Can Mixed Martial Arts be Ethically Defended?: Autonomy, Paternalism and the Harm Principle Cody Kent, B.A. Physical Education Honours Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Applied Health Sciences (Health & Physical Education) Under the supervision of Danny Rosenberg, Phd Faculty of Health and Physical Education, Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario Cody Kent © 2013 Abstract Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) and the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) founded in 1993 have been under scrutiny for the past two decades. Unlike boxing, the ethical status of MMA and whether it is morally defensible have rarely been analyzed in the academic literature. I argue that MMA requires such an analysis because it is inherently violent. The purpose of this study was to examine elite-level MMA by referring to the ethical concepts of autonomy, paternalism and the Harm Principle. Findings from interviews with MMA athletes as well as my personal experience of MMA were presented to establish a deeper understanding of the sport and what it means to train and compete in a sport defined as violent. The conceptual analysis and findings of MMA athletes' experiences in this investigation resulted in the conclusion that MMA is ethically defensible. Additional findings, implications and recommendations for further research were also discussed. Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Danny Rosenberg. He has been a credit to my development and it was a pleasure to have worked with him. He gave me an opportunity to excel in academics and improve my life. Since my undergraduate years he was a valued educator in my eyes and his positive influence, guidance, encouragement and knowledge allowed me to prosper as a young scholar that exceeded my own expectations. Without him this work could not have been completed. I want to thank him very much for the opportunity to prove myself and I hope I made him proud. I would also like to extend my appreciation to my committee members Dr. Cathy Van Ingen, Dr. Diane Mack and Dr. Cesar R. Torres, my external examiner. Dr. Van Ingen has been an inspiration to me since I took my first undergraduate course with her and learned what she was interested in and the career she pursued. She was the one who told me I could write about MMA and gave me the confidence to follow through. Although it took me a couple tries I got in with her help, and for this I will never forget her positive influence. Dr. Mack’s expertise and knowledge have been sought after by most graduate students in my program. When I learned she was genuinely interested in MMA I felt fortunate to have her assist me on this research endeavour. She took on this task with a cheerful outlook and aided me throughout the process, and for this I am forever thankful. I know Dr. Torres mostly by reputation within the sport philosophy community and met him when I attended a sport philosophy conference at the college at Brockport, State University of New York a few years ago. As a leading scholar in the field it is a privilege to have him as a committee member to gain from his invaluable insights and erudition. I am extremely grateful for his contributions that have strengthened my thesis. I would like to thank all my research participants and the MMA community. From my own coaches and training partners to those I met, trained with, and became friends with, this thesis is for you as much as it is for me. These acknowledgements could not be complete without sending a special thank you to my family and close friends who have consistently supported me throughout my education. I would especially like to thank my parents Aline and Edward Kent for always being there and being proud of me no matter what; you are my anchors and without you this all would not have been possible. Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………… Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………... Chapter One: Mixed Martial Arts: An Overview...............................................................1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….2 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………6 Research Questions………………………………………………………………..7 Rationale for the Study……………………………………………………………8 Methodology………………………………………………………………………9 Research Design………………………………………………………………….14 Limitations and Delimitations……………………………………………………15 Chapter Development……………………………………………………………16 Reflexivity……………………………………………………………………….17 Chapter Two: Methodology……………………………………………………………...21 Participants……………………………………………………………………….22 Procedure...............................................................................................................24 Instruments and Analysis.......................................................................................25 Chapter Three: Review of Literature…………………………………………………….31 History, Context and Character…………………………………………………..31 Empirical Evidence………………………………………………………………43 Boxing……………………………………………………………………………48 Ethics and Concepts...............................................................................................49 Autonomy………………………………………………………………………..50 Paternalism……………………………………………………………………….55 Legal Moralism…………………………………………………………………..58 The Harm Principle………………………………………………………………59 Violence………………………………………………………………………….61 Utilitarianism…………………………………………………………………….67 Communitarianism……………………………………………………………….69 Catharsis………………………………………………………………………….71 Intent……………………………………………………………………………..73 Reform...................................................................................................................75 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….78 Chapter Four: Findings………………………………………………………………….82 Theme 1: Similar Athlete Background…………………………………………..83 Theme 2: Encounters with Violence Prior to MMA……………………………..85 Theme 3: The UFC………………………………………………………………88 Theme 4: Referees……………………………………………………………….91 Theme 5: MMA Context…………………………………………………………94 Theme 6: Training versus Competing……………………………………………99 Theme 7: Limitations…………………………………………………………...107 Theme 8: Entertainment………………………………………………………...110 Theme 9: Risk…………………………………………………………………..114 Summary………………………………………………………………………..121 Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………..123 A Characterization of Violence in Sport………………………………………..123 The Meaning and a Critique of Autonomy……………………………………..125 The Concept of Autonomy in Relation to MMA……………………………….126 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………………133 Paternalism……………………………………………………………………...135 Legal Moralism…………………………………………………………………138 The Harm Principle……………………………………………………………..139 Intent……………………………………………………………………………141 Suggestions for Reform………………………………………………………...146 Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………………153 Final Thoughts………………………………………………………………….158 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...161 References………………………………………………………………………………164 Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………...170 Table1. Different Combative Sports that Constitute Aspects of MMA………...170 Appendix B……………………………………………………………………………...171 Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………...171 Appendix C……………………………………………………………………………...173 Interview Guide………………………………………………………………...173 Appendix D……………………………………………………………………………...175 Consent Letter…………………………………………………………………..175 Appendix E……………………………………………………………………………...179 Letter of Invitation……………………………………………………………...179 Appendix F……………………………………………………………………………...182 Thank You Letter……………………………………………………………….182 Chapter One Mixed Martial Arts: An Overview Introduction Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) may be described as the most primitive form of sport competition in society today that offers a spectacle like no other (Spencer, 2012). MMA is a combative style of competition where a variety of fighting disciplines are used between two opponents within the confines of a ring or cage (Mayeda & Ching, 2008). MMA is as violent and taxing a sport that is similar to but different than boxing. Unlike traditional martial arts, which are points-based competitions and promote reduced contact, MMA incorporates Eastern and Western martial arts which are used through integrating the techniques of various styles. As a result, competitors can fight while on the ground or when standing in any number of positions. Table 1 (see Appendix A) identifies the main forms of martial arts including country of origin and techniques used in MMA (adapted from Kochhar, Back, Mann, & Skinner, 2005). This in effect creates a style of combat that may resemble street fights outside the sphere of organized sport. However, unlike no holds barred fighting that entails ‘anything goes’ (Garcia & Malcolm, 2010), MMA competitions consist of three, five-minute rounds and five, five- minute rounds for championship matches or main events with a one minute rest period between rounds. MMA competitors wear protective equipment including mouth guard, groin protection and four to six ounce gloves where the fingers are exposed for grappling. Bouts are decided by a scoring system, knockout (KO), technical knockout (TKO), corner stoppage or referee stoppage based on fighters’ inability to coherently defend themselves. A match may also be decided by submission tap out (verbal/physical admission of 1 impending injury), disqualification, medical stoppage or the judge’s decision once time has expired (Rainey, 2009). The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) is the principal MMA organization in the world that showcases top professional male and female