Out of Tibet—Highlights of the Yak’s Journey to the New World-2nd edition

(Author’s note-I wrote this in 2012-2013, the result of five years of research on the topic of yaks. It was originally posted on the IYAK website as an interactive paper with active links to the references mentioned throughout. A couple years ago, it was turned into a shortened print version sans links, the version that appeared in the Grunting Ox publication distributed at the National Western Stock Show in 2014. That version, in PDF form, was later posted to the new, improved IYAK website—and the version with links was no longer accessible to the public. Hopefully I will be able to revive that sometime in 2018.--Dianne Borealis Latona, December 5, 2017)

Yak look so natural on the farms and ranches of North America that it is sometimes difficult to believe that they have only been here for little over a century. Most people assume that the thousands of yak across our continent today are the descendants of surplus animals sold by zoos. While this may be true in part, the complete story spans several continents and involves a colorful cast of characters, from the Prime Minister of Canada to one of the founding pioneers of the Boy Scouts of America. In my efforts to create the IYAK website’s “Timeline of the Domestic Yak” I felt compelled to share some of the more intriguing events involving yaks and their travels out of Tibet. I hope you find these vignettes as fascinating as I do. In the beginning…On page 47 of the March 2011 issue of National Geographic Magazine, a small timeline shows yaks were first domesticated about 4,500 years ago in Asia. It illustrates that, of all the livestock species worldwide, yaks were the last mammals to be domesticated. This is just one of the interesting facts presented in that National Geographic’s feature article “Taming the Wild” by Evan Ratliff. In this paper, he explores the genetic components of domestication shared by our sixteen companion species—and by the foxes recently domesticated by scientists in Siberia. Foxes? Domesticated? Yes, and a few years ago they even had their own website (defunct now) where, for the fee of $8,000, you too could join the elite ranks of pet fox owners…And what does this have to do with yaks? Not a whole lot—excuse my tangent. Anyway, according to Ratliff, many of the species humans have managed to tame over the years exhibit remarkably similar changes in behavior and appearance once domestication sets in. We see such traits as approachability, tolerance of physical contact, and the spontaneous emergence of piebald (black-and-white) coats—“Royal” coloration in the parlance of yak breeders. This strongly indicates that it wasn’t a Holstein sneaking into the zoo herd a couple hundred years ago resulting in our pinto yaks. If you need more proof, take a look at this 1945 photo of a yak at a monastery in Tibet:

This photo can be found in the paper “Yaks and Yak-Cattle Hybrids in Asia”: But more about that later. For now, we need to clarify a couple of terms. If you get this next bit, you will join the ranks of the very few who understand the differences between Wild Yaks, Domestic Yaks, and feral Domestic Yaks. Why should you care? Well, it matters to those of us trying to educate the public about yaks. And it casts light on some erroneous “facts” in the history of the Domestic Yak. Information on the topic of yak domestication comes from the most reputable yak science reference we have today, namely, The Yak, 2nd edition, by Gerald Wiener, Han Jianlin and Long Riujun. This is a publication of FAO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, specifically their regional office for Asia and the Pacific. Print copies occasionally surface at Amazon or Alibris, but FAO has made the entire book accessible online here: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad347e/ad347e00.htm

Anyone serious about the scientific study of yaks needs to get familiar with this book. It provides a wealth of factual information on yak history, biology and husbandry in their homeland Tibet as well as the rest of the world. I have read it cover to cover, but every time I reread it, seems like I learn even more. More than any other source, this book has guided my research on yaks in the New World.

