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THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF (4) 密 教 by 文 Shozui Makoto Toganoo 化 CHAPTER VI. ROKU-DAI, A COMPOUND SYMBOL OF THE ESSENCE OF -KAYA

The term roku-dai meaning literally the "great six" is the abbreviated Japanese rendition of the Sanskrt term sadmaha-bhutani. Since the term bhuta has the three significations of "being or that which exists," an "element," and the "world," the term sad-maha-bhutani was usually translated in , as the "six existences or elements," or the six worlds (sad-dhatu)." In , this sad-maha-bhutani, that is, earth, water, fire, wind, space, and or mind, are deemed the symbols () of Dharma-kaya; therefore, they are simply called the Great Six (Roku-dai). The process from the six elements (roku-dai) in early Buddhism to the great six symbols (Roku-dai) of Dharma-kaya in Shingon Buddhism has a complicated and long history. The complications are due to roku-dai (the six fundamental exis tences) having been treated as problems of ontology, cos- mology and epistomology in addition to the religious problem. To describe in detail its historical formation from roku-dai to Roku-dai is truly a difficult task and one which is not our present intention; however, we cannot adequately approach our subject without making some comment on it. Therefore, we shall outline it to a necessary extent in the following. In early Buddhism roku-dai (the six elements) were treated in two ways.

-92- On the one hand, they were conceived as the fundamental and constituent elements of all existences: All corporeal existences, including the human body,

THE SYMB consist of the five elements (i.e., earth, water, fire, wind, and space), and the spiritual function is produced by the element of consciousness or mind. This was the general idea of roku-dai from which the ideas of the six sense-organs,

OL-SYSTEM the OF six objects of senses, the six inherent qualities (guna) produced by the objects and organs of senses, etc., were evolved. On the other hand, they were treated as the objects of . In Buddhist scriptures such as the Visuddhi-magga and the -kola (Chinese. Chu-she lun) the meditational practice called dasa- SHIIMCON kasina (Sanskrt. data-krtsna) literally meaning "ten universals" are explained.

ON BUDDTakakusu states this dasa-kasina in this manner: ... This is a meditative unification, of diverse phenomena into one of the

O ten universals, that is, blue, yellow, red, white, earth, water, fire, air, OHI H space, consciousness. In this you must meditate on the universe until it O becomes to your eyes one wash of a color or one aspect of an element. If (4) you meditate on water, the world around you will become only running water. 251 Concretely speaking, in pathavi-kasina (skt. prthivr-kritsna) (the medita- tion of the earth element), for instance, a circle (kasina-) a few inches in diameter moulded of earth or clay is placed upon a low frame. Seated at a short distance the meditator must fix his eyes upon the circle, and concentrate upon the idea of the element of earth, inwardly repeating the various qualitative names of earth, and dwelling on the thought that the particles of his own body are composed of the earth element. He must continue this exercise until, he receives a "sign or indication (nimitta)" that illumination is produced. Then he attains the sight of the circle (mandala) of earth equally well with the eyes open and shut.252 In short, this is the application of the idea of roku-dai to meditational practice, and has a deep relationship with the formation of Roku-dai and Mandala in Shingon Buddhism.

-91- The rise of Madhyamika and Yogacara, or Snyavada and Vijnanavada brought a great change onto the idea of roku-dai. In the Madhyamika school, based upon the concept of sunyata, roku-dai were treated as the of 密 the phenomenal world, and considered non-substantial, that is, sunyata. 教 In the Yogacara school, the six elements (roku-dai) were divided into matter and mind. The five elements (earth, water, fire, wind, and space) were 文

classified with the dharma of matter (rupa) and considered as a temporary 化 existence. The element of mind or consciousness was further divided into sdsrava-vijnana,or the consciousness which has illusion, and andsrava-vijnana,or the consciousness without illusion (klesa), i.e., pure and undefiled conscious- ness. The former can be a constituent element of the spiritual function but the latter can not. Vijnana-vada (the doctrine of vijnana) developed further its theories of vijnana-mdtra and tri---matra and became the core of the Yogacara school. The Yogacara school, on the one hand, asserted, the phenomenal world which is composed of the five elements (go-dai) is not a real existence but a temporary existence produced as a result of a temporary combination of various causes; truly real existence is consciousness alone (vijnana-matra); and the realization of tri-bhava-citta-matra, i.e., that all phenomenal existences in the three worlds are produced by citta (mind) alone, is the final goal of enlightenment. On the other hand, the Yogacara school, as a means () to attain this highest state, adopted the meditational practice of roku-dai which is similar to the data-kasina of Hinayana Buddhism. In contrast to Sunyavada and concurrent with Vijnanavada, Tathata-vada arose. This is the doctrine (vada) of tatha-ta literally meaning "the state (-td) of being so' f tatha)." Zimmer says, ... Tatha means "yes, so it is, so -be it, amen." It is the everyday, whole-hearted affirmative. Hence the term tatha-ta, "such-ness," re- presents' the utterly positive aspect of -enlightenment,... 253

-90- Tathata-vada was the doctrine based on the affirmative and positive interpretation of Nirvana. For instance, the four virtues, i.e., permanence,

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMjoyousness, OF SHIIMCONON great BUDDOOHIHOO self, and purity, in the Mahaydna-nirvana- can be regarded as Tathata-vada. Influenced by Tathata-vada, in Vol. 567 of the Mahaprajna- paramita- sutra translated by Hsuan-chuang (600-664) in 659 A.D., the profound prajna-paramita is explained figuratively with earth, water, fire, wind, and space. This idea was carried over in the Mahavairocana-sutra, in which sarvajnana (perfect wisdom), the replacement of prajna paramita, is expressed in five similitudes of earth, water, fire, wind, and space, in this manner: As the earth supports all sentient beings, so sarva- is the fundamental ground for devas, men, and asuras. As water is pure and cool, and by eliminating the burning of anxiety, gives pleasure to every existence, so sarvajnana bestows joyous benefit upon all devas and all men. As fire can burn

(4) all firewoods so sarvajnana bums out all delusions (avidya). Just as wind blows away all dust, sarvajnana removes all illusions (klesa). And as space, which is beyond comprehension, has neither discrimination nor identification, sarva- jnana similarly is beyond all knowledge. 254 Sarvajnana expressed in the five similitudes of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, Space, is 'explained further with five significations (artha) in the following verse: "I, [Mahavairocana] , am enlightened that Sarva jnana is by its very non-origination (an-utpada), It surpasses the sphere of words (vaktva), It is released from all errors and dusts (rajas), It is far removed from all causations (hetva), and It is identical with space (kha)." 255 These five significations are represented through five gates of letters. "A" is the initial letter of an-utpada meaning "non-origination"; "va" of vaktva the state of being spoken; "ra" of rajas all errors and dusts; "ha" of hetva the state of being a hetu, i.e., causation; "kha" is as such kha meaning space. Since the letter "va," "ra," and "ha" contain the sound "a" which connotes

