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The Machiavellian Reformation. an Essay in Political Theory Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä 2006, 171 P

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The Machiavellian Reformation. an Essay in Political Theory Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä 2006, 171 P JYVÄSKYLÄ STUDIES IN EDUCATION, PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH 290 Paul-Erik Korvela The Machiavellian Reformation An Essay in Political Theory JYVÄSKYLÄN YLIOPISTO Copyright © , by University of Jyväskylä ABSTRACT Korvela, Paul-Erik The Machiavellian Reformation. An Essay in Political Theory Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä 2006, 171 p. (Jyväskylä Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research ISSN 0075-4625; 290) ISBN 951-39-2666-4 Diss. The study explores Niccolò Machiavelli’s (1469-1527) views on Christianity. The question of Machiavelli’s relation to religion in general and to Christianity in particular has aroused much discussion. Most commonly he is seen as some sort of neo-Pagan aiming to paganise rather than secularise or reform Christianity. In previous research, his opposition to Christianity often has been assumed but seldom clarified. The view that Machiavelli was simply an advocate of paganism against Christianity is inaccurate. Machiavelli criticised Christianity, but this does not mean that he was an anti- Christian or an anti-religious thinker. He thought that religion should be used like the ancients used it, but he does not demand that the religion in question should be the same as the ancients had. Thus, he was not attempting any kind of resurrection of paganism. As is commonly known, Machiavelli harked back to ancient Rome and its practices. The same methods were not used in his time, he thought, because Christianity had already carved men into its liking and made them effeminate and contemplative rather than virtuous and active. But Machiavelli did not claim that it would be better for a society to get rid of religion altogether. Christianity contains some effective elements that were unavailable to paganism, and, when interpreted according to virtù, it, too, could allow virtuous action in Machiavelli’s sense. Nevertheless, the idea that he aimed at some sort of reinterpretation or reform of Christianity is complicated, since it is hardly possible to interpret Christianity in such a way that it would exalt this life over the other. If he is considered as a reformer, then he was a very radical one, moving the aim of Christian life to temporal world and adjusting its virtues to serve the needs of the earthly community. But, nevertheless, this seems to be the case. Machiavelli was utterly critical towards the optimistic Christianity of his day, but like Luther and other reformers, he did not need a pagan alternative. A more pessimistic view of humans and society was already enshrined in the traditions of Christianity itself, especially in the Augustinian strand. But from these too Machiavelli departed by moving the aim of Christianity to proximate concerns. Machiavelli had very little enthusiasm to engage in theological debates – instead, he focused on the political consequences of Christianity. Machiavelli’s alleged paganism is more like a rhetorical construction which shows how Christianity too could be politically more salutary. Keywords: Niccolò Machiavelli, Christianity, Renaissance, political theory, reformation Author’s address Paul-Erik Korvela Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy / political science P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä Supervisor Professor Kari Palonen Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy / political science University of Jyväskylä Reviewers Professor, emeritus Ilkka Heiskanen University of Helsinki Docent Kari Saastamoinen Renvall-Institute University of Helsinki Opponent Professor Marco Geuna Dipartimento di Filosofia Università degli Studi di Milano ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For financial support I wish to thank the Kone Foundation, the Finnish Cultural Foundation, and the University of Jyväskylä. For intellectual support and general encouragement I would like to thank especially Professors Sakari Hänninen, Kari Palonen and Pekka Korhonen. From many others who have offered me advice and discussed Machiavelli’s political theory with me I wish to name especially Docent Jussi Vähämäki. I also wish to thank the reviewers, Prof. Emer. Ilkka Heiskanen and Docent Kari Saastamoinen for their comments on the work, and Susanne Kalejaiye, who helped me with my English. CONTENTS ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 INTRODUCTION: MACHIAVELLI AND RENAISSANCE PAGANISM................................... 9 1.1 Machiavelli’s Alleged Paganism Reconsidered ................................. 13 1.2 The Structure ........................................................................................... 23 2 MACHIAVELLI’S CRITIQUE OF CHRISTIANITY IN PREVIOUS RESEARCH ....................................................................................................... 27 2.1 The Displacements of Machiavelli ....................................................... 27 2.2 Machiavelli and Christianity in Previous Research ........................... 35 2.2.1 Machiavelli the Pagan ................................................................35 2.2.2 Machiavelli the Atheist ..............................................................40 2.2.3 Machiavelli the Christian ..........................................................43 2.2.4 Machiavelli as a Critic of Christianity ..................................... 45 3 MAIN THEMES IN MACHIAVELLI’S CRITIQUE OF CHRISTIANITY .........................................................................................49 3.1 Polemics against Christianity in the Machiavellian Oeuvre ............ 49 3.2 The Church and the Popes .................................................................... 54 3.3 The Friars .................................................................................................62 3.4 Religion as an instrumentum regni ........................................................ 65 3.5 Christianity interpreted according to ozio and according to virtù ... 70 3.6 The Change of Religions and Reform in Religion and Politics ........ 77 3.7 The Gospel according to Machiavelli .................................................. 83 3.8 Machiavelli and sapientia saeculi ........................................................... 87 3.9 Christianity and the Decline of Italian Military Virtue ..................... 92 3.10 The Soul ..................................................................................................101 4 MACHIAVELLI’S LEGACY ........................................................................113 4.1 Reason of State ...................................................................................... 115 4.2 Religion and Machiavelli’s Reception ............................................... 119 4.3 The Significance of Machiavelli’s Critique of Christianity ............. 132 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS .........................................................................150 TIIVISTELMÄ ......................................................................................................... 157 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 159 1 INTRODUCTION: MACHIAVELLI AND RENAISSANCE PAGANISM The question of Niccolò Machiavelli’s (1469-1527) relation to religion in general and to Christianity in particular has aroused much discussion. There are scholars who claim that he was a sincere Christian in private life and constantly distressed by the fact that politics appears to operate on rules very different from the ones taught by Christ. Then there are those who claim that he was an atheist who aimed at devastating the whole of Christianity. Most commonly he is seen as some sort of neo-Pagan aiming to paganise rather than secularise or reform Christianity. In previous research, his opposition to Christianity often has been assumed but seldom clarified. What was he actually opposing, and what did he offer as an alternative? The view that Machiavelli was simply an advocate of paganism against Christianity is both inaccurate and erroneous. So is the view that Machiavelli was opposed to Christianity only because of the temporal power of the Church. What, then, was his new path, and what did he think of Christianity? This study aims to explore Machiavelli’s views on Christianity. Firstly, it is assumed that Machiavelli criticised Christianity, not any special sect of Christianity, nor any specific individuals. He was not criticising only the clergy or the Roman Catholic Church, but the whole philosophy of Christianity. His attack is directed towards “nostra religione”, “educazione debole” or “questo modo di vivere” (Discorsi, II/2)1 – that is to say, towards Christian education or Christian way of living in general. He does not specify his attack better than that. Despite the fact that Machiavelli probably disagreed with some sects on various contemporary political questions - the Frateschi, for example, seemed to undermine the governo largo type of republicanism Machiavelli was advocating 1 The references to Machiavelli’s works include the book and the chapter (as in Discorsi I/12) or just the book (as in Arte della guerra, IV) or just the chapter (as in Il Principe, chap. XVIII), so that it is relatively easy to locate the passages, regardless of the edition or the translation. The translations usually follow “The Chief Works and Others”, III vols., Duke University Press 1989, translated by Allan Gilbert. 10 with their apocalyptic visions - his critique of Christianity can not be reduced to a criticism of the Frateschi, or any other sect. Secondly, it is assumed that there is at least some level of coherence in the thought of Machiavelli
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