Wild Yaks, Bos mutus, are native to the high Himalayas and Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, ranging anywhere from 12,000 to 18,000 feet above sea level. Mature males weigh as much as 2,200 lbs., while the females are no more than 800 lbs. The population is considered vulnerable, with only 15-20,000 in total. Half of these live in the Chang Tang Nature Preserve. The majority are the brown-black coloration with grey muzzles that we refer to in North America as Native Black, but approximately 200 in the region of the Aru Basin exhibit the pale brown color referred to as Golden by the Tibetans. Despite the use of the same name, it is unlikely that there is any relationship to Domestic yaks considered “Golden” in North America. Wild Yaks do not have white coats or markings. They are so intolerant of heat that they have difficulty surviving much below 10,000 feet elevation. With the exception of a couple of zoos in China and Russia, there are no Wild Yaks in zoological parks anywhere in the world. The Datong Yak Farm in Qinghai Province maintains Wild Yaks at their facility, but these were caught as calves and acclimated to the lower altitude—we’re still talking over 9,000 feet above sea level. Wild Yaks bulls at Datong are trained for AI collection as part of the farm’s mission to improve the performance of Domestic Yak. The resulting Wild Yak/Domestic Yak hybrid vigor is widely appreciated—even if the more uncertain temperament is not.

The Domestic Yak, Bos grunniens, originated with the pastoral Qiang people living on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The Qiang culture domesticated sheep and goats over 10,000 years ago, then added horses, camels, and finally yak. No cattle—cattle cannot survive the elevation and the harsh environment of the plateau. There has been an unfortunate myth circulating in the United States that Domestic Yaks were developed by breeding Wild Yaks to domestic cattle. Sadly, this piece of fantasy was posted on the IYAK website for a number of years, and many of us believed it. However, cattle cannot survive at the elevations inhabited by Wild Yaks, which, in turn, never live down in the lowlands where cattle thrive. The first archeological evidence of yak—the domesticated ones—being crossed with “Chinese Yellow Cattle” occurred 2500 years ago—2000 years after yak were domesticated.

How does domestication occur? This is a fascinating topic, rife with theory and speculation. We do not actually know how any of the other 15 or so livestock species went from wild to placid, and yak are no exception. One can only speculate that the Qiang were able to catch Wild Yaks—most likely as young calves—and raised them the same as they would an orphaned lamb or goat. Since these nomads were already experienced at animal husbandry, they probably developed captive breeding herds and selected, over numerous generations, for docile, tractable animals. Once the yak was domesticated, it became a valuable member of the nomadic community, providing transportation, meat, milk, wool—and trade goods for the nomads. Over the centuries, domesticated yaks acclimated to warmer temperatures and the Qiangs could bring their herds to the lower valleys where other ethnic groups raised cattle. They found that crossing yak with cattle produced useful hybrids, in the same way that breeding a horse mare to a donkey stallion results in a mule. Like a mule, the male hybrid is sterile but strong, a valued pack animal.

These people roamed widely across Asia with their herds: north to Siberia, west to Afghanistan, south to India and east to the Yunnan Province of China. In many of these areas, the pastoralists continued to facilitate Wild/Domestic Yak crosses by driving their domesticated yak herds into high summer grazing fields, where the Wild Yak bulls would mate with Domestic Yak cows. Not all of the Domestic Yak cows could be located when it was time to head down to the wintering areas; those that survived went feral. Like the actual Wild Yaks, feral Domestic Yaks were likely to be solid brown-black and wary in order to evade predators. Visitors to Tibet encountering such a herd could be excused for thinking them to be truly wild—ever try to approach a herd of range cattle?

And that leads me to wonder--who was the first Westerner to “discover” yaks? Until a couple of years ago, I thought it might be Samuel Turner, a British captain. In 1783, Turner was sent to Bhutan by his cousin, Warren Hastings, to congratulate the lamaist regency on the recent reincarnation of a grand lama—and to promote better trade relations with Britain, no doubt. Turner was graciously permitted an audience with the infant grand lama, who listened wisely to his compliments but made no promises. The one accomplishment Turner did manage during his visit was the acquisition of two yak bulls to be sent to Lord Hastings in England. Hastings had been the first Governor-Central of India and had an appreciation for the Far East and its culture. One bull died during the journey to England. The surviving animal was later christened by an appreciative public audience as the “Yak of Tartary” and “Camel of the Snow.” Hastings commissioned George Stubbs to create a portrait of this yak in 1791:

This may be an illustration of the first live yak in the Western hemisphere. The artist, Stubbs, was noted for his extreme accuracy in his portrayal of livestock, and some of his paintings look almost like photographs. I came across a second illustration of a yak dated 1800:

Although it is labeled, “Painted by Stubbs,” I think it is an engraver’s copy of the original painting. Below is a third variation on the theme, attributed to engraver William Daniell:

From “The Yak of Thibet” in The Saturday Magazine, October 11, 1834.

