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Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Vladimir Molkov Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I 2 Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I © 2012 Vladimir Molkov & bookboon.com ISBN 978-87-403-0226-4 3 Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Contents Contents 1 Introduction 9 1.1. Why hydrogen? 9 1.2. Public perception of hydrogen technologies 9 1.3. The importance of hydrogen safety 10 1.4. Hazards, risk, safety 13 1.5. Hydrogen safety communication 15 1.6. The subject and scope of hydrogen safety engineering 16 1.7. The emerging profession of hydrogen safety engineering 17 1.8. Knowledge gaps and future progress 20 2 Hydrogen properties and hazards 22 2.1. Physical and chemical properties 23 2.2. Combustion properties 35 2.3. Comparison with other fuels 47 2.4. Health hazards 53 2.5. Concluding remark 55 3 Regulations, codes and standards and hydrogen safety engineering 56 GET THERE FASTER Some people know precisely where they want to go. Others seek the adventure of discovering uncharted territory. Whatever you want your professional journey to be, Oliver Wyman is a leading global management consulting firm that combines you’ll find what you’re looking for at Oliver Wyman. deep industry knowledge with specialized expertise in strategy, operations, risk management, organizational transformation, and leadership development. With Discover the world of Oliver Wyman at oliverwyman.com/careers offices in 50+ cities across 25 countries, Oliver Wyman works with the CEOs and executive teams of Global 1000 companies. DISCOVER An equal opportunity employer. OUR WORLD 4 Click on the ad to read more Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Contents 4 Hydrogen safety engineering: framework and technical subsystems 63 4.1. Framework 63 4.2. Technical sub-systems 66 5 Unignited releases 67 5.1. Expanded and under-expanded jets 67 5.2. Under-expanded jet theories 70 5.3. The similarity law for concentration decay in momentum-dominated jets 76 5.4. Concentration decay in transitional and buoyancy-controlled jets 92 6 Dispersion of hydrogen in confined space 96 6.1. Dispersion of permeated hydrogen in a garage 97 6.2. The pressure peaking phenomenon 114 7 Ignition of hydrogen mixtures 125 7.1. Overview of hydrogen ignition mechanisms 125 7.2. Spontaneous ignition of sudden releases 131 8 Microflames 163 8.1. Quenching and blow-off limits 164 5 Click on the ad to read more Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Contents 9 Jet fires 171 9.1. Introduction to hydrogen jet fires and safety issues 171 9.2. Chronological overview of hydrogen jet flame studies 174 9.3. The drawback of Froude-based correlations 187 9.4. The similitude analysis and a dimensional correlation 188 9.5. The jet flame blow-off phenomenon 193 9.6. The novel dimensionless flame length correlation 195 9.7. Flame tip location and equivalent unignited jet concentration 200 9.8. Separation distances from a hydrogen leak 202 9.9. Effect of nozzle shape on flame length 206 9.10. Effect of jet attachment of flame length 207 9.11. Pressure effects of hydrogen jet fires 208 9.12. Summary 214 10 Deflagrations Part II 10.1. General features of deflagrations and detonations Part II 10.2. Some observations of DDT in hydrogen-air mixtures Part II 10.3. Vented deflagrations Part II 10.4. Large eddy simulation (LES) of large-scale deflagrations Part II In the past four years we have drilled 81,000 km That’s more than twice around the world. Who are we? We are the world’s leading oilfield services company. Working globally—often in remote and challenging locations—we invent, design, engineer, manufacture, apply, and maintain technology to help customers find and produce oil and gas safely. Who are we looking for? We offer countless opportunities in the following domains: n Engineering, Research, and Operations n Geoscience and Petrotechnical n Commercial and Business If you are a self-motivated graduate looking for a dynamic career, apply to join our team. What will you be? careers.slb.com 6 Click on the ad to read more Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Contents 11 Detonations Part II 11.1. Direct initiation of detonation Part II 11.2. LES of hydrogen-air detonations Part II 12 Safety strategies and mitigation techniques Part II 12.1. Inherently safer design of fuel cell systems Part II 12.2. Mitigation of release consequences Part II 12.3. Reduction of separation distances for high debit pipes Part II 12.4. Mitigation by barriers Part II 12.5. Mitigation of deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) Part II 12.6. Prevention of DDT within a fuel cell Part II 12.7. Detection and hydrogen sensors Part II Concluding remarks Part II Acknowledgements Part II Appendix 1. Glossary Part II References Part II Could you think of 101 new things to do with eggs and oil? Hellmann’s is one of Unilever’s oldest brands having been popular for over 100 years. If you too share a passion for discovery and innovation we will give you the tools and opportunities to provide you with a challenging career. Are you a great scientist who would like to be at the forefront of scientific innovations and developments? Then you will enjoy a career within Unilever Research & Development. For challenging job opportunities, please visit www.unilever.com/rdjobs. 