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Lyle Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campbell, Lyle

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Lyle Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campbell, Lyle Mouton Grammar Library 1 Campbell The Pipil Language Mouton Grammar Library 1 Editors Georg Bossong Wallace Chafe Lyle Campbell The Pipil Language of El Salvador Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campbell, Lyle. The Pipil language of El Salvador. (Mouton grammar library ; 1) Bibliography: p. 1. Pipil language-Grammar. I. Title. II. Series. PM4191.C35 1985 497\4 85-11493 ISBN 0-89925-040-8 (U.S.) CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek Campbell, Lyle: The Pipil language of El Salvador / Lyle Campbell. - Berlin ; New York ; Amsterdam : Mouton, 1985. (Mouton grammar library ; 1) ISBN 3-11-010344-3 NE: GT Printed on acid free paper. © Copyright 1985 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin. All rights reserved, including those of trans- lation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form — by photo- print, microfilm, or any other means — nor transmitted nor translated into a machine language without written permission from Mouton Publishers, Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin. Printing: Druckerei Hildebrand, Berlin. — Binding: Dieter Mikolai, Berlin. Printed in Germany. Dedication To my Pipil teachers, helpers, and friends. Acknowledgements I owe a debt of gratitute to many for financial, intellectual, and moral support. I thank the National Science Foundation and the State University of New York Research Foundation for grants which supported my fieldwork and investigations in El Salvador. I am also grateful to the Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas of the Universidad Nacio- nal Autónoma de México for support which allowed me to complete some of the histori- cal aspects of this study and to write it up. I wish to thank María Esperanza Aguilar de Smith-Stark for much help with Salvado- ran Spanish from the Pipil area. Claudia Parodi also assisted me with Spanish and in the initial version of this manuscript (which was written in Spanish, but converted to English for this publication). While Una Canger did not see the manuscript of this book before publication, discussions with her helped me in many ways to improve both the content and its organization. Above all, I wish to extend my deep appreciation to my Pipil teachers and consul- tants, who shared their language with me. I hope that this work will some day in some way come to be of some benefit to them. Abbreviations adj., AD J adjective ABSOL absolutive adv. adverb applic., APPLIC applicative (Q Cuisnahuat Car. Carochi (form from Carochi) CAUS causative cf. confer, compare, cross-reference, see CN Classical Nahuatl (Colonial Nahuatl) COND conditional conj. conjugation DIMIN diminutive dir., DIR directional imp., IMP imperative IMPERF imperfective INCHOAAT inchoative incorp. incorporation, incorporated INT POSS intimate possession i. v. intransitive verb loc. locative Mol. Molina (form from Molina) n. noun O object obj. object perf. perfect pi., PL plural PN Proto-Nahua (also called Proto-Aztecan) poss., POSS possessive, possession pres. present perf., PERF perfect pret., PRET preterite (simple past) pron. pronoun, pronominal redup. reduplication r. v. reflexive verb (SD) Santo Domingo de Guzmán Sp. Spanish S subject subj. subject t. v. transitive verb unspec. obj. unspecified object V verb Table of Contents Dedication V Acknowledgements VII Abbreviations VIII Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.0. Introduction 1 1.1. Social and geographical position 2 1.2. Classification 2 1.2.1. "What's in a name?": Nahua and Pipil 5 1.3. Ethnohistory 6 1.4. Pipil dialectology 13 Chapter 2 Phonology 24 2.0. Introduction 24 2.1. The phonetic value of the orthographic symbols 24 2.1.1. Phonetic variants (allophones) 26 2.2. Phonological processes (morphophonemic rules) 28 Chapter 3 Grammatical Categories and Morphology 39 3.0. Introduction 39 3.1. Nouns 39 3.1.1. Absolutives 39 3.1.2. Possession 42 3.1.2.1. Plural possession 46 3.1.3. Other nominal suffixes 46 3.1.3.1. -pan 46 3.1.3.2. -tan 47 3.1.3.3. -k/-ku 47 3.1.3.4. -ta(:)l. 48 3.1.3.5. -ka 48 3.1.3.6. -ni 49 3.1.3.7. -s (-lis» -wis, -was) 49 3.1.3.8. -tsin 49 3.1.3.9. -pil 50 3.1.3.10. -JMpassive nominalization, 50 3.1.4. •Plural' 51 3.2. Pronouns 53 3.2.1. Independent pronouns 53 3.2.2. Pronominal subject affixes 54 3.2.2.1. Pronominal copula 55 3.2.3. Pronominal object prefixes 55 3.2.4. Possessive pronominal prefixes 56 3.2.5. Indefinite pronouns 56 3.3. Articles and demonstratives 56 3.3.1. Articles 56 3.3.2. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives 56 3.3.3. Demonstrative adverbs 57 3.4. Quantifiers 58 3.4.1. Numerals 58 3.5. Locatives 59 3.5.1. Independent prepositions 59 3.5.2. Relational nouns 59 3.5.3. Frozen locatives 60 3.6. Adjectives 61 3.6.1. -k, -ti-k 61 3.6.2. -nah 62 3.6.3. -a:wa-k/ -ak 62 3.6.4. -tuk 63 3.6.5. Other adjectives 63 3.6.6. Adjective plurals 64 3.7. Verbs 65 3.7.1. The order of verbal affixes 65 3.7.2. Tense and aspect 65 3.7.2.1. 'Present* 65 3.7.2.2. 'Preterite' (simplepast) 66 3.7.2.3. 'Perfect' 66 3.7.2.4. 'Conditional' 67 3.7.2.4.1. 'Perfect conditionals' 68 3.7.2.5. 'Future' 68 3.7.2.6. 'Desiderative' 69 3.7.2.7. 'Imperfect' 69 3.7.2.7.1. -tu-ya 'past perfect' 70 3.7.3. Verb classes 70 3.7.3.1. Class I ((C)VCV) verbs 70 3.7.3.2. Class II verbs ((QVCCV, (QVka, (C)VCu) 71 3.7.3.3. Class III (-ia,-ua) 72 3.7.3.4. Class IV (-CVh alternating with -CVh) 74 3.7.4. Pronominal affixes with verbs 74 3.7.4.1. 'Reflexive* (mu-) 75 3.7.4.2. ta- 'unspecified object' 77 3.7.4.2.1. Non-productive and special ta- forms 78 3.7.4.2.2. Reduplication of ta- 78 3.7.4.2.3. ta-with nouns derived from transitive verbs 79 3.7.4.2.4. Adjectives with ta- 79 3.7.4.3. te:- 'someone* 79 3.7.5. Reduplication in verbs 80 3.7.6. Other verb prefixes 81 3.7.6.1. (w)al- 'directional* 81 3.7.6.2. -el- 'mentation/inside* 82 3.7.6.3. -ah- 'buccal* 82 3.7.6.4. -ih- 'superficial* 83 3.7.7. Order of verb prefixes when (w)al- or -el- is present 83 3.7.8. Verb moods and voices 84 3.7.8.1. 'Imperative'/'Optative'/'Subjunctive' 84 3.7.8.2. 'Causatives' 85 3.7.8.3. 'Inchoatives' 86 3.7.8.3.1. 'Inchoatives'with-ua/-wi/-wa 86 3.7.8.3.2. 'Inchoatives' of "perception" or "sensation" (-ya) 88 3.7.8.3.3. ^_"to become" 89 3.7.8.4. 'Passives' (-1, -lu, -lw, and -ua) 89 3.7.8.5. 'Applicatives' 90 3.7.8.6. 'Diffusion' 91 3.7.8.7. 'Repetitives' of 'diffusion' verbs (-ka 'intransitives', -tsa 'transitives' 92 3.7.9. Verb stems 93 3.7.9.1. Suppletion 93 3.7.9.2. Reduplication 95 3.7.10. Incorporation 95 3.7.10.1. Adjective incorporation 95 3.7.10.2. Instrumental noun incorporation 96 3.7.10.3. Object incorporation 97 Chapter 4 Syntax 101 4.0. Introduction 101 4.1. Word order 101 4.1.1. Word order conclusions 109 4.1.2. Pronominal indirect objects 109 4.2. "to be" 110 4.2.1. Pronominal copula 110 4.2.2. 0-copula Ill 4.2.3. Locative nemi Ill 4.2.4. 'Existential* nemi Ill 4.2.5. Other "tobe" cases 112 4.2.5.1. Emphatic states 112 4.2.5.2. "To be" questions 112 4.2.5.3. Irregular "to be" forms 113 4.3. Non-distinct arguments 113 4.4. Questions 114 4.4.1. Yes-no questions 114 4.4.2. Wh-questions 114 4.5. Imperatives 115 4.5.1. Imperative and hortatory sentences 115 4.5.2. Negative imperatives 116 4.6. Possession 117 4.6.1. Pronominal possession 117 4.6.2. Nominal possession 117 4.6.3. pal periphrastic possession 118 4.6.4. piya "to have" 118 4.6.5. Possessive'relational noun' 119 4.7. Locatives (see 3.5) 120 4.8. Demonstratives (see 3.3) 120 4.9. Adjective in larger constructions 120 4.10. Comparatives 121 4.11. Coordination 121 4.11.1. Wan "and" 121 4.11.2. Pero, pe:ro 123 4.11.3. Ni, ni ke "(neither) nor"; mas bien "rather" 124 4.11.4. Sino "but (not)" 124 4.11.5. Ma "but" 125 4.11.6. Gapping 125 4.12. Complement clauses 125 4.12.1. ka(h) 125 4.12.2. Tay/ta: 127 4.12.3. 0 127 4.13. Cleft sentences 127 4.14. Relative clauses 128 4.14.1. Relativized subjects 129 4.14.2. Relativized objects 129 4.15. Adverbial clauses 130 4.15.1. Locative clauses 130 4.15.2. Time clauses 131 4.15.3. Manner clauses 132 4.15.4. Reason clauses 132 4.15.5. Purpose clauses (pal) 134 4.16. Conditional sentences 135 4.17. Auxiliaries 136 4.17.1. Nemi * progressive* 136 4.17.2. Yaw['periphrastic future' 137 4.17.3. Yawi "to go" auxiliary 138 4.17.4. weli "to be able, can" 139 4.17.5.
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