-89- a-svabhava (nothing own nature) and an-utpada (non-origination), these letters can be interpreted thus:"Va" represents the state"surpassed" vaktva;"ra" the

state"released" from rajas;"ha" the state"removed" hetva. 密 These Great Five (Go-dai), five similitudes, five significations, and five 教 letters correlate respectively in this manner: The reason that sarvajnana supports all existences as the earth does is 文 that the state of sarvajnana -is primarily the ultimate state of non-origination 化 ("A"=an-utpada) which transcends all contradictions and at the same time involves all existences. Sarvajnana is pure and cool and it gives all pleasures in the same manner that water does; therefore, the ultimate pleasure of sarvajnana is that which surpasses the sphere of words ("Va"==vaktva). As fire burns up all firewood so the state of sarvajnana is that which burns up all firewood of delusion (avidya) and it is the state in which one is released from all errors and dusts ("Ra"= rajas). and so forth. In -, these Great Five (Go-dai) are also called mandala (rin in Japanese). The term mandala here symbolizes the"object," the"world" and the"sphere" of sarvajnana and has a deep relationship with kasina-mandala in Hinayana Buddhism. Five shapes (i.e., square, circle, triangle, half-circle, and"drop-shape (s)") and five colors (yellow, white, red, black, and blue) are assigned to five . The squareshape of the prthivr (earth)-mandala is thought to represent the shape of the foundation of Mt. Sumeru, the circle-shape of the ap (water)-mandala the round-shape of the lotus flower emerging through the water, the triangle-shape of the tejas (fire)-mandala the shape of burning fire, the half-circle shape of the vayu (wind)-mandala the curved-line of a banner being blown by the wind, and the"drop-shape" of the dkasa (space)-mandala the shape of the dot called"space" which is marded over the m or h in Sanskrt. The five colors, i.e., yellow, white, red, black, and blue, represent respectively Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, and Space. Taken altogether, the Great Five (Go-dai), five similitudes, five

-88- significations, five gates of letters, five mandalas of the different shapes, and five colors, express sarvajnana. In other words, all of them symbolize the state

THEHE SYMBOL-SYSTEMof sarva OFjnana, SHIIMCONON namelyBUDDOOHIHOO the state of enlightenment. And this sarvajnana or enlightenment itself is called the Great Consciousness (Shiki-dai) or the Great Mind (Shin-dai) by kukai. As we have seen before, the verse expressing the five significations of sarvajnana in the Mahavairocana-sutra begins with the phrase "I am enlightened that..." This "I am enlightened" and the letter "hum'" which is the bija-mantra of bodhi-citta (the enlightened mind), and of in the Vajrasekhara-sutra are assigned to the Great Consciousness by Kukai. According to Kukai, "Consciousness (vijnana)," "Wisdom (bodhi)," "Enlightenment (buddha)," and "Mind (citta)" are one and the same. Kukai explains it in his Significance of Becoming Buddha in This Very Body (soku-shinjyobutsu gi) in this manner: 256 "I am enlightened" means the Great Consciousness. Should it be seen

(4) from the aspect of cause, regarding the state of apprehending, it may be called "Consciousness," whereas when seen from the aspect of effect, regarding the state of being apprehended, it may as well be called "Wisdom." "Wisdom" is also identical with "Enlightenment." The Sanskrt terms buddha and bodhi are both derived from budh. The buddha is the name given to "Enlightenment," while the bodhi is for "Wisdom" attained. So the term samyak-sam-bodhi has been rendered in the old versions as "universal wisdom (hen-chi)," but in the new versions it is rendered as "perfect universal enlightenment (to-kaku)." This is by reason of the fact that the significations of "Enlightenment" and "Wisdom" are fundamentally correlated to each other. And the reason that in the Mahavairocana-sutra "Consciousness" has been called "Enlightenment" is for an emphasis on the superior result of enlightenment. Whether we express it by the term "Consciousness" or "Enlightenment," depends on our approach, viewing it either as the cause for the attainment of enlightenment or as the result attained thereby.

-87- Kukai, further explains the identity between "Consciousness" and "Mind" as follows: 密 In the -sekhara-sutra, it has also been said: "All dharmas, are by their very nature non-origination. Their own very nature (svabhava) transcends 教 words by far. They are pure and never contaminated by anything. They 文 operate as the cause of all and are equal to space."2 5 7 What has been said herein is the same as that which was stated in the. Mahavairocana-sutra. "All 化 dharmas"here refers to the Dharma of Mind. The Mind and its various qualities or attributes are countless or innumerable; therefore, they are called "all." Here we call it "Mind," but it is identical to what we have called "Consciousness," although both, so far as their names are concerned, appear to be quite different. Thus did establish his doctrine on vijndna-mdtra or "Consciousness alone" by the theory of tri-bhava-citta-matra or "Mind alone exists in the three states in the three worlds ()." Again in the Mahavairocana-sutra it has been said: 258 "I, Mahavairocana, am identical with the state of Mind. I, being free from delusion in every place, pervade all sentient and. non-sentient beings..." This "Mind" here is vijnana/nana (ConsciousnessWisdom), namely "Great Consciousness (Shikidai)." In the "revealed" Buddhism, the five great existences (go-dai) are usually considered to be the corporeal substantialities and non-sentient beings; and the element of consciousness (shiki-dai) is the spiritual function and sentient beings; and the great six elements (roku-dai) deemed the generating, namely the active subject, and all existences produced by roku-dai the generated, namely the passive object. Contrariwise,*Shingon Buddhism asserts that the Great Five (Go-dai) are the samaya (symbol) of tathagata. In the truth of tathata (such-ness) there is no differentiation between "mind and matter," between "subject and object," and between "the active and the passive", and the Great Six (Roku-dai) symbolize the "essence of Dharma-dhatu (hokkai-taisho)." KUkai explains this in this manner: 2 5 9

-86- In the "revealed" Buddhism, earth, water, fire, wind, etc., are considered non-sentient beings; whereas with the "secret" doctrine, these are indeed THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMdeemed theOF SHIIMCONON symbol BUDDOOHIHOO (samaya) of tathagata. These Great Five (Go-dai) exist without being separated from the Great Mind (Shin-dai). Though there are differences recognisable between mind and matter, yet their essential nature is that they are one and the same. The matter is but mind, and the mind is indeed the matter: Between the two there is no hindrance nor any barrier to separate one from the other. Wisdom which is subjective is the sphere for that which is objective, therefore the sphere is indeed wisdom. Likewise wisdom which is cognitive is indeed the essential principle for that which is cognizable, and the essential principle is indeed wisdom; both. interacting with each other unrestrictedly and unimpededly. Although from an ordinary standpoint one can discriminate between the two as though one were the generating and the other the generated, yet in they are of but one generation, the former only being viewed through aspect of activity while the latter of passivity. How (4) can there be any such thing as the generating or the generated with each other confronting the other in the truth of tathata? Both terms, i.e., the active, namely the generating, and the passive, namely the generated, are the "secret" terms of tathagata; therefore, man should not, by clinging to the ordinary way of thinking, debate about these "secret" terms with trifling and fruitless arguments. Entire truths as the generating and the generated are nothing but the Great Six (Roku-dai). Therefore, the Buddha has expounded on Roku-dai as the "Essence of Dharma-dhdtu (hokkai-tai-sho)." In short, "Roku-dai is the symbol of tathagata" and "Roku-dai is the symbol of the Essence of Dharma-dhatu." These two conclusive religious statements by Kukai are consistent.with each other. The first Roku-dai indicates each single symbol of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, Space, and Consciousness or Mind; and the second Roku-dai the symbol of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, Space, and Consciousness or Mind, as a whole: In other words, the second Roku-dai is what we call "a compound symbol."

