hloušek and Pšeja 2009; Hricová 2009; Havlík theatively 2004 subjective European to Parliamentperceive parties elections. such With as KDH these or 2010;et al. 2007;Kovář 2014). Havlík In 2008; the case Havl of andSlovakia, Vykoupilová we also examplesSMER-SD (Hendersonwe wanted 2008)to illustrate as Eurosceptic, the fact thateven thefor

- problematic and to some extent subjective matter, in usedgraphical relevant context literature of electoral for this support purpose for (Gyárfášová the parties whichclassification different of partiesauthors as can Eurosceptic work with is differentreally a very set andin European Velšic 2004; elections Gyárfášová 2007). We refer to geo of Eurosceptic parties in research, as a certain degree differentiation of the extreme right support (Mikuš (Plešivčák 2015) and the spatial- avoid. ter of the electorate was the decisive criterion for of For subjectivity each election of classification of the period under is not study possible (2004– to theand inclusionGurňák 2016; of a political Mikuš partyet al. among2016). theThe group charac of - Eurosceptic parties. Recessive parties were not taken ceptic parties: into account. Given the above division of parties into 2019), we identified the following parties as Euros types according to the degree of Euroscepticism and Czechia their relevance within the party system, we would like to mention the cases when the inclusion of parties to 2004 European Parliament Elections the Eurosceptic, or their exclusion, was a problematic strana, eng. Workers’ Party matter. We emphasize that in classifying the parties, strana Čech a Moravy, eng. Communist –Party DS (Dělnická of Bohe- we primarily took into account the nature of the par- mia and Moravia ), KSČM (Komunistickáeng. National Coalition eng. Independent), then leaders. Among other parties, in the case of the ), NARKOA (Národníeng. koalice, Republicans ty’s electorate rather than the official rhetoric of its of Miroslav Sládek),) NEZ (Nezávislí, Úsvit (2014) to be the Eurosceptic parties (more pre- RMS2009 (Republikáni European Miroslava Parliament Sládka, Elections ciselyCzechia, parties we also with considered a predominantly KSČM (2004–2019) Eurosceptic elec and- eng. National Party), torate), although some authors label them soft Euro- eng. Party – DS, ofKSČM, Free sceptic (Havlík and Kaniok 2006; Kaniok and Havlík CitizensLibertas.cz, NS (Národní strana, - SSO (Strana svobodnýchČeskoslovenska, občanů, eng. Association for the Republic), SPR-RSČ – Republican (Sdružení Party pro republikuof Czechoslovakia – Repub), 2016). The electorate of these two parties is indeed Suverenitalikánská strana (eng. Sovereignty) strana,quite different eng. Civic from Democratic another partyParty often). In the associated case of 2014 European Parliament Elections – Česká suv- with Eurospeticism, ODS (Občanská demokratická erenita (formerly Suverenita, eng. Czech Sovereignty), Eurosceptic Party Group, based on several arguments (Baunthis party, et al. we 2006), finally as decided this party to not can include rather itbe in per the- eng. Work- ers’DSSS/SPE Party (formerlyof Social Justice/NoDělnická strana, to Brussels Dělnická Dictate! strana), sociální spravedlnosti/Ne diktátuČeskoslovenska, Bruselu!, eng. moreceived educated as “pro-European voters living with in the reservations”. urban environment Given Communist Party of Czechoslovakia morethe ODS in favourelectorate, of the which EU project, is largely we characterizedhave chosen not by KSČM, KSČ (Komunistickáeng. strana No to Brussels – Nation- to include the party into the Eurosceptic group. In the al Democracy ), ND (Ne BruseluČech, case of Slovakia, there was a problem with ĽS-HZDS Moravy– Národní a Slzska,demokracie, eng. Republican Party of Bohemia, and SNS, parties that even expressed support for the Moravia and Silesia), RSČMS (Republikánská strana

), SSO, SZR-NE (Strana zdravého Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 187 rozumu – Nechceme Euro, eng. Party of Common Sense we decided to work with the index of pro-European- – We Don’t Want the Euro), Úsvit ness. When constructing, in addition to supporting (eng. Dawn of Direct Democracy) 2019 European Parliament příméElections demokracie – ANS supporting Eurosceptic parties, as is commonly used. eng. Alliance of National Forc- EU accession by Referendum 2003, we considered es Českou republiku, eng. per cent minus the support for the Eurosceptic par- (AlianceAlternative národních for Czech sil, Republic), Česká suverenita, We could not automatically work “with the rest” (100 ), APAČI (AlternativaČesko pro (eng. Independents/Joyful group of parties would include much more hetero- Czechia), ČSNS/Patrioti ČR geneousties) as a political % for pro-Europeanness, entities (in relation as toa much the level wider of Svobodní/RadostnéČeské republiky, eng. Czech Nation- al Social Party/Patriots of (ČeskáCzech Republic strana národně (Konzervativnísociální/Patrioti alternativa, eng. Conservative Alter- EU support) than for parties defined as Eurosceptic. native eng. Moravians), KOALPrvní pro-EuropeannessThe settings of the vs.model votes calculation for Eurosceptic in the parties)TOPSIS republika (eng. First Republic - method technically solve this “discrepancy” (index of losti České), KSČM, republiky, Moravané eng. Independence ( Party of the of input variables with sensitivity to their orientation Czech Republic ), SNČR (Strana nezávis very easily and is based on evaluating the influence eng. Workers’ Party decrease in the value of index of pro-European and of Social Justice/National), DSSS/NF Front(Dělnická strana sociální- (increasing value of something “negative” means a- muraspravedlnosti/Národní (formerly Úsvit fronta, tation of the variable – for our research a positive ), SPD –eng. Tomio Freedom Oka orientationvice versa. Thein supporting researcher the sets country’s the desired accession orien and Direct Democracy přímé – Tomio demokracie, Okamura Svoboda a to the EU, and a negative orientation in supporting přímá demokracie – Tomio eng.Okamura, Reasonables - the Eurosceptic parties, which in both cases means ), SPR-RSČ,eng. increasing the value of the index of pro-European- NationalRozumní/ND Democracy (formerly) SZR, /Národ ness). ní demokracie, formerly Právo a Spravedlnost, Slovakia - ness thus were as follows: 2004 European Parliament Elections – KSS (Komu- The variables entering the index of pro-European eng. Communist Party – the more the better of Slovakia), ĽS-HZDS b)a) Votes forfor Eurosceptic accession to parties the 2003 in the European 2004 European Union nistická strana Slovenska,eng. People’s Party – Move- referendum (%) – the less the better ment for Democratic Slovakia (Ľudová strana – Hnutieľudová za c) Votes for Eurosceptic parties in the 2009 European demokratickéstrana, eng. Slovak Slovensko, People’s Party), SNS/PSNS (Slov- Parliament elections (%) – the less the better ), SĽS (Slovenská - d) Votes for Eurosceptic parties in the 2014 European na, eng. Slovak National Party/True Slovak National Parliament elections (%) – the less the better Partyenská) národná strana/Pravá Slovenská národná stra e) Votes for Eurosceptic parties in the 2019 European 2009 European Parliament Elections – KSS, Parliament elections (%) – the less the better ĽS-HZDS, SNS 2014 European Parliament Elections – KSNS WeParliament obtained elections data for (%) the state, regional and dis- eng. Christian trict levels from the databases of the Czech Statistical Slovak National Party), KSS, ĽS-NS (KresťanskáNaše Slovensko, slovenská eng. People’s národná Party strana, – Our Slovakia), (Ľudová strana – SlovakOffice and Republic the Statistical 2019). Office of the Slovak Republic Nation and Justice – Our Party Úsvit (eng. (Czech Statistical Office 2019; Statistical Office of the NaS-NS (Národ a Spravodlivosťeng. – Defiancenaša strana, – Labour eng. Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) to evaluate Party) ), SĽS, SNS, theWe position use the of TOPSISthe regions method and (Techniquedistricts under for Orderstudy Dawn),2019 Vzdor European – strana Parliament práce ( Elections – Kotleba – in mutual comparison based on the values of the set of ĽSNS (formerly Ľudová strana – Naše Slovensko, eng. Kotleba – People’s Party Our Slovakia), KSS/Vzdor – score for the index of pro-Europeanness to rank the mentionedindicators mentionedterritorial units. above. For This the methodneed of thegenerates empir- eng. Slovak People’s Part of Andrej Hlinka - ical part of the paper, we decided to use this method, strana práce, SĽS Andrejaeng. We HlinkuAre Family (formerly – Boris SĽS, Kollár eng.), which in relation to the objectives of the work can be ), SME RODI - stranaNA – Boris vlastencov, Kollár ( eng. Slovak National Unit – Patriot essary to use other methods, e.g. factor analysis). Giv- PartySNJ-sv), (formerlySNS KSNS, Slovenská národná jednota – enassessed that in asthis adequate part of the (for paper this reason,we decided it was to evaluatenot nec a set of variables indicating the degree of pro-Euro- We wanted to approach the issue from a positive peanness across the regions and districts of Czechia perspective, based on support for the EU project the multicriteria evaluation tools can be considered and Slovakia, the use of TOPSIS method as one of (Euro-optimistic), and not Euro-sceptically. Therefore, 188 Martin Plešivčák desirable. In addition, if we work with several territo- and the negative ideal solution rial units, in this case 20 at the regional and 149 at the district level, the use of this method is the right choice, Dj = (minj wij), j = 1, 2, … , k because in the case of a given territorial unit it takes into account the level of each input variable to ideal and to the least desirable value within the set of units solution by using the formula as follows: (i.e. with respect to the value of the most successful 4. To calculate the distance from the positive ideal and the least successful region or district). , i = 1, 2, … , p, Accelerators increasing the value of the pro-Euro- peanness index were the high values of indicator a and from∑ the negative ideal solution by using the ∑ (the higher the better) and the low values of indica- formula below: tors b-e (the lower the better). When calculating index (in scale from 0 to 1), each input indicator (a-e) was , i = 1, 2, … , p, ∑ (Hwang and Yoon 1981) is The Euclidean∑ distance measure was utilised to cal- consideredequally weighted, one of by the 1/5 most (0.2). classical multi-criteria culate the distance. decisionThe TOPSIS making method methods ideal solution by using the formula below: It constitutes a collection(Opricovic of shortcut and Tyeng methods 2004; 5. To calculate the relative distance from the negative designedShih et al. to 2007; minimize Manokaran the distance et al. 2011).from the ideal solu- , i = 1, 2, … , p

Variants are then arranged in descending order istion. then These the onemethods which use according an ideal variantto the selected as the object met- according to the ci values. ricsof aspiration. is the closest The toselected the ideal “best” option. compromise variant - It provides a complete ordering of all variants. ate groups of districts based on the pro-Europeanness Subsequently, we used the cluster method to cre matrix as well as the weight vector of individual cri- data and information has led to the need to devel- To resolve the problem, the multi-criteria decision opindex methods (Hastie to et clarify al. 2016). and Theclassify increasing them. In amount addition of method is to identify the variant that is closest to the positiveteria has ideal to be solution, determined. and farthestThe main from principle the negative of this ideal solution. numberto other ofclassification clusters, with methods, objects incluster one cluster analysis having has similarbegun to properties, be used. Thisand objectsmethod in produces different a clusters certain having as many different properties as possible. N matrixThe calculation procedure is as follows. objects denoted by indexes 1 < i < N, which have d fea- 1. To calculate the normalized multi-criteria decision turesThe indexed input for as 1cluster < j < d analysis is represented by R = (rij) to the N × d matrix: . These data are used to write using the formula:

rij = , i = 1, 2, … , p, j = 1, 2, … , k

∑ After this transformation, the columns in the matrix are vectors of unit size by Euclidean metrics.

matrix Line d-dimensional vector xi is a vector of the i-th 2. To calculate the weighted multi-criteria decision object, while element xij denotes the value of the j-th W = (wij) feature of the i-th object. - how the j-th column is multiplied by the appropri- al steps. 1. Selecting and extracting the features, 2. ate weight, as follows The cluster analysis is comprised of four gener- uating the results. wij = (vjrij) Selecting the algorithm, 3. Verifying accuracy, 4. Eval to conduct the clustering. As a result of clustering, basedThe on IBM the SPSS values Statistics of the index 22 programme of pro-Europeanness, was used

3. HToj =determine (maxi wij), the j = positive1, 2, … , kideal solution generated. five groups of districts with internal similarity were Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 189

4. Analysis, results and findings 2) are the least inhabited areas. 4.1 Levels of Territorial Units and the Banská Bystrica Region (68 inhabitants/km 4.1.2 Districts 4.1.1 Regions At the regional level, we analysed 22 spatial units, 14 regions in Czechia and eight regions in Slovakia caseAt the of districtSlovakia, level, the municipalwe worked districts with 149 of Bratislava units, 77 - (5)in Czechia and Košice and (4)72 inwere Slovakia connected (Fig. to2, Tab.one district1). In the in the entire city in order to strengthen the compara- (Fig.different, 1). These as the units smallest also regionrepresent has the an NUTSarea of 3 onlylev tive value of the analysis with the other districts of 496.10el. Their km territorial2 and population size is markedly 2 (Central Bohemia (the city Region). of Prague In Slovakia, as a separate the smallest NUTS 3 ofthe 1,945.69 countries. km 2The, while largest the Levicedistrict district in Czechia in the is Nitra the regionregion) is while the Bratislava the largest Region has an (2,052.5 area of 11,014.97 km2), and km the districtRegion (1,551.1of Klatovy km in2 the Plzeň Region, with an area 2). In other hand, the Brno-mě 2) is terms of population, the city of Prague is the smallest ) is the largest in Slovakia. On the- regionlargest inis theterms Banská of area, Bystrica but it Region has largest (9,454.4 population km 2) issto the district smallest (230.22 in Slovakia. km theIn Czechia, smallest the in Czechiacity of Prague and the has Kysucké the largest Nové Mespop- Vary Region has the smallest population (data as of to district (173.7 km (1,301,135 inhabitants) in Czechia, while the Karlovy- kia, the differences between regions are also smaller ulation (1,301,135 inhabitants); on the contrary,- inDecember this indicator, 31, 2018, as the 295,686 region withinhabitants). highest number In Slova of the Jeseník district in the Olomouc Region has the inhabitants with permanent residence is the Prešov smallest population (38,330 inhabitants as of Decem Region (825,022), and the region with the lowest theber Medzilaborce31, 2018). The district most populousin the Prešov area region in Slovakia is the is the city of Bratislava (432,864 inhabitants), while- - estnumber population of inhabitants density is are the the Trnava city ofRegion Prague (563,591 (2,622 (2,622least populous inhabitants/km (11,8962) dominates inhabitants in Czechia, as of Decem while inhabitants/kmas of December2 31,) in 2018).Czechia The and areas the Bratislava with the Region great theber Prachatice31, 2018). Indistrict terms in of the population South Bohemian density, PragueRegion 2 2) is the least populated. In Slo- 2) 2) has the (321 inhabitants/km ) in Slovakia. On the contrary, (37 inhabitants/km the South Bohemian Region (63 inhabitants/km vakia, Bratislava (1,177 inhabitants/km

Fig. 1 Territorial composition of NUTS 3 regions in Czechia and Slovakia. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2019). 190 Martin Plešivčák

Fig. 2 Territorial composition of districts in Czechia and Slovakia. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2019).

Tab. 1 Order number of districts in Czechia and Slovakia. Order District Region Country Order Number District Region Country Number 26 Karviná Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 1 Benešov Central Bohemian Region Czechia 27 Kladno Central Bohemian Region Czechia 2 Beroun Central Bohemian Region Czechia 28 Klatovy Plzeň Region Czechia 3 Blansko South Moravian Region Czechia 29 Kolín Central Bohemian Region Czechia 4 Brno-město South Moravian Region Czechia 30 Kroměříž Zlín Region Czechia 5 Brno-venkov South Moravian Region Czechia 31 Kutná Hora Central Bohemian Region Czechia 6 Bruntál Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 32 Liberec Liberec Region Czechia 7 Břeclav South Moravian Region Czechia 33 Litoměřice Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 8 Česká Lípa Liberec Region Czechia 34 Louny Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 9 České Budějovice South Bohemian Region Czechia 35 Mělník Central Bohemian Region Czechia 10 Český Krumlov South Bohemian Region Czechia 36 Mladá Boleslav Central Bohemian Region Czechia 11 Děčín Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 37 Most Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 12 Domažlice Plzeň Region Czechia 38 Náchod Hradec Králové Region Czechia 13 Frýdek-Místek Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 39 Nový Jičín Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 14 Havlíčkův Brod Vysočina Region Czechia 40 Nymburk Central Bohemian Region Czechia 15 Hodonín South Moravian Region Czechia 41 Olomouc Olomouc Region Czechia 16 Hradec Králové Hradec Králové Region Czechia 42 Opava Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 17 Cheb Karlovy Vary Region Czechia 43 Ostrava-město Moravian-Silesian Region Czechia 18 Chomutov Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 44 Pardubice Pardubice Region Czechia 19 Chrudim Pardubice Region Czechia 45 Pelhřimov Vysočina Region Czechia 20 Jablonec nad Nisou Liberec Region Czechia 46 Písek South Bohemian Region Czechia 21 Jeseník Olomouc Region Czechia 47 Plzeň-jih Plzeň Region Czechia 22 Jičín Hradec Králové Region Czechia 48 Plzeň-město Plzeň Region Czechia 23 Jihlava Vysočina Region Czechia 49 Plzeň-sever Plzeň Region Czechia 24 Jindřichův Hradec South Bohemian Region Czechia 50 Praha* Prague Czechia 25 Karlovy Vary Karlovy Vary Region Czechia 51 Praha-východ Central Bohemian Region Czechia Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 191

Order Order District Region Country District Region Country Number Number 52 Praha-západ Central Bohemian Region Czechia 102 Liptovský Mikuláš Žilina Region Slovakia 53 Prachatice South Bohemian Region Czechia 103 Lučenec Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 54 Prostějov Olomouc Region Czechia 104 Malacky Bratislava Region Slovakia 55 Přerov Olomouc Region Czechia 105 Martin Žilina Region Slovakia 56 Příbram Central Bohemian Region Czechia 106 Medzilaborce Prešov Region Slovakia 57 Rakovník Central Bohemian Region Czechia 107 Michalovce Košice Region Slovakia 58 Rokycany Plzeň Region Czechia 108 Myjava Trenčín Region Slovakia Rychnov nad 109 Námestovo Žilina Region Slovakia 59 Hradec Králové Region Czechia Kněžnou 110 Nitra Nitra Region Slovakia 60 Semily Liberec Region Czechia Nové Mesto 111 Trenčín Region Slovakia 61 Sokolov Karlovy Vary Region Czechia nad Váhom 62 Strakonice South Bohemian Region Czechia 112 Nové Zámky Nitra Region Slovakia 63 Svitavy Pardubice Region Czechia 113 Partizánske Trenčín Region Slovakia 64 Šumperk Olomouc Region Czechia 114 Pezinok Bratislava Region Slovakia 65 Tábor South Bohemian Region Czechia 115 Piešťany Trnava Region Slovakia 66 Tachov Plzeň Region Czechia 116 Poltár Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 67 Teplice Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 117 Poprad Prešov Region Slovakia 68 Trutnov Hradec Králové Region Czechia 118 Považská Bystrica Trenčín Region Slovakia 69 Třebíč Vysočina Region Czechia 119 Prešov Prešov Region Slovakia 70 Uherské Hradiště Zlín Region Czechia 120 Prievidza Trenčín Region Slovakia 71 Ústí nad Labem Ústí nad Labem Region Czechia 121 Púchov Trenčín Region Slovakia 72 Ústí nad Orlicí Pardubice Region Czechia 122 Revúca Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 73 Vsetín Zlín Region Czechia 123 Rimavská Sobota Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 74 Vyškov South Moravian Region Czechia 124 Rožňava Košice Region Slovakia 75 Zlín Zlín Region Czechia 125 Ružomberok Žilina Region Slovakia 76 Znojmo South Moravian Region Czechia 126 Sabinov Prešov Region Slovakia 77 Žďár nad Sázavou Vysočina Region Czechia 127 Senec Bratislava Region Slovakia Bánovce nad 128 Senica Trnava Region Slovakia 78 Trenčín Region Slovakia Bebravou 129 Skalica Trnava Region Slovakia 79 Banská Bystrica Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 130 Snina Prešov Region Slovakia 80 Banská Štiavnica Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 131 Sobrance Košice Region Slovakia 81 Bardejov Prešov Region Slovakia 132 Spišská Nová Ves Košice Region Slovakia 82 Bratislava* Bratislava Region Slovakia 133 Stará Ľubovňa Prešov Region Slovakia 83 Brezno Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 134 Stropkov Prešov Region Slovakia 84 Bytča Žilina Region Slovakia 135 Svidník Prešov Region Slovakia 85 Čadca Žilina Region Slovakia 136 Šaľa Nitra Region Slovakia 86 Detva Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 137 Topoľčany Nitra Region Slovakia 87 Dolný Kubín Žilina Region Slovakia 138 Trebišov Košice Region Slovakia 88 Dunajská Streda Trnava Region Slovakia 139 Trenčín Trenčín Region Slovakia 89 Galanta Trnava Region Slovakia 140 Trnava Trnava Region Slovakia 90 Gelnica Košice Region Slovakia 141 Turčianske Teplice Žilina Region Slovakia 91 Hlohovec Trnava Region Slovakia 142 Tvrdošín Žilina Region Slovakia 92 Humenné Prešov Region Slovakia 143 Veľký Krtíš Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 93 Ilava Trenčín Region Slovakia 144 Vranov nad Topľou Prešov Region Slovakia 94 Kežmarok Prešov Region Slovakia 145 Zlaté Moravce Nitra Region Slovakia 95 Komárno Nitra Region Slovakia 146 Zvolen Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 96 Košice – okolie Košice Region Slovakia 147 Žarnovica Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 97 Košice* Košice Region Slovakia 148 Žiar nad Hronom Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 98 Krupina Banská Bystrica Region Slovakia 149 Žilina Žilina Region Slovakia 99 Kysucké Nové Mesto Žilina Region Slovakia 100 Levice Nitra Region Slovakia Notes: * whole city as a one district for this purpose Source: Czech Statististical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic 101 Levoča Prešov Region Slovakia (2019). 192 Martin Plešivčák highest population density, while the Medzilaborce Highest values also applied to regions using EU agri- 2) has the lowest popula- cultural subsidies and promoting a policy of guaran- tion density. teeing the rights of ethnic minorities (especially the district (27 inhabitants/km 4.2 Results and Findings typical of an approach toward the values of Chris- Trnava Region and the Nitra Region in Slovakia), or 4.2.1 Regions - Pro-Europeanness Index esttian values Democracy were recorded(the Zlín Regionin the Czechin Czechia regions and with the - aPrešov peripheral Region position in Slovakia). geographically On the contrary, and socio-eco the low- nomically (Ústí nad Labem Region and Karlovy Vary At the regional level (Fig. 3), the highest pro-Europe Region), with increased support for the far-left or far- anness index values (ranging from 0.700 to 0.906) right parties and the Slovak region with a traditionally votesreflecting for Eurosceptic five variables parties in total in (votes the 2004–2019 for accession Euro in- peanthe 2003 Parliament European elections) Union weremembership recorded referendum, by Bratisla- Region). - egalitarian, etatist and nationalist electorate (Trenčín 4.2.2 Districts almostva followed achieved by other also four by the regions capital from region Slovakia of Czechia, (Trna va, Nitra, Košice and Prešov). A level of 0.700 was pro-Europeanness index at the district level. Bystrica and Žilina) reached the values of index from We came up with other interesting findings for the Prague. Other two regions from Slovakia (Banská Pro-Europeanness Index obtained by two regions from Czechia (Zlín and South - 0.500 to 0.600. The values between 0.400–0.500 were ences (Fig. 4). In the districts with the highest values contrary, the lowest values of the index (0.029–0.294) ofThe the resulting index, the index Slovakian shows considerable districts absolutely spatial differdomi- wereMoravia) reported and the by thelast Ústí Slovak nad region,Labem Region,Trenčín. the On Kar the- lovy Vary Region and the Moravian-Silesian Region valuesnate, with of index the first are being located Dunajská exclusively Streda in (0.994) the south and- Czechia. second Komárno (0.903). Other districts with high in Czechia.Considering Of theregional last twelveperspective, regions, one all of arethe highfrom- est spatial concentrations were recorded also in inwest the of agro-sector Slovakia. These and adistricts, strong Hungarianwith geographical minor- regions of Prague, Bratislava and Košice, i.e. centres ity.proximity In the tocase the of capital, Czechia, enjoy the ahighest significant values position were that have been more successful in the post-socialist transformation, with higher economic performance, and Praha-východ) and the city district of the second - reached by districts of Prague (Praha-západ, Praha ulation with higher education and socio-economic the contrary, districts with the lowest values (below status,localization supporting, of significant in general, foreign liberal investment, political parties. a pop 0.200)largest arecity located of the country,in west Bohemia Brno (Brno-město). in the Ústí nad On

1.0

0.9

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0.5

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Zlín Nitra Žilina Plzeň Trnava Košice Prešov Prague Trenčín Liberec Bratislava Pardubice Vysočina Olomouc Karlovy Vary Hradec Králové Banská Bystrica South Moravian South Bohemian Ústí nad Labem Central Bohemian Moravian-Silesian

Fig. 3 NUTS 3 regions of Czechia and Slovakia by Index of Pro-Europeaness. Note: Light greyindicates the Czech regions, dark gray indicates the Slovak regions. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2019), author’s research. Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 193

Fig. 4 Districts of Czechia and Slovakia by Index of Pro-Europeaness. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2018), author’s research.

Labem Region (Most 0.144, Louny 0.156, Chomutov “districts of significantly pro-European orientation” is comprised of 19 districts, 0.161) and the Karlovy Vary Region (Sokolov 0.190). The second cluster, named 0.164 and Teplice 0.171), the Plzeň Region (Tachov concentration of these districts can be found in the areaof which located all are in thelocated southwest in Slovakia corner again. of the The country largest This group of districts is completed by couple from (Bratislava, Šaľa, groupMoravia of –districts Bruntál is (0.151, characterized Moravian-Silesian by a relatively Region) high the Prešov Region in the northeast (a compact belt unemploymentand Znojmo (0.168, rate andSouth relatively Moravian low Region). wages, withThis Galanta, Senec, Nové Zámky) and in support for left-wing, far-left or far-right parties (Hav- Ľubovňa, Bardejov, Sabinov and Prešov) continuing - toof thethe sixKošice districts Region – Poprad, in the Kežmarok,east of Slovakia Levoča, (Košice Stará kia, the districts with the lowest values are located in - thelík and northwestern Voda 2016; corner Maškarinec of the 2017, country 2019). in the In SlovaŽilina est towns of Slovakia (Bratislava, Košice and Prešov). Čadca Comparedand Trebišov). to the This national cluster average also includes (Fig. 6), thisthree catego larg- of long-term support for the values of egalitarianism, ry declared a strong support for accession in the EU Region (Kysucké Nové Mesto, and Bytča) typical pp) and lower support for Euro- 2012). pp). etatism and nationalism (Plešivčák 2011; Madleňák referendum (+12.71 “dis- 4.2.3 Clusters trictssceptic of parties mildly inpro-European the EU elections orientation” (−7.99 . It consists - The third category of districts is described as gories based on the values of the pro-Europeanness - Byindex using (Fig. the 5). cluster method, we derived five cate of 30 spatial units, the larger part of which (23) is “districts of markedly thelocated southwest in Slovakia. of Slovakia The main with concentration seven districts is recog over- pro-European orientation”, consists of only two spatial nized in the regions of Bratislava, Trnava and Nitra in The first category, named - - ing to this cluster are located in southwest Slovakia all (Pezinok, Malacky, Trnava, Senica, Nitra, Piešťany units, both located in Slovakia. The districts belong ofand the Hlohovec). Žilina The second compact area can be iden position of agriculture and a strong Hungarian minor- tified in the north of the country in the eastern part- (Dunajskaity. Compared Streda to the and national Komárno), mean with(Fig. 6),a traditional this group tration is comprehensively Region (Dolný Kubín, complemented Tvrdošín, byMartin, four recorded strong support for country’s accession to Liptovský Mikuláš and Ružomberok). This concen the EU (+14.06 pp) and very low support for Euros- pp). adjacent districts, from the Banská Bystrica Region (Banská Bystrica, Zvolen, Veľký Krtíš and Lučenec). ceptic parties (−16.92 The third concentration of districts of this type is 194 Martin Plešivčák

Fig. 5 Categories of districts in Czechia and Slovakia clustered by Index of Pro-Europeaness. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2019), author’s research.

located in the eastern part of Slovakia in the regions - ed in the Ústí category, with 22 (88%) from Czechia. Most are locat of Banská Bystrica (Revúca), Košice (Rožňava, Spišská nad Labem Region (7 of 7), theÚstí Plzeň nad ofNová districts Ves and of mildlyMihcalovce) pro-European and Prešov orientation (Snina, Vranov can be LabemRegion Region (4 of 7)and and the theMoravian-Silesian Moravian-Silesian Region, Region have nad Topľou and Svidník). In Czechia, the only cluster certain(3 of 7). socio-economic Most of them, problems mainly from (relatively the high unemployment, and low wages), favouring left-wing, found in the capital region (districts of Prague). One- far-left and recently protest parties to some extent. district is located in the east of the Vysočina Region (Žďár nad Sázavou), three in Moravia in South Moravi northwest of Czechia, encompassing the regions of an Region (Brno-město) and Zlín Region (Zlín, Vsetín). The most visible concentrationÚstí is locatedÚstí in nad the (Fig.Two largest6) slightly cities above-average of Czechia (Prague support and for Brno)EU acces fell- - sioninto (+2.44 this category. pp) and lower This groupsupport is for characterized the Eurosceptic by tov),Liberec Central (Česká Bohemia Lípa), (Rakovník nad Labem and (Děčín, Kladno), Kar- pp). Labem, Teplice, Litoměřice, Most, Louny and Chomu numerousparties in EU of electionsall clusters, (−4.06 we labelled “transitional” regionslovy Vary of (Sokolov Moravia and and Cheb) Silesia, and there Plzeň are (Domažlice, six such districtsThe fourth group of districts, which is the most districts,Tachov, Plzeň-sever namely Znojmo, and Rokycany). Vyškov (South In the Moravianhistorical

. Cluster analysis marked 73 spatial units- - (almost a half of all districts), of which 48 (66%) are vakia,Region), districts Přerov of (Olomouc this type Region),are located Jeseník, exclusively Bruntál in easternlocated inBohemia. Czechia. In The Slovakia, largest the concentration most compact of areadis theand northwestKarviná (Moravian-Silesian of the territory inRegion). the Žilina Within Region Slo tricts of this type can be identified in the central and- Čadca, - isized situated by (Fig. in 6) all slightly territory below of Trenčín average Region support and for adja EU for(Bytča, its traditional Kysucké support Nové of nationalist Mesto), whereparties, theyand cent districts. Thispp category) and mildly of districts higher is support character for theformed values a compact of etatism concentration. and egalitarianism. This area Compared is known to Eurosceptic parties in EU elections (+2.15 pp). the national average (Fig. 6), this cluster of districts is accession (−3.51 characterized by a markedly below average approv- by the notable degree of Euroscepticism (“districts pp) and an outstanding withThe mild last or group significant consists elements of districts of Euroscepticism” characterized). support for the Eurosceptic parties in EU elections (+8.25al for EU pp ).accession (−6.44

Of the total number of 149 districts, 25 fall into this Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 195

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“YES” in EU Referendum 2003 0.0 Districts of markedly Districts of signiﬁcantly Districts of mildly “Transitional” Districts with mild pro-European pro-European pro-European Districts or signiﬁcant elements Support for Eurosceptic parties orientation orientation orientation of Euro-scepticism (in EU Elections 2004–2019) –5.0

–10.0

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Fig. 6 Categories of districts in Czechia and Slovakia clustered by Index of Pro-Europeaness – selected EU electoral characteristics. Note: Difference from average value for Czechia and Slovakia, difference is measured by percentage points. Source: Czech Statistical Office, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2019), author’s research.