I have the actual document from 1834, in amazingly good condition. The text is part of the travelogue of German captain Leopold von Orlich recounting his numerous observations of life and customs in India. I am very impressed with this account. Von Orlich’s physical description of the yak is detailed and complimentary; it sounds like he was smitten by the same yak bug that infects many of us.

Take some time to admire these renditions of the first yak in England. Obviously, an Imperial Trim, showing a full white tail, long white hind socks, and even some white in the mane. I was amazed and gratified to find a photo of a far more recent bull with nearly identical markings in my electronic copy of the Summer 1994 issue of the Tibetan Yak Banner:

Some of you may recognize Bill Martin’s bull Lightning--C199 FW Lightening, as shown on his NAYR registration listing from the IYAK website’s Find A Yak page:

http://www.iyak.org/find-a-yak.html

We can only speculate on the genetic implications: did this first English yak leave progeny? Is the bull in the painting Lightning’s fifty-times-great-grandsire? Are there in England any records of breeding that may have occurred?

More recently, I found references to encounters between Westerners and yaks that date back a staggering 500 years earlier. Friar William of Rubruck is generally credited with being the first European to have documented the yak in the year 1253:

“FRIAR WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK. to the east among those mountains are the Tanguts, most valiant men, who captured Chingis (Genghis Khan) in war ; and he, peace being made, and once freed by them, subdued them.^ These people have very strong cattle, with very hairy tails like horses, and with bellies and backs covered with hair. They are lower on their legs than other oxen, but much stronger. They draw the big (289) dwellings of the Moal, and have slender, long, curved horns, so sharp that it is always necessary to cut off their points. The cows will not let themselves be milked unless sung to. They have also the temper of the bull, for if they see a man dressed in red they throw themselves on him to kill him.” (P. 151, The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253-55 By Willem van Ruysbroeck, Giovanni.)

Twenty years later, seventeen-year-old Marco Polo sets out from Venice with his father on a 15,000 mile journey to Asia. They return in 1295 with riches, tales--and tails, including those of yaks:

“There are wild cattle in that country [almost] as big as elephants, splendid creatures, covered everywhere but on the back with shaggy hair a good four palms long. They are partly black, partly white, and really wonderfully fine creatures [and the hair or wool is extremely fine and white, finer and whiter than silk. Messer Marco brought some to Venice as a great curiosity, and so it was reckoned by those who saw it]. There are also plenty of them tame, which have been caught young. [They also cross these with the common cow, and the cattle from this cross are wonderful beasts, and better for work than other animals.] These the people use commonly for burden and general work, and in the plough as well; and at the latter they will do full twice as much work as any other cattle, being such very strong beasts.” (The Travels of Marco Polo, Book 1, Chapter 57-Of the Kingdom of Erguiul, and Province of Sinju.)

The next mention of yaks I discovered is from 1854, when a dozen yaks from Tibet were sent to the menagerie of the Museum of Natural History in Paris. After a suitable showing, these yaks were dispersed to several regions of France for research purposes. They definitely made a positive impression with their hardiness and versatility, as evidenced by stories in several publications from that time period. Here is a drawing from “The Yaks in France” in Once a Week, Volume 1, 1859, edited by Eneas Sweetland Dallas:

The article itself covers the natural history of the yak, as well as the research conducted in France with regards to the wool, milk and meat attributes. But I caution you—the print is hard on the eyes, and you might be better off tracking down a text version on the Internet. Many of the references I uncovered for this paper can be found electronically in Googlebooks or in free online archives; these resources saved me much footwork and copying fees. The May 1870 edition of American Exchange and Review also included the French yaks and expounded enthusiastically on the perceived benefits of introducing the yak to other regions of Europe. According to the article, there remained simply the challenge of breeding sufficient quantities of yaks to populate these areas. I was very impressed with the wealth of information contained in this report. Why then, do we not see yaks all over Europe? Good question—I wish I had an answer. Yaks did survive in the mountains of France for some time. Years after the research was suspended, there were reported sightings of “cattle/horse crosses” living in the remote upper slopes of the Cantal Province. But eventually the population dwindled to nothing, which is where it stands today. Aside from a few small herds in Great Britain, Switzerland, Italy, Norway and Sweden, the only yak to be found in Europe today reside in zoos.