-85-- Kukai's -interpretation of Roku-dai has to some extent quite a philosophical tinge. Even the term hokkai-tai-sho meaning literally the "substantial nature of the Dharrna-world" conveys ontological and cosmo- 密 logical meanings. However, here Roku-dai should not be apprehended in those 教 meanings. In Shingon Buddhism, the Wisdom of Mahavairocana Buddha, i.e., Dharma-kaya (the personified Dharma), is termed the "Wisdom of hokkai- 文 tai-sho"; therefore, hokkai-tai-sho is identical with Mahavairocana Buddha or 化 Dharma-kaya. Accordingly Roku-dai is the symbol of Mahavairocana Buddha or Dharma-Kaya. Mahavairocana Buddha is the adi-Buddha, that is, a primary buddha. All tathagatas are generated from and reverted to Mahavairocana. Mahaairocana transcends all tathagatas and involves them as well. Therefore, the religious signification of the two statements of Roku-dai is that each single roku-dai is the symbol of tathagata and what is*symbolized by Roku-dai as a whole is that which transcends and involves all tathagatas and all oppositions such as "mind and matter," "subject and object," and "the active and the passive": -- namely Mahavairocana Buddha or Dharma-kaya. To elucidate the signification of Roku-dai as a compound religious symbol, Kukai versifies and expounds as follows: 260 The Great Six (Roku-dai) are all pervasive (rouge) And perpetually (jya) correspond together (yuga). Those which are symbolized by each Roku-dai are all pervasive, each permeating one another, and are all constant and unchanging, each existing ever the same and in unlimited vastness. "All pervasive(muge. skt. apratihata)" here means that they (those which are symbolized by each Roku-dai) are all in their essential nature ever permeating one another with nothing to impede them and are ever free. And the word "perpetually (jyo)" means that they are all ever immovable and undestructible. Yuga, in Sanskrt, is rendered "mutual correspondence." Yuga here signifies "soku (just as it is)" in the phrase "soku-shin-jyobutsu," or the "realization of in the body of man just as it is."

- 84- Roku-dai is neither elements nor existences; therefore, this verse does not mean that the six elements or existences (roku-dai) correspond mutually

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMwithout resistance.OF SHIIMCONON BUDDOOHIHOOIn Shingon Buddhism, each single Roku-dai is the symbol of tathagata, and Roku-dai as a whole is the symbol of entire tathagatas, i.e., Mahavairocana Buddha. Therefore, this. verse would be interpreted like this: The dynamic omnipresence of all tathagatas symbolized by each of the Roku-dai enters everywhere without hindrance; and all tathagatas correspond

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-83- perpetually with one another. This is the "substantial nSture of Dharma-world (hokkai-tai-sho)," namely Mahavairocana or Dharma-kaya symbolized by Roku-dai as a whole; and to experience or realize this state just as it is (soku) in 密 one's body is called "Becoming Buddha in This Very Body." 教 The symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism does not exist without concreteness. To approach enlightenment without a concrets, perceptible 文 symbol is not easy for ordinary man. This is the reason why Buddhism in the 化 course of its evolution has adopted various concrete and perceptible tantric symbols in his own system. As we have seen already, in the Mahavairocana-sutra, sarvajnana (perfect wisdom) is represented in five mandalas with five different shapes, i.e., square, circle, triangle, half circle, and drop-shape. Shingon Buddhism, adopting this concrets symbol-expression, represents the symbol of Roku-dai with the five-storied . In , we can see the following frames in any grave-yard, temple-yard or cemetery, especially iri that of Mt. Koya. These frames are usually made of stone or wood, and have various shapes and sizes. The frames made of stone are usually called go-rin-to (the five-storied stupa). They are grave-stones set up to the memory of the departed, and usually one's ashes or remains are placed in it. The frames made of wood are usually simply called toba (stupa), which are usually erected on the memorial day of the departed. The gorin-to or toba consists of five-storied shapes, from the bottom to top, square, circle, triangle, half-circle, and drop-shape, and on the front of which, five Siddham letters, (-"A", (4) "Va", (q) "Ra", (A) "Ha", and (A) "Kha" are engraved or written. These five-storied shapes and letters represent respectively the symbols of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, and Space, and the whole gorin-to or toba symbolizes the Great Consciousness (Shiki-dai). On the back side of the grave-stone or wooden monument, the letter (4) "Van" is engraved or written. The letter "Vain" is the bija-mantra of Dharma-dhatu. Therefore, the whole of the frame represents the Great Six (Roku-dai) and at the same time symbolizes the Dharma-dhatu.

-82- Soon after the death of Kukai, Roku-dai as a compound symbol of Dharma-kaya was reinterpreted as the substantial elements. Roku-dai Engi THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM(sad-maha-bhutani OF SHIIMCONON pratitya-samutpada),BUDDOOHIHOO that is, that all existences arise from causation based on the Great Six (Roku-dai), was interpreted and accepted by the people as "all spiritual and corporeal existences are generated from and resolved into six great elements (roku-dai). " Consequently, from the Kamakura-Period (1192-1333) onwards, to make oblations in order to promote the happiness of the of the dead or to help the dead attain deliverance from the miseries of , many five-storied were erected as grave-stones or as grave-posts.

CHAPTER VII, MANDARA, THE UNIFYING SYMBOL FOR THE MANIFESTATION OF (4) DHARMA-KAYA

The most important and essential symbol in Shingon Buddhism is Mandala (Japanese, Mandara). According to KUkai, better known as Kobo Daishi, Shingon-mikkyo (Shingon, the "secret" doctrine) is Himitsu-mandara- kyo (the "secret" Mandala doctrine); hence, Mandala is a synonym for Shingon. And "the Shingon mandala is a picture, a layout, or a map depicting the secret doctrine, which is that of Dharrnakaya Mahavairocana. 1261 In other words, mandala is the synthetic symbol of all other symbols in Shingon Buddhism. Shingon Buddhism has two major Mandalas called Mahd-karund- garbhodbhava-mandala literally meaning the "mandala generated (udbhava) from the womb (garbha) of great compassion (maha-karund)" and Vajra-dhatu-maha-mandala literally meaning the "great mandala (maha- mandala) of the adamanine world (vajra-dhatu)" The former is based on the

-81- Mahavairocana-sutra which belongs to the group of Carya-, and commonly called Garbha-mandala (Japanese, Taizo-mandaaa). The latter is based on the so-called Vajra-sekhara-sutra (the exact title: Sarva-tattagata- 密 -sarhgrahamnama -sutra which belongs to the group of 教 Yoga-tantra, and is called Vajra-dhdtu-mandala(Japanese, Kongo-kai mandara). 文 Both mandalas are "the schematic drawings" of the entire system of

Mantra-ydna based on Carya and Yoga- and of Shingon Buddhism based 化 on Mantra-yana as well2 62

The use of mandala is not peculiar to, Mantra-yana and Shingon

Buddhism. Use of mandala is made in and in the Japanese Buddhist sects other than the Shingon sect and even in Shintoic .