5. Discussion the left (Bale 2010). Nevertheless, in Czechia, the

Some regions of Czechia and Slovakia are character- in the case of elections to the European Parliament, ized by increased turnout and low level of Euroscep- thoughfar-left KSČMcurrently has of been declining enjoying trend. significant Economic support prob- ticism in the case of European issues (referendum, lems and migratory pressures are causing uncertain- elections), while others are more passive in voting ty in Europe and create a breeding ground for popu- lists (Charvát - recently addressed the causes of support for far-right peanor support parliamentary Eurosceptic elections parties toinclude a great disappoint extent. The- 2007). Quite a number of authors have mentmost frequentwith politics, reasons non-alignment for not participating with the electoralin Euro program of any of the parties, and a lack of political increaseparties in in Czechia Euroscepticism and Slovakia can (e.g. be linkedKluknavská to ongoing 2012, globalization2013; Gregor (Salo2015; 2014). Mikuš It et has al. created2016). Ina groupgeneral, of interest in voting in European elections as well as sup- - portcommitment for Eurosceptics, as such (Greffet it is also 2007). important In the to debate mention on nerable to the current liberalization, worrying about the voter’s relationship to the idea of Euro-citizenship their“bereaved” economic who future are losing and growing certainty cultural and feeling diversity. vul (Frognier 2000), the project of European integration, Eurosceptics does not necessarily have to be a result Europeanism, the degree of awareness related to the of populism, but also as a legitimate part of the politi- (Blon- - zation (Salo 2014). It is said about the new European role of the EU and the benefits of membership cleavagecal arena ofthat social represents polarization those based “bereaved” on the by existence globali fromdel et EUal. 1997)membership, and the visibilitye.g. through of the structural EU in ordinary funds, of various life and material opportunities (in our havelife (Irwin a higher 1995). tendency Voters to ofparticipate regions benefiting in the European more research, especially socio-economic status, civil and Parliament elections and support Euro-optimist par- minority rights) perceived by different actors with different interests depending on the process of terri- voter (non)participation were investigated by Linek ties (Jesuit 2003). In the case of Czechia, reasons for It turns out that the current wave of Euroscepti- torial integration (Bartolini 2007). cism(2013), or populismin Slovakia is bybetter Gyárfášová understood (2019). by the far-right 6. Conclusions - kia by ĽSNS). - erssubjects who (inpreviously Czechia inalmost particular unreservedly by SPD and supported in Slova They are able to attract manual work Considering the NUTS 3 regions of both countries (14 in Czechia and 8 in Slovakia) in terms of the final index 196 Martin Plešivčák of pro-Europeanness and regional cleavage, the highest values were achieved by the regions of the largest found mainly in the Ústí nad Labem Region, the Kar- cities (Prague in the Czechia, Bratislava and Košice in lovyare from Vary the Region Czechia. and Thethe highestMoravian-Silesian concentration Region, was Slovakia) typical of a more educated, urban popula- - tion with a higher socio-economic status, more eco- - lowi.e. in wages), regions with with increasing relatively support significant for radical socio-eco (left- cialist transformation, with a higher concentration of wingnomic or difficulties right-wing) (relatively and protest high (anti-system) unemployment parties. and large,nomically especially efficient foreign and moreinvestment, successful and ain predomi post-so- Within Slovakia, districts of this type are located in the northwest of the territory in the Žilina Region second case of a pronounced tendency towards the Čadca, - EUnant project right-wing is represented (or central/liberal) by regions usingelectorate. EU subsi The- ally support nationalist parties and espouse values of dies under its largest agricultural policy, also depend- etatism(Bytča, and egalitarianism. Kysucké Nové Mesto), which tradition ent on the supranational policy securing the rights of In general, ideas of European integration and Euro-optimism as such in Czechia and Slovakia are the Nitra Region in Slovakia) or known for values of more common among the urban electorates (Prague, ethnic minorities (especially the Trnava Region and Brno, Bratislava, Košice), areas with a higher con- - lowestChristian values Democracy of the (thepro-Europeanness Zlín Region in Czechiaindex were and cant agricultural production (southwest of Slovakia), registeredthe Prešov inRegion the socio-economically in Slovakia). On the and contrary, geograph the- whichcentration in this of acase particular is probably ethnic related group, to with the signifi status ically peripheral regions of Czechia, with increased of the EU as a guarantor (higher instance for pro- support for far-left, far-right and protest parties (the tection) of civil and minority rights, and a provider Ústí nad Labem Region, the Karlovy Vary Region and of agro-subsidies. In the case of Euroscepticism, the the Moravian-Silesian Region) and parts of Slovakia Czech districts and regions prevail, especially from with a population traditionally close to the values the peripheral northwest and the Moravian-Silesian border areas. In this context, relatively important Region). socio-economic problems (in comparison with the of egalitarian, etatism and nationalism (the Trenčín national average high unemployment and low wages) theAt top the two district categories level (149(“districts districts of markedly in total, 77 pro-Eu from- the EU (membership) for them (or at least in the ropeanCzechia orientation”and 72 from andSlovakia), (“districts it was of found significantly that in formcan be of mentioned. a penalty for Part their of thefailure electorate to solve can them) “blame” and pro-European orientation”), with the highest values thus, on a practical level, can prefer populist (radical, of the index of pro-Europeanness, the Slovak districts anti-system) and Eurosceptic parties. In the case of (mainly from the southwest) dominated over Czech Slovakia, regions located to the northwest without - category (“districts with mild or significant elements ditional vote for (ultra)nationalists (ĽSNS, formerly ofdistricts. Euroscepticism” On the contrary,) came from 88% Czechia, districts with of the the abso last- votingsignificant for SNS), socio-economic egalitarian problems, and etatist-minded but with the politi tra- lute lowest values being registered for districts from Ústí nad Labem Region (northwestern Bohemia). - cal movements (SMER-SD, formerly voting for HZDS), gories of districts across the countries based on the ofwere previous shown studies as least from pro-European the Czech (Pink oriented. 2012; Voda The By using the cluster method, we derived five cate 2015;obtained Kostelecký results are et al.in 2016;accordance Koubek with 2019) the andfindings Slo- “districts of markedly,values significantly of the pro-Europeanness or mildly pro-European index. The orientation” first three) “evidently pro-European” groups ( socio-economicvak literature (e.g. causes Krivý affecting et al. 1996; the spatialPlešivčák distribu 2011;- - tionMadleňák of election 2012; results. Przybyla 2019) on the historical and terizedconsists by of a 51 clear spatial support units, for 86% accession of them to locatedthe Euro in- - peanSlovakia. Union The and districts low support of these for clusters Eurosceptic are characparties in European Parliament elections. Several districts of This study provides new insights into the “geog ofraphy regions of pro-Europeanness” and districts of two over countries a relatively that in long the in Czechia, and Bratislava, Košice and Prešov in Slo- pastperiod formed of time a (2003–2019),single state, applying at the sub-national a methodology level vakia),this type while are othersurban are(districts located of in Prague, southwest Brno-město Slovakia not used before to assess the territorial context of EU - - tion for policy- and decision-makers on the regions (Senec,duction Dunajskaand a strong Streda, concentration Komárno and of the Nové Hungarian Zámky) inintegration which EU support. assistance This should work alsobe targeted provides to informa sustain where there is relatively significant agricultural pro (restore) the meaningfulness of both the idea of Euro- pean integration and EU membership in those parts of minority. On the opposite side, there are districts with the countries that are currently most critical to the EU supportmild or significant for Eurosceptic elements parties of Euroscepticism, when EU elections with project, and thus to stop encouraging Euroscepticism significantly lower support for EU accession relevant across the EU, starting with its partial regions. take place. Of the 25 spatial units in this category, 22 Pro-Europeanness from a subnational perspective 197

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1 Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development, Czechia 2 Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Phyisical Geography and Geoecology, Czechia 3 J. E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Czechia * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article summarizes the results of the research focused on the realization of the cross-curricular subject Environmental Educa- tion (CCSEE) at elementary schools (pupils’ age 6–15 years) in Czechia. The introduction of cross-curricular subjects into the Czech educational system is linked to curricular reform and it has been implemented in Czech schools since 2007. CCSEE is one of the six currently implemented cross-curricular topics. The main objective of the present study is to determine which school subjects are involved in its implementation. The study was conducted through an internet questionnaire and responses were received from 640 schools. Data were processed by basic statistical methods. A school typology depending on the subjects involved in implementing EE was developed with the help of cluster analysis. The research shows that EE is implemented through most subjects, but their representation varies considerably for individual schools.

KEYWORDS curricula; elementary school; geographical education; environmental education; cross-curricular subject; Czechia

Received: 11 July 2019 Accepted: 15 July 2020 Published online: 21 October 2020

Matějček, T., Bartoš, J., Kučerová, S. R. (2020): Which subjects contribute to the teaching of cross-curricular topic Environmental Education at elementary schools in Czechia?. AUC Geographica 55(2), 200–209 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.14 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). Teaching of cross-curricular topic Environmental Education at elementary schools 201

1. Introduction (including CCSEE) were then elaborated in detail later (see Pastorová et al. 2011; Činčera 2011). One of the changes brought to the Czech schools In practice, CCSEE can be implemented in schools by Framework Educational Programs (FEPs) was either by integrating it into the educational content of the introduction of cross-curricular subjects. The existing school subjects, by creating a separate school cross-curricular subject Environmental Education subject or through project teaching (cross-curricu- (CCSEE) is one of them. The aim of the research pre- lar projects, project days). The individual forms may be combined with each other. The same situation is involved in the implementation of CCSEE in schools in Slovakia (Kelcová 2009). The opposite example andsented to whathere extent,was to findand outwhether which it school is possible subjects to trace are certain typical “models” of CCSEE implementation in Environemtal Curriculum gives examples of the imple- terms of the involvement of individual school sub- mentationis Great Britain of EE in (specifically individual subjects England), (Green where 2018). The jects. According to our professional orientation, we Thus, all teachers in the school may theoretically were especially interested in the role of geography in participate in the implementation, but the situation in the individual schools may be quite different and the The development of EE in Czechia is clearly sum- actual situation has not yet been closely monitored. fulfillingmarized bythe Máchal objectives (2000) of EE. and Činčera (2013a, 2014). This paper summarizes the results of research con- Putting into the international context is discussed in ducted at Czech elementary schools (primary schools) more detail in Činčera (2013b). The roots of EE can and focused on determining the degree of involve- be found in the activities of volunteer organizations already in the interwar period of Czechoslovakia. of the EE, respectively. implementation of CCSEE. These activities were followed by organizations work- mentIn theof individual past, this issuesubjects was in only fulfilling partially the monitored, objectives ing with children and youth in the 1970s (especially the Czech Union for Nature Conservation and the (2009). A wide range of aspects of EE goals imple- - mentationas part of theat schools analysis was carried also addressed out by Daňková by a detailed et al. ronmental education (Máchal 2000) were later estab- study of Činčera et al. (2016), however, the rate of lishedBrontosaurus from these Movement). and other The organizations. first centers of envi involvement of individual subjects was not real- However, the implementation of EE into formal ized in mentioned study. Finding out which subjects (school) education was delayed in comparation with are involved in the implementation of EE can show some countries of northern and western Europe. whether EE really has a cross-curricular character At present, the basic framework for EE at schools is based on the State Program of EE in the Czech Repub- EE can be realized in various forms and in vari- lic (approved in 2000). When planning EE implemen- ousand schoolthus fulfills subjects. its potential. The potential for implementing tation goals, schools are based on valid curricular documents (especially from FEP or school educational programs – see below), from the Methodological butCCSEE in different objectives, degrees. introduced The interdisciplinary by FEPs (see conceptJeřábek Guideline of the Ministry of Education, Youth and ofand EE Tupý prevails 2007), (Aikens have practically et al. 2016). all Numberschool subjects, of con- Sports on ensuring EE, from the regional concept of crete examples of linking environmental issues with EE and their action programs, and from the analysis of other subjects, including fewer common ones, was described in the literature (see below). designated at individual schools and is responsible for In general, Godemann (2008) deals with integra- specific school conditions. The CCSEE coordinator is tion and transdisciplinary concepts of environmental authors mention that its evaluation is very important issues in a comprehensive way, which also summariz- forthe fulfillmentthe development of EE objectives of EE (Verma according and toDhull FEP. 2017; More es the main principles of working with information in such a teaching approach. The importance of an 2004; Nam 1995). interdisciplinary approach to EE is also highlighted SsoziCCSEE 2012; got Fergusoninto Czech 2008; curriculum Grodzińska-Jurczak documents in 2007, in connection with the implementation of FEP The traditional is linking of EE with nature science - education,by Jančaříková especially (2009). with biology, physical geogra- ulum previously used. CCSEE is one of six currently phy and chemistry (Mwendwa 2017; Florentina and (Jeřábekimplemented and cross-curricularTupý 2007), which subjects. replaced However, the curric in the context of actual FEP revision, the future of cross-cur- vá 2009). Aikens and McKenzie (2016) also state that ricular topics is uncertain and actualy discussed. mostBarbu of 2015; the topics Ryplová used and in Reháková environmental 2011; educationŘezníčko According to Činčera (2005), the inclusion of CCSEE belong to the natural sciences, but recent studies as a cross-curricular subject represents a major shift are beginning to address the social sciences. Educa- in its understanding in Czechia. Thus, EE started to tion in these school subjects enables pupils to know be understood as a real cross-subject issue that inte- principles of natural processes, introduces them to grates both the natural and human sciences. The the diversity of nature, and to understanding of the expected outcomes for cross-curricular subjects human activity impact on the natural environment. 202 Tomáš Matějček, Jan Bartoš, Silvie R. Kučerová

Yet some dichotomy can be observed in this respect The questionnaire was created according to the prin- as well. While nature science education was mainly ciples for quantitative research (Gavora 2010; Chrás- ka 2007). andmotivated strengthen by the competitiveness need to create arounda sufficiently the mid-20th strong the basic informations about the respondent (length century,scientific EE and which technical emerges base in to the accelerate 1960s as innovationa response of practice,The first partsex, ofapprobation), the questionnaire the second was focused part was on to the environmental crisis is in favor of the aim is focused on the implementation of CCSEE. The ques- to develop the environmental literacy necessary to tionnaire was sent out by a pilot survey (around understand the broader contexts from which these 20 respondents), after this phase some items were problems have arisen and are solved within them - (Wals et al. 2014). ry schools to which the questionnaire was sent out The possibilities of interconnection of EE with (3203),changed we or receivedclarified. responses From the totalfrom number640 respondents, of prima mathematics and physics, including concrete exam- after removing a few incomplete answers (return of about 20%). The headmasters of the schools listed in (2006) and Palivec (2013). The possibilities of inte- the Atlas of Education database (http://atlasskolstvi gratingples, are EE presented and social by sciences Sýkora (2007), in the curriculum Melichar et are al. .cz) were asked to send a request for forwarding to addressed by the example of Nigeria by Adedayo and the EE school coordinator. Olawepo (1997), Ferstl and Parkan (2007) summa- The length of teaching practice addressed by rize the possibilities of linking to history teaching. the EE coordinators varied from 1 year to 54 years. Numerous suggestions for linking environmen- The average length of practice was 19.1 years, most tal issues with language and literature teaching was respondents were women (86%). The most frequent provided by Bowers (2010), which emphasizes the - importance of using appropriate concepts in teach- phy, chemistry, mathematics and physical education. ing environmental topics and introduces misconcep- Oftenqualifications repeated of were respondents different combinationswere biology, ofgeogra these tions that may result from the use of inexact terms. school subjects. Possible reasons for children’s concepts and miscon- The main part of the questionnaire consisted of ceptions discusses Pavlátová (2019). Kubrická and items aimed at determining the rate of participation of individual school subjects in the implementation use of environmental topics for teaching English. The of CCSEE. For each school subject, respondents chose possibilitiesHromádka (2015) of linking provided EE with specific language examples and literature of the one of the following options: not involved or the sub- teaching are mentioned by Howard (2010), Lustyan- ject is not taught at our school (0), very little (1), mod- tie (2015) and Soetaert et al. (1996). The importance of linking different forms of artistic activities with EE is dealt with by Dielman (2013). erate (2), significantly (3), a core subject for achieving- Navrátil (2012) presents on concrete examples the quencyCCSEE objectives of individual (4). Aresponses coefficient in was each assigned category to each and theoption average (see above).was calculated. This coefficient Thus it was multiplied found out the how fre of key competences of EE according to FEP, through each subject participates in the realization of CCSEE. artisticpossibilities activities. of fulfilling the goals and development The total dataset was divided into two parts, the Various examples how to utilize works of art in geography and EE are also presented by Parkinson 1 of elementary school (n = 153) and the second part - withfirst with answers answers of teachers of teachers from who complete teach only (nine-year) at Stage elementary schools – with both Stage 1 and Stage 2 (2009),(2010), SánchezVočadlová (2013), (2009) Quigley or Kučera et al. (2012). (2014) Haloshow (n = 487). chathe possibilities(2008), Trojanová of developing (2009), Řezníčkothe skillsvá of a acquiring Boháček geographical or environmental information from incorporation of the EE topics into the curriculum, image sources or photographs. Several options for it wasTo findnecessary out a to typology choose ofthe schools proper accordingmethod. The to integrating environmental topics can also be found in metod would divide the objects (i.e. individual schools or better the answers of respondents from individual

(McNaughtonmusic education 2004). (Campos Integration 2013; with Váňová physical et al. educa 2007;- of particular school subjects that comprise EE topics Jurmu 2005) or in connection with drama education andschools) second into according categories to first intensity according of presence to composition of EE (Dechano and Shelley 2004). topics (i.e. extent of the EE curriculum) within these tion can be realized primarily through field activities subjects. Therefore, the multidimensional statistical method of hierarchical clustering was found as the 2. Research methodology most suitable for application. The method enables to divide the objects into categories according to mutual Data collection was carried out by anonymous on-line both similarity and dissimilarity of their characteris- questionnaire, which was addressed to the EE coor- tics. The analysis was conducted in the statistical soft- dinators at most of all elementary schools in Czechia. ware SPSS. Teaching of cross-curricular topic Environmental Education at elementary schools 203

The clustering of non-standardized variables was 3. Results of Research conducted. The variables were not standardized because all of them represent the same type of respon- The degree of involvement of individual school sub- dents’ answers, originating from the same time peri- jects in the implementation of EE objectives at prima- od, therefore they don’t vary in their values. During ry schools with Stage 1 only, is shown in Figure 1. The the hierarchical clustering the method of Average predominance of science-related subjects is evident, linkage between groups was applied to obtain max- - imal similarity within the groups together with the ject with mainly geographical and historical content) maximal dissimilarity between groups. The linkage of but the role of fine arts and homeland studies (a sub the variables (value of their distance) was measured The situation in complete (nine-year) elementa- with utilization of Pearson correlation intervals. Their ryis also schools significant. is shown in Figure 2. Biology is the most utilization ensures that the structural similarity of the important subject in these schools, but geography, answers is preferred – in this case the proportion of which is the second most important subject in this frequency in appreciation of EE topics between individual school subjects by the respondents. The educational objectives of CCSEE can be ful- Since the number of input variables (i.e. number of respect, also plays a significant role. school subjects) was too wide for such type of analy- also through a special separate school subject. One of sis, several groups of school subjects were created. At thefilled questions not only inin thealready questionnaire existing school survey subjects, was there but- Stage 1, the appreciation of basic biology (originally fore focused on using this option. Results show that přírodověda), homeland studies (originally vlastivě- it is used by 114 schools (18%). In about half of the da) and elementary teaching (originally prvouka) was cases the title of the subject contains the word ecology observed. At Stage 2 biology, geography and health or ecological - education were distinguished separately. The other tion of the subject of natural history or a practically subjects were grouped into: science subjects (phys- conceived subject. In the focused remaining mainly cases on it the is arealization modifica ics, chemistry, mathematics), languages (mother language, foreign language), humane science subjects etc. (history, civics), artistic and practical subjects (music, of scientificA simple experiments, typology of research-orientedschools was based teaching, on the

The number of 3 clusters was selected as the most respondents. The aim of this typology is to try to representativefine arts, physical number education). of clusters in the dataset of classifycontribution schools to accordingCCSEE goals to curriculum fulfilling, assessedstrategies byof teachers at Stage 1 and 5 clusters in the dataset implementation EE goals. of teachers at complete elementary schools. The clus- Applying multivariate analytical statistical meth- ters were tested about their independency at 95% ods (cluster analysis) it was possible to distinguish 3 different clusters of elementary schools with the means by method One Way ANOVA. Stage 1 only according to the strategy of integrating confidence interval through comparison of their

Basic Biology

Elementary Teaching

Fine Arts

Homeland Studies

Mother Language

Health Education

Physical Education

Mathematics

Foreign Language

Music

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 g i ig

Fig. 1 The involvement of school subjects in the implementation of EE objectives at primary schools with Stage 1 only. 204 Tomáš Matějček, Jan Bartoš, Silvie R. Kučerová

(Basic) Biology Geography Chemistry Elementary Teaching Civics Health Education Homeland Studies Fine Arts Physics Mother Language Foreign Language Mathematics History Physical Education Music 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 g i ig

Fig. 2 The involvement of school subjects in the implementation of EE objectives at complete (nine-year) elementary schools.

subject for the implementation of CCSEE, although the includes those schools where the subject of basic valuation of other subjects varies widely within the biologythe CCSEE contributes into the unambiguously curriculum. Theto the first implemen cluster- set (see standard deviation values). Conversely, the tation of CCSEE and in other school subjects this issue second cluster (natural-geographic) includes schools is almost not represented. Respondents in the second where a separate subject of EE does not exist. Basic (most numerous) clusters assigned to the basic biol- biology or biology and geography contribute most to ogy and previous school subject elementary teaching CCSEE implementation. The third cluster (science sub- the same contribution. Homeland studies was also jects) also includes schools, where a separate subject mentioned, but its role was less apparent. The third focused on EE is not taught, but the role of basic biol- cluster is marked by a sharp decrease in the impor- ogy or biology and geography is not prevailing. The tance of basic biology for the implementation of wider group of natural science (mostly the importance CCSEE against the previous two. Elementary teaching of the subject of chemistry) and health education are and homeland studies contribute most to the CCSEE the most involved in the implementation of CCSEE. implementation. Nonetheless, respondents in the However, this is the smallest cluster with a very low number of respondents (only 15). The fourth cluster of the standard deviation (Table 1). was called socio-health. Although the importance of third cluster differ significantly, showing high values biology prevails, and also geography contributes to of complete elementary schools (Table 2). To better the realization of CCSEE, there is one of the highest understandFive different the types clusters of EEcan inclusion be defined strategies, in a sample we evaluations of the contribution of human science subjects and health education to other statements. The separate last cluster was named complex because it was very subjecthave identified them with working names (Table 3). The unifying element of the first cluster ( ) is the existence of a specific separate school difficult to determine the dominance of any subject in

Tab. 1 Descriptive statistics of clusters of schools with teaching at the Stage 1 only.

Number of schools Average of importance for school subject assigned by respondents Cluster in cluster (N) separate subject basic biology homeland studies elementary teaching 1 37 0.200 3.500 0.000 0.000 2 79 0.000 3.600 2.900 3.600 3 37 0.600 0.900 2.300 2.700 standard deviation 1 0.917 0.605 0.000 0.000 2 0.000 0.481 0.938 0.485 3 1.495 1.308 1.283 1.309 Teaching of cross-curricular topic Environmental Education at elementary schools 205

Tab. 2 Descriptive statistics of clusters of complete (nine-year) elementary schools.

