DIVIDING CLASSES: SEGREGATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN HONG KONG SCHOOLS By Ma-Theresa M. CUNANAN A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Education and Life-Long Learning, University of East Anglia June 2011 © This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation from the thesis, nor any information derived may be published without the author’s prior written consent Declaration I certify that the work contained in this thesis submitted by me for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is my original work, except where due reference is made to other authors, and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other University. Signature: ________________________________________ Date: June 2011 PhD Thesis Title Dividing Classes: Segregation of Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong Schools by MA-THERESA M. CUNANAN 2011 Abstract This thesis examines some of the issues surrounding the schooling experiences of ethnic minority students who attend mainstream, but segregated, secondary schools in Hong Kong. These ethnic minority students have been labelled by the Education Bureau as “non-Chinese speaking” (NCS) students and the schools they attend have been labelled as “designated schools”. This is a case study which looks into the complex ways in which meritocracy, segregation and social justice work within the Hong Kong education system, affecting higher education opportunities for ethnic minorities. It is commonly accepted that higher education opens doors to more opportunities and higher socio-economic status. Thus in a broader context there is a need to examine what goes on in Hong Kong’s institutional and cultural settings, as well as within the educational milieu of NCS students or ethnic minorities. In this case study approach, issues regarding micro-practices in a segregated school and educational accountability are examined as well. This research is a qualitative inquiry which borrows some of the principles of Foucault (1971) on governmentality and on knowledge/power; and also on Bourdieu’s (1973) considerations of cultural capital. The concepts of both Foucault and Bourdieu have been deployed reflexively. Special focus is put on exploring the choices, access and equity given to ethnic minorities regarding education in Hong Kong. The underlying motivation for this research also stems from the researcher’s personal experiences as an ethnic minority educated in Hong Kong. Hence, the data is founded in tacit knowledge along with data collected from a designated school and narratives shared by the students from that school. The educational policies and curriculum framework laid down by the Hong Kong Education Bureau have intrinsic and far-reaching effects on South and South East Asian students in particular. In this light, redefining the need for inclusive education of ethnic minorities in the name of social justice is also discussed. ii Acknowledgements “When you use the term minority or minorities in reference to people, you're telling them that they're less than somebody else. “ (Gwendolyn Brooks 1917-2000, Poet Laureate) I offer my first and foremost sincerest gratitude to Dr. Nalini Boodhoo, my supervisor and mentor. The journey into completing this thesis would not have been possible without her encouragement and patience. It was Professor Les Tickle and Dr. Nalini Boodhoo who gave me this opportunity to write about a topic close to my heart which I did not realize at the time was the beginning of a most amazing quest for knowledge in narratives. It is because of them that I was able to discover stories about people in Hong Kong who are not minorities at all. The cultural assets of Hong Kong are abundant if only we tapped more into talents of these people. I also want to convey my appreciation to Dr. Barbara Ridley whose intense tutorials whipped me back into action every time I thought I faltered. Here I also want to acknowledge Dr. Roy Barton. And of course a big thank you to all the other lecturers and professors at the University of East Anglia who inspired me to write. I am very fortunate to have wonderful group of colleagues at work that helped me along the way in completing my writing. But most of all, to my colleague Jeanne who is the most indefatigable person I know. Thank you Jeanne, for not giving up on me. To my family, I am eternally thankful for their unconditional support and believing in me. To my Mom who journeyed alone from the Philippines to Hong Kong and made this place her home because she aspired for something better. To my Dad who although is not with us anymore knew that I can complete this research. And to my beautiful children, Celeste and Cedric, I dedicate this to you. You are both the source of my strength. iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMEN TS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv-vi LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THIS RESEARCH vii-viii APPENDICES viii LIST OF FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS ix CHAPTER ONE: ADDRESSING THE CONTEXT 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Education in Hong Kong 3 1.1.2 Historical Overview 5 1.1.2.1 The ticket to Higher Education – 5 1st Class Carriage 1.1.2.2 The ticket to Higher Education – 9 2nd Class Carriage 1.1.2.3 Free Education for All 15 1.1.2.4 The Dominant Language of 20 Interaction in Hong Kong 1.1.3 An Overview of the Education System in Hong 22 Kong 1.1.3.1 The Ulcer Underneath the 24 Poultice 1.2 The Issue at Hand 29 1.2.1 Research Aim 29 1.2.2 Research Questions 32 1.2.3 Significance of the Study (Part I) 33 1.2.4 Significance of the Study (Part II) 36 Personal vignettes of the 36 researcher and weaving the narratives 1.2.5 Overview of the Chapters 43 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 44 2.2 Cultural Capital (Part I) 45 2.2.1 Cultural Capital in the Post-Colonial Era 45 2.2.2 Linguistic Capital and the New Imperialism 51 2.3 Governmentality 52 2.3.1 Governmentality – Michel Foucault and 52 Education 2.3.2 Social Justice – John Rawls 52 2.3.3 Cultural Hegemony – Antonio Gramsci 53 2.4 Understanding Power / Knowledge in Making Choices 54 2.4.1 Drawing on Informed Choices 57 2.5 Cultural Capital (Part II) 58 2.5.1 Cultural Capital embedded in the HK 58 Education Policies 2.5.2 Hong Kong’s Untapped Capital 60 iv CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Research Methodology 64 3.2.1 Naturalistic Inquiry 64 3.2.2 Philosophical Approach to the Empirical Study 65 3.2.3 Restating the Research Settings and Research 66 Questions 3.3 Research Design Overview 67 3.3.1 Refining the Focus and Main Methods Adopted 67 3.3.2 Narrative Reporting 68 3.3.3 The Road Not Taken 69 3.3.4 The Road Taken 72 3.4 Researcher as Both Insider/Outsider 74 3.5 Data Management and Analysis 78 3.5.1 Data Gathering 80 3.5.2 Open-ended Interview Questions 83 3.5.3 Semi-structured Interviews 85 3.5.4 Ethical and Political Concerns 88 3.5.5 Role of the Researcher 89 3.5.6 Validity and Reliability 91 3.5.7 Limitations of the Study 92 3.6 Signpost to Other Themes 94 CHAPTER FOUR: THE CASE STUDY SCHOOL 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 Part I 97 4.2. 1 The Designated School – Mary Immaculate 97 College (MIC) 4.2.2 The Head Teacher (Principal) – Dr. Liang 102 4.2.3 Children left behind 107 4.3 Part II 113 4.3.1 The Ethnic Minorities Vignettes 114 4.3.1.1 Juan Carlos 114 4.3.1.2 Cherise 118 4.3.1.3 Aisha 125 4.3.1.4 Iram 132 4.3.1.5 Latika 138 4.3.1.6 Shakana 140 4.3.1.7 Salim 143 4.3.1.8 Farid 144 4.3.1.9 Husna and her father, Sohrab 146 4.4 Conclusion 152 CHAPTER FIVE: THE LANGUAGE ISSUE IN HONG KONG 5.1 Introduction 154 5.2 The Language Issue in Hong Kong (Part I) 154 5.2.1 Linguistic Capital and Linguistic Equity 154 5.3 The Language Issue in Hong Kong (Part II) 156 5.3.1 Investing in Chinese Language Literacy of HK 156 v Ethnic Minority Students 5.3.2 The White Elephants 161 5.3. 3 The Language Issue According to the Head 168 Teacher of the Case Study School CHAPTER SIX: EMPOWERING NARRATIVE 6.1 Introduction 170 6.2 The Schools Banding System and the Assessment of 170 Students 6.3 Chinese Language Assessment in a Segregated System 176 6.4 Higher Education Opportunities for Ethnic Minorities 180 6.5 The Unspoken and Unchallenged Biases 181 6.6 Guidelines to the Teaching of Chinese as a Second ary 183 Language CHAPTER SEVEN: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 7.1 An Overview of Inclusive Education 185 7.1.1 Parameters of Inclusion in Education 186 7.2 Inclusion in Education 188 7.2.1 Defin ing Equity and Equality 189 7.3 Inclusive Education in Other Countries 190 7.4 Inclusive Education in Hong Kong 191 7.4.1 Education for All in HK 191 7.5 Conclusion – Opportunity or Oppression? 194 CHAPTER EIGHT: THE WAY FORWARD 8.1 Recapitulation and the Race to Re -harness Education 200 Opportunities 8.2 Rebranding the Designated School 201 8.2.1 Content and Language Integrated Learning 204 (CLIL) 8.2.2 The Chinese Language School 205 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION 9.1 Dividing Classes 209 BIBLIOGRAPHY 214 vi List of acronyms used in this research Acronyms Full name / description 3+3+4 The new reform of the Hong Kong educational system to be in full swing (or 3-3-4) in 2012, in which students attend 3 years of both junior and senior secondary school, and a further 4 more optional years at tertiary level AD Associate Degree BCA Basic Competency Assessments (Chinese, English, Mathematics) HKBU Hong Kong Baptist University CCCU Community College of City University (under Hong Kong City University) CCLU Community College at Lingnan University CDC Curriculum Development