By the end of the nineteenth century, at least two zoos in the United States numbered yaks among their collections, but I have not yet located a reference documenting their first arrival. The annual 1871 report of the New York Department of Parks lists B. grunniens as “deposited for exhibition” on March 16th of that year, but does not indicate which park. Central Park in Manhattan numbered a “yak antelope” among its collection in 1901. And yaks were reported born at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. in both 1901 and 1902; below is one of those calves:

I came across an intriguing article from the New York Times, 1898, which described the winter quarters for the animal residents of “Summer Parks” from a number of towns throughout the U.S. According to the article, the emerging trolley industry at that time funded “pretty little parks” in the suburbs to encourage city dwellers to patronize their lines. From June through September, a variety of entertainments were offered at these parks, including menageries. Rather than maintaining the animals year round, town officials contracted for the animals and their attendants to arrive at the beginning of every summer, returning to the winter quarters in Jersey City, New Jersey (back when it really was the Garden State) in the fall. “The yak from India” were among the animals housed at this facility, which obtained its stock from dealers in Germany and England.

The article mentions three large firms, one in Hamburg, Germany, as their source for these animals. Hamburg was the home of Carl Hagenbeck, perhaps the most famous animal broker of all time. Hagenbeck originated the idea of the zoo without bars, displaying in enclosures that mimicked the natural environment. He also practiced and promoted the philosophy of training animals through the use of kindness and rewards rather than the crueler methods more commonly used at that time. Hagenbeck maintained a herd of yaks at his menagerie in Hamburg. In 1913, the Bronx Zoo acquired a pair of yaks from Hagenbeck, supposedly the first black yaks in the U.S. and proudly claimed to be of wild stock. Tim May of London, England brought to my attention a photo of these animals from the zoo’s records:

I am sure you will agree with me that these animals were not Wild Yaks—not only is the bull an Imperial, but both look far too calm. Whether or not Hagenbeck knew these were domestic yak will remain a mystery, but I am of the opinion he was quite aware of the fact. Here is a photo from an article about Hagenbeck in Pall Mall Magazine, 1905:

You just have to wonder if there were several yurts and some Tibetan herders just out of sight beyond the borders of the photo.

I came across another article about Hagenbeck in a 1900 New Zealand publication that mentions he had eighteen yaks in Hamburg, Germany, in the article entitled “Hagenbeck-King of the Wild Animal Trainers.” One of Hagenbeck’s clients was Herbrand Russell, the 11th Duke of Bedford and President of the London Zoological Society for 37 years. He may be best remembered as the man who saved the Pere David’s Deer from extinction. This Chinese deer was hunted into oblivion in its native country, but the far-sighted Duke purchased the remaining European zoo stock and provided a home for them in his 3000- acre deer park at Woburn Abbey.

Many other herbivores roamed the estate, including yaks, and most of these animals were originally supplied by Hagenbeck. When you are both President of the Zoological Society and a duke, I guess you get a few perks like that. Unlike his colleagues at the Bronx Zoo, the Duke was well aware that his yaks were domestic. Below is a photograph of yaks at Woburn from the 1898 book Wild Oxen, Sheep and Goats of All Lands by Richard Lydeker:

Yes, those are white yaks—and the written accounts of yaks from this time period describe yaks as white, piebald, grey or black. The polled cow at center appears to have a pattern similar to the Stubbs yak. There is polled stock in Germany and in Switzerland today—we do not have any in North America, nor do we have most of the other colors and patterns which exist in the yak populations of Asia and Europe. But we do have black—and so did Woburn Abbey. Here is another photo from Lydecker’s 1907 book Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet, again taken by the duchess of Bedford:

Keep this photograph in mind—you may be looking at some of the original foundation stock of North American yaks… The fortuitous chain of events that catapulted the Domestic Yak in North America from zoo exhibit to ranch livestock was initiated by a single forward-thinking individual: Ernest Thompson Seton. As one of the founders of the Boy Scouts and the author of an impressive number of wildlife novels, Seton had the necessary skills to present key politicians with his persuasive ideas precisely when they were in dire need of advice on utilizing the vast resources of their nation.