Number Average of importance for school subject assigned by respondents of schools Cluster separate (basic) nature science human science artistic and health in cluster geography languages (N) subject biology subjects subjects practical subjects education 1 131 3.100 3.400 2.500 1.600 1.000 1.400 1.400 1.900 2 161 0.000 3.900 3.100 1.800 0.900 1.400 1.500 2.000 3 15 0.000 2.700 2.300 2.400 1.400 1.200 1.500 2.300 4 155 0.100 3.200 2.400 1.600 1.400 1.800 2.100 2.600 5 25 0.200 3.300 3.000 1.900 1.500 1.600 2.300 0.600 standard deviation 1 1.687 0.814 0.777 0.713 0.652 0.612 0.931 1.073 2 0.000 0.292 0.715 0.608 0.558 0.616 0.878 0.968 3 0.000 0.704 0.704 0.506 0.632 0.320 0.694 0.617 4 0.636 0.703 0.797 0.633 0.560 0.641 0.965 0.791 5 0.800 0.678 0.539 0.615 0.736 0.621 0.818 0.757

Tab. 3 Elementary schools types according to a curricular strategy of realization of CCTEE in individual subjects at complete (nine-year) elementary schools. Share from Cluster Characteristics of type Working title studied sample schools with an separate subject environmental Education/EE, dominant in its contribution 1 to realization of CCTEE, although the appreciation of the others subjects on the participation Separate subject 27% on CCTEE realization differs a lot biology and geography are the most significant in realization of CCTEE, separate subject EE Biological– 2 33% is not taught Geographical various science subjects (chemistry the most of all) and health education as well contribute 3 Science Subjects 3% to realization of CCTEE, separate subject EE is not taught biology or geography are the most significant in realization of CCTEE, nevertheless the highest Humane–Health 4 32% appreciation of humane sciences (civics the most of all) and health education is noticeable educational various subjects contribute to realization of CCTEE, including languages and fine arts, 5 nevertheless it is difficult to determine one dominant subject, on the contrary, health Complex 5% education does not contribute to the realization of CCTEE at all

CCSEE implementation. Biology and geography have of view of teachers some subjects seem more appro- been the most appreciated in this cluster, but values priate for its implementation. It can be seen from the arts, physical education, music) are also very high in in the realization of CCSEE is played by the elemen- comparisonof languages with and otherartistic clusters and practical (although subjects their mean (fine- taryresults teaching obtained and that natural at the science. first level This the isprimary due to role the ing is very variable according to the standard devi- fact, that this subject is closely related to EE and also ation), and also science and social science subjects. to the fact, that the EE is in Czechia still perceived as a This cluster is also relatively small (25 schools). synonym for ecology or ecological education (Máchal It seems that if the separate school subject of EE is not directly established, the biology and geography subjects contribute most to the implementation subject2000), even dedicated among to EE EE coordinators is being taught (Činčera at school, 2013b). in of CCSEE at Stage 2 of elementary school. Only when halfThis of is thealso cases confirmed it include by the words finding ecology that orif aecological separate their role is weak, does health education, or chemistry in its title. This corresponds to the results of Aikens et and civics, hold this position. al. (2016), who also found that biological topics predominate in the implementation of EE. At Stage 2 the second most important subject 4. Discussion according to the share in the realization of CCSEE is geography. This subject (together with history, whose - role in the implementation of CCSEE objectives did not mented in all school subjects. However, from the point The research confirmed that CCSEE could be imple prove too significant) follows the homeland studies 206 Tomáš Matějček, Jan Bartoš, Silvie R. Kučerová that is taught at the Stage 1 and belongs among the The choice of the way for the creation of clusters of most important subjects in terms of CCSEE imple- the elementary schools may limit the results as well, mentation. The importance of geography in the imple- because the outcoming groups from the clustering mentation of EE mentions also Mwendwa (2017). depend partly also on the method. An analysis of the EU curriculum by Stokes et al. Important limits of research could also result from (2001) suggests that if EE is integrated into individ- the ambiguity of the concept of EE itself. It is possi- ual school subjects, it is most often in geography, ble that teachers may have included in their respons- science (the dominant role is played by biology, then es activities that do not meet the objectives of EE or, conversely, did not have included activities that meet corresponds to the results of our research. In some these objectives, even though they are not called countries,chemistry andsubjects physics) labeled and ascivics. technologies, This finding which largely do as EE. not have a direct equivalent in the Czech education system, are also involved, their content and approach being spread across multiple subjects. 5. Conclusions The importance of (basic) biology, geography and homeland studies, as well as civics and health educa- - - marily focused on the implementation of CCSEE in ysis. We can say that both natural and human science termsThis research of the representation is the first comprehensive of individual subjectsstudy pri at subjectstion, was are also involved confirmed in the by implementationthe results of cluster of CCSEE. anal Czech elementary schools. Results show that CCSEE is It corresponds to the understanding of EE according implemented at most Czech schools through most of existing subjects, but their representation and partic- the importance of the social sciences for the realiza- ipation rates vary considerably across schools. tionto Činčera of EE is (2005). slowly Aikensgrowing. et al. (2016) also cite that Approximately 18% of schools involved in our The results obtained are partly consistent with the research have a separate subject dedicated to EE, which in some schools is dominant in terms of achiev- - ing CCSEE objectives, elsewhere it is only one of the istryresults (71% of Daňková of schools), et al. geography, (2009), according civics, biology to which and subjectsthe objectives of Stage of EE 1 were(about fulfilled one third most ofoften the in schools chem According to respondents, the subjects taught at surveyed). Similarly, Ruda (2010) mentions that Stagesubjects 1 arethat mostly fulfill these represented goals. by the elementary pupils most often meet the adjective environmental teaching, basic biology and homeland studies (school in biology or natural history, geography and foreign subjects focused on basic natural principles and their language. integration into the context of near neighbourhood of The observed share of schools with a separate pupils. The relatively balanced role of these subjects optional subject focused on EE (18%) roughly cor- in meeting CCSEE objectives at Stage 1 was also con- responds to the results of the analysis carried out by at the Stage 2 is a little more varied. However, simi- subject was taught to 14% of schools surveyed. How- larlyfirmed oriented by the resultssubjects of as cluster biology analysis. and geography, The situation also ever,Daňková the creationet al. (2009), of a separate according subject to which for the a implesingle- mentation of EE may not always be a good solution, as In addition to schools where the CCSEE goals are stated by Verma and Dhull (2017). play a dominant role in fulfilling CCSEE objectives. supplemented by a separate environmentally focused which subjects are involved in the implementation of schoolfulfilled subject), dominantly the by results biology of andcluster geography analysis (or have are The aim of the presented research was to find out shown that other models of CCSEE implementation can exist at Czech elementary schools in practice. CCSEE, but the specific forms and methods of teaching A more frequent case is the division of this role among ofand our the study. specific However, environmental these aspects topics taught are described have not a wider range of science subjects (chemistry, physics been studied. This is one of the significant limitations and mathematics, or health education, in addition to - [basic] biology and/or geography), with less common tionin more about detail implementation in the studies of of EE Bartoš into individual and Matějček sub- subjects in almost all subjects, including artistic and jects(2015) was and just Činčera missing. et al. (2016), while the informa practical ones, social sciences, languages, etc. Another limit is the research sample. Although Although the implementation of Framework Edu- most schools in the Czechia were contacted, the return cational Programs through CCSEE has reinforced the on the questionnaire was only partial. The represen- possibility of implementing EE in different subjects, tativeness of the results is thus limited to the schools including less traditional ones, the results of the sur- that were willing to participated in the research. The vey show that a wider range of subjects is used only informative value of the research is also limited by the - fact that the results (due to various reasons) express icant challenge for discussion. only the view of teachers, which may differ from the sporadicallyFrom the forgeographical this. We consider education this finding point ofa signif view, real situation.

the results are important especially as a confirmation Teaching of cross-curricular topic Environmental Education at elementary schools 207

Aikens, K., Mckenzie, M., Vaughter, P. (2016): Environmental the objectives of the EE, respectively CCSEE. The fact and sustainability education policy research: A thatof the geography importance is oneof geography of the most in importantthe fulfillment school of systematic review of methodological and thematic trends. Environmental Education Research 22(3), 333–359, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.11 35418. futuresubjects teachers in terms of geography of fulfilling and these in the goals further needs train to- ingbe reflected of teachers, more but in also particular in textbooks in the and preparation other didac of- tic aids production, while specifying the expected out- Bartoš,Envigogika J., Matějček, 10(2), T. https://doi.org/10.14712/18023061 (2015): Rozvíjení environmentálních puts, evaluation of realized curriculum and its results, postojů.475. z pohledu učitelů na 2. stupni základních škol. Bowers, C. (2010): How language limits our understanding Geographical Olympiad). of environmental education. Environmental Education or in preparation of field competitions (for example- Research 7(2), 141–151, https://doi.org/10.1080 raphy for the implementation of EE topics (mentioned /13504620120043144. above),In addition we consider to confirming the main the result importance of our research of geog Campos, H. G. (2013): La música y lo ambiental. Decisio, 12(34), 52–58. all school subjects. It demonstrates the usefulness of to confirm the ability to meet the goals of EE through Pedagogická orientace 15(3), 17–24. the concept of EE as a cross-curricular theme. Anoth- Činčera, J. (2005): Environmentální výchova. Ale jaká? er important conclusion of our study, however, is the

Činčera,doi.org/10.14712/18023061.59. J. (2011): Doporučené očekávané výstupy pro subjects is rather weak and occurs only in a relatively environmentální výchovu. Envigogika 6(2), https:// smallfinding number that the of implementation asked schools. of EE topics in many During the processing of the results, several new Činčera, J. (2013a): Střediska ekologické výchovy questions emerged (see Table 4). Let these questions univerzita.mezi teorií a praxí. Praha, Brno: Agentura Koniklec, are taken as a contribution to the next discussion and Brontosauří ekocentrum Zelený klub, Masarykova as incentives for further research. Činčera,182–197. J. (2013b): Paradigmatická proměna domácího Tab. 4 Proposal of research questions for further research. pojetí environmentální výchovy. Pedagogika 63(2),

– Which subjects do pupils associate with EE most often? Činčera, J. (2014): Environmentální výchova: cesty – Which forms of teaching predominate in the implementation a křižovatky. Trenčín: Špirála. of EE in individual subjects? Činčera, J., Jančaříková, K., Matějček, T., Šimonová, P., – How different is the real concept of teaching EE topics compared Bartoš, J., Lupač. J., Broukalová, L. (2016): to curricular documents? Environmentální výchova z pohledu učitelů. Brno: Masarykova Univerzita, BEZK, Agentura Koniklec. – To what extent is it appropriate to teach EE as a separate subject Daňková, L. et al. (2009): Analýza stavu environmentálního (especially in terms of meeting the objectives of EE)? Dechano, L. M., Shelley, F. M. (2004): Using sports to teach vzdělávání, výchovy a osvěty. Praha: Pavučina. – How are teachers of various approbations prepared for the Geography 103(5), 185–191, https://doi.org/10.1080 implementation of EE topics? /00221340408978599.geography: Examples from Kansas City. Journal of – How EE implementations vary in different countries (international Dielman, H. (2013). El arte en la educación para la comparison)? sustentabilidad. Decisio, 12(34), 11–16. – Which EE implementation models can be considered as inspiring examples of good practice? Farmer,effects J., onKnapp, ecological D., Benton, and environmental G. M. (2007): Anknowledge elementary school environmental education field trip: Long–term Education 38(2), 33–42, https://doi.org/10.3200 Acknowledgements and attitude development. Journal of Environmental Ferguson, T. (2008): ‘Nature’ and the ‘environment’ This article was supported by the research project of /JOEE.38.3.33-42. the Grant Agency of the Charles University No. SVV Environmental Education Research 14(5), 559–577, UK 260425 and the project PROGRES Q17 “Teacher https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620802345966.in Jamaica’s primary school curriculum guides. Preparation and the Teaching Profession in the Con- text of Science and Research”. Ferstl,gymnázia. R., Parkan, Praha: F. (2007): Univerzita Environmentální Karlova, Pedagogická výchova ve fakulta.výuce dějepisu. Metodika pro 2. stupeň ZŠ a víceletá References Florentina, M., Barbu, M. (2015): An inter-disciplinary approach in teaching geography, chemistry and environmental education. Procedia – Social and environmental education in social science curricula at Behavioral Sciences 180(1), 660–665, https://doi.org Adedayo,the secondary A., Olawepo, school J. A.level (1997): in Nigeria: Integration Problems of and /10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.175. prospects. Environmental Education Research 3(1), 83–93, https://doi.org/10.1080/1350462970030107. Paido. Gavora, P. (2010): Úvod do pedagogického výzkumu. Brno: 208 Tomáš Matějček, Jan Bartoš, Silvie R. Kučerová

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a subject in schools. International Journal of Advanced 210 Original Article Investigations and monitoring of deep-seated rock slides in feasibility studies for dam reservoirs Christian Zangerl1,*, Thomas Strauhal1,2

1 University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Applied Geology, Department of Civil Engineering and Natural Hazards, Austria 2 ILF Consulting Engineers Austria GmbH, 6063 Rum, Austria * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This contribution presents a brief overview of investigation and monitoring methods which may help to detect and localise deep-seated rock slides in the surroundings of reservoirs. The identification and localisation of critical slopes and ancient/pre-existing rock slides in the early stage of a project (i.e. feasibility study) is essential to avoid endangering the planned infrastructure project and if necessary, adapting the project. The knowledge about deep-seated rock slides has increased over the decades. In particular, new insight was gained about rock slide geometry, kinematics, temporal deformation behaviour, hydrogeology and geomechanics. Major technical and methodical improvements have been made in recent years concerning the successful application of terrestrial and airborne based remote sensing tools to measure 2D/3D slope deformations on surface and to develop high-resolution digital terrain models for detailed geomorphological-geological mapping and geological-geometrical model design.

KEYWORDS deep-seated rock slides; in-situ investigation; monitoring; dams; reservoirs

Received: 22 June 2020 Accepted: 24 July 2020 Published online: 26 October 2020

Zangerl, C., Strauhal, T. (2020): Investigations and monitoring of deep-seated rock slides in feasibility studies for dam reservoirs. AUC Geographica 55(2), 210–217 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.15 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). Investigations and monitoring of deep-seated rock slides 211

1. Introduction very costly or not feasible at all. In many cases miti- Worldwide, active and inactive deep-seated rock gationstabilisation measures of deep-seated based on groundwater rock slides management is difficult, slides are frequently observed in low-strength rock due to the construction of drainage drifts are possi- masses such as foliated metamorphic rocks (Riemer ble but the success to reduce the deformation rate is 1995). Generally, these rock slides often affect entire slopes, reach volumes of millions of m3, and usually of critical slopes and ancient rock slides which can belong to the compound type of rock slides (Hungr et endangernot always the guaranteed. planned infrastructure Therefore, the in anidentification early stage al. 2014). Active or reactivated over longer periods of of the project (i.e. feasibility study) is essential. Dur- time slowly moving rock slides can adversely affect ing this early phase a cost-effective adaptation of the infrastructure such as high- and railway lines, reser- project may be possible in many cases. voir dams, pressure pipes, pipelines, and settlements In the past, thousands of dams and reservoirs were due to differential and localised displacements of the built worldwide and according to the global reservoir ground surface and subsurface (Huang et al. 2016; Gu and dam database (GRanD) more than 7,000 dams et al. 2017). Because of the typical slow base activ- greater than 15 m in height or with a reservoir vol- ity of many rock slides, they are sometimes either ume of more than 0.1 km3 are documented (see Fig. 1, not recognised or their damage potential is underes- Lehner et al. 2011). In addition, about 3,700 hydro- timated. Even for slow movements the damage can power reservoirs and dams (FHReD) are under con- be considerable and the life-cycle of a structure can struction or in an advanced planning stage. The large be reduced, accompanied with a great economic loss number of new dam and reservoir projects for differ- (Barla et al. 2010; Petley 2013). In some rare cas- ent utilisations require comprehensive planning and es there is also the danger of total slope failure and hazard assessment of the reservoir slopes, especially acceleration to extremely high velocities, which in the early when a feasibility study is performed. This may worst case, can cause dramatic consequences. Reacti- avoid future landslide induced construction and oper- vation of ancient or pre-existing rock slides or parts ation problems. thereof is frequently observed and can be triggered This contribution presents a brief overview of data and methods which can help to detect, localise, char- - acterise and assess ancient deep-seated rock slides in cipitationby various and factors snow comprising melt, dynamic e.g. reservoirloading by infilling earth- the surroundings of large dam reservoir projects. In quakes,or drawdown, construction toe erosion of a bycut flooding, slope, or extreme loading pre the addition, it supports the planning of additional in-si- slope in the upper area. Due to the large volume the tu investigation and monitoring campaigns which are

Fig. 1 Global distribution of (dam) reservoirs larger than 0.1 km3 (red dots, Global Reservoir and Dam Database V1.3 [GRanD, globaldamwatch.org], data from Lechner et al. 2011, earth map by Natural Earth. Free vector and raster map data @ naturalearthdata.com). 212 Christian Zangerl, Thomas Strauhal fundamental for subsequent slope stability analyses are still recently published studies with reference to and hazard assessments. landslides and reservoirs with no high-quality DEMs being presented, but rather a focus is given on linear subsurface investigations by boreholes. Only by com- 2. Geodata for rock slide identification bining both, geomorphological-geological mapping and localisation on surface based on high-resolution DEMs (obtained by laser scanning or photogrammetry) and subsurface investigations a proper three-dimensional rock In many cases, deep-seated rock slides are not obvi- slide model can be obtained. Commonly, deep-seat- ous because of their low activities and vegetation ed rock slides are characterised by the formation of cover. A multi-disciplinary approach is required to different slabs with variable sizes, movement veloc- analyse both size/geometry as well as the movement ities, and internal shear zones (Fig. 2). Geomechan- behaviour of the rock slide consequently. Before ically, these shear zones are of primary concern for - stability analyses or predictions relating to future tigation campaign a comprehensive desk study using deformations. The material is the result of cataclasis beginninga geographical with ainformation detailed and system expensive (GIS) field is useful. inves and fragmentation of the rock during shearing and Therefore, high-resolution digital elevation or terrain possesses soil-like mechanical and hydraulic proper- models (DEM, DTM) usually obtained from airborne ties. Stability and deformation behaviour of the rock laser scanning (ALS) campaigns and supplemented by multi-temporal high-quality aerial images from of these zones. Scarps mapped at ground surface airborne and UAV campaigns are needed for the pro- shouldslides is be influenced correlated by with hydro-mechanical basal and internal properties shear ject area. Because of the importance of high-resolu- zones encountered in the subsurface (e.g. in drillings) tion DEMs for landslide analyses these data should to get a better understanding of the dimensions and be a standard nowadays (Tab. 1). However, there geometry of the rock slide mass. GIS processed DEMs

Fig. 2 Hillshade of a deep-seated rock slide in metamorphic rock showing the main, secondary and uphill facing scarps of sliding slabs, and rock slide dammed lake sediments in the upstream (Stupfarri rockslide in the Kaunertal valley, Austria, DEM source: TIRIS – Amt der Tiroler Landesregierung). Investigations and monitoring of deep-seated rock slides 213

Tab. 1 Types of geodata for rock slide identification and localisation.

Type of data Description Method Digital elevation Airborne and terrestrial laser scanning, High-resolution DEM/DTM with a raster size ≤ 1 m / terrain model UAV – based photogrammetry Digital high-resolution ortho-images, raster size < 20 cm, Ortho-images Optical imagery by plane, helicopter or UAV ideally multi-temporal Optical imagery with a resolution of 10–60 m over land Optical satellite images Optical imagery satellite based and coastal waters, e.g. Sentinel 2, for a general survey only Ground relief, drainage, forest cover, administrative areas, populated Topographic maps Cartographical mapping methods areas, transportation routes and facilities, man-made features Regional geological maps Pre-existing maps of the region (Scale 1:50,000 to 1:200,000) Geological field mapping Detailed geological mapping of the project area Detailed geological maps Geological field mapping (Scale 1:1000 to 1:10,000) Pre-existing maps of landslide types and features according Landslide inventory maps Combination of desk study and field survey to accepted classification systems Historic records Age data and chronology of landslides Field survey, archives, age-dating

e.g. one-light-source or multi-directional hillshades, Mapping of all features (including slabs) is essential - because of the complex geometry i.e. slab forma- ness and inclination are the basis to perform accurate tion and movement behaviour of some rock slides andapplying detailed advanced geomorphological filtering techniques, and geological slope terrainrough (e.g. Zangerl et al. 2010). Further, it allows the clas- analyses and mappings (Reuter et al. 2009). Primary aim of a desk study is to detect structures and slope cases. geometries which resulted from gravitational slope sification of the evolution and activity stage in some deformations. In particular, multi-directional hillshades highlight the terrain surface very plastically. 4. Deformation monitoring Typically, primary and secondary scarps, uphill facing scarps, extensional cracks, slope bulging and depres- The choice of the investigation methods to monitor sions, the boundary between the rock slide and the the deformation behaviour of a rock slide depends undeformed rock mass, increased fracture density on project requirements and local circumstances. and rock mass loosening, etc. are clear indicators for Depending on the particular project phase, sur- deep-seated slope movements (see Fig. 2). Additional- face and/or subsurface measurements are needed ly, optical satellite images, pre-existing geological and which again should be performed continuously (e.g. topographical maps can be analysed during the desk to detect acceleration phases and their triggers) or episodically only. The slow movement rates of only a few millimetres or centimetres per year of some rock study with the purpose of planning the field survey. slides in combination with small time constraints giv- 3. Geological-geomorphological field survey - sons why accurate deformation monitoring systems withen by low many detection early project limits specificationsare required. areConclusive the rea- survey is based on the high-resolution DEMs and ly, depending on the monitoring method, rock slide The subsequent geological-geomorphological field- - tion of the observations from the desk study as well od, sometimes more than a year, need to be planned high-quality ortho-images and include the verifica velocity and size, a sufficiently long measuring peri rock, faults, joint network, springs and streams) and of slope displacements for a 1000 m high rock slide geomorphologicalas the field-based featuresmapping which of geological are not obvious (e.g. soil, in slopeto obtain with significant an annual data. displacement For example, rate the of detection mm to a remote sensing data (Table 1). According to the map- few cm is challenging when reliable deformation data ping results the areal extent of a rock slide (i.e. head above the measuring accuracy should be attained in a short period. For some projects, there is a mismatch see WP/WLI UNESCO Working Party on World Land- between the time span prescribed for project plan- slidescarps, Inventory lateral flanks 1993) and and furthersurface landslidesboundaries features, of slabs ning and the time span needed to get reliable infor- - mation about the rock slide activity. Furthermore, it is tion of the thickness. The spatial extension, the shape important to note that the activity behaviour of a rock ofare the determined primary scarpswhich enable and the a firstinternal and roughstructures estima of slide can change during the live-cycle of an infrastruc- the rock slide provide information about the kinemat- ture and the occurrence of unexpected acceleration ics (e.g. translational, rotational, compound failure). phases should be considered. 214 Christian Zangerl, Thomas Strauhal

Large rock slides are a challenge for monitor- Tab. 2 Selected slope deformation monitoring methods. ing due to the large measuring distances, but recent Method Description developments of remote sensing techniques provide Survey by UAV or aircraft, dense point clouds, Airborne laser new useful tools (Tab. 2). Satellite-based radar inter- area-based data, can penetrate vegetation cover, scanning (ALS) ferometry (InSAR) can be applied to measure areal detection of displacements in the range of dm to m slope deformations when vegetation cover is low and By tripod from ground, dense point cloud, slope exposure is ideal with regard to satellite move- Terrestrial laser area-based data, can penetrate vegetation cover, ment (Casagli et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2013). A par- scanning (TLS) detection of displacements in the range of cm ticular advantage of this remote sensing method is to dm the possibility to detect deformations as far back as Areal displacement, sensitive to vegetation cover, Satellite-based detection of displacements in the range of cm to the nineties, since from that time radar-images are InSAR available. to dm For larger rock slide velocities (i.e. decimeters to Terrestrial Areal displacement, sensitive to vegetation cover, metres per year) airborne-based photogrammetric radar- permanent monitoring, detection of displacements interferometry in the range of mm to m and laser scanning methods are available should be Areal displacement, sensitive to vegetation cover, applied to get dense point clouds and high-resolu- UAV-Photo- detection of displacements in the range of cm grammetry tion DEMs. If multi-temporal scanning and imaging to dm was done displacement maps can be obtained. New GNSS, Manually or automatically, pointwise measurement advanced methods based on image processing and fea- Tachymetry, with reflectors, 3D displacement vectors, detection ture tracking of terrain breaklines enable the extrac- Levelling of displacements in the range of mm to cm tion of 3D displacement vectors of the surface (Fey Drillings and tube installations needed, exact et al. 2015; Jaboyedoff et al. 2012; Razak et al. 2011). detection and localisation of active shear zones Terrestrial radar interferometry (TRI, GB-InSAR) (rupture planes), detection of displacements in the range of mm to cm, rapid loss of the inclinometer can also be applied by installing the system on the Inclinometer ground mostly opposite of the slope to be monitored. device through shearing of the borehole, expensive, preliminary rock slide model required to define The radar interferometry method is able to detect and borehole location and depth correct, detection quantify deformations from repeat monitoring set- of displacements in the range of mm to dm ups of extremely slow moving rock walls and slopes (millimetres per year) to slow/moderate movements (metres per day) acquired during episodic and con- individual targets installed on a rock slide (Carla et al. tinuous measurement campaigns (Bardi et al. 2014; 2019). When these systems are automated they form Caduff et al. 2015; Crosta et al. 2013; Cruden and robust permanent monitoring and warning systems. Varnes 1996). Generally, pointwise inclination data of 3D displace- Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) represents a fur- ment vectors are particularly useful to develop pre- ther useful method for spatial change detection anal- liminary kinematical models of a rock slide (i.e. rota- yses and deformation monitoring (Fey and Wich- tional or planar sliding mechanism). mann 2017; Jaboyedoff et al. 2012). The long-range TLS method enable contact-free measurements of that rock slide deformation accumulates primarily the terrain, and depending on the distance, is able to alongResults basal fromand internal exploration shear campaignszones (Noveraz confirmed 1996; measure slope deformations of decimetres per year. Zangerl et al. 2015). Detection of these shear zones Although TLS is less accurate than GB-InSAR, it has is crucial to establish a sound geometrical model and the advantage that measurements can also be carried to determine the extension of the rock slide into the out in forested and vegetated areas by getting the ter- depths. Thus line-shaped measurements along a ver- rain surface recorded. tical borehole by inclinometer devices, installed for UAV-based photogrammetry is a cost- and time-ef- episodic or continuous (i.e. in-place systems) meas- fective method which can be applied to monitor rock urement are needed (Stark and Choi 2008). During slide deformations in a sparsely vegetated area by the - acquisition of multi-temporal high-resolution images nometer tube and the fractured rock mass is required (Cardenal et al. 2008). Image matching and correla- toinstallation transmit athe solid shear mechanical displacements infill between to the tubethe incli and tion algorithms deliver time-series of surface defor- to obtain accurate measurements. In order to get mation models which enable the determination of time intervals should be planned between the base- and geomorphological terrain changes (Casagli et al. lineinterpretable and the follow-up measurement measurements results sufficient for very slow long 2017).movement Although directions, this method velocity is fields, fast andvolume inexpensive, balances and deep-seated rock slides. Incorrect conclusions of a major disadvantage is that areas with dense vegeta- measured data are quite common, especially for deep tion cover cannot be successfully recorded. installations, and therefore a critical assessment con- Traditional total station or differential global sidering the geological model and the application of positioning system (GNSS) measurements are reli- systematic error correction methods is recommended able methods to obtain 3D displacement vectors of (Mikkelsen 2003; Willenberg et al. 2003). Investigations and monitoring of deep-seated rock slides 215

5. Geological-geotechnical subsurface the complex and heterogeneous hydrogeological situ- characterization ation of a rock slide suggests the installation of several monitoring piezometers at various locations in the slope (Moore 1999). Groundwater may occur in high- Subsurface in-situ investigations are usually not part ly fractured sections which can hardly be predicted in of an initial feasibility study but may become impor- many cases. Furthermore, hydrogeological rock mass tant when potential dam foundation sites need assess- parameters such as hydraulic conductivity or storativ- ment concerning the occurrence of ancient deep-seat- ity values at in-situ scale can be determined for exam- ed rock slides. Therefore, a more detailed study is ple by borehole-based hydraulic packer tests, both required to investigate the geological and hydrogeo- for the bedrock and the rockslide mass. Again, a high logical characteristics of rock slides. Although costly, number of tests is required because of the typically subsurface investigations based on core drillings with heterogeneous nature due to fracturing and fragmen- borehole loggings in combination with inclinome- tation of deep-seated rock slides. These parameters ter measurements and/or investigation drifts are are required to analyse and forecast the future impact required to improve the rock slide model obtained solely from surface data and to localise the basis/ on slope behaviour. The detection of water barriers thickness of the rock slide mass and shear zones. If withof initial low reservoirhydraulic impoundingconductivities, and such level as fluctuations compacted the rock slide is inactive or extremely slow inclinome- till covers or thick fault gouge-shear zones is highly ter measurements are not able to localise shear zones, relevant in this context, given that they could have at least not within a reasonable period of time. Under a strong impact on time-depending groundwater such conditions a detailed geological core logging is needed provided that the drilling quality is high and the core recovery high. Core drillings into deep-seated fluctuations. rock slides are technically challenging and should be 7. Discussion and Conclusion done by experienced drilling companies to maximize the gain in knowledge. Fluctuations of the rock qual- In the future the number of large-scale dam and res- ity designation values (RQD) between low and high, ervoir projects will increase. Many of them will be increased fracture densities, weathering and coating planned in rock slide-prone areas. In an early planning of fracture surfaces, and sections of fault-zone like stage comprehensive feasibility studies for dam reser- totally crushed material (clay to gravel grain fraction) voirs are essential to avoid stability problems of dam are typical characteristics of rock slide masses (Zan- foundations or reservoir slopes. All the ancillary data gerl et al. 2010, 2014, 2015). Very low RQD values and methods mentioned above focus on the detection are usually observed around the basal contact or in and localisation of ancient i.e. pre-existing deep-seat- the surrounding of internal shear zones. It should be ed rock slides which can adversely affect infrastruc- noted that the degree of internal rock mass fragmen- ture in the surrounding of dam reservoirs. Experienc- tation and loosening of a rock slide is often related to es show that multidisciplinary approaches including the accumulated amount of slope displacements. high-resolution digital elevation models beside defor- Geophysical investigations based on advanced data mation models and instrumented core drillings are processing allows a further improvement of the geo- - logical-geometrical model. Seismic methods by com- ment. Data from geomorphological-geological surveys,the basis surface for anda successful subsurface identification investigations, and if assess possi- usually meaningful results of the subsurface, but ble, and deformation measurements are needed for requirebining reflection, a qualitative refraction interpretation and tomography of the results, provide ide- a comprehensive feasibility study i) to identify, local- ally by joint analyses with borehole data (Brückl and ise and map ancient rock slides and landslide-prone Brückl 2006; Brückl et al. 2006; Frei and Keller 2000). areas, ii) to establish preliminary geological-geometrical rock slide models by considering its complexity due to the formation of different slabs, iii) to assess 6. Hydrogeological characterization the present activity of the rock slides, and iv) to provide data for subsequent more detailed planning and If a dam reservoir is planned in a rock slide prone investigation. All these data form the basis for further area information about the hydrogeological situation project planning and risk assessments, whereby the is particularly mandatory. This is especially true since importance of a high-resolution digital elevation model with a raster size <1 m must be emphasized. The system within the slope differently (Strauhal et al. early stage of a dam reservoir project is also ideal for 2016;the reservoir Zangerl etmay al. influence2015). Monitoring the groundwater of piezometric flow hydrogeological, geomechanical and hydro-mechani- heights in boreholes is suggested to assess ground- cal coupled numerical modelling (Alonso and Pinyol - 2011). All of the abovementioned data should be sure distributions, as well as the hydro-mechanical implemented in detailed numerical models to analyse coupledwater flow characteristics systems and (Crosta time-depending et al. 2014). pore Typically, pres

the potential impact of the first infillings, water level 216 Christian Zangerl, Thomas Strauhal

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Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development, Czechia * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article presents results of the research focused on reading assignments in geography teaching. The approaches of Czech geography teachers to reading assignments are explored by using the method of grounded theory. Altogether 22 teachers from secondary school participated in the research. The typology of teacher approaches and the identification of factors that influence the teacher’s inclusion of reading assignments in the disciplines was developed. The teachers’ attitudes show that their preferences in the general notion of (not only) geography are reflected, and that the constructs of their beliefs or personal theory play an important role. These factors can take on both supportive and limiting forms, depending on the context that is shown in the article with the aid of a paradigmatic model. The results are situated in relation to the teacher’s professional learning.

