A STUDY OF THE MYSTICISM OF SERVICE AND MORALITY IN THE PERIYA PURĀṆAM OF CĒKKIḺĀR by MILROY REGINOLD FERNANDO A Thesis Submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law Graduate School The University of Birmingham May 2014 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT The thesis explores the mysticism of service and moral living of the nāyaṉmār through a comprehensive study of the Tamil literary and devotional masterpiece i.e. the Periya Purāṇam or the ‘Great Epic Narrative’. As a twelfth century poetical hagiography that reflects the lives of the nāyaṉmār or Tamil spiritual leaders, the mysticism of this sacred and canonical text of Tamil Śaivism is neither appreciated, as it deserves to be, nor has it been sufficiently studied in academia. The modest research is intended to fill a vacuum in the literature of Tamil Śaiva mysticism. Besides this primary purpose, the research aims to make an academic contribution by introducing this mysticism of service and moral living of the nāyaṉmār as narrated in the Periya Purāṇam to a wider academic community and to the Tamil Śaiva religious community at large. The claim is that this mysticism that is embedded in the text has been largely overlooked. Through an integral approach of hagiograpghical-apologetic and thematic exegesis, it is argued that Cēkkiḻār, the author, by imbuing himself in the mystical quest of the early Tamil literary, moral and devotional traditions, textured around these nāyaṉmār, initiates a way to Śiva that was foreign to the Tamil tradition of his milieu. Cēkkiḻār shapes his mystical theology and ideology in the form of two aims i.e. service and moral living. By his radical theology of Siva, he presents a theology of service and moral living which is ‘Person’ centred and a mystical thirst for Transcendence which is ‘Divine’ oriented. This interplay of cosmic and meta-cosmic levels of mystical experience provided a worldview, an alternative vision for political and social change in Tamil society. DEDICATION To my father Mr. Francis Fernando and to my mother Mrs. Augusta Fernando who always remind me to ‘EMBRACE the ‘UNCERTAINTY’ and to ‘EXPLORE the MYSTERY’. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is important to remember here with gratitude all those who journeyed with me on this pilgrimage and made their valuable contributions to this study and to see its light in different ways. First and foremost, I express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Sharada Sugirtharajah, for kindly consenting to be my guide in this study, for her continuous supervision, advises, support and encouragement throughout the various stages of this work. It is she who opened to me through her wisdom and her insight a wider horizon of study and formed my mind on the mystical traditions of Hinduism. I also would like to thank Dr. Donal Lynch, for his moral support and encouragement, for being a friend, for painstakingly going through the manuscript, chapter by chapter, polishing my English and making helpful suggestions. Many appreciations go to John McCabe S.J, not only for proofreading the thesis but also for being an inspiration through his mystical commitment to his responsibilities in service and humility. I acknowledge with thankfulness the kindness that was shown me by the authorities and officials of the University of Birmingham, College of Arts and Law Graduate School, the University of Birmingham Main library, the Orchard Learning and Resource Centre at Selly-Oak and the Central Library Birmingham. I also recall with gratitude Prof. Aloysius Pieris S.J., the founder and director of ‘Tulana’- Centre for Research Dialogue and Encounter, Sri Lanka. I am grateful for his support and solidarity in prayer and to the members of his research institute, who helped me obtain materials from different places and encouraged me in my work. I am deeply touched by the humane concern shown me by the Superior and the Novice Director of the Manresa House community in Birmingham, Paul Nicholson S.J. I am grateful to Gregory Brenninkmeijer, for his friendship and for accompanying me for walks in the English country-side which refreshed me in the pilgrimage of this study with vitality and energy. To the other members of the Jesuit community at Manresa House, members past and present, who through their friendship and understanding sustained me throughout my work. Nothing would have been possible without the scholarship and grants of the British Province of the Society of Jesus. I am deeply indebted to them. To the Sri Lanka Province of the Society of Jesus, I owe an immense debt, for it is this institution that has made me what I am today. Last but not least, I extend my gratitude to my family – Rodney, Godfrey, Niru, Yasa and Lakesha – and to all my friends for their valuable encouragement, support and prayers throughout this endeavour. To all of you who are ‘fellow pilgrims’ and have journeyed with me; THANK YOU. TABLE OF CONTENTS TRANSLITERATION AND ARTICULATION OF TAMIL WORDS ................................ i ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................... ii PRELIMINARY REMARKS ................................................................................................... iii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 The Purpose of the Research ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Originality of the Research ....................................................................................... 9 1.3 Research Methodology .......................................................................................... 199 1.4 Challenges and Limitations ................................................................................... 222 1.5 Outline of the Structure of the Thesis ................................................................... 233 PART I THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND THE ROOTS OF THE MYSTICISM OF THE PERIYA PURĀṆAM CHAPTER TWO......................................................................................................................... 25 THE MYSTICAL QUEST IN EARLY TAMIL LITERATURE ........................................ 25 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 25 2.2 The Mystical Quest and the Literary Character of the Caṅkam poetry .................. 27 2.3 The Moral Quest and the Moral Exhortations of the Tirukkuṟal ............................ 50 2.4 The Mystical Quest and the Devotional Culture of the Tirumuṟai ......................... 61 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................. 73 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 76 THE MYSTICAL QUEST OF THE EARLY TAMIL NĀYAṈMĀR ............................... 76 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 76 3.2 The Mystical Quest of Tirumūlar Nāyaṉār ............................................................ 77 3.3 The Mystical Quest of Tiruñāṉa Campantar Nāyaṉār ........................................... 86 3.4 The Mystical Quest of Tirunāvukkaracar Nāyaṉār ................................................ 94 3.5 The Mystical Quest of Cuntaramūrti Nāyaṉār ..................................................... 104 3.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 112 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 117 THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE PERIYA PURĀṆAM ....................................... 117 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 117 4.2 Chālukya-Cōḻa Dynasty: Reign of King Kulōttuṅga II ........................................ 122 4.3 The Nāyaṉmār’s Encounters with Other Religious Traditions ............................. 128 4.4 The Nāyaṉmār and the Temple Worship .............................................................. 144 4.5 Summary ............................................................................................................... 152 PART II THE THEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE PERIYA PURĀṆAM CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................... 155 CĒKKIḺĀR’S VISION OF ŚIVA ............................................................................................