Giuseppe Tucci, in his book The Theory and Practice of the Mandala, says; ... Still, although the examples on which we have mainly relied... are all inspired by Buddhism, that does not mean the other religious schools of do not know mandalas. Indeed, much use of them is made in Hinduism, for instance in the Saiva School of Kashir...

In Hinduism, however, yantras, purely linear designs expressing the same principles, are usually substituted for mandalas.... It is clear... that

a yantra represents, in its essential plan, the linear paradigm of a

mandala. 2 6.3

Religions in Japan have various "Japanized" mandalas. The mandalas which are called judo-hen (literally, transformation to ) are all Nipponic modifications of mandala influenced by the Pure Land belief, among which the mandalas of Chiko, Taima, and Seikai are most famous. The Sect has a mandala called Jikkai (literally, the mandala of the ten worlds) and even the Nichiren Sho-Shu () has a mandala which is commonly called Ita (board)-mandala. The mandalas of Kasuga (Kasuga Shrine), Hie-sanno (Hie Shrine), Ikoma (Ikoma Shrine), Kakinomoto-miya (Kakinomoto Shrine), Mii (Mii Temple),

-80- Kasagi (Kasagi Temple), and Iwashimizu-or Otokoyama-hachiman (the Hachiman, a deification of the Emperor Ojin, of Otokoyama),

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMetc.,264 OF SHIIMCONONare all BUDDOOHIHOO syncretistic mandalas of Shintoism and Buddhism. This syncretism is based on the theory of honji-suijaku, i.e., that the kami are manifestations or incarnations (suijaku) of Buddhas and , and on the Japanese manner of the acceptance of mandala. On the system of "Mandala," Dr. Suzuki says, ... look ... at their elaborate systems of "Mandala," by means of which they try to explain the universe. No Chinese or Japanese mind would have conceived such an intricate net-work of philosophy without being influenced.by Indian thought.2 6 s What Dr. Suzuki says is quite right, but the common people of Japan were unconcerned with its "elaborate system" and its "intricate net-work of philosophy." They received "Mandala" with a tender senteiment and believed that it was the gathering of centered about a main or primary

(4) religious object and the happiest harmony to be achieved in the coming or in this present world. Therefore, from the onwards, numerous mandalas have been produced by Shinto, Jodo, Jodo-shin, , Nichiren, and even by Sokagakkai in the twentieth century. The symbolic pattern of the mandala is not limited to the mandala proper of oriental religions, but "the mandala is both an imago mundi and a symbolic pantheon"; 266 hence, we can see similar patterns in historical religions. "Mandala" is not only an object of Religionswissenshaft, but a central

concern of depth psychology. The whole system of Jungian psychology consists of the deep interpretation of mandala-symbols. Jacobi, the most experienced author among Jung's Zurich circle, asserts, .. Today... they [the mandala-symbols] belong to a most important domain of psychological experience which he [Jung] discloses to those who entrust themselves to his guidance. 2 6 7

-79- Truly, the study of "Mandala" is a vast field in itself. In the case of our mandala proper, that is, the garbha-and vajra-dhatu-mandalas, if we tried to explain them fully, we would need over one hundred pages. Therefore, we 密 must confine ourselves to the symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala" in 教 Shingon Buddhism, and shall survey briefly the historical formation of the symbol mandala, then discuss, as a finishing touch of Part II, the relationship 文 betweenMandala and other essential symbols in Shingon Buddhism. 化 1. Historical Formation of the Symbol Mandala

Similar to the case of the symbol Samaya, the historical formation of the symbol Mandala can be seen in the transformation of the meaning of the term mandala. "Term" is defined as "a word or a group of words serving as the specific name of something, especially in a special field"; therefore, if this "something" and/or "field" were qualitatively transformed, the meaning of the term is, as a matter of course, altered. When various "held-objects" of deities became cihan- (sign-symbol) and were called samaya, the term samaya which has, "ideally,at least, one and only meaning" becomes the term which has "a wide variety of meanings." In other words, the term samaya of the sign situation in which the definitional meaning proponderates became the term samaya of the symbol situation in which the contextual meaning proponde- rates.268 In the case of the term Mandala we can see clearly the alteration of the meaning between the terms used in Pre-Mantrayana and in Mantrayan. The alteration from the sign-term mandala to the symb olterm mandala indicates as such the historical process of the formation of the symbol Mandala. And, as we have seen already, when a concrete sign-symbol (cihna-mudra) had been called samaya, the sign-term samaya was etymological- ly reinterpreted and, having a wide variety of meanings, became a symbol-term samaya, and the symbol-system of "Samaya and samaya" was for-mulated. In the case of the symbol-system of "Mandala and Mandalas," we can see the same pattern.

-78- a) The term mandala used in Pre-Mantrayana Several usages of the term mandala existed in Pre- Mantrayana. In the THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMIg-veda, OF SHIIMCONONthe term BUDDOOHIHOO is used to indicate a "division" or "section" of the writings. Thus some of the hymns are divided into ten parts, according to its authorship, and each part is called a "mandala." In the great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, which in its present form was probably knit together by several writers between the fourth century B.C. and the fourth century A.D.,2 69 it designates a "surrounding district" or "neighboring state, the "circle of a king's near and distant neighbors with whom he must maintain political and diplomatic relations." Also in Kautilya's Arthasastra, it, being called the raja (king)- mandala, 2 7 ° indicates the "circle of states," or "political circle of neighbors." Heinrich Zimmer treats mandala in his book Philosophies of India as "Political Geometry" in this manner: Britain's balance of power policy will serve to introduce another of

(4) the basic principles of the Indian Arthasastra, that of the mandala, or political circle of neighbors.... This remarkable game of weights and counterweights is one that was taken very seriously by the ancient kings and princes of India.... The principal Hindu formula for the arrangement of foreign alliances and coalitions ' is based on a pattern of concentric rings of natural enemies and allies. Each king is to regard his own realm as located at the center of a kind of target, surrounded by "rings" (mandalas) which represent, alternately, his natural enemies and his natural allies. The second ring then is that of his natural friends,... Then beyond is a ring of remoter danger, interesting primarily as supplying reinforcement to the enemies directly at hand. Furthermore, within each ring are subdivisions signigying mutual natural animosities; for- since each kingdom has its own mandala, an exceedingly complicated set of stresses and cross-stressesmust be understood to exist.271