KEYWORDS reading assignments; geography; professional knowledge; vision and action; teacher’s beliefs; grounded theory; secondary school; Czechia

Received: 6 September 2019 Accepted: 27 July 2020 Published online: 4 November 2020

Kafková, M., Řezníčková, D. (2020): Reading assignments in geography instruction: a (non-)functional part of a teacher’s approach. AUC Geographica 55(2), 218–228 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.16 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). Reading assignments in geography instruction 219

1. Reading in geography: a typology Connection 2013; The New Zealand Curriculum 2009) of teacher’s approach that systematically detail requirements for reading in - mentation of reading in subject areas. This is partly The topic of reading literacy of students is frequent- becausethe disciplines teachers has have a significant standards impact with a onobligatory the imple or ly discussed in the academic community. Our article focuses on reading in the disciplines or on the read- in changes in teacher education (Gilles et al. 2013). ing of students in subjects beyond the Czech language. Arecommended consistent theme nature. throughout This emphasis the is cited also reflectedsources We examine how teachers approach the inclusion of focused on how teachers could develop or are devel- reading in the teaching of geography and which fac- oping the literacy of their students, because reading – and writing as well – is a natural part of the discipline Czech academic literature lacks a developed dis- in question. The question “why” read in various sub- cussiontors influence of reading their in approach. the disciplines. Czech academic jects no longer receives the emphasis; it is more about interest focuses primarily on pre-literacy and begin- “how” to read in the subjects. ning literacy. Havlínová (2016) summarizes develop- If students are to meet and learn from a vari- ments in these areas. Research examining the current ety of texts in the school’s subjects, then they need state and development of literacy among students appropriate support or guidance from the teacher. from the second level of elementary schools and sec- We agree with Hattie (2012) that, while teaching ondary schools is less frequent. Radváková’s (2015) students depends on many factors, the teacher – his article exploring secondary school student reading is or her beliefs and grasp of the responsibility for stu- one example. dent learning along with corresponding actions – has In Anglo-Saxon countries (UK, USA, Australia, New the greatest instructional impact (Hattie 2012). We Zealand) there are a number of papers that discuss expect that students make the greatest progress as their teachers view themselves as those that adjust knowledge and skills in various school’s subjects. This teaching by consistently observing their work through isthe due benefits to the offact reading that the (and deliberate writing) development in developing of the results of teaching each of their students and seek reading in the disciplines began to be supported as improvement. Among other things, this requires early as the 1920s (Shanahan, Shanahan 2012). Since knowledge of their own discipline and strategies or about the early 1990s, there have been some changes approaches for reaching desired outcomes with stu- in the concept and directions of research relating to dents. Directing research at teachers and exploring reading in the disciplines (Shanahan 2013). The pub- what they know or what they believe can be ground- lication of Shanahan and Shanahan’s (2008) article, ed in the conclusions of several authors (Korthagen in which they present a model of disciplinary literacy, 2011; Timperley 2011; Hattie 2012; Slavík et al. 2014 can be viewed as a turning point. It is characterized and others), who consider it fundamental to start pro- by a shift from the simple using of general reading fessional development by uncovering what a teacher strategies (content area reading) towards the more the focus of future professional learning. literacy. The authors argue that general reading strat- alreadyWe anchor knows, a canteacher’s do, thinks, approach and only to reading then defining in the egiescontent-specific should be adaptedreadings to that the comprisevarious disciplines disciplinary in such a way as to help students not only to read, but and Janík (2012) in relation to three basic elements also to think, write, communicate and act in a way that ofdisciplines teacher professionalism. with reference to Teacher’s the authors approach Minaříková is primarily based on professional knowing. This includes teaching is not a state in which each student achieves a teacher’s acquired knowledge, skills and beliefs thereflects same the level specifics of reading, of the discipline. respectively The disciplinary aim of such concerning reading in the disciplines as well as oth- literacy in different subjects. Rather, the object is for - students, regardless of their varied interests (some are more into geography, others history and others er areas (knowledge of student, selection and fulfil- are musically inclined), to be able to read, write and terment of ofteacher’s selected professional goals, etc., seevision. Griffith We understandand Lacina think independently in various disciplinary situations. this(2017). as the Second, ability it tois observe,also influenced carry out by pedagogicalthe charac The existence of this ongoing academic debate in Anglo-Saxon countries about why and how to uti- context. Third, a teacher’s approach expresses itself lize reading in subjects does not mean that there is inreflection professional and interpret action, in observations the way that ina teacher their broader utiliz- not room for improvement in school practices. Many es reading in geography instruction. We followed our teachers use reading in the disciplines only on rare research to at least partially explore teacher knowing occasions, taking a skeptical stance to the method and vision regarding reading in the disciplines. We (e.g. Moje 2008). Nonetheless, the existence of various consider a teacher’s beliefs to be an important part curricular documents (e.g. Common Core State Stan- of professional knowing, which may or may not be dards 2010; Next Generation Science Standards 2013; the engine of his action. To state it more precisely, we Common Core English Language Arts and Geography view a teacher’s beliefs – in agreement with Hutner 220 Michala Kafková, Dana Řezníčková and Markman (2016) – as a so-called enabling mental Problem-oriented and Source-oriented), character- structure that only impacts his or her actions if it is ized by certain map skills. Discussing their results, active in a given moment and context. they point out the mutual relationship between pre- Teacher approaches to reading in the disciplines ferred map skills and geographic skills, in other words, share similar characteristics with concepts such a teacher’s general view of geography instruction. as subjective theories, personal theories, teacher’s thoughts or instructional approaches. These concepts differ in several respects, but they all involve mental 2. Research methodology structures that the teacher formulates, they tend to be The initial state of knowledge on the issue of reading ultimate actions. Grasping these concepts for the pur- rather stable, and they significantly impact a teacher’s focus of our research, which seeks a deeper under- as implicit, relatively unconscious and unbounded standingin the disciplines, of geography as described teacher approachesabove, influenced regarding the constructsposes of research (Janík 2005;is quite Koubek difficult, 2015). due to their nature the inclusion of reading in geography instruction. We have narrowed the scope of this otherwise broad categorizing teacher approaches to geography Some issue with a central research question: methodologicalWe did not find guidance examples were of theacademic studies research Catling (2004) and Hanus, Havelková (2018). Catling’s wor How do teachers approach the inclusion of reading into geography lessons? expanded upon Walford’s typology from 1996 add- ingreflects to the the initial overall question concept “What of geography. is geography?” Catling a The unresearched nature of the topic helped second question “Why teach geography?” Hanus and determine our methodological approach: qualitative Havelková (2018) build upon the Catling’s work by research. The grounded theory method was chosen studying geography teachers’ approaches for devel- as a research design. We employed the framework oping map skills in schools in Czechia. They identi- designed by Strauss and Corbin (1999). Following the principles of qualitative research (e.g. Hendl 2005), in fied three types of geography teachers (Navigators,

Tab. 1 Basic characteristics of respondents.

Teacher Sex Age Type of school Regions A Woman 40–49 Elementary school South Bohemian Region C Man 30–39 Elementary school South-Moravian region D Man 40–49 Extended length grammar school Prague E Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Prague F Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Prague G Man 20–29 Extended length grammar school Prague H Woman 30–39 Elementary school Olomouc region CH Woman 30–39 Elementary school Moravian-Silesian Region I Woman 30–39 Elementary school Moravian-Silesian Region J Woman 30–39 Elementary school Vysočina Region K Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Prague L Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Central Bohemian Region M Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school South Bohemian Region N Woman 30–39 Elementary school Vysočina Region O Man 30–39 Elementary school Central Bohemian Region P Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Prague R Man 30–39 Extended length grammar school Prague S Woman 20–29 Extended length grammar school Prague T Man 40–49 Elementary school Moravian-Silesian Region V Woman 40–49 Extended length grammar school Prague Y Man 20–29 Elementary school South Bohemian Region Z Woman 30–39 Elementary school Moravian-Silesian Region

Source: own research investigation Reading assignments in geography instruction 221 the process of carrying out the research, we further in geography instruction) and other parts that we

as detailed below. They are: 1)specified What types our objectives of approaches with two to disciplinary related questions: reading a)define, causal in accordance conditions, with i.e. Straussconditions and orCorbin factors (1998), that are obvious to geography teachers? led to the occurrence of a certain manifestation – 2) What causes the apparent similarities and differ- e.g. inspiration from colleagues; ences among teacher approaches? b) intervening conditions, i.e. conditions or factors tied to a teacher’s strategies for acting – e.g. time The research included 22 geography teachers, for reading; which were known to have some experience with c) context, i.e. conditions or factors describing the incorporating reading into their instruction. Half of circumstances in which a manifestation occurs – the respondents (i.e. 11) were from extended length e.g. to what level does the entire school, or col- (6 or 8 years) grammar schools, while the other por- leagues from the teaching staff, support literacy tion represented elementary schools (for more infor- development; d) strategies for action, i.e. a teacher’s strategies for teachers. Primarily, these were teachers with connec- realizing reading in the disciplines leading toward tionsmation to see the Table Reading 1). All & wereWriting fully for qualified Critical geography Thinking a certain purpose for certain conditions and in program or the project “We help schools succeed”. a certain context – e.g. a teacher uses reading to We made no distinctions considering the types of awaken student interest about a research question experience teachers had with reading; for example, or topic; whether a teacher regularly included reading, the e) consequences of action, i.e. student activities ways that students worked with texts, how their work related to reading in the disciplines that result was evaluated, etc. We employed this targeted selec- from the actions of the teacher – e.g. students tion because of the character of the central research working with tables and graphs. question and in accordance with qualitative research The categories were placed into the model such - that their position would correspond as much as ered it necessary to collect data from teachers who possible with their respective functions within the performmethods reading (Švaříček in geography,and Šeďová in 2007).order to We obtain consid the schema (e.g. inspiration from colleagues is a causal widest possible repertoire of responses from teachers condition leading to a manifestation, i.e. the inclusion who themselves state that they have experience with of reading into a geography class). The placement of reading. viewpoints within the relationships was later con- Data collection was carried out initially from 2013 to 2015 and then again in 2017. Teachers answered, adjustments were made. in writing, nine open questions that were divided firmed with actual survey data and any necessary into two surveys. We chose to use written responses in order to allow respondents time to think over Tab. 2 Set of questions for teachers. the answers to conceptual questions. Table 2 show all questions. In this paper, we present the results of an A set of questions focused A set of questions focused primarily on reading in the primarily on the concept of the analysis of the three questions used (in Table 2 they discipline: goals of geographical education: are highlighted in bold). This questions focus primari- Why do you include reading What are the goals in your ly on the concept of reading in geography instruction. a geographical text in the geography instruction? The remaining concerned the preferred objectives of geography instruction? geographical education and the evaluating the com- When including a reading Do you perceive other goals plexity of texts use in geography lessons. These were – you proceed rather from in the geography instruction, which analyzed in a separate research. a specific text for various reasons can only be – or are you looking for text for Data analysis was broken into three phases. achieved with difficulty in schools? open coding, involved word-for- a given topic and skills used? word exploration of teachers’ answers followed by What do you see as the specificity of the geographical way of The first phase, What criteria do you consider thinking when looking at specific as important for assessing the entire sentences) that were marked with terms. Over phenomena, problems on difficulty of a geographical text? the courseclassification of the research,of significant these units terms (words, were phrases,general- Earth (please specific students ized into categories. activities)? The second phase, axial coding What influences your approach Does reading have the learning connections among the discovered categories, search- to choosing a text and potential to pursue geographical ing for correlations or possible causal, sought relationships. to define evaluating its difficulty? goals? If so, try to specify it. For this phase, we used a paradigm model, which we Does the development of tailored to our research and which can be seen in reading literacy at your school Figure 1. The paradigm model shows relationships be supported? a central phenomenon (i.e. the inclusion of reading Source: own research investigation 222 Michala Kafková, Dana Řezníčková

The intent of the third phase, selective cod- Tab. 3 Typology of teacher approaches to reading in the disciplines. ing Student activity (scale of thinking skills explanatory whole that would enable us to answer + frequency of participation in the learning the ,research was to focus questions. the findings This phase into involveda purposeful the crea and- process) tion of a typology of teacher approaches to reading in Type of reading Emphasis on simple Use of more complex the disciplines and identifying factors impacting the in geography thinking skills thinking skills inclusion of reading into geography instruction. instruction Less active and Active and frequent occasional inclusion inclusion of students of students in the in the learning 3. Research results learning process process Reading to add variety to geography Type Emerging Type Bridging We structure the research results into two parts, instruction which correspond with the secondary research ques- Reading as a natural tions. They are interconnected because they arise out and functional Type Partly Type Fluent of the selective coding of respondent answers and are part of geography developing supported in the paradigm model (Figure 1). instruction What types of approaches to disciplinary reading Source: authors are obvious to geography teachers? Already during open coding, it gradually became clear that the individual statements of teachers have similar features and it would therefore be possible to distinguish several types. There was a fundamental created utilizes two criteria identified during the step in the choice of such aspects that would allow axial and selective coding phases. The first point of- the creation of a typology with a robust construc- tionclassification in the learning is student process activity – as declared– based onby cognitiveteachers. difficulty and/or the frequency of student participa tion (Šeďová, Švaříček 2013). The typology we have The second axis of classification is the way a teacher

Fig. 1 Paradigm model “The inclusion of reading in geography instruction”. Source: authors Reading assignments in geography instruction 223 connects reading with the attainment of geographic Teacher K, for example, states: objectives. Whether reading is more of a coinciden- tal element of instruction that a teacher includes to add variety, or reading is included more frequently geography. With the exception of reading maps – in oth- and serves as a means of encouraging student think- erI am disciplines not sure ofthis anything skill is rarelythat is used;‘specific’ perhaps, to reading graphs in ing, or a teacher connects geographic and reading and tables – they are used in a minority of subjects. I objectives. consider reading maps, not only general geographic The two classifying points mentioned divided maps, but particularly themed maps, to be the most respondents into four types (see Table 3). important addition to literacy.

3.1 Type Emerging Another purpose that these teachers pursue through reading is support for student thinking or Emerging type teachers view reading as a means to certain communication skills. liven up geography instruction, either by its content An example is the approach of Teacher M, who uses or by simply replacing a standard teacher lecture with reading of texts from the Internet to train students’ a different source of information – geography text- systematic thinking: book, travelogue or magazine article. This is the case, for example, of Teacher V, who Hypertext by its very nature is not conceived linearly. states: It does not dictate a hierarchical structure. That structure is constructed by the reader. In other words, it is I use geographic magazines to enliven instruction. I the same as if a reader opened a book to a random page, select articles that will capture students’ interest and read it and then randomly continued to another, and so increase their knowledge. Primarily, these are articles on and so on, and yet it would make sense from the read- concerning the life of inhabitants of a given country or er’s point of view. This brilliant thought does not work, natural or cultural points of interest. of course, unless the reader is familiar with the principle of hierarchy; the result is a chaotic succession of pag- Reading represents a way to add variety to instruc- es with no rhyme or reason that is everything but not tion or an occasional method that does not engage stu- something meaningful. In short, new sources of infor- dents in the learning process. The educational poten- mation lack what books have, a sense of succession and tial of texts is not fully realized. Students read them order, provided by someone who is headed somewhere primarily in order to seek new information. Teachers and who knows where he is headed. - ing has for student learning or their beliefs are not Student activities working with texts are not often inof linethis withtype theirtend actions.Into be unsure this ofregard, the benefits they mention read included, but they involve higher level thinking and students are, therefore, able to actively participate example, the number of students in a class, disinterest in the teaching process. Teachers of this type are the ofthe students, limiting influencelack of texts. of a Somevarious teachers external speak factors, of thefor least represented in the research sample. importance of supporting the development of student literacy, but in subsequent statements they either fail 3.3 Type Partly developing to support it more or rebut it altogether. An example is Teacher P’s opinion: Teachers of this type generally believe in reading’s importance in teaching students and view reading as I think that reading texts is a fundamental part of a tool that enables students to think and participate in instruction in any discipline. … The reality of geography their own learning. instruction and the utilization of opportunities to read For example, according to Teacher L: texts from the discipline is rather marginal. Particular- ly, due to the wide variety of curriculum and the time Students are improving in working with text. While available for this discipline. It could be used as a form of working with text, students are actively engaged in the home preparation (homework – read the text and based learning process. In other words, ‘Every thought spoken by the teacher is a shame.’ sort of diagram (outline or blank map). on the items learned fill in a crossword puzzle or some Partly developing type teachers include reading in 3.2 Type Bridging instruction fairly frequently, though it is not clearly systematic and goal oriented. It is characteristic Bridging type teachers that they Intellectually more challenging student activi- include reading in instruction somewhat irregularly ties are included rather intuitively. However, teacher responses show a level of uncertainty about how to be an emphasis on reading non-linear texts, such as implement reading in the disciplines. E.g. teachers variouscombined tables, with graphsa certain, or specificmaps. objective. This could use modal verbs: “Texts can be good to tune in to the 224 Michala Kafková, Dana Řezníčková topic, they can help to get students’ attention, their their own active involvement in learning. Teachers also emphasize students learning one other. fact that, unlike their counterparts abroad, they are E.g. Teacher J: notinterest”, equipped teacher with N. know-how This is likely regarding influenced possibilities by the for reading in the disciplines (how to read with stu- On a simple level – searching for and sorting informa- dents, how to select and assess texts, etc.). This type of teacher approach is the most common in the research the text is always written from some point of view. It is sample. thetion. basis More for difficult further leveldiscussion – the andability the toability perceive to defend that one’s opinion. 3.4 Type Fluent Type D teachers tend to see themselves as readers This type of teacher sees reading as an integral part - of geography instruction. Their beliefs is founded ment of student reading. both on the indispensability of reading for active stu- and/orNo distinct teachers boundaries that are responsible separate for the the typesdevelop of dent learning as well as reading’s contribution to the approaches. This is due to the complexity of research achievement of a broader spectrum of geographic topic and the fact that teachers can shift among objectives1. In contrast to the preceding type, Type the various types of approaches as they develop Fluent seeks to add a systematic and more compre- professionally. hensive approach to the inclusion of reading. This is What causes the apparent similarities or differences among teacher approaches? skills that aid in the comprehension and in further The typology of teacher approaches to reading in workmanifest, with first, texts. in teacher efforts to develop literacy the disciplines described above is based on a combi- Teacher A, for example, defends her approach: - Students learn to think in broader contexts, to view plines.nation However,of two points the reality of classification is more complicated or factors – that the issues critically, to not fear speaking up, or to change teacher’sinfluence approachteachers’ isapproaches shaped by toa number reading ofin otherthe disci fac- their opinions after gaining new information … to this tors. Moreover, even within one type, teachers do not point, I think, only ‘working with texts,’ as yet, I have not show completely identical features. A deeper under- focused intentionally on the development of reading strategies. I am learning to work with that. thestanding research, is significantly which are part aided of the by causal, the paradigmatic intervening Second, it is manifest by teachers thinking about conditionsmodel (Figure and 1). the It widercaptures context. the factors These identified factors are by how to connect the objectives of geography instruc- interconnected and operate directly or indirectly in tion with the potential of a text and the needs of their various phases of the implementation of reading in students. - Teacher O, for example, states: tors is dependent on the teacher’s approach and his or herthe disciplines.subsequent Theactions specific which form impact of the student defining activi fac- I cannot imagine that anyone would not read in geogra- ties. As such it is important to also consider what led phy. I do not focus reading on textbooks, I use a variety and leads teachers to include reading, what type of environment they work in and any other factors that may impact their work. it?of textsDoes fromit contain magazines many foreignor from words? the web. How I must long find are The research demonstrates the variety of rea- theout sentences?how difficult Is itthe complicated? text is. Will I students try to read, understand at least a sons, i.e. causal conditions, that motivate teachers to bit – at least a paragraph, in every class. Read in a variety include reading. Most frequently, teachers spoke of of ways. Don’t let it be a simple read through a textbook. the importance of reading for teaching students at I must know why I am inserting it, why a child should the general level. For example, Teacher CH observed, read in this class. What objectives am I following? Two that: objectives – literacy – I lead them to read also by the things that I present to them. In my opinion students much more easily remember learning material that they have studied themselves and - discussed among themselves. ities that require higher thinking skills and, therefore, This teacher approach is reflected in student activ Some teachers noted the importance of teaching with geographic objectives. Responses also frequently 1 We cannot claim that other types of teachers did not recognize a connection between reading and geography instruc- indicated that reading is a means for enlivening geog- tion, but this connection differs. It is either not consciously raphy instruction. Responses of teachers indicates - that the way to more thoroughly integrate reading can ic objectives – for example, reading to attain some isolated truly begin with the “mere” enlivening of instruction. information.considered or it fits within a narrow spectrum of geograph

Specifically, Teacher A states: Reading assignments in geography instruction 225

captivating, to make classes more entertaining – for stu- and reading is often done automatically, without think- dentsThe very and first certainly motivator for me, was as towell. make I tried instruction to both topics more ing.It is Sometimesdifficult to theyretain do students’ not even attention know what during they classread that came up in the textbook – monsoons – along with about. For this reason, the texts should not be very long, topics that were only marginally related to the class’s enough to read in 10 or 15 minutes. content and which may correspond with a current event. From this teacher’s claim, we can deduce that stu- Some teachers consider changes in topic to be dent lack of attention is perceived as a threat that enlivening to instruction (focus on interesting, or could limit the inclusion of reading in instruction. current-event topics or traditional topics viewed We can also determine that the teacher lacks under- differently). Others see reading as another form of standing and know-how, concerning reading in the instruction, enabling students to engage in the learning process more thoroughly. For example, Teacher to bring any structure to reading assignments, he N thinks that: “a well selected text can surprise, fre- doesdisciplines. not work Specifically, with literacy the teacherobjectives does (this not becomes appear quently raising additional questions and at times even clear from the statement “what they read about”), emotional responses.” A fourth reason that expressed and reading is given relatively little time, limiting the itself rather infrequently in teacher responses was opportunity for students think more deeply. inspiration from colleagues or schoolwide focus. Based on the data, it was not possible to clearly Teacher N mentions this reason: determine whether the factor summarily labelled as “type of texts utilized” has a supporting or limiting nature. From teacher responses, we can only deduce in paired instruction. This colleague frequently works that teachers supporting reading utilize texts that withIn part, texts I was and influenced she persuaded by cooperation me in this with direction a colleague upon encourage student thinking (e.g. by containing vari- my return from maternity leave. ous points of view regarding a given issue). The fact that many teachers mention a lack of appropriate In reality as teacher responses demonstrate (see teacher N), it is a combination of various causal fac- should not be overlooked. tors that encourages teachers to include reading in texts or difficulty finding and obtaining such texts instruction. The combination of an attempt to enliven 4. Discussion and conclusions student learning was common. Some teachers per- instruction and to tap into the benefits of reading for- The research revealed that between the approaches of tion in the learning process, as they ponder over texts. geography teachers to the inclusion of reading, there Onceive the benefits other hand, of reading however, in students’ teacher activeresponses participa make are certain identical, resp. different features, which it clear that they include reading rather infrequently allowed the creation of a typology. The types were dis- to add variety to instruction. As soon as a teacher includes reading in a geogra- and were called Emerging, Bridging, Partly develop- - ingtinguished and Fluent. on the The basis boundaries of two classificationbetween the individaspects- ual types are not sharp, teachers can switch between phy instruction, a number of factors arise and influ types during their professional learning and the thatence eitherits implementation. does or does notOne support significant reading factor across is the approach of the included teachers is not completely allcontext, subjects. i.e. Thisthe specific lies in the situation presence at (ora given absence) school of identical within any type. This is due to the complexi- literacy within a school’s educational plan, in oppor- ty of the phenomenon, which largely captures the Par- tunities for cooperation and additional teacher train- adigmatic model developed by the authors (Figure 1). ing in reading in the disciplines, etc. No less important - is the school’s culture, which Hattie (2012) considers cantly helps to individualize each case. The typology an integral part of any long-term improvement of ofThe approaches paradigmatic will model indicate is alsowhat a typetool ofthat approach signifi learning teachers and students. Intervening condi- corresponds to a particular teacher, but examining tions include factors that can either help or hinder the the relationships and forms of individual conditions inclusion of reading in instruction. Table 4 presents (context), strategies of action, and consequences will all factors, including a description of these two sides, allow the teacher’s approach to be better understood. In our proposed typology, the so-called zero type is Whether the character of a given factor proved to be missing. That is, a type of teacher who would not supportingthough we door limitingfind smooth arises transitions out of the betweenresearch’s them. the- include reading in teaching at all. With regard to the oretical framework with additional support from the situation in contemporary Czech education, however, data gathered. The ultimate character of a factor was we do not anticipate this situation, because textbooks often determined by recognizing clues in the teacher and atlases are part of school’s lessons and a certain responses. reading of texts, including maps therefore takes place For example, Teacher P writes: at least sometimes. 226 Michala Kafková, Dana Řezníčková

Tab. 4 Factors influencing teachers in including reading in geography instruction.

Factor Supporting in nature Limiting in nature Position of school leadership Support from school leadership and colleagues. Negative or neutral position from school leadership and colleagues regarding student Teachers develop cooperation and take inspiration and colleagues. Teachers do not work together. literacy development from one another. Teacher believes in the benefits of reading – Teacher is skeptical of the benefits of reading, Teacher beliefs concerning for developing thinking and learning and reading is more of a marginal activity, separated the importance of reading for learning geography. from other activities in geography instruction. Teacher knows the scale of literacy skills, works Teacher is not familiar with the possibilities of Teacher’s professional with objectives, provides feedback, continually utilizing literacy skills, does not work with objectives, preparedness develops his or her professional knowledge and does not provide feedback, does not develop skills vision, utilizes assessments of student performance. for including texts in instruction. Reading is an accessory tool of geography Role of reading in attaining Reading is a tool of geography instruction and/or instruction, operating simply as a means of geographic objectives one of the objectives of geography education. enlivening instruction. Teacher has a clear understanding of the benefits Teacher is unsure, grasps certain aspects of reading’s Relationship between beliefs of reading and employs strategies to effectively importance, but the connection between beliefs and action include reading in instruction. and action is contradictory. Student factors (interest Viewed as circumstances that should be anticipated /disinterest; attention; class size; Viewed as limits or threats. and around which instruction should be planned. level of literacy skills; etc.) Teacher is skeptical, does not have clear Teacher actively searches for texts, thinks about Lack of texts objectives for working with texts and, as a result, what types of texts and why he/she is searching. does not know what texts to seek. Reading is including infrequently and at random. Reading is included regularly and often. Time is set Reading and reading assignments are given Time for reading apart for individual reading and reading assignments a limited amount of time, which hardly allows are broad enough to allow students to ponder. students to think on the readings.

