KAKUBAN’S INCORPORATION OF PURE LAND PRACTICES: THE CATALYST FOR THE RESTORATION OF SHINGON DURING THE LATE HEIAN PERIOD A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIʽI AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN RELIGION (ASIAN) APRIL 2013 By Camille Mori Thesis Committee: Michel Mohr, Chairperson Helen Baroni Arthur Thornhill ii Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 Existing Research on Kakuban ....................................................................................................... 2 Heian Buddhism .............................................................................................................................. 4 The Life of Kakuban ....................................................................................................................... 7 Shingon Visualization Practices ................................................................................................... 10 Outline of the Chapters ................................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 2: The Relationship between the Hijiri and Kakuban ............................ 15 Late Heian Religious Trends ........................................................................................................ 18 Definition and Etymology of the Term Hijiri ............................................................................... 22 Origins of the Hijiri ...................................................................................................................... 25 The Role of the Hijiri in Late Heian Buddhism ........................................................................... 28 The State of Mount Kōya during the Late Heian Period .............................................................. 29 Kakuban’s Interactions with the Hijiri ......................................................................................... 31 Kakuban’s Contemporaries ........................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 3: Kakuban’s Skillful Appropriation of Amida ........................................ 37 The Key to the Tantric Explanation of Amida .............................................................................. 38 The Tantric Invocation of Amida ................................................................................................. 43 The Esoteric Collection for the Essentials of Life’s End .............................................................. 47 The Secret Understanding of Speech through the Five Cakras of Dainichi and the Nine Syllable Mantra of Amida ........................................................................................................................... 49 The Reaction of the Shingon Clergy ............................................................................................. 52 Chapter 4: The Visualization of Dainichi’s Pure Land in One’s Own Body ... 55 Pure Lands in Japanese Buddhism ................................................................................................ 57 Dainichi’s Buddha-land of Impenetrable Adornments ................................................................. 59 Use of Pure Land Terminology ..................................................................................................... 61 iii Eidetic Contemplation of Dainichi’s Pure Land ........................................................................... 65 Kakuban’s View of the Body ........................................................................................................ 68 Possible Correlation between Dainichi’s Pure Land and the Gozō Maṇḍala ............................... 73 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 75 Appendix A: Excerpt from the Denbōin Hongan Kakuban shōnin engi ...................................... 79 Appendix B: List of Kakuban’s Texts in the Taishō Canon ......................................................... 83 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 85 iv List of Figures Figure 1: Amida Maṇḍala ............................................................................................................. 51 Figure 2: Kakuban’s Mausoleum on Mount Negoro .................................................................... 53 Figure 3 Gozō Maṇḍala ................................................................................................................ 70 v vi Acknowledgements This work could not have been produced without the help of several people. I am especially grateful to Professor Mohr, who has provided extensive and thoughtful comments throughout my research. His patience in guiding me through Kanbun texts was invaluable for conducting research with primary texts. I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Baroni, who provided encouragement and helpful feedback on my writing style and technique. Additionally, I am indebted to Professor Motoyama at Taishō University, who helped me get to know Kakuban and his philosophy at the very start of my research. Finally, I would like to thank Faye Higa for helping me keep on track and make sense of the many forms needed to progress with my thesis. vii Chapter 1: Introduction Although the Shingon school comprises several branches and divisions, Western scholarship tends to present it as if it were a homogeneous tradition. While such divisions largely resulted from administrative splits, they also reflect more fundamental philosophical and doctrinal differences. Kakuban’s 覺鑁 (1095–1143) efforts to revitalize Shingon during the late Heian period represent one such example of a doctrinal divergence that led to the creation of a splinter group. The resulting new sect, called Shingi Shingon-shū 新義眞言宗 (New Doctrine Shingon), is recognizable by the importance given to the Buddha Amida and by its incorporation of Pure Land practices. In spite of the dissemination of practices related to the Pure Land among various Buddhist schools during Kakuban’s lifetime, the Pure Land school did not emerge as an independent tradition until the beginning of the Kamakura period (1185–1333).1 One of our tasks will thus consist in scrutinizing how Kakuban’s Pure Land-oriented tradition developed prior to the founding of the Pure Land school. Kakuban did not incorporate Pure Land practices into his teachings until his 1114 move to Mount Kōya. This seems to suggest that Kakuban’s interactions with the Kōya hijiri 高野聖 who resided on the mountain and preached the salvific power of Amida must have triggered a decisive paradigm shift. An additional factor that may have served as an incentive for reforms was the presence on Mount Kōya of Shingon monks who actively worked for a revival of ancient practices. Since Kakuban trained with them, he may have shared their ambitions. Overall, 1 Two notable figures in the formation of the Pure Land school were, Genshin 源信 (942–1017) and Hōnen 法然 (1133–1212). The Ōjōyōshū a treatise about rebirth in the Pure Land is attributed to Genshin. Genshin was a 1 Kakuban’s close association with the hijiri 聖—wandering Pure Land ascetics—was the primary factor that led to his introduction of new contemplation techniques. This thesis focuses on the controversial relationship between Kakuban and the hijiri, and on the consequences of their decisive encounter. Existing Research on Kakuban While English works on Kakuban are limited, there are numerous Japanese sources on his life and practices. Given the narrow timeframe during which research for this thesis was conducted, an exhaustive survey of all Japanese texts on Kakuban was not possible.2 Nevertheless, I have become familiar with the Kōgyō daishi kakuban kenkyū 興教大師覚鑁研究 (Studies on Kakuban), and the Kōgyō daishi zenshū 興教大師全集 (Kakuban’s Complete Works), which provide a basis for understanding Kakuban’s life, writing, and philosophies. Most Japanese works related to Kakuban come from within the tradition and, although they provide valuable insight into his philosophy, they lack a nonsectarian viewpoint that could allow for a broader academic perspective. Western scholarship has just begun to explore and understand Kakuban’s life, work, and contribution to Japanese Buddhism. Hendrick (Henny) van der Veere’s A Study into the Thought of Kōgyō Daishi Kakuban provides the most comprehensive overview of Kakuban’s life and main works. Since Van der Veere’s book, in depth studies and translations of Kakuban’s two most well-known works, the Amida hishaku 阿彌陀祕釋 and the Gorin kuji myō himitsushaku 五輪九字明祕密釋, have emerged in Western scholarship. Although research on Kakuban has 2 Research for this thesis began during my studies at Taishō University in March 2012 and was concluded in April 2013. 2 increased in recent years, his interactions with the hijiri, and how they impacted his later understanding of Shingon eidetic contemplation