-77- It can be hypothetically assumed that the idea of "mandala" in Mantra-yana has had a close relationship with the science of policy of ancient India 2 72 as explained in Kantilya's Arthasastra and the Mahabharata, because 密

both writings were to be regarded with high reverence by the Hindu as great 教 authorities on religious, moral and social matters. 273 This relationship is also 文 illustrated in the mandala because "the figures of the Buddha shown on a mandala often wear mantles and royal tiaras," and the "paradises of the 化 different Buddhas are known as Buddhaksetra, that is 'kingdoms of Buddha'."2 74 In the early Buddhist scriptures, the term mandala is used in the sense of a "circle," for instance, in Visuddhi Magga written by Upadesa, ten sorts of kasina-mandala are explained. Kasina, the meditation of "universals" is the name for one of the meditational practices used in Hinayana Buddhism, and it is called kammatthana (skt. -sthana), the "basis of action." It is a process by which meditation may be induced. We have already discussed the kasina-mandala (circle of "universals"), in the previous chapter. In Anathapindana- sreshthi-duhitri-paritranaprapta-nidana-sutra (sutra spoken by Buddha on the Primary Cause in the conversion of the daughter of the distinguished Anatha-pindana) translated by Sh'hu in the later Sun Dynasty, who arrived in in 980 A.D., there is a sentence like this: "That good and harmless daughter makes a mandala (mandalam karoti) with the beautiful flowers." In this case the term mandala also means a "circle," in particular, a garland. In the Mahavyutpatti: (Tib. Bye-brag-tu rtogs-byed-chenpo), Sanskrt- Tibetan Buddhist Dictionary, the following seven usages of the term mandala in the "revealed" Buddhism are stated: 1) prithu-caru-mandala gatra (literally, large beloved mandala-body), that is, one of thirty two noble signs of Buddha. Here, the term mandala indicates "well-rounded" or "bland." Its Tibetan translation is bzan-ba which means "beautiful.' 275

-76- 2) tri-mandala-parisuddha (literally, three mandala perfect-pure-ness) meaning the perfect pure-ness of the three: giving, a giver, and a receiver. Here, THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMthe term OF SHIIMCONON mandala BUDDOOHIHOO indicates "that which surrounds" the three. Its Tibetan translation is hkor. 276 3) mukha-mandala i.e., "face" or "face-orb." Here, the tern mandala indicates "orb" or "round circle," because the face is round. Its Tibetan translation is hkhor-lo meaning a "wheel.' 277 4) janu-mandala, i.e., "knee" or "knee-pan." Here, the term mandala is round one, i.e., pan. Its Tibetan translation is lha-n*a, knee-pan.278 5) sarva--mandala-vidhvamsana-jnana-mudra (literally, all-enemy- mandala-destroy-wisdom-sign) meaning the "name of the hand or the sign which destroys the siege of all enemy." In this case the term mandala indicates a "circle" of the enemy. Its Tibetan translation is dkyil-hkhor. 279 6) sarva-vantam-parsan-mandala (literally, all-grouppersons-mandala) meaning "all groups of assembly." In this case the term mandala denotes

(4) "group" or "assembly," that is, "circles" of persons. Its Tibetan translation is dkyil-hkhor. 280 7) samddhi-mandala (literally, concentration-mandala) meaning a place for meditation. In this case the term mandala is a "platform" or "terrace" or "altar." Its Tibetan translation is dkyil-hkhor. 281 From the above, we recognize that the term mandala indicates (1) "circle," "that which surrounds"; (2) "round circle," "circular objects"; (3) "group of people"; and (4) "place, especially sacred place or spot." 2 82 And at

the same time we note that the term mandala is almost always translated into Tibetan as dkhil-hkhor, or hkhor. The Tibetan term dkyil-hkhor is used with the following meanings: 1) circle, circumference, 2) figure, 3) a circle of objects, 4) the area of a circle; disk; globe, 5) region, sphere; surroundings; suburb, and 6) it is especially used as the equivalent of the Sanskrt term mandala, the sacred objects for worship and for practice in .283

-75- The Tibetan term dkyil means "the middle," its equivalentsin Tibetan terms are dbus or mthil, which means 1) bottom, 2) inner or lower part of a thing, 3) the background, and 4) the center, the principal or chief part. Its 密 Sanskrtequivalent is madhya which means"the middle." 教 The term hkhor generallyhas the followingmeanings: 1) a wheel, 2) circle, 3) circumference, 4) the persons or objects encircling, and 5) that which文

surrounds(a certain point or place). 化 In short, the term mandala itself means a "circle," and in Pre- Mantrayana, the term according to its contextual usage, indicates the condition,quality, or quantity of that what is "circular."

b) The term mandalain Mantrayana From the time of the completion of the , such as the Suvarnaprabhasatranslated by Dharmaksena(Chin. T'an-wu-ch'an)(d. 433 A.D.) and the Kuan-fo san-mei hai-chingtranslated by Buddhabhadrain the early fifth century, onwards, synthesization of symbols took place concur- rently with the appearanceof the symbols,such asmudra and samaya.We can see the prototype of the fivedhyani (meditation) Buddhas, i.e., Sakyamuni Buddha (center), Aksobhya (east), Ratnaketu (south), Amitayus (west) and Dundubhisvara(north), in these two sutras.284 Then, in the Mahavairocana-sutra, Mahavairocana Buddha is regardeda as primordialsymbol which synthesizedall symbols,and, centering upon Him, centrifugal symbols (Skt. pravrtti i.e., descen ding upaya), and centripetal symbols (Skt. Nivrtti i,e., descendingupaya) are systematized and actually figured. To this figuration the term mandala is assigned. The term, then, starts to have new significations. Just as we have seen in the interpretaion of the term samaya, the term mandalaalso is interpretedin the basis of its originaletymology. The Sanskrt term mandala is composedof the two parts, "manda" and "la." "Manda" means "the scum of boiled rice" or "the thick part of milk,

-74- cream," or "the spirituous part of wine," or "foam on froth," and also it means "essence" or "the head." The suffix -la in Sanskrt like the suffix -mat, THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMor -vat denotes OF SHIIMCONON "possession" BUDDOOHIHOO or "accomplishment." 285 Therefore, in Mantra-yana, the interpretations of the term mandala have been given as follows: The Tibetan version of the Mahavairoeana-sutra states that manila denotes 'essence,' and la is 'achievement.' Achievement of this essence is Mandala.286 Then, Buddha-guhya (the eighth century A.D.) comments on the above sentence in this manner: This 'essence' is bodhi, enlightenment, and achieving bodhi is mandala. 2 s 7 -mitra, who made a commentary on Tattva-sarhgraha (the Vajra-sekhara-sutra), in the seventh century A.D. says: "Manda" means "essence" and it is like the essence of strong spirituous liquor. Here, ultimate

enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sath-bodhi) is the essence and to attain (-la) it (4) is mandala. Therefore, mandala means attaining ultimate enlightenment 288 This interpretation of the term mandala continued on to Tantric Buddhism based on the group of Uttara-yoga-tantra. In the -tantra, which was compiled in its form by the end of the eighth century A.D., Mandala is explained in this manner: ... Then Vajragarbha, begging all the to have patience, addressed the Lord: May the mandala be called a stronghold, which is the essence of all buddhas? Tell me Lord, just how things are, for doubt assails me. The Lord replied: 'The mandala is the very essence, we say; it is and the great bliss itself.... 289 (1016-1100 A.D.) also says, Manda means essence and la to accept it. "290 When the term mandala, being separated into manda (Tib. spin-po, i.e., "essence")and la (possession or accomplishment), was interpreted as the "possession or accomplishment of bodhi (i.e., enlightenment)," the term