* The order in which the factors are presented does not reflect their significance regarding reading in the disciplines. Source: authors

Teachers do not seem to integrate reading with including reading as “activating students”, and the the primary goal of developing reading strategies (as statements of teachers type Partly developing, who mentioned content area reading). Similarly, it is not already talk about active learning of students and possible to document the approach of teachers that distinguish them from another form, although not would correspond to the disciplinary literacy. Rath- directly talking about it. A similar conclusion can be er, the assembled data show that geography teach- found in the research of Hanus and Havelková (2018) ers incorporate reading more or less intuitively and in connection with the preferred mapping skills. Fur- that teacher’s approach to reading in the disciplines thermore, it would be possible to examine whether and under what condition the implementation of of teaching, which have a variety of impacts on the reading can contribute to the sharing of the teach- teachingseems to ofreflect students. preferences If a teacher of their prefers general instruction concept er’s concept of teaching. Considering the impacts of that is rather “encyclopedic” in nature, during which learning on students, Pearson et al. (2010) consider a students are less active and tend to be mere passive teacher’s approach that enables students to carry out receivers of prepared facts or interesting informa- real, practical activities (“hands on”) and use reading tion, then reading will likely be less interesting to the and writing as necessary tools to unlock additional teacher. Any potential student reading leads to the mere searching for facts. In an opposite case, when a cited authors base their opinions on a number of proj- teacher prefers student activities that require great- ectsspecifics (e.g. ofScience the discipline IDEAS, Guided to be most Inquiry beneficial. supporting The er participation in the process of learning geography Multiple Literacies), which share a common empha- and by studying geography and additional cross-dis- sis on the connection of inquiry-based science and the ciplinary skills (e.g. cooperation), this focus becomes inclusion of reading and writing. This does not mean evident in the manner of reading and utilizing texts. that learning facts is not necessary, but it is not effec- Of course, a number of variations exist between these tive to continue to do only that. This approach most two distinctive types. Research also suggests that reading could be a tool to allow teachers to change research. their teaching. This is indicated by the statements nearlyA teacher’s approximates approach type is Fluent not formed as defined on its in own our of teachers type Emerging, who state the reason for

but is influenced by mutually connected factors that Reading assignments in geography instruction 227 impact the implementation of reading in the disci- by Milner et al. (2012), whose results suggest that plines at differing degrees and in different times. In teachers’ own beliefs may be delayed (in the event the paradigm model (Figure 1), these factors take the of a change in the way disciplines are taught). Their form of causal or intervening conditions or the con- - text, in which a teacher works. Rather than present ion than by their own. It is possible that some of the a list of supporting or limiting factors, the research teachersfinal action involved are more in influencedour research by maythe expected have had opin this proposes that the factors be viewed as being either feeling as well. This would be indicated, for example, supporting or limiting in nature (Table 4). Lazarová et al. (2012) view factors in a similar way, though in A way of talking in which teachers feel safe and feel connection with organizational teaching. They point thatby uncertain there are wording no “right” about answers the couldbenefits help. of Thereading. sec- - possible that a factor could be considered an obstacle ing) of certain term. A typical example is the word toout teaching that it depends by one teacher on the specificand yet situation.serve as a Itstimulus is even “text”.ond pitfall It is possibleis the inconsistent that teachers definition imagine (understand only contin- for positive change for another. For example, student uous texts, for example, as text. The choice of a written disinterest can lead either to the reluctant inclusion inquiry is also debatable. This is because two teachers of reading, with a noticeable lack of student participation, or to the searching out of texts and teaching and in general that it was not possible to responsi- methods that would increase student interest. The blyfrom interpret the sample their we answers addressed and answeredinclude them so briefly in the factors probably affect all teachers, but their specif- research. Nevertheless, this experience is also impor- ic form differs, and it is partly possible to say that tant, as it can indicate the uncertainty of teachers and teachers of, for example, type Emerging are united by their educational needs. The third limit concerns the - ically report that reading takes up little space in les- grounded theory. Although coding was done by two son.a certain Type form Fluent of ateachers specific factor.often include These teachers reading typand authors,choice of it researchmust be addedtool, specificallythat the resulting the method typology, of working with text is a key activity for students during including the compiled paradigmatic model, is prob- the lesson. Research does not allow this statement to abilistic. It would be possible to explore the approach be transferred to the whole set of factors and all types to reading in the discipline for a wider range of teach- of approaches. Further research could focus on exam- ers – without our chosen deliberate choice (reading experience). This research could examine and com- reading. This should contribute to the knowledge of plement the existing typology in order to contribute theining teacher’s the factors needs that and influence thus more the effectivelyimplementation support of to further professional learning of teachers. his professional learning. Greater knowledge of teacher approaches to read- Part of any teacher’s professional knowing is a it, is important for teacher training in this area. With- approach. It appears that teachers corresponding outing inincluding the disciplines, a teacher’s including earlier factorsknowledge, that skillsinfluence and set of beliefs that significantly impact the teacher’s beliefs, the effectiveness of his or her professional training is threatened (Bransford et al. 2000; Timper- with Type Fluent have formulated a specific and – ley 2011; Korthagen 2017). Otherwise, teachers may for learning students – a beneficial understanding of- ticularlythe significance Type Emerging, of reading in and contrast, data show demonstrate that they new approaches and practices, resulting in a limiting are fulfilling it. Responses from other teachers, par- effectreject onor onlythe progression acquire superficial of students understanding through their of ing in geography instruction. This is manifest in their teaching (Timperley et al. 2007). A deeper misunder- uncertain beliefs regarding the significance of read standing of a given method, that teachers are introducing, can lead to a situation that Timperley (2011) failure to provide more specific examples of generally calls “over-assimilation”. This means that a teacher theirformulated responses. benefits This ofis notreading simply or, about in some gaining cases, more by implements the method (e.g. reading) without know- knowledgecontradicting of variousthose stated strategies benefits or techniques. in other parts Rather, of it involves altering beliefs, which would then lead to to learning students. The teacher thinks that what change in existing personal theories. heing or what she makes is doing it important works well or andwhat is benefits in line withit brings the The implemented research is accompanied by cer- newly introduced method. However, the difference tain limits. One of them is the method of data collec- between what is being proposed and what is actually tion – a written questionnaire with open-ended ques- being taught can, in reality, be quite large. This can be tions. There are several risks to this approach. It is - possible that teachers may feel the need to respond as diction between a teacher’s declared beliefs concern- expected. If the teacher perceives the current empha- seen in our findings (consider the discussed contra sis on the development of reading in the Czechia, then he may think that it is “appropriate” to join in this teachering the benefits P). of reading for active student learning direction, although the teacher himself does not share andThe his/her effective approach implementation or actions in of instruction reading in – the this opinion. Abroad, similar conclusions are reached disciplines in geography instruction requires us to 228 Michala Kafková, Dana Řezníčková know and understand additional realities. Addi- and Teaching: Theory and Practice 23(4), 387–405, tional research should focus on students and their teachers, the educational potential of various source materials for reading and the (non-)functional con- https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.1211523. Koubek, P. (2015): Subjektivní teorie řídící jednání nection between reading in the disciplines and geog- učitelů v kontextu jejich profesního rozvoje: teoretická raphy instruction, comparison of reading across sub- a empirická východiska výzkumu. In: Švec, V. et al.: jects, etc. -2015.Znalostní báze učitelství. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, This article was supported by the research project 13–32, https://doi.org/10.5817/CZ.MUNI.M210-7961 of the Grant Agency of the Charles University: PRO- GRES Q17 “Teacher Preparation and the Teaching Lazarová, B., Pol, M., Hloušková, L., Novotný, P., Sedláček, Profession in the Context of Science and Research”. M. (2012): Organizační učení v odborných diskursech. Pedagogická orientace 22(2), 145–161, https://dx.doi .org/10.5817/PedOr2012-2-145. References Minaříková, E., Janík, T. (2012): Profesní vidění učitelů: od hledání pojmu k možnostem jeho uchopení. Pedagogická Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000): How People Moje,orientace E. B. 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University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Czechia * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study examines downstream grain-size trends in gravel bars, a typical feature of natural gravel-bed rivers, from two neighbouring heavily channelized rivers: the Lubina River and the Ondřejnice River draining the Czech part of the Outer Western Carpathians. It aims to examine the effects of the grade control structures, significant tributaries, and lateral sediment inputs on the downstream fining trends. Additionally, the relationship between the channel width and the grain sizes in bars was analysed, as well as the depositional trends in frontal, central and distal parts of the examined gravel bars. The Ondřejnice River has, in most cases, higher D50 and median values of grain size of bar sediment and a higher downstream reduction coefficient (D50 = 0.033 mm−1 km ; D84 = 0.036 mm km−1) than the Lubina River (D50 = 0.026 mm km−1; D84 = 0.032 mm km−1). These intense reduction trends in the grain size are often observed in single and multiple-threaded rivers in the Western Carpathi- ans. On both rivers, the predominant deposition of the highest D50 was detected in the central parts of the bars, and the wider channel widths often corresponded with finer sediment deposition in the Lubina River. The disruption of the downstream fining corresponded in some cases with the frequent grade control structures. However, in most cases, the downstream fining trends were not affected. A tributary and adjacent hillslope area could be possibly linked to the disruption of the downstream fining trend in the Ondřejnice River.

KEYWORDS Carpathians; gravel bar; grain size; downstream fining; photo-granulometry

Received: 22 May 2020 Accepted: 28 August 2020 Published online: 30 October 2020

Holušová, A., Galia, T. (2020): Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments: a case study of Czech Carpathian rivers. AUC Geographica 55(2), 229–242 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.17 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 230 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia

1. Introduction -

particularlysediment influxes in mountainous can interrupt areasthe process (Wohl of 2014).down Gravel bars form frequently in streams and consist of Thesestream disruptions fining and are lead often to downstreamcaused by alluvial coarsening, sources granularly diverse sediments. The planar size of the such as tributaries, bank failures (Church and Keller- bar usually corresponds to the channel width (Wohl hals 1978; Dawson 1988; Knighton 1980; Rice 1998; 2014). There are many types of bars, such as alternate Rice 1999) or terraces and alluvial fans (Rice 1998) bars or point bars, and they are most often catego- or non-alluvial sources such as slope deformations rized by the origin or location in the channel (Wohl – landslides, ravines (Rice and Church 1996; Surian 2014; Gordon 2004). Generally, a source of sediments and the frequency of its delivery into the stream as sediment size in the river channel can also vary cor- - responding2002; Škarpich to channel 2010; Škarpich width changes. 2019; RiceWider 1998). channels The ity are preconditions for the formation of a river bar. wellThe as decreasessources of in sediment flow velocity may and be colluvial transport materi capac- whereas narrower channels contain coarser sedi- al from adjacent hillslopes, incisions, lateral erosion, mentsare considered (Rengers to and contain Wohl granularly2007). finer sediments, and tributaries (Wohl 2014). However, for sediment Differences in grain sizes within the planar area of individual bars are usually related to the type of of connectivity in the river. Connectivity often refers bar or to the geomorphological regime of the stream. toflux a tocertain enter levelthe river of connection channel is importantin the river the network degree or landscape where matter (including sediments), theFor spatialexample, distribution in the case of of grain-size braided rivers, fractions. there How are- longitudinal, lateral, or vertical dimension, and it ever,very thecomplex general bars assumption with many is thatfactors most that bars influence tend to isenergy important and biota in terms is moved of the by fluxes.river responses It exists in toeither the deposit coarser sediments in the upper (frontal) part human or natural disturbances. Therefore, maintaining or creating proper connectivity in rivers is crucial (distal) part of the bar (Smith 1974; Bluck 1982; Ash- - worthof the barand with Ferguson gradual 1986), refinement as observed towards on the alternat lower- ventions or disturbances which can be either natu- ing or point bars (Jackson 1976; Pyrce and Ashmore ralfor the(landslide, effectivity alluvial of river fan) management. or anthropogenic Specific (dams, inter channelization, levees) often decrees connectivity in the inner bank (Bridge and Jarvis 1976; Parker and certain dimensions but can sometimes increase the 2005). Lateral sediment refinement from the outer to- channelization decreases lateral connectivity but fromAndrews the 1985)bottom is of also the considered bed towards a specific the bar predom surface increasesconnectivity longitudinal in the other connectivity dimensions. (Wohl For 2017). example, The hasinant also type been of deposition documented at (Smithpoint bars. 1974; Vertical Bluck fining1982; barriers in the longitudinal river channel such as the Ashworth and Ferguson 1986). However, some stud- grade control structures generally cause deposition ies have demonstrated opposite trends, such as downstream coarsening in partially reinforced layers (Lunt the upstream) while in the front are often observed and Bridge 2004) or coarsening in the upper and coarserof the finer sediments sediment due behind to the the hungry structure water (towards effect. bottom parts of the bar due to previous anthropo- This effect is when the river channel is lacking sediment supply because of the grade control structure sedimentationgenic channel modificationsacross the bar (Hradecký surface, riparian et al. 2019). vege- The rate of sediment transport is greatly affect- In terms of different factors that cause changes in edblock. not It only also bycauses barriers channel but incisionby channel (Škarpich morphology 2010). - tation is considered significant (Edwards et al. 1999).- ing with estimating bedload transport in headwater tionsIt usually (Wohl increases 2014). Different the roughness types of in pioneer streams, riparian which andstreams its effect presented on flow that resistance. streams with Some lower studies sediment deal vegetationresults in reduced (herbs, shrubs,flow and and deposition trees) also of have finer differ frac- supply and transport have more developed bedforms ent functions on river sediment forms; herbaceous plants provide a suitable area for other species by sediment supply showed less developed bedforms and so the flow resistance. The streams with higher and shrubs and trees provide micro-climate, shadow Yager et al. 2007; Chiari and Rickenmann 2011). andtrapping mechanical diaspores resistance and stabilizing (Corenblit of fineet al. sediments, 2009). As withThe lower grain-size flow resistance. characteristics (Galia of and gravel Hradecký bars change 2014; soon as the sediment is deposited in the bar zone, the roots of plants provide a certain degree of stabiliza- depending on various factors. The main two factors tion which may result on the creation of mid-channel includethroughout selective the longitudinalsorting during profile erosion, of transport the river - and depositional processes, and abrasion of individ- etation along the riverbanks is often a source for wood ual sediment grains, so that the volume of individual accumulationbars or islands in (Ikeda the river and channel. Izumi 1990). The wood Riparian can vegcre- particles starts to decrease downstream – also known ate barriers in terms of longitudinal connectivity and causes changes in morphology. Woody accumulations as Sternberg’s (1875) law (Gomez 2001). In contrast, Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments 231

al. 2012). When the LWD is oriented across the river debris (LWD) including tree trunks and branches and channel, it has an effect of a barrier that decreases the are defining according to its size to large woody energy and velocity of the river. This frequently caus- typically include twigs or wood chips (Borák 2018). es sediments to deposit in front of the LWD (towards fine woody debris (FWD; <0.03 m in diameter) which upstream) and immediately behind it downstream. Gravel bars with coarser sediments are found behind insteadThe definitions of FWD. of According categories toand some metrics authors, vary, e.g.the LWDsome isauthors stated mayas a definewoody small material woody with debris dimensions (SWD) tends to deposit in front of it (Borák 2018). of 10 × 100 cm (Borák 2018; Kaczka 1999; Faustini the woody accumulations, while the finer sediment- tudinal changes in the grain sizes within gravel bars In this paper, we focused on downstream longi and Jones 2003) or >0.1 m in diameter (Hawson et

Fig. 1 Map of two studied rivers in the position of coordinates. 232 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia

- and the sediment disruption linkage; to material ment area greater than 10 km2 (downstream fining and downstream coarsening) KošiceThe creekrelief isof the the only upper significant parts of creek both with catchments a catch adjacent hillslopes); and to the effect of grade control (Povodí Odry 2016).- structuresfluxes from and possible local vegetation sources (significant cover. Secondarily, tributaries, we wards from the territory of the Moravian-Silesian is formed by rugged uplands, extending north distal and central sections of individual gravel bars, asexamined well as thethe trendsrelationship in the grainbetween size channel of the frontal, width Beskids (with peaks exceeding 1200 m) and farther and corresponding sediment grain-size changes. The ofas 450–500flat highlands m (Demek of Silesian-Moravian et al. 1965). The Foothills, bedrock e.g., is efforts of the study are to bring new insights to the the Štramberk Highlands with typical elevations the mouths of the rivers, the bedrock is composed of and its disruption in the area of Western Flysch Car- formed by the Carpathian flysch rocks, and towards otherwisepathians by well-known assessing the process possible of downstream sources of materi fining- - al, longitudinal connectivity issues due to high river much more complex lithological layers. The base is management, and local factors of vegetation cover on includescalcareous limestone flysch from cliffs the from Cretaceous the Jurassic period, period espe the gravel bars. cially claystone and marlstone. Significant subsoil of Mesozoic igneous rocks such as teschenite and pic- near the Štramberk Highlands and mountain ridges 2. Methods the Oder River, the relief of the catchments consists rites (Chlupáč et al. 2002). Near the river mouth to- 2.1 Study area of a wide Oder floodplain with low terraces. The sub- - soil consists mainly of Neogene sea clays in deeper gle-threaded, meandering rivers and right-side tribu- arelayers often and covered partially with of loessQuaternary loam and glaciofluvial slope material sed The Lubina and Ondřejnice Rivers (Figure 1) are sin (Demekiments (GEOCR50 et al. 1965). 2015; A characteristic Chlupáč et al. material 2002) whichof the Moravian-Silesian Beskids in the Czech Republic. The Lubinataries of River the Oder springs River on flowing the northwestern in the foothills slope of the of studied bars is gravel derived from these flysch rocks is 195.89 km2 been(GEOCR50 regulated 2015). roughly from the early 20th century. Radhošť Mountain at 740 m a.s.l. The catchment area In terms of river management, both rivers have annual discharge (CHI at 2017), the junction and the with total the length Oder ofRiver the bank stabilizations and an increase in channel capac- river reaches s 36.3 km (Povodí Odry 2016). The mean In the Lubina River, regulations included channel and and water3 level−1 is from the gauging station situated at structures have been implemented along almost the is 2.36 m (Štefáček 2008).2 of The the data total of area discharge of the ity. Later, since the 1950s, more than 30 grade control

Petřvald (covers 165.18 km s , theentire Oder) river due course to increasing (except infrastructure for the headwaters in the areaand basin) on the left bank side (Figures , 10-year 1) (CHI discharge 2020).3 −1 most downstream parts near the confluence with The 1-year s discharge corresponds3 −1 to 41.3 ms and regulations took place during the 1960s and 1980s, 5-year100-year discharge 3discharge−1 to to99.3 269 m m s . The mean3 annual−1 and(Figure in addition 2). In the to Ondřejnice channel capacity River, mostregulations, of the riverthey towater 131 level m is 25, 50-year cm. The discharge highest3 −1recorded to 223 waterm level included shifting of the channel. The river has more - than 50 grade control structures and is regulated along more than 90% of its total length (Figure 2). 10(1997) km2 reached 260 cm (CHI 2020). There are five sig Therefore, it is considered one of the rivers with the nificant tributaries with catchment areas greater than : Bystrý creek, Lichnov creek, Tichávka creek,- Kopřivnička creek and Trnávka creek. most2.2 Field interventions work (Povodí Odry 2016). The Ondřejnice River stems in the Moravian-Sile- sian foothills (Kříž 1995). The river springs near the- Field measurements on both rivers took place in Feb- village of Kozlovice on the2 western slope of the Ondře jník Mountain at an elevation of 760 m a.s.l. The catch - mentof discharge area is and99.38 water km level (CHI are 2017), from and the the gauging length sta of- surementsruary 2019 varied during from base 1.88–2.28 flow conditions m s at where the Lubi the- 2 tionthe stream (covers is 41.09 29.1 km (Povodí of the total Odry area 2016). of the The basin) data meanna and daily from discharge 0.54–0.78 during m s the days3 −1 of field mea situated in the Rychaltice (Figure 1). The mean annual 2020). Data were collected3 −1gradually from the river discharge is 0.575 m s . The 1-year discharge corre- mouth of each river towards its at headwaters. the Ondřejnice The (CHIrep- sponds to 15.4 m s 3 −1 s , resentative grain sizes of the gravel bars were deter- 10-year discharge3 −1to 50.1 m s and 100-year3 dis−1- mined by the photo-granulometry method, which charge to 104 m s , .5-year The mean discharge3 −1 annual to 37.6water m level consisted of collecting grain-size data with digital is 78 cm, and the3 highest−1 recorded water level from photos and then processing by the appropriate software (Digital Gravelometer). For surface grain-size

1966 reached 385 cm (CHI 2020). The right tributary Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments 233

A B

C D

Fig. 2 Examples of previous river regulations; (A) large rocks (riprap) along the levee on right bank (the Lubina, channel width = 8 m, left- side bar, curved section); (B) check dam (the Lubina, channel width = 9 m, mid-channel bar, curved section); (C) bridge construction (the Ondřejnice, channel width = 11.5 m, left-side bar, straight section); (D) stone rockfill and grade control structure (the Ondřejnice, channel width = 11.5 m, right-side bar, straight section). Source: Author. measurements, a wooden frame of 75 × 100 cm under at least every 1 kilometer of the river length with a which dots were placed in each corner was used to identify the four control points. After removal of the frame, the gravel bar surface was photographed above few exceptions on the Lubina where the bar number the centre so that the dots were clearly visible in the Thewas channelfewer and width more was clustered. measured Sixteen using a lasergravel range bars- corners of the photo. with 48 sites were measured on the Ondřejnice River. intersecting the centre of each gravel bar. Additional photos) were taken of the frontal, central and distal datafinder were along collected the axis as perpendicular GPS positioning, to typethe bankand posi and- sectionsPhotographs near the (13MP water level.camera, A total 72 dpi of 15 3120 gravel × 4160 bars tion of gravel bars and the vegetation cover accord- where one site was measured in only one place due to (Table 1). The vegetation mostly consisted of bunch- thewith small 43 sites planar were area measured of the bar. on Bars the were Lubina measured River, ing to Braun-Blanquet (1932) cover-abundance scale

es of herbaceous vegetation remnants, since the field 234 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia work took place in February. For a better understanding of the sediment grain-size disruptions and possi- - of sediments. In the Digital Gravelometer program, of the bars between grade control structures, adja- optionthe “finer for than” the distribution option was calculation.selected for The the graingrain-size per ble links with fluxes of sediment, the relative position unitcentile was calculation, millimetres, followed and the by lowerthe “Grid-by-number” truncation was set to 8 mm for all images. From the analytical report cent hillslopes areas and significant tributaries were data, the statistical value of the geometric sorting and 2.3mapped Data andanalysis observed in the field. the percentiles D16, D50 and D84 were used. The average values of the grain-size percentiles of the Photographs for photo-granulometry were further frontal, central and distal parts of the bars were used processed using the Digital Gravelometer software for graphs of the downstream trends of the rivers. (version 1.0). This program is designed for process- Correlation analysis was calculated between the - channel width data and respective percentiles from lyse their grain size and distribution on the surface all measured parts of gravel bars. All data were test- (Grahaming digital 2005). photographs This method of fluvial is less sediments time-consuming to ana ed for normality by the Shapiro-Wilk test, and after- than other methods of grain-size data collection, such - as the Wolman pebble count method (Wolman 1954), which requires manual collection and measurement riverswards, was the Spearmancalculated. correlation coefficient (with sig nificance level of 0.05) for selected data series of both

A B

C D

E F

Fig. 3 The process of photo analysis in Digital Gravelometer software; (A) Grayscale; (B) Transformed; (C) Grains; (D) Watershed segmented grains; (E) Grains selected; (F) Grayscale image overlaid on grains selected. Images source: Digital Gravelometer software; Data source: author. Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments 235

Tab. 1 Basic information and collected data for individual gravel bars. River Channel Position Vegetation cover Relative position ID Flow section kilometer width (m) in the channel (Braun-Blanquet) before-after the *GCS (m) L1 0.8 25.0 RB CS 2 L2 2.0 22.0 RB CS 3 L3 5.7 16.0 LB CS + 330–700 L4 11.6 17.5 RB CS 1 200–40 L5 12.7 16.0 LB CS 1 300–100 L6 13.5 15.5 RB CS 2 420–410 L7 18.0 24.5 RB CS 1 50–900 L8 18.1 22.0 RB CS 3 510–14 L9 19.9 27.0 LB CS 2 700–500 L10 25.0 16.5 RB SS 4 750–400 L11 30.0 6.5 LB SS + –400 L12 30.5 8.0 LB CS 4 L13 32.5 9.0 LB CS + L14 33.7 8.0 RB CS 1 15– L15 33.8 9.0 MB CS + –3 O1 0.5 15.0 LB CS 1 O2 0.9 13.0 LB CS 3 O3 1.3 11.0 LB SS 2 820– O4 3.5 10.5 LB CS 2 1600–1500 O5 5.6 9.0 RB SS 4 680–660 O6 7.2 8.5 LB SS + 960–600 O7 9.0 8.5 RB SS 1 60–800 O8 11.3 11.0 RB SS 1 35–370 O9 12.5 13.0 LB CS 1 1700–320 O10 13.5 12.0 RB CS 2 570–100 O11 15.8 11.5 LB SS + 60–220 O12 16.9 12.5 RB SS 1 140–1400 O13 18.7 10.5 LB CS 1 –1600 O14 20.6 8.0 RB CS 3 O15 22.2 9.5 LB SS 2 O16 22.4 11.5 RB SS 3 O – The Ondřejnice River, L – The Lubina river, [MB] mid-channel bar, [RB] right-side bar, [LB] left-side bar, [CS] curve, [SS] straight, *GCS = grade control structures Source: Author

3. Results gradual downward trend from poorly sorted to moderately well sorted sediment towards the river mouth. The comparison of grain-size of D50 between the stud- The graphs (Figures 5 and 6) show the trends of ied rivers showed that the values were in most cases average values for the frontal, central and distal parts of the bars and respective channel widths along with by median values for the frontal, central and distal information about the location of adjacent hillslopes partshigher of for the the bars Ondřejnice (Table 2). River Sorting which values is supported(Figure 4) and grade control structures. The downstream trend areas (Štramberk Highlands), significant tributaries ranged very similarly on both rivers: 0.65–1.32 Φ patterns (particularly in the Lubina River case), but (1957)(Phi) on corresponds the Lubina Riverto moderately and 0.67–1.32 well sortedΦ on the to of grain size in both rivers showed rather complex- poorlyOndřejnice sorted River, sediment. which accordingThe sorting to ofFolk sediment and Ward on D50gradually and D84 decreasing in both rivers.exponential The highest trends average represent val- ing the downstream fining process were found for graph (Figure 4) showed a highly fluctuating trend in the Ondřejnice case while the Lubina showed a more ues were detected at river km 32 in the Lubina River 236 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia

Tab. 2 The grain size of sediments (D50) and median values for studied parts of bars. Lubina Ondřejnice River D50 River D50 km Frontal Central Distal km Frontal Central Distal 33.8 24.7 31.3 31.2 22.4 29.4 50.5 43.4 33.7 40.9 48.8 62.5 22.2 33.9 39.2 42.4 32.5 43.9 52.9 62.7 20.6 45.9 52.0 40.4 30.5 19.1 40.3 30.6 18.7 42.8 44.2 42.0 30.0 44.2 41.4 37.9 16.9 35.2 48.8 39.8 25.0 47.2 39.0 35.4 15.8 28.9 24.7 31.6 19.9 27.6 26.2 33.6 13.5 30.8 35.8 27.4 18.1 28.0 31.3 25.4 12.5 26.3 29.7 26.4 18.0 29.2 17.2 17.6 11.3 34.7 34.4 26.1 13.5 21.3 22.4 19.4 9.0 26.2 27.1 23.1 12.7 21.0 18.7 21.8 7.2 37.6 34.7 33.2 11.6 23.8* 23.8* 23.8* 5.6 30.7 36.1 27.9 5.7 18.0 19.2 18.6 3.5 18.6 16.7 17.6 2.0 20.8 23.2 15.9 1.3 25.8 25.4 26.0 0.8 22.4 20.7 19.4 0.9 27.4 26.9 23.4 0.5 25.1 18.8 19.3 median 26.2 28.8 28.0 30.0 34.5 27.6 * The same value is due to the small planar area of the bar (only one sample photo). Source: Author

to Braun-Blanquet is class 4 (51–75%). However, in River (D84 = 95.52). some cases, the grain-size on the respective gravel (D84 = 100.36) and at river km 19 in the Ondřejnice bars is higher which can be associate with sediment D84, decreasing grain size for both rivers is rela- tivelyAccording high and to regular.the exponential For the Lubina trends Riverin D50 (stud and- causereinforcement decreased by longitudinal roots and higher connectivity. flow rates. There The is D50 equals 0.026 mm km (R2 = 0.70), and for D84, afinal very factor high is number the grade of checkcontrol dam structures structures which main can- 2 ied reach length is 33 km), (R−1 the = 0.88).fining The coefficient results for −1 to 24th river km and from 21st to 5th river km are it equals 0.032 mm km densely in the sequences Lubina case.of check Approximately dams where fromonly a the few 30th dis- the Ondřejnice River (studied reach (R2 length = 0.66) is and22 km) for continuities corresponded with increased grain-size 2 show even higher reduction as−1 (Rthe fining coefficient of sediment (11.6th and 18th river km). The check forThe D50 patterns equals 0.033 of graph mm kmtrends−1 show some sud- denD84 changesis equal to in 0.036 grain mm sizes km (discontinuities), = 0.63). which dam sequences on the Ondřejnice (approx. 18th to - utariesindicate (Figure various 5), interventions there is no visible to the link channel. between In the discontinuitiesLubina River, despite and these the numbers possible of sources significant of seditrib- are more frequent, and they can be possibly caused byment. sediment In the supplyOndřejnice from River, tributaries such discontinuitiesor slope-channel coupling (Figure 6). The observed vegetation cover of the bars (Table 1) showed increased cover-

Lubina and from 0.9th, 5.6th, 20.6th and 22.4th riv- age mainly in 18th, 25th and 30.5th river km in the er km in the Ondřejnice which may cause increased tendency to deposit finer fractions. When combined Fig. 4 Trends of sediment sorting (Folk-Ward) for both rivers. Source: with graphs, it can explain some discontinuities, for Author. example, there is a decrease in grain size in the gravel bar of 30.5th river km, where the coverage according Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments 237

Fig. 5 The trend of grain size on gravel bars at the Lubina River. Source: Author.

Fig. 6 The trend of grain size on gravel bars at the Ondřejnice River. Source: Author.