It began with a letter…Seton, a Scots-Canadian raised in England, traveled extensively in the remote northern prairies as a naturalist. It was here, in this harsh and unforgiving environment, that he first considered bringing yaks to Canada. Yaks, he reasoned, would have no trouble surviving in such a place. They could be the perfect livestock for this inhospitable region—hardier than range cattle, more tractable than buffalo, and equipped with coats impervious to the most extreme cold. Most importantly, they could serve as the key for his ultimate goal: the creation of a national park system in the form of game sanctuaries, thus insuring the preservation of the wilderness he so loved. Furthermore, the government would be able to buy up the land very cheaply at this time: no one thought it of much value, and few wanted to settle in the northern reaches. Seton presented his idea to Lord Albert Earl Grey, the Governor Central of Canada. This, by the way, was the fourth Earl Grey; it was his grandfather, the second Earl Grey, who is credited with the tea bearing his name.

Lord Grey presented Seton’s idea in a letter sent to Lord Elgin, the Secretary of State for the British Colonies. In this letter Grey states that the Premier of Canada, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, has already requested a formal report from Seton. The letter was dated November 14, 1907. By March of 1908, Seton was back in England visiting with Herbrand Russell, our illustrious 11th Duke of Bedford (Remember him? President of Zoological Society, savior of Pere David’s Deer, 3,000-acre Deer Park?)--to “make inquiries” concerning the Duke’s herd of yaks at Woburn Abbey. Seton’s original plan was to bring yaks from Tibet directly to Canada, but Russell supported Seton’s vision and offered to donate a small herd of fine breeding stock. The Canadian government did not hesitate to accept this generous gift and by late spring of 1909 six yaks: “an aged bull, a yearling bull, two aged cows and two yearling heifers” had made the four-month-long journey from Woburn Abbey to Brandon, Manitoba.

Somewhere in the depths of the Canadian archives is a file labeled “W.W. CORY, OTTAWA. WITH PAPERS RE: A SHIPMENT OF YAK TO CANADA” dated November 10, 1908. William Wallace Cory was at that time Secretary of the Interior for Canada. The online catalog entry I located for this file includes reference numbers indicating where it can be located in the archives. Unfortunately, it is physically inaccessible at present—or so I was informed several months ago, when I requested a copy of the contents. I will try again to get it through interlibrary loan. Or, perhaps one of our Canadian members would have better success petitioning their government for access to the documents (road trip to Ottawa, anyone?) Until then, the official record of the first importation of yaks into North America for agricultural purposes remains locked away.

Word of Ernest Seton’s plan spread quickly, both through newspapers and Seton’s article “The Yak—A North American Opportunity” in Country Life in America, February 1909. This very large periodical, in a format reminiscent of Life Magazine combined with Mother Earth News, was no doubt aimed at the upper crust of American Society, the lady and gentlemen hobby farmers who had the means to invest in prime real estate and quality livestock. I was able to purchase an original issue of this magazine in good condition--aside from the mildewy odor. So, here, in the words of the man that started it all, is Seton’s very enjoyable argument for the yak. This was the first such promotion of Bos grunniens as New World livestock to the American public, with incredible photos of several beautiful examples. Seton included the Country Life in America article as Appendix C in his 1911 book The Arctic Prairies. You can still find original and reprint copies of this book very easily on the Internet. I highly recommend it if you want a glimpse into Seton’s style and personality—and also his great appreciation for the North American wilderness. In 1909, several newspapers ran articles which were little more than rehashes of what Seton had written in Country Life. On March 28, the Evening Tribune published Yaks for Canada and Alaska.” And the April 4th edition of Century Path published this account:

The yaks made landfall at St. John, New Brunswick in the spring of 1909 and traveled to their quarters in Manitoba after a quarantine period. A report from 1927 on the history of yaks in Canada reveals that the four-month-long journey from Woburn Abbey to Brandon, Manitoba took its toll on the herd, but they recovered and seemed to thrive in their new setting. Unfortunately, as related by a small but significant article in the Ottawa Citizen dated March 8, 1910 two of the yaks died a year later, of peritonitis and acute indigestion.