-73- mandala was no more the sign-term having, "ideally at least, one and only meaning," that is, a "circle," but it is the symbol-term having "a wide variety of meanings." That which is indicated by the term mandala is Mandala which is 密 approached through and symbolized by mandala. 教 Also the historical formation of the symbol Mandala (Manda-la) can be reinterpreted by focusing on "Manda (Bodhi)-la (possession)" like this: 2 91 文

Sakyamuni Buddha attained enlightenment under the so-called Bodhi- 化. tree at Buddhagaya in Magadha. Therefore this special spot at which the Buddha got enlightenment (bodhi) was called Bodhi-manda or Bodhi-mandala. Later on, not only this special spot, but all sacred places and the places of practice at which enlightenment can be attained or approached came to be called Mandala. Saying that the sacred place, altar, or the place of practice is itself Mandala is not sufficient. In this place Buddhas. and Bodhisattvas should be assembled. Therefore, since the time of the -li-man-tu-to-chou-thing translated in the Lian Dynasty (502-557), the images of Buddha and Bodhisattva have been placed at these sacred places. Consequently the term mandala came to signify the "assembly" of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Subhakara-simha (Chin. Shan-wu-wei) who arrived in China in 716 A.D., therefore, says in the Commentary of Mahavairocana-sutra Vol. 4, "Mandala is named 'assembly,' because all tathagatas are gathered together with true merits at the sacred spot." 2 92 Now, the four meanings of the term mandala have been brought forward, i.e., (1) attainment of bodhi, (2) sacred place or altar, (3) place of practice, and (4) assembly. And the last three meanings have been unified into the first meaning of the "attainment of enlightenment." In other words, as the religious symbol, the term mandala symbolizes the state and place of enlightenment in which millions of virtues assemble. Concurrently with the formation of the symbol Mandala, the figuration or objectification of Mandala took place, and that which is objectified as a

-72- meditational tool, or that which is constructed or painted on the ground or on a cloth has been called mandala. Here, "Mandala and mandala" are formulated. THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM Buddhaguhya OF SHIIMCONON BUDDOOHIHOO (the eight century A.D.) classifies "Mandala and mandala" into three types: 293

(1) Self-nature (svabhjva)Manda1a (2) Meditative Mandala (3) Concrete and material mandala "Svabhava means literally the "own-nature," "self-substance," or "unchanging character of anything"; therefore, Svabhava:Mandala is Bodhi itself. In other words, it is tathata. The Tibetan Great , , sings thus:294 ... For the Mandala of the Thatness, Appearances external and the mind are one; Shatter then your theory of duality. Svabhava-mandala cannot be objectified, because it is beyond the subject- (4) object dichotomy. It isMandala itself, i.e., Bodhi itself. In the case of the Meditational Mandala, all phenomenal existences are meditated as Mandala. In other words, all symbols represented by the three-secrets of Dharma-kaya, that is, (kaya guhya), (vac- guhya), and (mannsguhya), are considered the Meditational Mandala. The concrete and material mandala is mandala proper, that is, the constructed or pictured mandala as a synthesis or a unification of all symbols. These three classification of "Mandala and mandala" show the historical process from Mandala to mandala. In summary, the historical formation of "Mandala and mandala" is based on two processes, that is, one is the process from the sign-term mandala to the symbol-term mandala, and the other the process from Mandala to mandala.

2. Mandala, the Unifying Symbol for the Manifestation of Dha rma-kaya

-71- a) The four kinds of "Mandala and mandala" The Sam-mitsu (Skt. tri guhya, i.e., three secrets) of Mahavairocana Buddha (or Dharma-kaya) is delineated by the phrase "sam-mujin sogon," 密 literally "three limitless or in-exhaustible glories (alamkara)." Because the 教 activities of the Sam-rnitsu are limitless or endless, the manifestations of it are immeasurable- or inexhaustible, and these activities or manifestations of the 文

Sam-mitsu are apprehended as glories or adornments (alamkara). 化 This "sam-mujin sogon" is denoted by the term mandala and symbolized by the four kinds of "Mandala and mandala": The kaya guhya (secret of body) of Dharma-kaya, being expressed by the maha-mandala, is actually delineated with maha-mudras (bodily postures) of tathagatas on paper or on cloth. The kayaguhya of Dharma-kaya is Maha Mandala, and its actual figuration, that is, the mandala on which the figures of various tathagatas are pictured is called maha-mandala. The vacguhya (secret of speech) of Dharma-kaya is Dharma Mandala, whose actual figuration with dharma-mudras is dharma-mandala, on which shingons, especially bija-mantras are%written. The manasguhya (secret of mind) of Dharma-kaya is Samaya Mandala, whose actual figuration with samayas or cihna-mudras (sign-symbols) is samaya-mandala, on which held-objects, such as lotus flowers, vajra, sword, wheel, etc., are pictured. The activities or manifestations (Karma) through the three secrets (tri guhya) of Dharma-kaya is KarmaMandala', whose cubic delineation with karma-mudras (the symbol of action) is called karma-mandala, which is a constructed mandala with various images or held-objects, either casted or moulded, of tathagatas. KarmaMandala is the symbol of the activities or manifestations of Dharma-kaya as such, namely the symbol of tathata (such-ness) of Sam-mitsu. According to Kukai, any and every dharma (sarva-dharma), whether mundane or supra-mundane, is DharmaMandala; any and every sentient being

-70- is Maha Mandala; any and every thing contained in the Vessel (i.e., the Universe) is SamayaMandala; and sarva-karma (entire actions) are Karma-

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMMandala.2 OF 9 SHIIMCONON 5 BUDDOOHIHOO Therefore, these four kinds of Mandala symbolize each Sam-mitsu and Sam-mitsu as a whole. The four kinds of Mandala, that is, Maha-, Samaya-, Dharma-, and Karma Mandala, are called respectively MahaJnanaMudra, Samaya-Jnana- Mudra, Dharma-Jnana Mudra, and Karma-Jnana-Mudra. These four Mudras (Symbols) are connected to the four kinds of mudra classified in the Vajrasekhara-sutra, which we have explored in"Mudra and mudra" therefore, here, the symbol-systems"Maha Jnana Mudra maha Jnana-mudra," and so forth, are formulated. The four kinds of mandala, that is, the objectified, tangible, or actually figured mandalas are, as a matter of.course, connected to the four Mandalas and formulate the symbol-systems"Maha Mandala maha-mandala," "Samaya Mandala I Samaya (4) -mandala," and so forth. Amogavajra (705-774), the sixth master in the of the"secret" Buddhism, says,"all mandalas. of yoga are included in the four kinds of mandala."2 9 6 The mandala of yoga denotes the mandala which is objectified or actually figured for the purpose of the practice of yoga, and the mandala by which yogi or yogin may be united (yoga) with Mandala. b) Mandala, the unifying symbol for the manifestation of Dharma- kaya. The four kinds of Mandala are nothing but the Mandalas which symbolize the adamantine (vajra) play (vikridita) of Dharma-kaya from its four aspects, i.e., karma guhya, vacguhya, manasguhya, and tri guhya as a whole. Therefore, the four kinds of Mandala are primarily inseparable. In otherwords, in the truth of tathata, the four kinds of Mandala are embodied by one and only one Mandala, that is, the unifying symbol for each and all Sam-mitsu of