15th river km and 14th to 10th river km) showed sim- bars. The coarsest D50 on the Lubina is equally fre- ilarly only two cases of disruption of the downstream quent on distal and frontal parts of the bars. Compar-

the coarsest D50 also shows the most frequent depo- fining trend (11.3rd and 7.2nd river km) (Figure 6). sitioning the in results the central on the parts, Ondřejnice, with a notablethe distribution increasing of trends.In most cases, the area of sequenced check dams in frequency towards the upstream direction (Figure 7). the rivers did not affect the rapid downstream fining can be observed on both rivers. Close the headwater coarse deposits are more frequent in the frontal parts In the case of channel widths, similar tendencies- of bars.In contrast, The least in frequent downstream deposition parts of of the the highest river, ter, channel widths start to increase, moderately on D50 is observed in the distal part of the bars. areas, the widths are approximately 10 m. Thereaf The correlation was tested between the channel width data and the percentiles from all parts of the the Ondřejnice (11–13 m) and rapidly on the Lubina channel(16.5–24.5 widths m). From start approximately to moderately river decrease km 14 down on the- Lubina River and river km 10 on the Ondřejnice River, Tab. 3 Comparison of the rivers; distribution of the highest D50 on gravel bars from the source to the river mouth. valuesstream increaseas the result again of (25channel m for regulation the Lubina; works. 15 m Near for Lubina river source → river mouth the confluence with the Oder River, channel width D50* Ondřejnice river source → river mouth andthe Ondřejnice).27 m on Lubina. Overall, the channel widths range betweenThe distribution 8 and 15 m of on the Ondřejnice coarsest and D50 between within the6.5 D50* relatively high spatial variation. On both rivers there frontal bar central bar distal bar three studied areas of the gravel bars (Table 3) shows * The highest value. (D50) to deposit in the central parts of the gravel Source: Author exists a predominance for the coarsest sediments 238 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia

Tab. 4 Correlation between the channel width and grain-size percentiles. Frontal Bar Central Bar Distal Bar D16 D50 D84 D16 D50 D84 D16 D50 D84 Lubina 0.045 −0.118 −0.167 −0.543 −0.614 −0.670 −0.365 −0.541 −0.697 rs/p-value p = 0.874 p = 0.680 p = 0.553 p = 0.036 p = 0.015 p = 0.006 p = 0.180 p = 0.037 p = 0.004 Ondřejnice −0.545 −0.397 −0.167 −0.210 −0.3203 −0.278 −0.24945 −0.26421 −0.24797 rs/p-value p = 0.029 p = 0.128 p = 0.536 p = 0.435 p = 0.226 p = 0.298 p = 0.352 p = 0.323 p = 0.354

negative significant/non-significant positive significant/non-significant Source: Author

gravel bars. These calculations were used to test the and D16 percentiles (rs relationship between the channel width and the grain - data show a tendency for = a −0.56). negative Although relationship. there is a single significant correlation in this river, most mostsize of tested sediments cases (i.e., (Table fining 4). of Thesediments correlation with increas results ing channel width). The negative trend is confirmed in 4. Discussion mostly in the central parts of the bars in all percen- tilesfor the (D16 Lubina rs show a significants negative correlations 4.1 Trends and variations of the downstream and partially in the distal parts in D50 (rs fining process and D84 (rs = −0.54; D50 r = −0.61; D84 r = −0.67) = −0.54) = −0.70). The results for the Ondřejnice show only one significant correlation in frontal parts The downstream fining process was studied in terms- iedof Sternberg’s heavily regulated (1875) rivers, hypothesis there ofare the regular exponential down- fining trend, and according to results from the stud- for the stream fining trends, particularly for the −1D84 per centiles:percentiles fining of D50 coefficient show similar −1= 0.032 results mm kmwith slightly Lubina and 0.036 mm km for the Ondřejnice. The = 0.026 mm km lower coefficients−1 of determination: fining coefficient−1 as well as the D50 for percentile the Lubina values and 0.033 and median mm km of grain-sizefor the Ondřejnice. of sediment The downstream on the bars, fining is in mostcoefficient, stud-

results are in accordance with those of other studies thatied locations observed highermore evident for the downstream Ondřejnice River.reduction These at the highest percentiles (Seal et al. 1997; Gomez et al.

is often found in aggrading rivers, headwater streams or2001). braided In general, rivers the(Galia highest et al. downstream 2015; Bradley reduction et al. 1972; Brierley and Hickin 1985; Dawson 1988; Pao- la and Seal 1995; Surian 2002), which is not the case for the rivers in this study. Our results also underline -

havethe rapid been fining observed of bar in sediments some Poland in the rivers case ofof chanWest nelized rivers. Similar values of the fining coefficient , study reach of 25 km) and Skawa Carpathians such as the Soła River (fining, study coefficient reach Fig. 7 Diagram of the simplified deposition trends of the coarsest −1 D50 sediments in the studied rivers; (A) The Lubina (main type = of= 0.032 21 km) mm both km with multiple and single−1 channel pat- point bars), near the river source are the most frequent the central ternsRiver (fining(Malarz coefficient 2004). = 0.036 mm km and distal parts of the bars, in the middle of the river the frontal parts start to show more frequently, near the river mouth the their associated causes on the studied rivers, there central parts are the most frequent; (B) The Ondřejnice (main type In the case of the identified discontinuities and = alternate bars), the central parts of the bars are the most frequent are surprisingly different results for each river. The in the upstream section while the frontal parts of the bars are more - frequent downstream. Source: Author. cant tributaries; nonetheless, the tributaries do not longer Lubina River has a higher number of signifi Downstream fining trends of gravel bar sediments 239

the bars in the middle and upper river reaches and the gravel bars. Tributaries can also act as sources of frequent deposition on the frontal parts in the down- contribute to any significant change in the gran size of may be carried away by the river almost immediately on the distal parts is consistent with a common pre- both coarse and fine sediment, where finer sediment stream river reach. The deposition of the finest D50 behind the coarser sediment (Ashworth and Ferguson if the river tends to have higher flow rates than the 1986;sumption Bluck that 1982; finer Smithmaterial 1974). tends The to settle predominance gradually tributary (Škarpich et al. 2013), which may be the increasecase. On thein grain other size hand, in this the localityOndřejnice downstream River has from only parts of the bars can be related to the different rough- riverone significant km 11. Another tributary, source which of coarse correspond material with most an nessof deposition conditions of finer on the or coarsergravel bars, sediments e.g., caused in certain by likely originated from the hillslopes in contact with growing vegetation (Li et al. 2014). However, there is - no predominant type of deposition of D50 associated lands (river km 19–22) where the grain-size starts with the vegetation cover of the bars in the collect- riverbanks within the area of the Štramberk High evident association with any tributary or adjacent parts of the bars the most frequent (mainly in the hillslopesto increase. in Comparedthe Lubina. to the Ondřejnice, there is no downstreamed data. In the area). Lubina The case, frontal there and are distal also parts the central of the The vegetation cover can be the factor for minor gravel bars were equally frequent. However, the dep- shifts in grain-size trends such is the decreased grain- osition tendency of the frontal parts is higher within the middle area of the river. However, the vegetation cover can cause either the size on the bar in the 30.5th river km in the Lubina. 4.3 Trends in the deposition of bar sediments coarser bar sediment (Wohl 2004; Corenblit et al. by channel width deposition of finer sediment or the stabilization of grain-size to the studied bars, moreover, when other - 2009). Therefore, it is difficult to link the trends of- jnice is much lower (8–15 m) than that on the Lubina, nectivity) must be considered (McMahon et al. 2020). whichThe range shows of valuesvery sudden for channel changes widths from on wide the Ondřeto nar- factors (downstream fining process, longitudinal con row channels. This variability is probably the effect control structures (check dams) are often located in - In terms of the longitudinal connectivity, the grade es located in the river or other human interventions. of artificial structures such as check dams or bridg tosequences 15th river on km,both 14th rivers to (the10th Lubina: river km) 30th and to 24ththey particularly with respect to channel width since it correspondedriver km, 21st surprisinglyto 5th river wellkm; theto rapid Ondřejnice: downstream 18th Compared to the Ondřejnice, the river is regulated often channelized to constant width. The correlations size trends below the check dam were detected at betweenflows through channel many widths built-up and grain areas, sizes and of the sediments river is fining trends with a few exceptions. Increased grain- - 11.6th and 18th (only for the coarsest fraction) riv- theer km 11th on andthe Lubina.7th river These km on results the Ondřejnice correspond and to the 5show of 9 verycases. different These correlationsresults for each are river.observed In the mainly Lubi principle of disconnectivity caused by barriers in the inna, the significant central partsnegative (D16 correlations rs are recordeds for - D84 rs ber of detected disconnections are most likely due to rs s = −0.54; D50 r = −0.61; theriver natural channel lack (Škarpich of bars towards et al. 2010). the headwater The small area num as = −0.67) and in the distal parts of the bars (D50- tion = −0.54;in frontal D84 partsr = −0.70). (D16 rHowever,s the Ondřejnice the data showed that in most areas the downstream shows only one case of significant negative correla- well as the total number of studied bars. Nevertheless,- ship between the channel width = −0.5). and sediment These results grain indicate the existence of a strong negative relation notfining investigated is not affected in this by studygrade such control as localstructures. downward Nat weak negative relationship. Again, these results can andurally, lateral there erosion may exist or channel other possible slope. causes that are besize assigned in the Lubinato frequent River, river while regulations, Ondřejnice particularly shows a

4.2 Trends in the deposition of sediments to show higher variability of sediment size, frequently on the surfaces of gravel bars in the Ondřejnice, and to the fact that such rivers tend Rice 1998; Rengers and Wohl 2007). The size-dependent deposition of the coarsest D50 due to their many different sources (Škarpich 2010; percentiles within the gravel bar surface shows great variability throughout the Lubina and a more gradual 5. Conclusion the most frequent depositional tendency of the coars- changeest D50 in in the the case central of the parts Ondřejnice. of the bars. Both Additionally, rivers show - esIn thisdeposition paper, weon focusedthe frontal, mainly central on theand downstream distal parts the most frequent deposition in the central parts of offining the process,gravel bars secondarily and thirdly, on the on trends the relationship in grain siz the results for the Ondřejnice show a clear trend of 240 Adriana Holušová, Tomáš Galia between the grain-size of the bars and channel width variations in the two channelized gravel-bed rivers. gradation of particle sizes in the Squamish River, British Brierley, G. J., Hickin, E. J. (1985): The downstream high reduction in grain size in both studied rivers, Trends of downstream fining showed a relatively Columbia. Earth Surfaces Processes and Landforms 10, Roques,597–606, L. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290100607. (2009): Control of sediment dynamics by values observed along some of the single and multi- Corenblit,vegetation D., Steiger, as a key J., function Gurnell, driving A. M., Tabacchi, biogeomorphic E., plewhere threaded reduction rivers coefficients in the Western were Carpathians. comparable The to results showed that a rapid reduction in sediment size is often observed even on highly regulated rivers succession within fluvial corridors. Earth Surface Dawson,Processes M. (1988): and Landforms Sediment 34, size 1790-1810, variation in https:// a braided doi.org/10.1002/esp.1876. thesuch case as the of theOndřejnice. less regulated We also river observed while therethe trend was almostof deposition no relationship of finer sediment in the heavily in wider regulated channels river. in reach of the Sunwapta River, Alberta, Canada. Earth The predominant deposition of the coarsest sediment Surfaces Processes and Landforms 13, 599–618, D50 on the gravel bars occurred on the central parts https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290130705. of the bars, in contrast with the general tendency of Demek, J., Mackovčin, P. (2006): Zeměpisný lexikon ČR: Hory a nížiny (2nd ed.). Agentura ochrany přírody coarse sediment to be deposited on the frontal parts, Tockner,a krajiny K.,ČR, Ward, Brno. J. V. (1999): A conceptual model of as observed in natural streams. The disruption of Edwards,vegetation P. J., dynamicsKollmann, on J., Gurnell,gravel bars A. M., of aPetts, large G. Alpine E., grade control structures only in a few cases, probably the downstream fining trend corresponded with the river. Wetlands Ecology and Management 7, 141–153, debrishttps://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008411311774. on channel morphology and dynamics in steep, due to the total number of studied gravel bars. In most Faustini,boulder-rich J. M., Jones, mountain J. A. (2003): streams, Influence western of Cascades, large woody hillslopescases, the were downstream suggested fining as the was possible not affected sources byof check dams. The significant tributaries and adjacent Folk,Oregon. R. L., Ward, Geomorphology W. C. (1957): 51, Brazos 187–205, River https://doi.org Bar: disruption, however, only in the case of the Ondřejnice- /10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00336-7.5901. River.cant tributaries, Compared disruption to the Ondřejnice did not necessarilyRiver, the Lubina occur. A study in the significance of grain size parameters. River showed that despite the high number of signifi 8648000102C1865DJournal of Sedimentary. Petrology 27, 3–26, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1306/74D70646-2B21-11D7- References transport in headwater streams using a numerical Galia,model T., Hradecký, (Moravskoslezké J. (2014): Beskydy Estimation Mts, ofCzech bedload Republic).

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in small valleys of the Carpathian Mts. (Czech Republic). Wolman, M. G. (1954): A method of sampling of coarse river-bed material. Transaction of the American .2017.08.017. Catena 160, 10–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena Management. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester. Geophysical Union 35, 951–956, https://doi.org Wohl, E. (2014): Rivers in the landscape, Science and Calculating/10.1029/TR035i006p00951. bedload transport in steep boulder bed Yager, E. M., Kirchner, J. W., Dietrich, W. E. (2007): Wohl, E. (2017): Connectivity in rivers. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 41(3), 345–362, channels. Water Resources Research 43: W07418, https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133317714972. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005432. Original Article 243 Regional development trends in West Bohemia with a special focus on peripheral areas Martin Kebza1,*, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto2

1 University of West Bohemia, Faculty of Economics, Department of Geography, Czechia 2 University of São Paulo, São Carlos School of Engineering, Brasil * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT In this article, we study regional development trends in the Czech region of West Bohemia through the application of the core-periphery concept. In particular, we focus on the peripheral areas of West Bohemia, the development and differences between its core and periphery, and on the processes of peripheralization. We have used both ‘scalar’ and ‘vector’ indicators in the hierarchical cluster analysis. It revealed selective convergent and divergent trends of the core and periphery, in which the peripheralization takes place through the geographic expansion of existing peripheries rather than through the emergence of new isolated peripheries.

KEYWORDS West Bohemia; periphery; core-periphery axis; regional development; cluster analysis

Received: 19 May 2019 Accepted: 18 August 2020 Published online: 27 October 2020

Kebza, M., Do Carmo Perotto, C. (2020): Changes of socio-economic differentiation in West Bohemia: focus on the developmental tendencies of peripheral areas. AUC Geographica 55(2), 243–254 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.18 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 244 Martin Kebza, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto

1. Introduction characterized by lower level of education and quality of labour (Hampl 2003). In recent years, we have witnessed the rapid develop- The goal of this paper is to bring a typology of are- ment of national economies, but also crises and other as based on socio-economic attributes of the spatial social and political changes that also have a spatial units. The typology should follow the concept of the dimension. These concerned, for example, market ‘core-periphery’ axis. Further, we aim to observe the integration, the opening of borders and the (re-)con- changes among the types of areas and discuss possi- struction of development policies. These factors have ble ways of development of West Bohemian peripher- been the catalyst for changes in the territory, wheth- al areas, on which this paper focuses the most. er the strengthening of core areas, the development or decline of the periphery, or the emergence of new development poles. To monitor these changes, we 2. Theoretical background chose the territory of West Bohemia. The studied regions were selected as represent- a disadvantaged position in terms of social, econom- icPeriphery and demographic is a designation qualities for specific and are areas also that affect have- aatives political of the decision. territories After that 1945, have over been 2 millionsignificantly peo- ed by physical geographic obstacles and barriers in pleand hadlong-term, to leave possibly the territory permanently, of border influenced territory by of Bohemia and Moravia inhabited by population of 2005). Core–periphery axis (see Wallerstein 1979; German nationality (Glassheim 2000), Jelinek (1993) Friedmannthe region (Pociūtė-Sereikienė1966) indicates that 2019;peripheries Havlíček are etalso, al. and Frommer (2010) mentions an estimation of to some extent, determined by the distance from the 2.5–2.6 million of relocated people. West Bohemia core on which they depend. Social peripherality can be expressed, for example, in the educational struc- due to its geographical location; in a number of bor- ture and availability of education in general. The age dernecessarily areas, the had displaced a very significantpopulation shareof German of Germans nation- structure of the population captures the demographic peripherality, assuming that the peripheral areas will Many villages were completely abandoned and van- have a higher proportion of post-productive popula- ishedality also(i.e. Böhmichdorf, constituted a Ulrichsgrün, significant ethnicHolzhäuser majority. and tion compared to the youngest generations (Kebza many others). The following period of socialism in this area had captured by negative migration balances (Kubeš, several typical aspects – central system, central plan- Kraft2018; 2011). Bański Economic 2005), the peripherality peripheral ischaracter based on is lower also ning or large-format agriculture; in terms of the set- economic potential. Industries with high added value tlement system also progressive urbanization and are usually not concentrated in peripheries, not even basically no suburbanization. After 1989 there were - unavailable. From the economic point of view, integra- mation of the society. First, the ideological anchoring tionimportant into the shopping market systemcenters, is and important. jobs may In periphalso be- ofsignificant state power changes turned, that and contributed the main to rules the transforof society’s functioning changed with the advent of capital- functional-spatial relationships disorder (Schmidt ism. In addition to the society as such, space has also 1998).eral areas, If the however, territory it is is insufficient completely and removed results from changed. After institutional and social change, terri- the integration, the term ‘margin’ is used to describe torial followed. The greatest changes in urban and the non-productive territory affected by total iso- suburban landscapes meant regeneration of urban centres and massive suburbanization (Sýkora, Bou- The deepening of regional differences, or rather of zarovski 2012), which was often noncontrolled. On peripheries,lation or out is of exacerbated the system by (Pileček, the absence Jančák or 2011).lack of a wider scale, territorial differences began to widen innovative activities and potential (Kühn 2015). On when forced equalization ended (Hampl 2005). The the other hand, active local entrepreneurs who form core role of the largest cities strengthened greatly, the economic base are not fundamentally limited by and the peripheries had a greater chance to emerge the peripheral character of the territory and can even or expand. The transformation period has also taken place in the spirit of strong economic decline and Gimmon, Aqueveque 2013). socio-economic disparity in some regions, particular- benefit from it (Bečicová, Blažek 2015; Felzensztein, ly heavy industry and coal mining base regions. the periphery as a static concept and the peripherali- Such variability occurs also in the territory target- zationRecent as a research dynamic also process points of tochanging differences the qualitiesbetween of the territory (Kühn 2015; Lang 2012). An important element of the debate is also the knowledge about theed by transit this paper. function The (Bavaria–Prague Plzeň Region is associatedaxis). The withKar- the possibilities of development of peripheral areas. the industrial character of the largest city of Plzeň and While Humer (2018) discusses the possible impacts of of environmental or socio-economic nature since the ‘top-down’ strategy of polycentric settlement sys- surfacelovy Vary coal Region mining is oftenis widespread associated and with the problems region is tem development on peripheries (in which the author Regional development trends in West Bohemia 245 sees some bugs), other authors consider options that – pleasure periphery, which is a special category require a ‘bottom-up’ approach of local actors. Human of a seaside or other area with highly developed capital of municipal representatives and its effects is tourism. The possible typology of the peripheral areas can Meili (2016) emphasize local entrepreneurs and their also be derived from other characteristics, whether abilitydealt by to Pileček create (2011), periphery-core while Mayer, ties Habersetzer in a way that and a in addition to the location there are attributes based competitive environment is created in the periphery on the dominant aspect of peripherality, peripherial- and the importance of dependence on cores is not that tendencies of the territory. the ‘creative class’ in the peripheral areas that could ity level (Pociūtė-Sereikienė 2019) or developmental besignificant. essential Kebza for the (2018) future put development. stress on innovation and Our research questions mainly concern the chang- However, peripheries might also be shaped by the es in spatial pattern and developmental tendencies perception of local people or the political representa- affecting peripheries: tion (Willet, Lang 2018), but also by the external – Does the peripheralization process and thus ‘production’ of peripheries take place in West Bohemia? overcome, despite considerable efforts. – Are the differences between local core and periph- world.Although Such aremote negative positions perception at stateis very (see difficult Kubeš, to eral regions widening? - – How do the dynamics of socio-economic develop- trative borders (Kebza 2018; Musil, Müller 2008) are ment of peripheral, core and transitional (semi-pe- Kraftoften 2011;common Havlíček, for peripheral Chromý 2001) areas, or these other conceptsadminis ripheral) areas differ? cannot be perceived as identical. Boundaries can contribute to peripherality if they form a (political) bar- 3. Studied area examples of border areas that we could not regard asrier, peripheral but they cannot(e.g. cities determine of Copenhagen-Malmö, it. In Europe we findLil- The discussed territory of West Bohemia is composed le or Bratislava and their surroundings). In the case of Czechia peripheries often appear in mountainous borders and regional borders (Musil, Müller onof two the administrativeEast-West gradient regions concept, (see Fig. West 1). Both Bohemia Plzeň 2008), which are remote and far from important shouldand Karlovy have Varya very Regions favourable are on location NUTS 3 level.and should Based cores. Similarly, it is necessary to approach the concepts turns out, however, that the long-term effects of the Ironbenefit Curtain, from the the proximity displacement of progressive of inhabitants, Bavaria. and It understanding of one compact rural area and di-vide partly the relief or environmental problems in the itof intoperiphery different and groups rural. Likeaccording some toauthors various reject charac the- Sokolov Basin, constitute barriers to fundamental teristics (Hedlund 2016), it is not easy to accept the development throughout the territory. The territo- - ry is typical of a large number of vanished munic- eral nature, however, ‘rural’ also often includes sub- ipalities (see Zaniklé obce 2019). According to the urbsclaim of of largeone periphery. cities and Rural other areas rural can areas be ofwith periph high - development potential, which cannot be described - as peripheral. This difference is clearly presented by lyanalysis territories of Novák distant and to Netrdová larger towns (2011), (areas problemat between ic areas form a significant part of the region, main the category of Moravian peripheries from seven oth- and the north-eastern border of the studied region. erPerlín, rural Kučerová areas in theirand Kučera typology. (2010), who distinguish OnStrakonice the contrary, and Sušice, larger Stříbrocities and and their Horšovský surrounding Týn) Like the rural, the peripheries can be also divided into several types. Kebza (2018), on the example of - the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, divides the terri- cantlyareas, extendedlike Klatovy, axis Domažlice,in the direction Cheb, of PragueKarlovy can Vary be tory into several categories containing metropolitan and especially Plzeň with its wider area and a signifi (and semi-metropolitan) areas, semiperipheries and the second most populated city of Bohemia, is closely four types of peripheries: connectedcounted among with Prague;the potential the railway growth corridor poles. Plzeň, and the as – periphery located at the country borderline (in the motorway complement the system of medium-sized case of bordering with more countries, it is possible to divide them further as frontiers with different countries can bring different effects), verycities importantwith a significant transport number routes of jobs pass in through commercial the – bordering periphery, that is situated at the bound- areapremises (see (e.g.Fig. 1),Rokycany, the density Žebrák of transport or Beroun). networks Although is ary of self-governmening regions, but within the state, The development of the territory is also limited – inner periphery, whose location is not related to fromdescribed several as weakdirections, (Drahošová especially 2011). in terms of human any state border nor boundary of self-governing capital (Hampl 2003). Areas around Tachov and regions, Cheb have below-average values of the educational 246 Martin Kebza, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto

integration into European structures even at institutional level was already under way, while the initial wave of radical spatial changes, such as massive and uncontrolled suburbanization, that emerged under the third phase of transformation (Sýkora, Bouzarovs- ki 2012) was ending. A decade later, these processes may appear in advanced form, probably closer to the

ofnatural the data trajectory. base. It would certainly be enriching to addThe this selection file to 1997, of suitablebut this doesspatial not units allow that the limitsenter the analysis is important. In general, relatively large number of empirical works are devoted to analyses

evaluation of these units affects the regions as a com- plexat regional territory level based (NUTS on functional 2, NUTS 3 relations, or similar). but Thethe reduction of internal differences somewhat general- izes. Basic administrative units have been used for

similar research (Kebza 2018; Novák, Netrdová 2011; Blažek, Netrdová 2009; Džupinová et al. 2008) as well usedas authors’ for a morenon-standard detailed units insight (Novotná, into proposed Šlehoferová, geo- graphicalMatušková reality. 2016; Musil,A disadvantage, Müller 2008). however, These units may arebe that the expression of extreme values is easier; the

31,smallest 2017 municipaland belongs population to the smallest in the municipalities area – Čilá – inhad whole only Czechia; 16 inhabitants in West (ČSÚBohemia 2019) there in are December another 60 municipalities (out of 635) with less than 100 Fig. 1. Biggest cities and towns in Plzeň and Karlovy Vary Regions inhabitants, and only one of these is located in the by population. Source of data: ČSÚ (2019) Czech town). In this respect, partial distortions (out- liers)Karlovy can Vary be expected, Region and (Přebuz, must be the taken smallest into account official in the interpretation. - For the statistical analysis, 4 scalar and 2 vector structure of population (Hübelová 2014). Novotná,- indicators were chosen. The selection should corre- Šlehoferová and Matušková (2016) introduce a num spond to social, economic and demographic aspects ofber the of region.other contrasts, where Plzeň and its surround of peripheriality mentioned in the theoretical part of ings are significantly different from the distant parts the article. Scalar indicators are tied to the socio-economic characteristics of a given territory, while vector 4. Methods ones consider the distance to the municipality with certain central functions. Scalar indicators have a If we want to study the peripheries in a particular numerical superiority to avoid fogging or overlapping area, spatial delimitation of them is necessary. How- some of the potential phenomena that could occur ever, the study of peripheries cannot be isolated (Hav- to demarcate the core and the transition zone formed nearTab. 1 toScalar major and vectorcities. indicators used in the analysis and their bylíček, semiperipheries, Chromý 2001). Thus,which it areis also socio-economically naturally needed presupposed values in relation to the typology. more advanced and more integrated than the peripheries (Wallerstein 1979).

paper, especially to identify peripheral areas in West BohemiaThe methods on the describedbasis of the below above-discussed reflect the aim aspects of the of peripherality and to monitor the development dependency ratio dependency rate Unemployment flats built Newly ‘Trade’ ‘Education’ trends of these areas in comparison mainly with the rate migration Net Old-age core areas. Core high low low high high high For the purposes of this research, the years 2007 Peripheries low high high low low low and 2017 were selected for comparison. In 2007, Source: authors’ elaboration Regional development trends in West Bohemia 247