The survivors failed to reproduce in 1910 and 1911, and the low elevation was blamed. They were moved to Banff, and in 1913 began having calves. Personally, I doubt that the elevation was the problem. More likely it was that the yearling bull and yearling heifers were not yet of breeding age. However, they made up for their late start, and by 1919 a sizeable herd was reported. Here is a photo of them, erroneously dated 1922 (by then the herd had been moved from Banff to Wainwright).

Doing the math I estimate there could have been over thirty yaks by 1919. In that year, two bulls and two cows were taken to Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta, to participate in breeding experiments involving bison and cattle. These trials were a continuation of the work started by Mossom Martin Boyd. Boyd’s father, Mossom Sr., had started the family lumber business, but it was Mossom Jr. who had the drive and business savvy to turn it into a coast-to-coast empire. When Senior Boyd died in 1883, Mossom Jr. lost no time in purchasing a 1200-acre island in Pigeon Lake, Ontario, near the town of Bobcaygeon. Here at Big Island Stock Farm he indulged in his passion for stockbreeding, working with cattle, horses and sheep. He is credited with creating the Double Standard Polled Hereford and for being one of the first to introduce prairie bison genetics into beef cattle. There are some striking photos of these cattaloes in his article “Crossing Bison with Cattle” Journal of Heredity, Volume 5, 1914.

Boyd died the very year his paper was published, and it does not appear his family continued the breeding program. In 1916, twenty hybrids from his estate were purchased by the Experimental Farms Branch of the Canadian Department of Agriculture and sent to Wainwright, in hopes of developing a more economical breed for beef production. The researchers there soon discovered what Boyd had already reported: the F1 males were infertile, and many calves were stillborn, due to their large size relative to their beef cattle dams. The scientists decided to add yaks to the mix, hoping that they could bridge the gulf both in terms of genetic compatibility and fertility. Apparently, the results were good, and by 1921 all the yak had been moved to Wainwright to participate in the experiment. Which leads me to question: what happened to Seton’s original plans? After the publication of Arctic Prairies, Seton became immersed in the newly developing Boy Scout program, serving as Chief Scout from 1910 to 1915. Due to philosophical differences he left the Scouts and created the Woodcraft League of America. Seton expanded the Woodcraft League internationally, moved to the United States and continued writing his nature stories until his death in 1946. He visited Manitoba one last time, in 1924, but no mention is made of yaks. I wonder if he ever saw the herd in Banff.

Back to the Wainwright Experiment. As the years progressed, the yaks proved to be excellent intermediaries, breeding readily with both cattle and bison. There was noticeable improvement in the percent of live calves, but not of F1 male fertility. Also, the older yaks did not exhibit the hardiness expected, requiring shelter and supplemental feeding to get through those frigid Alberta winters. According to the 1927 report “Brief History of Yak in Canada,” there were only four purebred yaks left at Wainwright, as well as 23 animals that contained various amounts of yak, domestic cattle and bison genetics. At least half of these were the result of yak bulls crossed with cattle females.

A stereotype of the Wainwright yaks that I saw offered on eBay several years ago:

They certainly look as if Wainwright agreed with them.

The next reference I located is the full report of the Wainwright Experiment, dating from 1935. The Xerox copy of the original, thirty pages long, was provided to me through interlibrary loan. The price was right—free—but the photos are no more than ghost silhouettes due to the age and poor quality of the original printing. At some point I hope to have it scanned in and available on the IYAK website in its entirety. There is an original print of the report for sale at Amazon for $111 from Fairlane Books in Vermont, if any of you are interested…For that price, the photos better be legible.

The report of the Wainwright Experiment is detailed and thorough. This sentence under the category “Records” on Page 9 summarizes the purpose of this research:

“The hybridization experiment was initiated on the practical basis of testing out hybrids for economy of meat production under severe and semi-domesticated conditions.”