-69- Dharma-kaya. To elucidate the signification of Mandala as the unifying symbol, Kukai versifies,"The four kinds of Mandala are inseparable one from the other."29 7 密 Then he expounds in this manner: 298 教 The four kinds of Mandala, or the four kinds of Jnana Mudra (Wisdom-Symbol), are innumerable. Each of them, all permeating one another 文 throughout the whole universe, fusing together and intermingling with one 化 another, is in itself of vast expanse. Each one is never apart from the other so much as the spacious sky sets no barrier for the light to shine forth therethrough."Inseparability" here indicates"soku (just as it is)" in the phrase "soku-shinjyobutsu," or the"realization of Buddhahood in the body of man just as it is." As in the case of Roku-dai, to experience or realize this state just as it is (soku) in one's body is called"Becoming Buddha in This Very Body." The Significance of Becoming Buddha in This Very Body written by KUkai consists of three main themes: Roku-dai, four kinds of Mandala, and Sam-mitsu. It is explained that the pervasiveness (muge) of Roku-dai is the Essence of Dharma-kaya, the inseparability (furi) of the four kinds of Mandala the manifestation of Dharma-kaya, and the communion (kaji) of Sam-mitsu the function of Dharma-kaya; and, to realize this Essence, Manifestation, and function of Dharma-kaya just as they are is"Becoming Buddha in This Very Body." To sum up, Mandala is the unifying symbol for the manifestation of Dharma-kaya, and consequently mandala is the unifying symbol of all concrete or perceptible symbols. It may safely be said that the symbol-system of"Mandala and mandala" is the organization and systematization of all other symbol-systems. Centering on Mahavairocana Buddha, all symbols, being arranged centrifugally and centripetally, show the two-fold upaya, that is, the descending and ascending approach. Mandala, that is, the attainment (-la) of enlightenment (manda) is delineated just as it is by mandala.

-68- This systematically organized symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala" does -not appear in the group of Kriya-tantra,but it is first elucidatedin the THE SYMBOL-SYSTEMMahavairocana-sutra OF SHIIMCONON BUDDOOHIHOO(Carya-tantra group) and in the Vajrasekhara-sutra (Yoga-tantragroup). Therefore, in Japan, the "secret" Buddhismbased on these two scriptures, being called the "pure secret" doctrine(Jum-mitsu), is differentiated from the "miscellaneous"doctrine (Z-mitsu) which has no symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala."

SUMMARY

In the first part of this paper, the historical formation of the particular symbolShingon was examinedin two fields:that is, in India, and in East Asia. The main theme of the first Chapterwas the processof the symbolicformation of mantra to Mantra in India. In the second Chapter two main themeswere pursued, one was the transformational process from mantra to shingon in East (4) Asia, and the other the formation of the symbol-system"Shingon and shingon"based on its transformation. Mantras (holy formulas or magic spells),which had been widely used among the people from the time of Rg-veda,were adopted into the system of early Buddhismunder the names of (protection) and vidyd (know- ledge). In Mahayana Buddhism, the term (entire support), which connotes power, was applied to some spells, and a great number of dharani were produced by the time of .In the period of the Yogacaraschool (ca. 4th century A.D.), some mantras, being endowed with the function of dhdranfs, were called mantra-dharani, and soon the actuall differentiation betweenmantra and dharani disappeared. Due to the rise; of Tantrism,mantras emergedas an important factor in Buddhism. Then, in the Mahavairocana-sutra,mantra, being thought of as Mantrata, was identified with Dharmatd, and became the particular symbol

-67- Mantra. One who approaches Mantra through the gate of mantra was called a "Bodhisattva who practises the discipline of the Bodhisattva through the gate of mantra." The symbol-system"Mantra and mantra" was formulated. Both 密

adhisthana and upaya were basic and constituent elements of this symbol- 教 system. Here, Mantra-yana came into being as a . Mantras and which have their cradle, growth or development on 文

Hindu soil were after all a foreign or a strange product to the East Asian 化 people. The exotic nature of mantra and dharani greatly attracted people; and the incomprehensibility of them had a magico-soteriological function for the people. In the course of time, mantras and dharanis have undergone the process of Sino-Japanization; they have gone through the process of selection; the sound-theory of mantra, which had occupied a most important domain in -India, was undervalued, and the meaning of mantra was emphasized instead. Mantra-yana was introduced into China by Subhakara-simha (637-735), and Vajra-bodhi (671-741). Owing to support by the court and to the religious activities of I-hsing (687-727) and (705-774), this imported Mantra-yana flourished in China as Chen-yen or Mi-tsung in the eighth and early ninth century, This Chen-yen or Mi-tsung was, so to speak, a. religious school ranked with T'ien-t'ai or Hua-yen. In Chen-yen or Mi-tsung,, the particular symbol-system"Chen yen and chen yen" was not formulated. The symbol-system of"Mantra and mantra" was transmitted through Hui-kou (747-805) to Kukai (774-835). And by KUkai the symbol-system "Shingon and shingon" was formulated; and a religion called Shingon was founded in Japan. According to Kukai, shingon is vacguhya (the secret of speech), one of the three secrets of Dharma-kaya; and Shingon the three secrets as a whole. In other words, Shingon is the whole of the activities or manifestations of Sam-mitsu of Dharma-kaya, namely Mandala; and shingon is a part of Sam-mitsu. This symbol-system was, as a matter of course, not identical with

-66- that of"Mantra and mantra." It was a distinctive symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism. THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM Shingon OF SHIIMCONON BuddhismBUDDOOHIHOO has several particular symbols or symbol-systems beside"Shingon and shingon." To elucidate some of these"several" to a necessary extent was the purpose of PART II. In PART I, the search had focused upon the historical process of the formation of the symbol-systems, however, in PART II the discussion accentuated the structure of the symbol-systems. Firstly, the fact that religious experience necessarily demands and receives symbolic expressions by itself was stated. (Chapter III); and secondly, the truth and function of religious symbols were discussed in connection with kaji (adhisthdna), adhimukti and sraddha, and upaya. (Chapter IV). Thirdly, the symbol-systems of"Mudra and mudra,""Samaya and samaya," and Sam-mitsu were discussed respectively as kaya guhya of Sam-mitsu, manasguhya of Sam-mitsu, and as the compound symbol of the

(4) faculties of Dharma-kaya; and Goshin-bb was described as a concrete example of the symbol of Sam-mitsu. (Chapter V). Fourthly, the historical formation of the symbol Rokudai was surveyed; and Roku-dai was discussed as a compound symbol of the essence of Dharma-dhatu. (Chapter VI). Lastly, the historical formation of the symbol Mandala was pursued from the two processes, i.e., the process from the sign-term mandala to the symbol-term mandala and the process from Mandala to mandala; then, the four kinds of"Mandala and mandala" and Mandala were discussed respectively as the symbol of each of the Sam-mitsu and Sam-mitsu as a whole and as theunifying symbol for the manifestation of Dharma-kaya. What we have examined in PART II is the symbol-systems of Sam' mitsu, Roku-dai, and Mandala. These three particular symbols or symbol-systems in Shingon Buddhism constitute the path to be walked toward the final goal of "Becoming Buddha in This Very Body (soku-shin jyobutsu)." This is Shingon Buddhism.