Four scalar indicators are selected to respect the elements of peripherality mentioned above – popula- statistical data primarily related to the internal char- tion stability (net migration rate) and age structure of acteristicsThe vast of majority the territory of these without indicators taking into are account‘scalar’, population (old-age dependency ratio). We monitor the economic potential by the unemployment rate, the use of vector indicators that emphasize the depen- denceexternal of relations. (peripheral) A specific territory feature on coreof this or paper central is From the point of view of population stability we alsoalthough express it also the hasattractiveness a social overlap of the (Nováček area by housing 2014). indicators was inspired mainly by the publication of areas (see Pileček, Jančák 2011). The use of vector capita). other contributions for the delimitation of peripher- construction in municipalities (newly built flats per- ies.Džupinová Kubeš and et al.Kraft (2008), (2011), but in they this sense,were alsouse theused time in sured for 2002–07 and 2012–17 since data for only accessibility of municipalities to important centres as Net migration rate and newly built flats were mea- the only indicator of the delimitation of peripheries. oneof the year area.Low could bring or negative significant migration distortion. can Bothpositively indi correlatecators mainly with reflecthigh unemployment the residential rate attractiveness and create of theHere, centre’s a modified range method (k1 of Kebza (2018) is used:- ‘futureless localities’. The social aspect of peripheral- tre’svector power indicators (k2 were calculated using the coefficientc). ity is expressed by old-age dependency ratio, as the ), the coefficient of the cen- - ferently for both) andindicators. the composite While at coefficient retail centres (k ki 2005). theThe presencecoefficient of of shopping the centre’s malls range (to thewas detriment defined dif of olderVector population indicators, is typical here forcalled peripheral ‘Trade’ areasand ‘Educa (Bańs- size, see the formula below) is of primary importance, tion’ by nature take into account the distance (geo- the importance of the educational institution corresponds to the number of students, in which the sys- education centres. Quantities are calculated similarly tometric the contribution peripherality), of Kebza specifically (2018), retail a detailed and tertiary meth- It must be said that other Czech cities, which are not tem of financing of universities is based in Czechia. a large-format, despecialized shopping mall with a rel- them, came into the analysis. 6 odologyevant gross is described leasable area below. (GLA). Retail Such centre cities is ora city munici with- located in West Bohemia,, but at least partly influence palities are usually important points of the settlement 6 (n = GLA in m2) , system, which have a large catchment area; in the case of more developed agglomeration, these shopping (n = number of students) malls can also be located in the hinterlands of the centre as an element of commercial suburbanization. The (d = distance from the centre) centre of education is a city with a public university. These institutions have very wide catchment areas as public universities in the Czechia are concentrated in (m = k2 for each considered municipality) a relatively small number of large cities. Due to the use of vector indicators, our own meth- In order to calculate the k2 - odology approaches a variation on gravity models. tance (by road) from each municipality to each centre This concept was used in the past (Wang, Guldmann of trade or education had to be coefficients, measured. Tothe opti dis- mize the distance measurement, a code powered by also currently represented in academic work (Kraft, Google Maps was done using the Distance Matrix and 1996; Ogden 1978; Reilly 1931). This concept is of their contribution, distance matters. BlažekIn addition 2012). As to Frantál the above-mentioned et al. (2016) state indicators, in the title theGeocoding distances APIs. considering Developed the as main a IPython routes Notebook between other ones are used in similar empirical works. Data (also known as Jupyter Notebook), the code provided of those are often only available for larger territorial names of the cities. units. A good example of an economic indicator is the theThe places values set byof scalaran input and file, vector which indicators contains areonly ana the- lysed together in order to classify the territory and Hampl 2005), which includes the average monthly thus to delimitate the peripheral areas. For this pur- wage,economic that aggregate was used (described also as a single in Dostál, indicator, Hampl e.g.2008; in pose, the hierarchical cluster analysis (described e.g. by Kronthaler 2005) is applied for 2007 and 2017 or Marada (2001). The other indicators among others (thus twice). Cluster analysis was performed using the includeworks of the Kubeš share and of Kebza university (2018), educated Skaličková population, (2015), SPSS software. The Ward method was chosen because sectoral employment, share of commuters or devel- it usually creates compact, even-sized clusters (Szmre opment of technical infrastructure (see Kubeš, Kebza csanyi 2012) and was used together with the block - intervals and standardization between values 0–1. gins, Thompson 2014; Czapiewski 2005; Quadrado et We assume division into at least 4 categories – cores 2018;al. 2001 Novotná, and others). Šlehoferová, Matušková 2016; Hug and their hinterlands (together as central areas), 248 Martin Kebza, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto semiperipheries (as a transition zones between cores surprisingly, the whole territory adopts a monocentric and peripheries) and peripheries. These results from image, although there are two administrative regional 2007 and 2017 are compared, or more precisely the shift between categories is compared, in terms of and its surroundings, that are labelled as the Central shift up (periphery to semiperiphery; semiperiphery centres. Such result confirms the dominance of Plzeň to central areas) or down (central areas to semipe- has two relatively strong regional centres (Karlovy riphery; semiperiphery to periphery) in this hierar- Varyarea inand the Cheb), typology. it lacks Although the dominant Karlovy growthVary Region pole, chy. It is this comparison that can reveal peripheral- which also contributes to poor links with other pro- ization in the sense of the expansion or emergence gressive areas, institutional anchoring, e.g. in the form of new peripheries. Furthermore, the values of indi- of a public college (so far, the only one is the Faculty vidual indicators are compared in order to monitor of Economics at the University of West Bohemia with the deepening or reduction of differences, especially a marginal number of students) or stigma of distant between central areas and peripheries, and to moni- and structurally affected areas. tor developmental tendencies in individual categories. from the position among important supra-regional On the other hand, Plzeň undoubtedly benefits 5. Results - bergcentres, create which an importantgained in importanceaxis in Czechia Czechia recognized joined After a pilot testing, a total of 5 clusters, which signif- the Schengen area in 2007. Prague, Plzeň and Nurem icantly differed in their properties, are distinguished: a development axis. The stability of the Central area (i) the area with the most favourable values in all isby also the supportedMinistry of by Regional the internal Development processes (2015) that take as as core, (ii) medium distant areas with various but suburbanization and intensifying commuting con- averagerespects values around (iii) Plzeň rather and remote Rokycany municipalities was evaluated with tributeplace in to the the urban strengthening agglomeration of ties ofand Plzeň: thus strongerongoing favourable unemployment rates and high migration rates, (iv) unattractive areas with high unemployment rates and a negative migration balance (v) remote integration of the municipalities around Plzeň. The municipalities with relatively higher unemployment, and almost zero migration increments. Based on these clusters’ properties, the municipalities were divided into three types which follow the concept of ‘core-semiperiphery-periphery’ axis – the Central area (cluster i), semi-peripheries (ii + iii) and peripheries (iv + v). The resulting typol- - gories between 2007 and 2017 (see Tab. 2), and thus possibleogy (Fig. integration2) also reflected or disintegration the shift between within the givencate hierarchy. According to the results of the analysis, the area of West Bohemia can be divided on the basis of the concept of ‘core-semiperiphery-periphery’ axis. Rather Tab. 2 Explanation of the typology based on shifts between the classifications. Classification Classification Category of area in 2007 in 2017 Central areas Central areas Central areas Disintegrated Central areas Semiperipheries central areas Semiperipheries Semiperipheries Semiperipheries Disintegrated Semiperipheries Peripheries semiperipheries Successfully Peripheries Central areas integrated peripheries Integrated peripheries Peripheries Semiperipheries Peripheries Peripheries Peripheries Fig. 2. Typology of areas according to the cluster analysis. Source: Source: authors’ suggestion authors’ elaboration Regional development trends in West Bohemia 249

Tab. 3 Basic characteristics and average values of indicators according to the typology, year 2007. Net Old-age Newly built Category Area Population Unemployment ‘Trade’ ‘Education’ migration dependency flats per 100 of area (km2) (thousands) rate (%) (k ) (k ) rate (%) ratio (%) inhabitants s s Central areas 1,655.8 299.9 2.6 8.8 21.4 2.7 11.2 51.6 Disintegrated 279.0 9.7 3.1 11.3 29.1 4.0 8.4 44.0 central areas Semiperipheries 2,490.5 158.2 3.4 5.7 24.1 1.7 4.5 32.6 Disintegrated 3,013.2 209.1 4.2 6.3 18.1 2.1 1.2 23.7 semiperipheries Successfully integrated 96.1 2.1 7.9 −3.1 22.9 1.3 9.4 47.3 peripheries Integrated 864.3 18.8 8.0 −0.6 22.2 1.0 4.9 34.7 peripheries Peripheries 2,560.0 156.2 7.7 0.9 17.8 1.5 0.8 23.3 Source: ČSÚ (2019), authors’ calculations

completely and housing construction also increased; - at the same time, an increase of dependence on Pilsen significant dynamics of Plzeň compared to the rest of can be expected. theThe region compact also reflects Central the area innovation is followed potential by a group (Dok of The following group of municipalities are semipe- municipalitiesoupil, Preis, Novotná that do 2016). not hold the growth rate and are labelled as ‘disintegrated central areas’, although - rialripheries. units toThese the southare increasingly and north oftypical the Central of the Plzeňarea. small group of 27 municipalities, for which the unem- VeryRegion, selectively, where they semiperipheral form two larger municipalities compact territoappear ploymentstrong ties rate with has the risen city onof Plzeňaverage may and persist. the old-age It is a in the Karlovy Vary region, especially in its eastern dependency ratio has risen sharply (see Tables 3 and (inland) part. Some larger cities such as Karlovy Vary 4). ‘Outer ring’ of the Central area is complemented or Klatovy belong among the semi-peripheral munic- by ‘successfully integrated peripheries’. Those are- ipalities. More distant semiperipheral communes can as were of peripheral nature in 2007, but in 2017 be considered as places of amenity migration. Howev- already belongs to the Central area. This interesting er, there is also a large number of municipalities that sample of only 12 municipalities apparently under- were evaluated as semiperipheral in 2007 and their went successful integration into the most progres- attractiveness in terms of migration and housing con- sive part of the region, when they managed to reduce struction has changed negatively (‘disintegrated sem- the unemployment rate by more than half during the iperipheries’). Many of these municipalities are near period under review, the migration balance changed the border and are more distant, but there are also

Tab. 4 Basic characteristics and average values of indicators according to the typology, year 2017. Old-age Newly built Population Unemployment Net migration ‘Trade’ ‘Education’ Category of area dependency flats per 100 (thousands) rate (%) rate (%) (k ) (k ) ratio (%) inhabitants s s Central areas 318.0 2.2 5.3 28.4 2.5 13.0 48.7 Disintegrated 9.9 4.3 3.4 42.6 2.9 10.2 41.7 central areas Semiperipheries 159.9 2.6 6.0 32.0 1.6 6.8 30.9 Disintegrated 203.7 3.1 −0.7 27.9 1.3 4.3 22.5 semiperipheries Successfully integrated 2.4 3.2 6.6 28.6 1.5 11.3 44.8 peripheries Integrated 18.7 4.9 5.1 33.0 1.3 7.4 32.9 peripheries Peripheries 149.5 4.6 −2.7 26.3 1.2 4.7 22.3 Source: ČSÚ (2019), authors’ calculations 250 Martin Kebza, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto relatively large cities such as Cheb or smaller regional in the region to make Czechoslovakia a ‘forge of the within this category. - centresFurthermore, Aš, Domažlice, a large Mariánské group ofLázně rather and smallSušice- socialist camp’ (Frantál, Nováková 2014). According to Dostál and Hampl (2002), low levels of qualifica- tion and flexibility of labour also worsen the context er municipalities in the northern part of the Plzeň- of Karlovy Vary Region. The vulnerability of Karlo Region and the south-eastern part of the Karlovy Vary vy Vary Region is currently attested by the lowest asRegion a decrease is demarcated, in the unemployment with an increase rate. of Thisnet migragroup employment rates in agriculture (Věžník, Bartošová- istion called rate and‘integrated the number peripheries’, of newly althoughbuilt flats, it as is well not sional2012) anddebate lower on growthconvergent rates or of divergentgross fixed tenden capital- only about economic integration. However, the shift (Rusiński, Pietrusiak 2017). There is a multidimen in socio-economic characteristics compared to the ‘successfully integrated peripheries’, which are much (inter)nationalcies between defined trends types and issues.of territory. Considering All of them the indicatorsare largely influencedused, in some by a casesbroader the context semiperiphery covering Finally, a large number of municipalities form approaches the Central area and the peripheries take acloser peripheral to Plzeň, area. is weaker. West Bohemian peripheries are mainly composed of remote hilly and mountainous rate), in others the peripheries approach the other groupson a completely (unemployment, different ‘Trade’) trajectory and (net in other migration cases the border areas and various parts of the Karlovy Vary there is neither convergence nor divergence (newly region.areas in Thesethe southern peripheries part of maintain the Plzeň region,relatively some high of unemployment and migration decline, thus slightly Looking in detail at the individual indicators, we moving away from other groups of municipalities. At built flats, old-age dependency ratio, ‘Education’). the same time, the peripheralization in terms of the production of new peripheries, or rather their expan- Thefind thatpeculiarity the highest of this values territory of old-age is the dependency relatively sion, can be noticed. The newly peripheral areas (‘dis- ‘younger’ratio are atpopulation the eastern in the border borderlands, of the Plzeň which Region. has its integrated semiperipheries’) are spatially connected to the existing peripheries and, with the exception of (2009) believe that policies designed for migration near Klatovy, no new compact peripherals are created. historical-geographical causality. Dufek and Minařík Simultaneously, similarities with the terms of ‘borderland’ and ‘rural’ are shown – while peripher- 2002–2007flows can reduce and 2012–2017 the changes periods caused were by the measured process al areas to some extent correspond to the state (but andof ageing then showed of the population. a complex scenario Net migration for demograph rates for- rather not regional) border, rural areas form only a the urbanization (share of population living in cities ic development, in which patterns and significant andpart townsof the peripheries.over 3,000 inhabitants) The verification showed calculation that semi of- areaspositive that migration lack adequate flows infrastructure,were predominantly education found or in urban agglomeration of Plzeň. Mountain and hilly are, on the contrary, urbanized the most (64.4%) right some of these areas, which are aesthetically attrac- afterperipheries the central are significantly area (72.4%). rural Peripheral and the characterperipheries of tivejob opportunities(Šumava), are areundergoing most depopulated. the construction However, of a several large cities (Sokolov, Ostrov, Chodov, Tachov) contributes to the degree of urbanization. second homes (recreation). According to the achieved results, even these relativelyThe unemployment higher number rate of flatsfollowed that arethe intended state of thefor peripheral areas cannot be compared with marginal areas, which are completely outside the integration period under review. Even so, it is possible to observe processes, and thus ‘outside the system’. In this case, national economy and decreased significantly in the- it is possible to discuss the connection of peripheral ings and the problematic area around the towns of areas by public transport to local centres, which oper- Tachov,significant Sokolov differences or Sušice, between or the entirePlzeň, northernits surround bor- - locally there may be a danger of excessive dependence es are shown in the share of agricultural and forest ates throughout the territory (Podlešáková 2019), but land.der of It the had Plzeň decreasing Region. tendencyIn general, mainly the smallest in the changsubur- les, Aš promontory). on one or a few roads (Šumava, Ore Mountains, Český Vector indicators represent dependence on cores. ban area of Plzeň, which we have expected (see Tab. 1). As the results show, Karlovy Vary Region needs - aresome tightly special characterized attention. by Nowadays, high unemployment Karlovy rates Vary Several cities (Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Prague, Cheb, Ústí andRegion low is or mostly even negative covered values by peripheral of net migration areas which rate. nad Labem, České Budějovice, Most, Teplice, Chomu The depopulation, in addition to the previous analy- thetov, kPříbram,1 and k2 Strakonice, Rakovník, Beroun and Králův sis, can be related to regional economic development Dvůr) were considered for testing the calculation of during the socialist era, when coal mines and heavy coefficients of the ‘Trade’ and ‘Education’. industries (especially in Sokolov district) expanded PragueFrom those for ‘Education’ cities, only were Plzeň, relevant Karlovy (measurable). Vary, Cheb and Prague for ‘Trade’ and Plzeň, České Budějovice and Regional development trends in West Bohemia 251

While the values of ‘Trade’ have increased in the in their community and develop it. The properties of such a ‘creative class’ (see Florida 2005) are indis- the construction of new shopping centres. ‘Education’ pensable for the future development. In this regard, showsdirection a generally from Prague, declining Plzeň trendand Karlovy due to Varythe drop due toof students, although it is still the strongest in the only Bohemia in Cheb would be interesting and poten- more significant settling of the University of West of the university could help to reduce the departure university city in the region, Plzeň, and on the axis oftially young beneficial. people Asfrom a side the effect,peripheral a deeper region. anchoring A sim- connecting Plzeň with Prague. ilar direction is represented by Eder (2019), who 6. Discussion peripheries. Thus, the availability of (high-)quality tertiaryis exploring education knowledge seems basesto be very in conjunction important from with challenges. For example, the Central areas are strug- the point of view of human capital development and glingEach ofwith the socio-spatial defined types changes of territory typical faces for distinct urban demographic sustainability. This factor is all the more agglomerations – mainly suburbanization that has an impact on the morphological, social and demographic are structurally young (see Tab. 3 and 4) and poten- structure of the hinterlands of large cities. Large cit- tiallysignificant promising. because the West Bohemian peripheries - Active and creative individuals with the potential gation, but also environmental challenges and other phenomena.ies themselves often face gentrification, social segre political and other public action, but also through Development issues, whether of a regulatory or theirfor soft own development business. Local can influenceentrepreneurs the area are throughdealt by generative nature, are a particularly sensitive topic for Mayer, Habersetzer and Meili (2016) who look into transition groups of municipalities, especially for ‘suc- their ability to create periphery-core ties, the goal cessfully integrated peripheries’, where the demand should be a competitive environment in the periphery for housing and housing has changed. and thus reduced dependence on cores. Start-ups are Quite differently, there are peripheries, which gaining in economic importance, which also represent need a developmental impulse instead of regulations. a possible way of doing business in the periphery, as These can be of two types, namely ‘top-down’, i.e. - ideally institutional comprehensive solution, which, over, such start-ups can also have a very minimalist however, may not always fully meet the needs of a giv- formdemonstrated of a municipal by Eriksson workshop and with Rataj basic (2019). equipment. More en territory, and ‘bottom-up’, when peripheral areas begin to prosper endogenously. by many square kilometres covered by untouched The ‘top-down’ approach in this regard is the poly- naturalKarlovy landscapes. Vary and While Plzeň analysingRegions are Polish also border known- centric development approach discussed by Humer (2018). Applied to West Bohemia, a similar devel- as peripheral areas where there are often cultural, opment is taking place at a higher hierarchical level historicallands, Więckowski and natural (2010) attractions, evaluates although border those regions features are not enough to develop the whole area itself. towards Bavaria is also expected. Several large indus- The mentioned description matches for Czechia’s pro- (Prague–Plzeň axis). The continuation of this axis thanks to the entry into the Schengen area and the Park, and represent a considerable share of land on completiontrial zones (e.g.of the Nová motorway. Hospoda) Contribution have been ofopened those Bohemian-Bavariantected areas, such as border. Český les and Šumava National industrial zones is not unequivocally positive; usu- The possibilities of tourism for the purposes of ally it is a simple production with lack of research local development are examined by Lang (2012) on the example of Upper Lusatian Hoyerswerda. Its development can have consequences in terms of negative and development. The influx of agency workers from - haveabroad a canchance also toprovoke use the local connections social conflicts. with Othercores bolic attractiveness (Lang 2012). In connection with throughtowns – importantCheb, Domažlice railways. or However,Mariánské all Lázně three – cities also theprejudices development about theof tourism, territory however, and increasing it must its be sym said belong to the ‘disintegrated semiperipheries’ type, that there are places that should preserve the charac- which does not indicate the suitability of this strate- ter of remote periphery in the region, those are espe- gy. Such polycentric development strategy would also cially protected natural areas, which are hit by touris- affect only a few selected areas, and especially more remote peripheries could be left out. The Cheb-Kar- of the attractiveness of the locality for tourism, but lovy Vary basin axis has potential in this direction, alsotification for local (e.g. residents.Železná Ruda) A strong which push leads for to the decrease devel- although it is a short and isolated axis. opment of tourism in the amiss perceived peripheries We consider the issue of human capital to be essen- may lead to a ‘boomerang effect’, when, with institu- tial, both in the form of political and other public tional support, the perception of locality changes pos- itively, but without subsequent regulation and after individuals who are active, creative and willing to stay representation of municipalities (Pileček 2011) and touristification, opinion about the place fades again. 252 Martin Kebza, Camilla Do Carmo Perotto

In addition to tourism, peripheries can be a des- and quality of education and available opportunities tination for amenity migration, which may also lead for self-realization. to revitalization of settlements (Bartoš et al. 2011). Attractive landscape can attract high-skilled amenity in-migrants which can start deperipheralization pro- Acknowledgements cesses. This may also apply to the borderland, whose inhabitants were displaced after 1945, which locally The research was supported by the Technology Agency becomes a destination for the descendants of former time here. of the Czech Republic (TL01000110). residents who invest financial resources, work and References from technological progress. A milestone may be the developmentFinally, peripheral of high-speed areas canInternet ultimately and 5G also networks, benefit which can attract people who only work with comput- areas in Poland: the balance of development in the ers and do not need social contact, and who do not Bański, J. (2005): Suburban and peripheral rural prefer the urban environment. 117–130. transformation period. Geografický časopis 57(2),

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Zaniklé obce (2019): Města, obce, osady, samoty a další eds.to Marginal Perception Regions: of Marginality: from definition theoretical to development issues and objekty zaniklé či částečně zaniklé (dobové pohlednice, regionalpolicies. Inperceptions Jussila, H., of Leimgruber, marginality W., in Majoral,geographical R. ?menu=222?27,108.historie, vojenské mapy, místopis) [cit. 2019-01-24]. Retrieved from: http://zanikleobce.cz/index.php Original Article 255 Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms: evidence from Ukrainian cities Oleksiy Gnatiuk*, Anatoliy Melnychuk

Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Department of Economic and Social Geography, Ukraine * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article focuses on geographical urbanonyms in Ukraine – names of streets, squares, lanes, etc. that refer to the names of other geographical objects like cities, regions, countries, or continents. It shows the role of geographical urbanonyms as a powerful instrument used by political regimes to shape political identity by constructing and legitimizing borders between “us” and “them” at different spatial scales. The analysis revealed a significantly higher presence of geographical urbanonyms in Ukraine compared to former state socialist countries in Central Europe. The widespread presence of street names related to the former USSR proves the absence of post-Soviet decolonization in semiotic space, going beyond the pure decommunization, in the majority of Ukrainian cities since 1991. Regional differences in the dynamics, distribution and structure of geographical urbanonyms in Ukraine are explained by the historical, cultural and (geo)political divisions.

KEYWORDS urban toponyms; geographical urbanonyms; geopolitics; Ukraine

Received: 16 July 2020 Accepted: 23 September 2020 Published online: 3 November 2020

Gnatiuk, O., Melnychuk, A. (2020): Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms: evidence from Ukrainian cities. AUC Geographica 55(2), 255–268 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2020.19 © 2020 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). 256 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

1. Introduction -

semiotics plays a key role in this representation. Top - onyms are not merely abstract names in the spatial- Recent literature in the field of critical toponymy- structure of cities, but also represent the construct of focuses mostly on commemorative place names. Typ social and power relations, through which the iden ically, commemorative toponyms include names hon- tity of the city and society is being formed (Berg and- ouring prominent personalities, events, organizations Voulteenaho 2009). E.g. as Smirnov (2013) points out, and institutions, abstract ideologies, while other top- the toponymy of St. Petersburg in different histori onyms are classified as descriptive, possessive, and- cal epochs reflected and reflects the relations of the- euphemistic (Stewart 1954). While the role of com city and its inhabitants with foreign states, natives of memorative place names as an instrument of memo these states, cities with which St. Petersburg is some ry and identity policy is not questioned, the symbolic how connected, illustrating the changing assessment- (including political) significance of other categories of certain epochs, other states and related statesmen of toponymy is often underestimated or overlooked. and representatives of culture. Street names in Gro However, as Rose-Redwood (2017) has shown, any zny reflect the city’s socio-cultural relations with- act of naming and renaming has a commemorative- the Chechen Republic, the Caucasus region and the dimension. all-Russian geographical and cultural context (Thaka In this paper, we want to draw attention to geo hov 2019). Paraphrasing the apt statement about a- graphical group of urbanonyms – urban place names streetscape as a political cosmos (Rose-Redwood, that derive from the names of geographical objects. Alderman, and Azaryahu 2017b), the urban topony On the example of Ukraine, a post-Soviet country my may be deemed to be a microcosm reflecting the with turbulent history, contingent and contradictory macrocosm of the Universe through the cultural and memory policy (Shevel 2011; Portnov 2013), ongoing political2.2 Geographical lenses. urbanonyms and their role processes of official legally-binding decommunization in the symbolic marking of space and unprompted voluntary decolonization, we want to show their roles both as cultural indicators and- - technology of power used by national and regional political regimes to assert their authority and sym The semantics of a large group of urbanonyms direct bolic power. - ly refers to the names of other geographical objects: Hereinafter we use a term ‘toponymy’ to refer a- cities, regions, countries, continents, etc. According to set of toponyms (place names) within a specific ter semiotic classification, used by Stiperski et al. (2011) ritory, except for a phrase ‘critical toponymy’ signify and then by Bucher et al. (2013), these urban place- ing critical approach to the study of place names as names are treated as geographical toponyms and belonging to structures of power and identity (Berg include names derived from rivers, cities, regions,- and Voulteenaho 2009). countries, mountains, islands, etc. Dala Costa (2020) 2. Theoretical and methodological follows the similar approach and defines such topo background nyms as referencing geographical places like cities,- villages, countries, mountains or gorges. This group 2.1 Urban toponymy as a mimicry of city- should not be confused with so-called location urba world relations nonyms, deriving from important sites, places and objects within the city. In the literature these two groups of urbanonyms (geographical and location)- together are treated as “geography urbanonyms” According to Lappo (2012), the city is a mirror of- (Stiperski et al. 2011; Bucher et al. 2013) or “topo the region. The point is that cities reflect the specific graphical urbanonyms” (Gnatiuk 2018). Geographical- characteristics, successes and problems of the sur- urbanonyms may be classified based on the location rounding regions. However, this role of the mirror is of the relevant geographical objects, e.g. into region not limited to social, demographic, or economic rela al, national, foreign, etc. More detailed classification- tions. Any city is a symbolic (semiotic) representation- is also possible, e.g. street elsewhere with the name of the surrounding space. A set of urban verbal and derived from Brno, Czech Republic, may be classi visual texts (signs, names of streets, restaurants, met fied as Moravian, Czech, and European geographical- ro stations, advertising images, monuments, ethnic urbanonym. neighbourhoods, etc.) resembles a topographic model Urbanonyms have two key functions: orienta of the world (Nikolaeva 2014). The larger is the city, tion (utilitarian) and symbolic (commemorative) the more important role it plays in the national and (Azaryahu 1990). Geographical urbanonyms are a world hierarchy, the wider and clearer resemblance good illustration of this thesis. Some of them are- relationships with its own region, country, and the mainly utilitarian: e.g. a street leading to a certain whole globe are realized in its semiotic space. town or village was given the respective name. Com Urban toponymy as the most common and most memorative, in particular geopolitical considerations simple (to perceive and comprehend) form of urban did not play a significant role in the creation of such Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms 257

street names. It can be assumed that such utilitarian the borders of medieval Serbia would come to the geographical urbanonyms reflect the most important forefront; with this project, the nationally conscious and stable relationships of the city with the outside- intellectuals hoped to bring Belgrade’s population to world in certain historical epoch. Not surprisingly,- identify itself with the places remembered in the new utilitarian geographical urbanonyms are represent street names so that they would accept them as “their ed mostly by “regional” and, less frequently, “nation own” (Stojanović 2007). Almost all street names in- al” names. On the other hand, symbolic geographical Zagreb referring to Serbian and Russian cities were urbanonyms are assigned in order to reflect a certain- changed in the early-1990s in order to erase the “neg geographical object in the symbolic space of the city, ative others” from the streetscape of Croatian capital. while direct economic, social, or demographic connec Simultaneously, the role of Zagreb as the capital city oftions of the city with this geographical object recede- independent Croatia was symbolically manifested by into the background. an increased number of street names referring to Cro- The most common motivation for symbolic geo- atian territory. The renewed map of Zagreb inscribed graphical place names is to emphasize belonging to a- also belonging to the commonŠakaja cultural sphere of Cen certain socio-cultural and/or political space: the pow tral Europe and common spiritual culture, as well as er of naming is often the first step in taking posses new geopolitical friendships ( and Stanić 2017).- sion (Todorov, quoted in Robinson 1989). The cities of- The new street names in the West Mostar (Bosnia a certain country naturally have some streets named and Herzegovina) after renaming in 1990s empha after other cities of the same country: such toponym size a shared history with the motherland of Croatia ic policy cements the national cultural and political- by recalling, among else, names of important Croat space. At the same time, the indigenous population- cities (Palmberger 2017). In Riga, Latvia, the names of the colonized territories often perceives such top of several Hanseatic cities were concentrated in the onyms as culturally alienated, imposed by the coloniz living area of Mežaparks, but after the beginning of ers, as evidenced by the attempts to restore toponymic the World War I – particularly in 1915 – the names justice and return the right to name to the indigenous of these streets were all changed into names coming population (Rose-Redwood, Alderman, and Azaryahu from Russian place-names. However, after the Soviet 2017a). In this sense, developing the argument by Union collapse, the names of Hanseatic cities were- Marin (2017), we should recognize that toponymic given once again to the new streets in Mežaparks inscription involves not only chronotopic, but also (Balode 2012).The recent study on Minsk toponym direct chorotopic boundary-making, constructing ic system (Basik and Rahautsou 2019) showed that and legitimizing borders between “Us” and “Them” in the Russian (in particular, Siberian) street names,- space – colonial/indigenous, national/foreign, East/- being irrelevant to the locals, were implanted into the West, etc. All cultures start out from the division of- urban semiosphere in Soviet period forming an artifi the world into an internal (“Our”) space and an exter cial toponymic identity separate from the identity of nal (“Their”) space (Lotman 2000 [1996]), and geo the place; at the same time, place names related to the graphical toponyms are useful instrument to mark world outside the former USSR represent only 0.9% this division. from the total of geographical urbanonyms. All these Thus, geographical place names, making political findings witness the role of geographical urbanonyms- ideologies to appear as the “natural order of things” as an instrument to create and recreate symbolic in the eyes of ordinary citizens (Azaryahu 2009), spaces, in particular differentiating between geopo- represent a powerful instrument for constructing litically “our” and “their” space. political identity, in particular through colonization/- However, there are few studies focusing on geo occupation and decolonization/deoccupation, and graphical urbanonyms as a specific phenomenon. The- have repeatedly constituted a subject of critical top exception is the above-mentioned paper by Balode- onymy studies. In particular, in colonial Singapore, a (2012) that thoroughly examines a body of geographi lot of official street names were derived from British cal urbanonyms in Riga. In addition to the above-men places (counties, urban centres, seaside resorts), as- tioned observation, the paper tells the reader some well as some cities elsewhere from the British Empire other interesting facts, including the following: (Yeoh 1996, 2017). A major transport hub in Buda 1) quantitative prevalence of regional and national pest was named as Moscow Square in 1951, and in- urbanonyms and low proportion of “foreign” ones, 2016 original historical name was returned to that 2) the majority of the latter refer to the toponymy of place (Palonen 2017). Some Arab geographical urba- the closest neighbour countries (Estonia, Lithuania, nonyms were replaced in Haifa after the creation of Poland, etc.), 3) toponymy of Russian (and Belarusian) Israel (Azaryahu 2017). In the late-nineteenth cen origin is very rare nowadays due to the renaming of tury, many streets in Belgrade, Serbia, were renamed streets in the first years of Latvian independence after geographical places important in Serbia’s after1990, but in Soviet times Russia-related street national history and major cities in the Slav world. names were quite numerous, 4) some foreign place- Remarkably, if a virtual map were drawn connecting names mentioned in urbanonymy were replaced by the places “remembered” in the new street names, Latvian toponyms during the first independence of 258 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