The report is divided into chapters on management, records, coat color, horns, confirmation and more, comparing the various hybrid crosses to the parent species. The report delves into genetics, particularly of color; I was interested to see that a yak bull crossed with two Hereford cows produced brindled calves. The cattle used in this experiment were mostly Angus, with a few Hereford, Shorthorn and Holstein. As for the bison blood, the researchers must have been dismayed to find that none of the 20 hybrids from the Boyd estate produced a single calf, despite all possible combinations with other hybrids, yaks and bison brought in from the Alberta herd. The cause remains a mystery; many of these animals had been proven breeders back in their Ontario home. Sterility of the F1 male hybrids continued to be another serious obstacle for the research, as was the high mortality of calves and cows. Concerning yak blood in the mix, the researchers concluded that yaks imparted no particular advantages that could not be had from working solely with bison and cattle. By 1928, all but a few yak crosses were pulled from the experiment.

Meanwhile, a similar hybridization experiment was being carried out by the United States Department of Agriculture in Alaska at the Fairbanks Experimental Station from 1919 until 1932. You can read the details of the project in the 1946 report “Yak and Yak-Cattle Hybrids in Alaska.” The Canadian government provided a total of nine yaks—3 males, 6 females--in 1919, 1923 and 1930. I wonder if some of the last ones were rejects from the Wainwright Experiment. Out of the nine, only one bull and three cows survived long enough to participate in the undertaking, which evaluated pure yaks and yak-Galloway hybrids in terms of hardiness and meat quality. The study revealed that yaks were hardier, but that the crosses fared adequately in the region of the study. Meat quality was judged to be the same. The Federal Experiment Stations were discontinued in 1932, casualties of the Great Depression. The only conclusion drawn from the Alaska study was that the yak, as a species, was “worthy of more attention.” Unfortunately, further research never came to pass in North America. I could find no more references to yak as livestock here or in Europe--once again, they were relegated to the zoo realm.

This is not the end of the story, but I need to pause here, to gather my resources for the rest of this paper. I do not want to rush through this last part, because it concerns people and yaks we have known, events some of us have experienced firsthand, and details that I need to verify before committing to paper. I am currently awaiting some promised yak acquisition and breeding records from Alberta’s Polar Park, courtesy of Dr.Al Oeming’s grandson. These may help piece together the spotty record of yaks in North America between the 1930’s and the 1980’s, before yak ranching began to take hold in the United States.

Before I close, I want to thank all of the people who assisted me by providing yak history information in the form of documents, photos, emails, phone conversations, and informal chats. These include: --Cynthia Huber --Kim Maciej --Ricky Monson --Bob Neben --Al Oeming --Robert Payne --Eddy Sanders --Jim Watson --Also: Carol Bibler, for editing this paper Chuck Ippolito, IYAK webmaster, for working his technological magic My husband Talus, for sharing this whole crazy yak adventure with me --And a very special thank you to Larry Richards, for giving me a print copy of “History of Living Diamonds Ranch” at the 2009 National Western Stock Show. Larry, you have no idea what a monster you created. For months I poured over that paper as if it were a treasure map, piecing together lineages and details until I felt I had an understanding of the incredible chain of events that have made the North American yak scene what it is today: a showcase of quality due to dedicated breeders striving for quality. My research into the history of yaks in the western world has provided answers to some questions but it has also created many more. Thank you Larry, for giving me such a good excuse for staying up way past my bedtime-Dianne Borealis Latona, Everson, Washington, 2:34am, January 7, 2013.

(Please note: in compiling this paper I have enlisted the aid of various people who have been gracious enough to chat or exchange emails, answer questions and attempt to remember events that took place decades ago. There are undoubtedly mistakes, omissions, and details that others would describe quite differently. I take the blame for these, and will be happy to correct them if you help me do so. Some of you may have old records pertaining to yaks in North America. This is a first draft of a paper I hope to update annually. This can only happen if you are kind enough to contribute. So please, bend my ear, leave a voicemail, send those yellowed photos and crumbling documents so that I can expand on this history of the yak in North America. I will return any records you want back. Thank you in advance for helping out!-DBL)