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The Mendicant Preachers and the Merchant's Soul

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The Mendicant Preachers and the Merchant's Soul MARK HANSSEN THE MENDICANT PREACHERS AND THE MERCHANT'S SOUL THE CIVILIZATION OF COMMERCE IN THE LATE- MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE ITALY (1275-1425) Tesis doctoral dirigida por PROF. DR. MIGUEL ALFONSO MARTÍNEZ-ECHEVARRÍA Y ORTEGA PROF. DR. ANTONIO MORENO ALMÁRCEGUI FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS ECONÓMICAS Y EMPRESARIALES PAMPLONA, 2014 Table of contents Prologue .......................................................................................................... 7 PART I: BACKGROUND Chapter 1: Introduction The Merchant in the Wilderness ............................. 27 1. Economic Autarky and Carolingian Political "Augustinianism" ........................ 27 2. The Commercial Revolution ................................................................................ 39 3. Eschatology and Civilization ............................................................................... 54 4. Plan of the Work .................................................................................................. 66 Chapter 2: Theology and Civilization ........................................................... 73 1. Theology and Humanism ..................................................................................... 73 2. Christianity and Classical Culture ...................................................................... 83 3. Justice, Commerce and Political Society............................................................. 95 PART II: SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHICAL-THEOLOGY, ETHICS AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Introduction................................................................................................. 103 Chapter 3: Creative Distance and Intention ................................................ 107 1. Divine Simplicity, Divine Love .......................................................................... 107 2. Thomas Aquinas: Divine Simplicity ................................................................... 112 3. Duns Scotus: Divine Simplicity ......................................................................... 125 4. Divine Love and Freedom in Aquinas and Scotus ............................................. 142 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 4: Human Action ........................................................................... 157 1. In the Image of God ........................................................................................... 157 2. The Natural and the Voluntary .......................................................................... 167 a) Aquinas' "Naturalism" ............................................................................ 171 b) Duns Scotus' Voluntarism ....................................................................... 189 3. Variety in Virtue Ethics ...................................................................................... 203 4. Charity and the Perfection of Spiritual Life ...................................................... 222 Chapter 5: Medieval Political Thought ....................................................... 233 1. Common Good(s) and Human Society .............................................................. 235 2. The Concept of Peace: Duplex Ordo and Dynamic Hierarchy ......................... 252 3. Original Sin, Political Institutions and the New Law ........................................ 260 a) Thomas Aquinas ...................................................................................... 265 b) William Ockham: Franciscanism ............................................................ 276 4. Origins and Ends: Temporal and Spiritual Authority ....................................... 296 5. Unity to Multiplicity: Restraining the Law, Retaining the Common Good ....... 310 PART III: THE ETHOS AND ETHICS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY Introduction................................................................................................. 321 Chapter 6: The Renaissance of the Merchant ............................................. 327 1. Pax Romana, Political Prudence and the Good of the Commune ..................... 332 2. Civic Ethos, Manly Virtue and Nobility ............................................................. 347 3. The Spirit of Poverty, Civic Wealth and Commercial Magnificence ................. 367 Chapter 7: The Formation of the Merchant ................................................ 389 1. The Merchant in the Aristotelian Tradition ....................................................... 389 2. On Commerce and the Perfect Merchant .......................................................... 400 3. The Discipline of Prudence ............................................................................... 415 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 8: Late-Medieval Economic Ethics ............................................... 429 1. Law, Imperfect Justice and the Use of the World .............................................. 429 2. Free-Bargaining, the Common Need and the Just Price ................................... 442 3. Market Price and Merchant Profit .................................................................... 453 4. Social Personae and Social Distinction ............................................................ 460 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 471 Bibliography ............................................................................................... 491 Primary Sources .................................................................................................... 491 Secondary Literature ............................................................................................. 495 5 Prologue This thesis is about ethics and economics. It is about the spirituality and ethics of the mendicant religious orders in the late Middle Ages and their influence on the formation of commercial agency and society in Europe. It is, therefore, not about ethics and economics in the abstract. It is not about economics as analytically separated from ethics. It is about economy as distinguished by the concrete ethos and ethics that constitute a critical element in the relative dynamism and particular behavioral regularities that any real economy displays. It is about the historical origins of the dynamism, not the dynamics, of Western capitalist economy. It is, therefore, not about economic analysis but about the analysis of the motives and ideals that give an economy its particular form, character and intensity. In this regard, it is worth prefacing the entire work with a few remarks that do not form its content but merely situate its theme within the framework of a broader discussion of economics and ethics. For there is significant confusion about the relation between ethics and economics, both on the level of theory and on the level of reality - particularly when it comes to any talk of capitalism. Many critics, and not a few advocates, of the ill-defined and nebulous historical phenomena, "capitalism," are generally among the men most likely to impugn the motives of business and conflate market economy with liberty from ethical constraints and equate "unrestrained liberalism" with the aura sacra fames that knows neither conscience nor limit. Although not necessarily, but not accidentally given the frequent uses and abuses of the phrase "self-interest" as well as the influence of utilitarianism in the history of economic thought, the conflation of liberalism with an unethical egoism is all the more easily achieved when economics as a discipline offers a conception of the economy in abstraction from ethics. That is, economics proceeds as though the latter were merely a set of external limits marking off the field for economic behavior and that those limits may be appended as a 7 THE MERCHANT’S SOUL question after the economic analysis is done. In this view, if ethics has a place near economics, it is as a "disturbing cause" that represents a potential non-economic influence on the selection of economic actions under consideration.1 It is this theoretical attitude toward ethics that is quite readily misunderstood as implying that economic analysis of what is best in terms of an unqualified desire for wealth entails a subtle normative "ought" or encouragement with respect to the priority of that desire or at least of its liberty. It is this theoretical attitude, which as we shall shortly see is in fact a conscious correction of classical liberalism's analytical confusion between utilitarianism and economic theory, that is therefore also misunderstood as claiming that beneficent equilibrium and harmony, dynamic growth and economic justice derive from narrow and hedonistic self-interested utilitarian individualism.* Thus, it is suspected, that when the objective possibilities of economic action are analyzed and ready to be subjected to considerations of ethical restraint, they are in reality resistant to any significant measure of ethical constraint as would conflict with an overall outcome to the benefit of the desire for wealth - or at least must prove that they do not overly burden the outcome or the social status quo. As a charge against any worthy 1 The phrase "disturbing cause" being borrowed from John Stuart Mill's characterization of the work of the economist as interested in that class of social phenomena "in which the immediately determining causes are principally those which act through the desire of wealth; and in which the psychological law mainly concerned is the familiar one, that a greater gain is preferred to a smaller";
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