- Latvia. These facts conform to the concept of urban- (Hrytsak 2007; Vengryniuk 2012; Mahrytska 2013; toponymy as a mimicry of city–world relationships Neher 2014; Fernos 2018; Savchenko and Takhtaulo- and support the idea that such a mimicry is geopoliti va 2019; Gnatiuk and Melnychuk 2020; Males 2016; cally shaped. However, although findings are valuable- Males and Deineka 2020; Kudriavtseva 2020; Pav- for current research, the author of the cited research lenko 2020), 5) influence of the axiological status of follows rather descriptive than critical approach: geo a place within a city on the politics of memory (Gna graphical place names are simply listed without clear tiuk and Glybovets 2020), 6) legal and organizational- explanation of circumstances and factors, including features of the decommunization process, principles political regime changes, influencing their occurrence of choosing new names (Karoyeva 2017), 7) prob and disappearance; the relevant conclusions are left lematic aspects of state toponymic policy (Hyrych 2.3up to Ukrainian the reader. urban toponymy in the discourses 2013). The toponymic space of the city is considered of decommunization and decolonization as one of the platforms for the ideology building in- contemporary Ukraine, which is realized through - social and state mechanisms of consensus and rec- onciliation (Takhtaulova 2015), as a symbolic capital After the collapse of the socialist regimes, most coun (Males 2016) and as a spatial projection of the socie tries of Central and Eastern Europe experienced- tal axiological system (Gnatiuk and Glybovets 2020).- transformations of urban toponymy aimed at the However, geographical urbanonyms, despite their- elimination of communist ideology and the forma powerful significance for the formation of the sym tion of a new national identity (Light 2004; Gill 2005; bolic urban space, remain on the periphery of decom Czepczyński 2008; Palonen 2008; Crljenko 2012; munization discourse. The reason is the lack of their Light and Young 2014). Ukraine was not an exception inalienable ideological connotations, although the from the general trend, but the toponymic process name of “Moscow Street” may evoke associations there had certain national specificity and consisted with the communist regime, and the name of “German- of two qualitatively heterogeneous stages. The first Street” – with the Nazis. Perception of such names as stage (1991–2014) resulted in a voluntary and weak problematic, contradictory, undesirable, etc. is pos decommunization of urban toponyms based on the- sible only within the discourse of decolonization,- initiatives of local governments with clear regional according to which current changes in the symbolic differences. In the Western Ukraine, especially in Gali space in Ukraine should not end with the elimina cia, almost all names related to the communist regime tion of communist ideology, but should be continued were erased at this early stage; in Central Ukraine in order to erase a memory of the “colonial” past of- the renaming was limited and related to the streets- Ukraine as a part of the USSR, the Russian Empire, in the central parts of cities and streets that carried etc. (Males and Deineka 2020). Nevertheless, cur the names of the most odious communist regime rep rently there is no official policy of “decolonization” in- resentatives; in Southern and Eastern Ukraine, with- Ukraine: the available examples are spontaneous and- some exceptions, the renaming of streets practically- voluntary initiative at the local level, just as decom- did not occur, and the communist toponymy was pre munization until 2015. The voluntary nature of top served almost entirely (Riznyk 2007). After the Rev onymic decolonization (mainly understood as de-Rus olution of Dignity, in 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament sification) makes it an attractive and objective tool for adopted so-called Decommunization Package of Laws, the study of changing self-identification of Ukrainians. providing the criteria for communist toponymy that- After all, communist toponyms disappeared from the should be erased, as well as legal details of renaming streetscapes in the East and South of the country not- procedure. This caused the second wave of commu because the local population or local elites demanded- nist street names liquidation that was much more it, but because the decommunization became manda massive and covered the entire territory of Ukraine- tory. Cases of decolonization testify to the meaning due to its mandatory nature. ful, mature (albeit debatable) nature of toponymic Critical comprehension of these waves of decom changes on the part of the local population and local munization and accompanying toponymic processes- political elites. This is shown both by the examples of in the literature takes place mainly in the context of Lviv, where de-Russification took place already in the the politics of memory in modern Ukraine. In particu 1990s (Hrytsak 2007), and Kyiv, where the relevant lar, the following aspects are addressed: 1) differences discourse unfolded after the Revolution of Dignity between regional models of a new national identity (Males 2016; Males and Deineka 2020). building (Gnatiuk 2018), 2) spatio-temporal aspects 3. Data and methods of the urban toponymy transformation (Takhtaulova 2017; Gnatiuk and Melnychuk 2020; Pavlenko 2020),- 3) key discourses / approaches to decommunization:- “historical nostalgia”, “nationalistic” and “decoloniza In order to explore general representation and tion” (Males 2016; Males and Deineka 2020), 4) imple regional distribution of geographical urbanonyms in mentation of memory policy in a specific region or city Ukraine, we used the data from the 40 largest cities Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms 259

- - of Ukraine, representing all administrative regions.- structural and temporal idiosyncrasies of geograph The number and the share of geographical urbano ical urbanonyms in Ukraine, but to link them to key nyms among all street names in 2020 were calculat (geo)political actors, epochs and shifts, as well as to- ed for each city. Then, for each city, the structure of the geographic, socio-political and cultural factors and geographical urbanonyms was determined in terms circumstances, demonstrating the role of such topon of the location of their denotations (i.e. geographical- ymy in the ideology building and memory policy of objects from which names are derived). Depending- the ruling political regimes, totalitarian or democratic. on the geographical location of denotations, all geo- 4. Results and discussion graphical urbanonyms were divided into the follow ing categories: “local” – within the same administra 4.1 Geographical urbanonyms at national tive region of Ukraine as the city itself; “Ukrainian” and regional scale – within modern Ukraine; “Soviet” – within the former USSR; “Socialist Europe”– in the European countries - of the former socialist camp; “Capitalist Europe”– in- the other European countries; “other”– in the rest of “Soviet” urbanonyms are the most common catego the world. This classification is somewhat condition- ry of geographical street names in the totality of the al and does not reflect the variety of circumstances studied cities (40.3%). The second position is taken of each place name origin, e.g. some names classi by “Ukrainian” urbanonyms (35.3%), the third – by- fied as “Soviet” may originated long before the Soviet “local” urbanonyms (18.6%). These three categories Union or after its collapse. However, this approach is- make up the vast majority of the total number of geo the most relevant for the modern historical context, graphical urbanonyms and are present in all analyzed when Ukraine is an arena of competition and interac cities. The share of all other categories is slightly more- tion of (pro) European identity on the one hand and than 5%, and the most numerous of them are those (post) Soviet and (pro) Russian identity on the other, related to the former socialist Europe (3.3%) and oth so we decided to use it, addressing these problematic er European countries (1.5%). moments in the analysis. Also, we calculated the share- The share of geographical street names tends of “Soviet” urbanonyms renamed during the years of- to increase with the size of the city: it varies from independence (1991–2020) in order to identify indi 10–15% in cities with a population of up to 500,000 vidual and regional differences in post-Soviet decolo to 25–30% in larger cities (on average). This can be- nization of urban toponymy. - explained by two reasons: 1) the toponymy of large In order to trace and explain the regionally specific cities reflects their more developed spatial relation- dynamics of the emergence and disappearance of geo- ships, while smaller cities are mostly attached to a graphical urbanonyms, we chose three cases – large purely local context; 2) geographical map was a use cities, each representing a separate part of the coun ful source for street names in the period of a rapid try with a specific cultural and political background- growth of large cities. Also, these figures indicate that and different approaches to toponymic policy: Lviv geographical urbanonyms are much more widespread (Western Ukraine), Kyiv (Central Ukraine) and Dni in Ukraine compared with the other CEE countries: inpro (Eastern Ukraine). Furthermore, denotations of study by Bucher et al. (2013) their share was 0–16%, geographical urbanonyms for each case city were and in study by Stiperski et al. (2011) – 2–9%. How mapped: point geographical objects (cities) were ever, Ukrainian figures are similar to that of Minsk – indicated as points in their actual locations, and linear- 18.3% (Basik and Rahautsou 2019). and planar objects were replaced by points located in The share of geographical urbanonyms also shows their geometric centres. In this way, we tried to visual a strong dependence on the region (Fig. 1). If in the ize the mental map of the “intimate” world, which the west, in the centre and partly in the south it is equal to inhabitants of each of these cities may shape under- 0–10% in the cities with a population of up to 500,000 the influence of geographical street names. and 10–15% in the larger cities, in the east (especially Information on the naming, renaming and liquida in Donbas, Dnipro and Kharkiv regions) these figures tion of city objects was obtained from the following are 15–25% and 20–30% respectively (on average). sources: 1) official documents of local governments The structure of geographical urbanonyms also and local authorities, 2) directories and databases- shows regional differences (Fig. 1): (e.g. Official Directory of the Streets of the City of – In the western and central parts of the country, the Kyiv, electronic directory “Streets of Lviv” of the Cen share of “local” names is high: it does not fall below tre for Urban History of Central and Eastern Europe),- 20%, and in 7 cities out of 17 it exceeds 50%. In- 3) maps and plans of cities for different years. this respect, the cities of these regions resemble Thus, in the present research we applied the ele- the case of Riga (Balode 2012). Also, high pro ments of quantitative interpretation, the comparative- portion of “local” street names is observed in theanalysis, as well as the cartographic and archival meth Crimea. In the rest of the southeast it does not ods. We tried to follow, at least partially, critical top exceed 20%, and in large cities like Dnipro, Zapor onymy approach, i.e. not only to describe the spatial, izhia and Kryvyi Rih it is less than 10%. 260 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

Fig. 1 Number, share and structure of geographical street names.

4.2 Geographical urbanonyms as markers of Sovietization and post-Soviet decolonization – The share of “Ukrainian” names takes the largest values in the cities of the western and central parts of the country. In particular, in Galicia, Volhynia, Bukovina, as well as in Kyiv, it is close to 50% or Regional differences in the structure of geographical- slightly higher. A similar situation is observed in street names reflect the geopolitical past of different- some cities of the southern part. At the same time, parts of the country – their belonging to the Aus in other cities of the southeast, the share of these tro-Hungarian and Russian empires, Poland, Czecho urbanonyms does not exceed 20%, and the lowest- slovakia, Romania, and the Soviet Union. However, the- rates are typical for some cities in the central part influence of these geopolitical agents is asymmetric: (10–15%). Nevertheless, distribution of “Ukraini “Soviet” names predominate over urban names asso an” urbanonyms is characterized by the smallest ciated with the European context almost throughout- interregional disparities. the country. Only in two cities of Western Ukraine, – The share of “Soviet” urbanonyms shows the Uzhhorod and Ivano-Frankivsk, “European” topony strongest interregional disparities and the clearest my prevails over “Soviet”, and more or less balanced- spatial pattern. The smallest values are observed situation is observed also in other cities of the west in the west and centre of the country, where in the and the centre of the country. In the rest of the ter- vast majority of cities they do not exceed 30%. In ritory, and especially in Donbas and Prydniprovia, the south-east, the share of “Soviet” names does “Soviet” toponymy is many times superior to “Euro not fall below 30%, and in some cities of Donbas pean” and, in some cases, to “Ukrainian” together with and Prydniprovia it is above 50% or close to this “local”. Moreover, much of “European” names arose figure. The exceptions are Kerch and Yevpatoria in due to commemorating Soviet satellites, although it Crimea, as well as Melitopol (less than 30%). - can be assumed that this aspect is not currently a key- – “Socialist Europe” urbanonyms are slightly more- to the public perception of these urbanonyms. Thus, common in the cities of the west (with the abso the everyday practices of the inhabitants in the major lute record in Uzhhorod – 22.1%) and centre com ity of Ukrainian cities still take place in a continuous pared to the south and east. “Capitalist Europe”- matrix of “Soviet” toponyms, and the former Soviet street names are relatively evenly distributed, with Union, including the Arctic, Kamchatka, Siberia and the highest values in Uzhhorod (8.4%) and Odes Central Asia, have every chance to be perceived as sa (5.6%). Urbanonyms associated with the rest familiar, close, and intimate territories, while Europe of the world have no obvious regional patterns of and other regions of the world practically fall out of distribution and are concentrated mainly in the this mental map. In this respect, Soviet geographical largest cities with a population of over 500,000. place names proved to be a relatively stable category Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms 261

- of toponymy, illustrating a kind of the toponymic con in 1991–2020 (Fig. 2). In fact, such decolonization tinuity phenomenon considered by Light and Young (which largely meant de-Russification) took place (2017), Chloupek (2019) and Rusu (2020). only in the cities of Western Ukraine, where “Soviet” However, the reason for such a disproportionately geographical place names were mostly eliminated wide presence of “Soviet” geographical street names is along with communist names already in the 1990s,- not only the special commitment of the Soviet regime while in the rest of the country only some of the most- to the use of toponymy as an ideological instrument, odious names were eliminated. In many cities, in par but also the fact of the most intensive demographic- ticular in the Crimea and Donbas, there were no “Sovi and spatial growth of Ukrainian cities in the Soviet era et” urbanonyms that disappeared since proclamation (Rowland 1983; Becker, Mendelsohn, and Benderska of independence in 1991. ya 2012). As will be seen from the analysis of cases, the On the other hand, post-Soviet decolonization does practice of mass use of geographical urbanonyms in not explain the sharp increase in the number and Ukraine became typical during the period of intensive share of “Soviet” and other geographical urbanonyms spatial urban growth in the second half of XX century. in the southeast compared to the adjacent areas of the Newly created streets and homonymic streets of former central part of the country. These differences were- suburban settlements, merged with the city, required formed during the Soviet era. The assumption is that a lot of new names, and a map of the Soviet Union was we are talking about the local specifics of the imple- a convenient source of them. The importance of such mentation of communist toponymic policy, when the a naming practice as an instrument of identity may or- naming decisions were made by local executive com may not be realized by officials, but eventually the city- mittees taking into account the predictable reaction map became a reflection of the map of the “Great Sovi of the local population. The transformation of the city et Motherland” and its geopolitical satellites. Accord map into a miniature map of the Soviet Union was- ingly, the larger is the city, the smaller, on average, is quite acceptable for the urban communities of deeply the share of “local” geographical urbanonyms that Russified Kharkiv or Luhansk, but in Sumy or Polta appeared spontaneously and performed a utilitarian va it was necessary to take more cautious steps, e.g.- function, and the larger is the share of geographical to rely more on the Ukrainian context and toponymy- urbanonyms that have no direct relation to the city. of neighbouring Soviet republics, avoiding the domi The widespread presence of “Soviet” geographical nance of exotic place names from the Far East, Sibe names on the maps of the majority of Ukrainian cities ria or Central Asia. At least a partial coincidence of also indicates that the process of decommunization the outlined patterns with the basic electoral regions in Ukraine in most regions was not accompanied by and fault-lines seems to be not accidentally (see Birch the process of decolonization of public space. This 2000; Katchanovski 2006; Clem and Craumer 2008; fact becomes even more obvious when analyzing the Osipian and Osipian 2012; Marples 2016; Diesen and number and the share of “Soviet” street names erased Keane 2017).

Fig. 2 Number and share of “Soviet” geographical street names renamed after 1991. 262 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

Fig. 3 Occurrence and disappearance of geographical street names in Lviv.

4.3 Lviv: decolonization of public space as de-Russification also separate names associated with the countries of - the socialist camp, as well as Soviet geopolitical allies - in Asia. Geographical toponyms played important role Until the first quarter of the twentieth century, geo in the formation of the “Soviet” image of Lviv as an- graphical street names in Lviv referenced predom international city, in the sense of the creation of the inately to the geographical objects located in the Soviet nation (Hrytsak 2007). However, geographi immediate vicinity of the city or the surrounding- cal urbanonyms, introduced since 1945, started to region, including the contemporary Lviv region, other abundantly disappear in a short while, both due to territories of Western Ukraine and adjacent territo the renaming and the transformation of the street ries of modern Poland (Fig. 3). All these territories network – liquidation or merging of streets. In this were parts of the Austria-Hungary. - way, only about 75% of geographical urbanonyms When Galicia became part of Poland in 1920, new that emerged in the Soviet era survived by the time of place names associated with Polish cities and terri- Ukraine’s independence. tories began to appear regularly, overlapping “local” The first years after Ukraine’s independence were- names in quantity and share, and symbolically mark marked by a radical transformation of the structure ing the city as a part of the Polish state and cultural of geographical urbanonyms in Lviv. During this peri space. When the Nazis came to Lviv in 1941, many od, more than half of all “Soviet” urbanonyms were streets were named after German and Polish (already eliminated; geographical urbanonyms from the other occupied) cities and regions. categories also disappeared extensively, but appeared In 1945–1950, after the second establishment ofin even greater numbers. As a result, the number and Soviet power on the territory of Western Ukraine, share of “Soviet” urbanonyms decreased significantly, more than half of all “Polish” and especially “Ger and the number and share of “local”, “Ukrainian”, to a man” urbanonyms were eliminated. Instead, a large lesser extent, and “European” urbanonyms increased. number of new geographical urbanonyms appeared The following features are noticeable on the map with domination of “Ukrainian”, followed by “Soviet” of denotations of modern geographical urbanonyms- and “local”. The second, slightly smaller wave of mass- of Lviv (Fig. 5): - appearance of geographical urbanonyms occurred in- 1) Denotations of “Ukrainian” urbanonyms are con- 1955–1965 and was marked by an even greater pro- centrated on the territory of Western Ukraine, com portion of “Soviet” names. After that, new geographi prising an “own region” for Lviv, and slightly small cal urbanonyms became rare until the end of the Sovi er centres of their concentration are confined to et Union. Throughout the Soviet period, there were the historical region of Middle Dnieper (hypothesis Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms 263

– emphasized importance of the region as a “heart appear in Lviv after 1995. The last observation well- of Ukraine”), and Black Sea region (hypothesis – illustrates the specifics of the toponymic process in symbolic marking of that peripheral and Russified- the Western Ukraine – the accentuated commemora territory as Ukrainian). tive principle of naming in order to commemorate the 2) “Soviet” toponymy is quantitatively almost bal prominent figures of Ukrainian national culture and anced with “European”. Especially many street liberation4.4 Kyiv: de-Russified movement (Riznyk islands 2007; in the Hrytsak ocean 2007). names still refer to the territory of Poland, of which of Soviet urbanonyms Lviv was a part for a long time, in particular in- 1920–1939. 3) Denotations of “Soviet” toponymy are represent - ed in most of the former Soviet republics, except- In Kyiv, until the middle of the XX century, “local”,- for Russia, which is a “white spot”. Exceptions are “Ukrainian” and “Soviet” street names appeared regu national autonomies, mostly marginal, inhabit larly (until 1922, “Soviet” names should be interpret ed by ethnic groups different from the Russians: ed as related to the territory of the Russian Empire). Kuban and Taman (inhabited by descendants of Before the Soviet Union formation, “local” and Ukrainian Cossacks), Dagestan, the Kuril Islands “Ukrainian” urbanonyms clearly prevailed, but after (object of Russian-Japanese territorial disputes), that, the number of “Soviet” names increased, and the- Koryak Autonomous District, Chuvashia. It should proportions of these three categories of urbanonyms- be noted that before the Soviet Union collapse, the became virtually equal. However, although new geo set of “Soviet” urbanonyms in Lviv was much more graphical urbanonyms emerged regularly, this topo diverse and included a number of names relating- nymic practice was not very popular (Fig. 4). to the territory of Russia. In 1944, immediately after the liberation of Kyiv- Thus, going beyond the decommunization dis- from the Nazis, systematizing of Kyiv toponymy course, local toponymic policy in Lviv after 1991 was resulted in more than fifty new geographical urba aimed at 1) decolonization in the form of de-Russifica- nonyms, mostly “Ukrainian” and “local”; the share of tion (via selective erasing of “Russian” street names) “Soviet” names was very low. Shortly after, in 1953 and imaging Russia as a “negative Other” (Molchan- and 1955, two acts of large-scale systematization- ov 2016), 2) formation/revival of local and regional of Kyiv’s urbanonymy took place, the most striking identity (by increasing the number of “local” urba feature of which was the mass introduction of geo nonyms), 3) formation of a single cultural space with- graphical urbanonyms (up to 200 new names). In the- the rest of Ukraine as a nation state (by increasing the following decades the intensity of their occurrence number of “Ukrainian” urbanonyms). It is also specif gradually decreased from almost a hundred to sever ic that new geographical urbanonyms almost did not al dozen per 5-year period. Among them “Ukrainian”

Fig. 4 Occurrence and disappearance of geographical street names in Kyiv. 264 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

names dominated, followed by “Soviet” and “local”. names related to Europe and the wider world context. Street names after the cities and countries of the In particular, historic names of European Square and socialist camp, as well as the twin cities of Kyiv from German Street were restored; squares were named the “capitalist” Europe, constituted a minority among- after Ankara and Santiago de Chile, and a street after new geographical street names. the city of Bethlehem. This trend reflects the capital- Just as in Lviv, geographical urbanonyms of all cat function of Kyiv, the space of which is designed to be not egories in Kyiv began to disappear in large numbers only a mimicry of home state, but also a matrix of inter- shortly after their introduction. Particularly large- national relations (Nikolaeva 2014). It is worth noting- scale waves of such disappearances took place in that structure of geographical street names in contem 1966–1970 and in 1975–1985. The main reason was porary Kyiv is quite similar to that of another post-So- liquidation of old low-rise housing in the process of- viet capital – Minsk (Basik and Rahautsou 2019). building-up modernist housing estates. The map of denotations of geographical urba In contrast to Lviv, radical changes in the num nonyms of Kyiv has the following specific features- ber and structure of geographical urbanonyms after (Fig. 5): Ukraine’s independence have not been observed in- 1) Denotations of “Ukrainian” urbanonyms are con Kyiv. The trends of the 1900s were 1) break-up in the centrated in the central part of the country (“own emergence of “Soviet” street names (the only excep region” for Kyiv), while in the west, east and tion was decommunization of Baku Commissars- south their density is significantly lower. At the Street by renaming it after the Republic of Azerbaijan) same time, in comparison with other cases, they and 2) almost complete cessation of the disappear are more or less evenly represented throughout ance of existing geographical urbanonyms, including- Ukrainian territory. - “Soviet”: none of the latter disappeared from the map 2) “European” urbanonyms are significantly inferior of Kyiv in 1991–2015. This phenomenon had two rea to the “Soviet”; half of them are related to the coun sons, technical and ideological: the first was suspend tries of the former socialist camp (and, unlike inin the construction of large residential estates, the Lviv, Poland does not stand out against the general second – the presence of Soviet place names on the background), while the other half refer to the coun- city map was not perceived as a problem. At the same- tries of the former capitalist Europe. - time, the liquidation of ideologically colored Soviet- 3) Denotations of “Soviet” urbanonyms are represent toponyms in Kyiv began in 1989 and lasted with vari ed in almost all former Soviet republics, includ- able intensity throughout Independence period (Gna ing, in contrast to Lviv, Russia. The distribution of tiuk and Melnychuk 2020). denotations roughly reflects the population den The situation changed only after the annexation of sity map: most are concentrated in the European Crimea and the armed conflict in the east of Ukraine,- part of Russia, as well as Belarus, Transcaucasia when Russia started to be perceived as an aggressor 4.5and Dnipro: Ciscaucasia. untouched Soviet geographical country. However, the changes were much more mod- toponymy est than in Lviv. Only up to a dozen of street names- were changed, usually the most odious ones. In par ticular, Moscow Avenue, Moscow Square and Mos cow Bridge were renamed; discourse analysis of the- The available data were too scarce to reproduce the last two cases was performed by Males and Deineka integral continuous dynamics of the occurrence and- (2020). Another illustrative example is Novorossiys- disappearance of geographical street names in Dnipro ka Street and Novorossiyskyi Lane: both were named just as for the other two cases. However, it may be stat after the city of Novorossiysk, but the term “Novoros ed that geographical urbanonyms were not numerous- siya” in Ukraine received a negative connotation due up to the XX century. Some streets were named after to its active use by pro-Russian separatists and some other cities of the Russian Empire, especially provin Russian officials and journalists with reference to the cial centres, including those located on the territory southeast of Ukraine (O’Loughlin, Toal, and Kolosov of modern Ukraine. In the first Soviet decades, the- 2017). Thus, the process of toponymic decolonization practice of assigning geographical names was also not is still eclectic in Kyiv, just as the decommunization widespread; in addition, some geographical urbano before 2015 (Riznyk 2007). nyms disappeared, leaving room for revolutionaries, On the other hand, after 2000, a little more than a Soviet statesmen and communist party figures. Just dozen “local” and “Ukrainian” urbanonyms appeared as in Kyiv, most of the geographical place names in in Kyiv. At first glance, it is possible to draw parallels- Dnipro arose as a result of two decisions of the city between Kyiv and Lviv, but while in Lviv such names executive committee in 1952 and 1956 respectively. arose in the process of de-Russification and decom The Soviet Union collapse was not accompanied- munization of urban toponymy, in Kyiv they appeared by the elimination of “Soviet” urbanonyms in Dnipro. due to the naming of absolutely new streets. Another Only after the official proclamation of decommuniza specificity of the Independence period, typical for Kyiv, tion in 2015, five “Soviet” street names disappeared but not for Lviv, was the regular appearance of street from the city map. Four of them were formally subject Geopolitics of geographical urbanonyms 265

- 3) Denotations of “Soviet” urbanonyms are present in all former Soviet republics, except Lithuania. Com pared to Kyiv, the centre of distribution density is clearly shifted to the east, with better coverage of Siberia, the Far East, the Far North of Russia, and Central Asia. The case of Dnipro demonstrates the vitality of (pro)Soviet identity in Russian-speaking cities in south-eastern Ukraine (Pirie 1996). Having removed visible signs of communist ideology, the streetscapes of these cities continue to bear the imprint of the past inside the Soviet empire. 5. Conclusions

Geographical urbanonyms represent important and currently understudied phenomenon. Reflecting the- most important and long-lasting connections of the city with the outside world, they form a kind of mim icry of the external environment in which the city exists. This resemblance is geopolitically distorted, since geographical urbanonyms are used by political regimes to denote “their” and “alien” territories. Such urbanonyms are especially important in the context of colonization and decolonization study, including in the post-Soviet space. Applying critical toponymy approach together with the elements of quantitative, cartographic and- comparative analysis, we considered the spatial, Fig. 5 Geographical distribution of the denotations of geographical structural and temporal idiosyncrasies of geograph street names in Lviv, Kyiv, and Dnipro. ical urbanonyms in Ukraine. We tried to show their- use by political elites of different epochs for either cementing national state or promoting internation alization (under the communist rule). The current to decommunization laws, and only the renaming of dynamics of the geographical urban place names was Moscow Street may be considered a full-fledged act of linked to the discourses of decommunization and- decolonization. At the same time, after 1991, several decolonization which predominate in the Ukrainian “local” and “Ukrainian” urbanonyms appeared in the politics of memory during the recent years. Vir city, many of them as new names for decommunized tual maps of geographical places, remembered in objects. The last aspect qualitatively distinguishes the cityscape of the selected case study cities, were Dnipro from Kyiv: in the latter preference was given drawn to show the geopolitically distorted image to the commemoration of prominent figures of history- of the world imprinted in the symbolic space of the and culture, while in Dnipro, as in other cities in the cities representing culturally different regions of the south-east, ideologically neutral toponyms were pri- country. - oritized (Gnatiuk 2018; Kudriavtseva 2020; Golikov In Ukraine, geographical urbanonyms were used- 2020). Several urbanonyms after the cities and coun during the XX century by the ruling elites of key polit tries of Europe appeared during that period in Dnipro- ical regimes to mark their own cultural and polit as well. ical space. Regional differences in the distribution The map of denotations of geographical urba and structure of geographical urbanonyms within- nonyms of Dnipro has the following specific features Ukraine are explained by the historical, cultural and- (Fig. 5): (geo)political divisions. They reflect both the influ 1) Although the clear boundary of the “own” region ences of other states and the national identity poli for Dnipro cannot be identified, denotation of cies, as well as regional and local readings of the latter. “Ukrainian” urbanonyms are more dense in the- In contemporary Ukraine, geographical urban place eastern part of the country. names are good marker of cultural decolonization 2) Most of “European” names are related to the for process, i.e. wiping out any reminders of the Soviet mer socialist camp countries in the Central Europe rule from the symbolic space, not limiting exclusively and the Balkan Peninsula. to the communist ideology. 266 Oleksiy Gnatiuk, Anatoliy Melnychuk

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