7 Click on the ad to read more Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Disclaimer. Author does not make any warranty or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or any third party’s use of any information, product, procedure, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Any electronic website link in this book is provided for user convenience and its publication does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favouring by the author. 8 Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Introduction 1 Introduction High priority research directions for the hydrogen economy include safety as a technological, a psychological and sociological issue (US Department of Energy, 2004). This book provides the state-of- the-art in hydrogen safety as a technological issue and introduces a reader to the subject of hydrogen safety engineering. Hydrogen safety engineering is defined as application of scientific and engineering principles to the protection of life, property and environment from adverse effects of incidents/accidents involving hydrogen. The use of hydrogen as an energy carrier presents several unusual hazards. The best investment in hydrogen safety is educated and trained personnel, informed public. This book is a contribution to hydrogen safety knowledge transfer and education of all stakeholders including technology developers and safety engineers, consultants and users, policy makers and investors, etc. It can be used as a textbook for higher education programmes in hydrogen safety, e.g. MSc in Hydrogen Safety Engineering course at the University of Ulster. 1.1. Why hydrogen? The scarcity of fossil fuel reserves, geopolitical fears associated with fossil fuel depletion, and issues of environment pollution and climate change as well as the need to ensure independence of energy supply make the low-carbon economy with an essential hydrogen vector inevitable in the coming decades. Today first series of hydrogen-fuelled buses and cars are already on the road and refuelling stations are operating in different countries around the world. How safe are hydrogen technologies and fuel cell products? This book will help to understand the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety engineering and assist to make this fast emerging market inherently safer. Global fuel cell demand will reach $8.5 billion in 2016 (PennWell Corporation, 2007). 1.2. Public perception of hydrogen technologies Public perception of hydrogen technologies is still affected by the 1937 Hindenburg disaster. The catastrophe is often associated with hydrogen as a reason even there is an opinion that the difference in electrical potential between the zeppelin “landing” rope and the ground during descending had generated electrical current that ignited the dirigible canopy made of extremely combustible material. This was followed by diffusive combustion of hydrogen in air without generation of a significant blast wave able to injure people. Figure 1–1 shows a photo of burning Hindenburg dirigible fire demonstrating that there was no “explosion” (Environmental graffiti alpha, 2010). 9 Download free eBooks at bookboon.com Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I Introduction Figure 1–1. Photo of the Hindenburg dirigible fire demonstrating that there was no “explosion” (Environmental graffiti alpha, 2010). Contrary to popular misunderstanding hydrogen helped to save 62 lives in the Hindenburg disaster. The NASA research has demonstrated (Bain and Van Vorst, 1999) that the disaster would have been essentially unchanged even if the airship were lifted not by hydrogen but by non-combustible helium, and that probably nobody aboard was killed by a hydrogen fire. The 35% who died were killed by jumping out, or by the burning diesel oil, canopy, and debris (the cloth canopy was coated with what nowadays would be called rocket fuel). The other 65% survived, riding the flaming dirigible to earth as the clear hydrogen flames swirled harmlessly above them. 1.3. The importance of hydrogen safety There is a clear understanding by all stakeholders of the role of hydrogen safety for emerging hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, systems and infrastructure. This is supported by investment to safety of about 5–10% of the total funding of hydrogen and fuel cell programmes both in USA and in Europe.
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