-65- As the following illustration will show, each symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism is composed of double symbols, i.e., one is. the primary symbol, and the other the secondary, practical symbol. Shingon, Mu.dra, Samaya, 密 Sam-mitsu, Roku-dai, and Mandala are the primary symbols. They are what we 教 have called abstract, essential, or verbal symbols. Contrariwise, shingon, mudra, samaya, sam-mitsu, roku-dai, and mandala are the secondary, practical 文 symbols, which are what we have called concrete, perceptible, or tangible 化 symbols. These double symbols correlate with each other, and are inseparable one from the other. For instance, Samaya and samaya correlate with each other as Samaya samaya, and there is no symbol Samaya separate from the symbol samaya This structure of double symbols, i.e., Shingon -1 shingon, Mudra mudra, Samaya samaya, Sam-mitsu sam-mitsu, Roku-dai - roku-dai and Mandala mandala is a distinctive feature of the symbol system of Shingon

Buddhism. And the harmony or unification of the double symbols, e.g. Shingon=shingon, Mudra=mudra, Samaya=samaya, is the realization of Buddhahood, or the attainment of enlightenment, because each symbol of

Shingon, Mudra, Samaya, Sam-mitsu, Roku-dai, Mandala is an aspect of the symbol Dharma-kaya, Mahavairocana.

After examining the symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism, we have come to the conclusion that the particularity of the symbol-system of any specific faith is an excellent way of to the particularity of the faith, and that the study of particular symbols or symbol-systems of a religion is a matter of vital importance to the student of religion.

-64- Mahavairocana

or

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF SHIIMCONON BUDDOOHIHOODharma-kaya

(a) SamayaMai)dala (4) (b) DharmaMandala (c) Maha Mandala (d) Karma Mandala

(i) Samaya-jnana-mudra (ii) Dharmajnana-mudra (iii) Maha-jnana-mudra (iv) Karma-j5ana-mudra

(A) -quhya (B) vac-quhya (C) kaya-quhya

-63- (251) Takakusu, op. cit., p. 158. (252) Cf. Childer, -English Dictionary, pp. 191, 285 and Sakaki, Mahc7vyutpatti, nos. 1528 1540.. 密 (253) Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, p.145. (254) Taisho., vol. 18, p. lb. 教 (255) Taish o., vol. 18, p. 9b. (256) Daishi., vol. 1., pp. 508-509. 文 (257) Cf. Taisho.,.vol. 18, p. 331a. (258) Cf. Taisho., vol. 18, p. 38b. 化 (259) Daishi., vol. 1, pp. 511-512. (260) Daishi., vol. 1, pp. 507-512. (261) Kiyota, op, cit., p. 37. (262) Reishauer says that mandala is "the schematic drawing of Shingon philo- sophical ideas." Cf. Edwin O. Reishauer and John K. Fairbank, East Asia the Great Tradition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 171. (263) Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala: With special reference to the modern psychology of the subconsicious, tr. Alan Honghton Brodrick (London: Rider & Co., 1961), pp. 45-46. (264) Cf. Sawa, op. cit., pp. 168-173. (265) D. Suzuki, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, Arrow book, p. 36. (266) Mircea Eliade, Patterns in , Meridian Books, 1963, p. 373. (267) Jolande Jacobi, The Psychology of C. G. Jung, tr. K. W. Bash (New Haven: Yale University Press, Second Printing 1954), p. 181. (268) See, Hutchison, Language and Faith, pp. 42-43. (269) Pandharinath H. Prabhu, Hindu Social Organization (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 4th ed., 1963), pp. 10-11. (270) On the theory of rajamandala, see, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions (London: Asia Publishing House, 1963), pp. 474 - 477. (271) Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India, pp. 113, 115. (272) A. L. Basham explains the "circle" as a political Symbol in the same manner. See, Basham, op. cit., p. 127 ff. The science of the Mandala (the circle of state) is discussed in Kautilya's Arthasastra (6.2; 7.1). See, Wm. Theodore de Bary (ed.) Sources of Indian Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), pp. 251 -- 254. (273) Murray B. Em eneu asserts, "Mahabh ara to at least, is an amalgam of several different genres of oral poetry. One is truly heroic in Bowra's sense. Another is the theological or moralistic oral genre, for which there is much evidence outside the epic - in the latest Vedic texts, in the early law books, in the early texts of Buddhism, and in many works of later date which draw much from the oral traditions of Hinduism." See, Milton Singer (ed.), Traditional India: Structure and Change(Philadelphia: The

-62- America Folklore Society, 1959), p. 108. (274) Giuseppe Tucci, op. cit., p. 44.

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM (275) RyozaburoOF SHIIMCONON BUDDOOHIHOOSakaki (ed.), (4) Mahavyu tpatti ( University Press, 1915), No. 293. (276) Ibid., No. 2537. (277) Ibid., No. 3940.. (278) Ibid., No. 4013 (279) Ibid., No. 4312. (280) Ibid., No. 6328. (281) Ibid., No. 6877. (282) According to Edgerton's Buddhist Hybrid Dictionary, the term mandala means a) spot of ground marked out and ceremonially prepared, b) a "circle," piece of ground specially prepared in honor of a Buddha or saint, and c) one of the parts of the body which touch the ground in a reverential . Cf. Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Grammer and Dictionary. Volume II: Dictionary (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1953), pp. 415, 416. (283) Cf. Jasche, Dictionary, p. 11 & Das, Dictionary, p. 56. (284) Yukei Matsunaga, "Ryobu-mandara no Keifu," or On the Formation of the Garbhodhave-mandala and the Vajradhatu-mandala." The Mikkyo Bunka (Vol. 87, May 1969) (Koyasan: Koyasan University), p. 28. (285) Cf. Monier-William, Sanskrit-English Dicitionary, p. 775, and Edgerton, Dictionary, p. 415. (286) Hakuju Ui, M. Suzuki, Y. Kannakura, T. Tada (ed.) A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons (Sendai: Tohoku University Press, 1934), No. 494. (287) Ibid., No. 2662. (288) Ibid., No. 2503. (289) Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra, part 11, p. 97. (290) Herbert V. Guenther, The Life and Teaching of Naropa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. 139. (291) See Toganoo, Mandala no Kenkyu, pp. 3-5. (292) Taisho., vol. 39, p. 626 a. (293) Tohoku., No. 3705. Cf. Toganno, Mandara no Kenkyu, p. 7. (294) W. Y. Evans-Wentz (ed.), Tibet's Great Yogt"Milarepa (Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 278. (295) Daishi., vol. 2, p. 183. (296) Taisho., vol. 19, p. 609b. (297) Daish i., vol. 1, p. 507. (298) Ibid., p. 513.

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