Space Almanac

On the following pages appears a vari- Thompson, editor of TRW Space Log; will not always agree because of ety of information and statistical Phillip S. Clark, Molniya Space Consul- different cutoff dates, rounding, or material about space—particularly tancy, Whitton, UK; Joseph J. Burger, different methods of reporting. The military activity in space. This almanac Space Analysis and Research, Inc.; and information is intended to illustrate was compiled by the staff of Air Force Air Force Space Command Public Af- trends in space activity. Magazine, with assistance and informa- fairs Office. tion from Dr. R.W. Sturdevant, Air Force Figures that appear in this section Space Command History Office; Tina Illustration by Leo Cronin

22 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Space Almanac

Compiled by Tamar A. Mehuron, Associate Editor

A Boeing Delta IV Heavy lifts a satellite into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit. The Delta IV Heavy is capable of lifting 33,000 pounds into GTO. Boeing is developing the Delta IV fam- ily of rockets in response to the US Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program.

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 23 The Year in Space

July 1–17, 1997 Shuttle Columbia (STS- tor—on asteroid to collect and sell data, as implementation to spacecraft manufacturer 94), with crew of seven astronauts, com- well as stake commercial mining claim. for geosynchronous satellite. pletes record 33-project science mission— Sept. 11 Global Surveyor arrives at Mars Nov. 14 Representatives from NASA, fire, plant, crystal, and metal studies—cut and swings into initial orbit to map planet’s USAF, and industry break ground for X-33 short in April because of fuel cell problems. atmosphere and surface from physical, RLV launch facility at Edwards AFB, Calif. July 4 Mars Pathfinder lands on surface of chemical, meteorological, and, perhaps, Nov. 19–Dec. 5 Shuttle Columbia (STS- Red Planet and, next day, the lander is of- biological perspectives. 87) tests sodium–sulfur batteries weighing ficially renamed Carl Sagan Memorial Sta- Sept. 25–Oct. 6 Amidst congressional one-third less than current nickel–hydro- tion in honor of renowned astronomer who questions about whether US presence gen cells and promising to reduce launch died in December 1996. should continue aboard accident-prone, costs by as much as $4 million per flight, as July 5 Sojourner rover rolls down station- 11-year-old Russian space station, shuttle well as a free-flying robotic camera intend- ary lander’s ramp onto Martian soil, becom- Atlantis (STS-86) carries astronaut David ed for use during assembly of International ing first mobile, semi­autonomous, robotic A. Wolf to Mir and picks up his colleague C. Space Station. vehicle to traverse another planet’s surface. Michael Foale. December Virginia Commercial Spaceflight July 23 After failed attempt in January Oct. 4 In celebration of 40th anniversary Authority receives license to operate com- 1997, USAF successfully launches first of Sputnik 1 launch, Progress-M 36 cargo mercial spaceport in US at NASA’s Wallops Navstar GPS Block IIR satellite on Delta II freighter carries Sputnik 40/RS-17 from Flight Facility, Va. booster from Cape Canaveral AS, Fla. Baikonur to Mir, where cosmonauts will Dec. 16 Galileo Europa Mission begins Aug. 5 Air Force Research Lab in its hand-deploy the scale-model satellite Nov. with first of eight consecutive flybys of Jupi- Warfighter-1 hyperspectral sensor demon- 3. ter’s moon Europa and captures amazingly stration departs from decades of tradition Oct. 15 USAF Titan IVB Centaur launches detailed images of its surface, which ap- with ded­icated intelligence satellites using plutonium-powered Cassini, with European pears to be relatively young ice as thick as agency-specific hardware and awards first Space Agency (ESA) Huygens probe and 1 kilometer in places. satellite-imaging contract based on com- Italian Space Agency high-gain antenna, Dec. 23 Orbcomm passes major milestone mercial technology to Orbital Sciences. toward rendezvous with Saturn in July in its “Countdown to Global Service” with Aug. 7–19 Shuttle Discovery (STS-85) per- 2004. launch of eight LEO satellites via Pegasus forms environmental study using Cryogenic Oct. 17 Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical XL from Wallops Flight Facility. Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for Laser sends beam 260 miles into space Dec. 24 Colorado-based EarthWatch’s Ear- the Atmosphere–Shuttle Pallet Satellite-2 from White Sands Missile Range, N.M., lyBird 1, first commercial satellite capable to measure trace gases that deplete ozone and hits USAF’s aging Miniature Sensor of intelligence-quality—3-meter resolu- layer. Technology Integration III satellite, marking tion—imaging is successfully launched Aug. 22 Mir crew—two Russians and an first time US has fired a high-powered laser from Svobodny via Russian Start-1 booster, American—repairs damage caused by at an orbiting spacecraft. but ground controllers lose contact with collision of cargo ship with Spektr module Oct. 22 Space Test Experiment Platform spacecraft Dec. 28. June 25 and restores much of station’s (STEP) 4, launched via Pegasus XL boost- Dec. 25 Russia’s Proton booster grounded power-generating capacity. er, fails to deploy successfully, signaling after premature cutoff of fourth-stage en- Aug. 22 First successful launch of two- end—with only one successful mission in gine leaves AsiaSat 3 spacecraft short of stage Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicle, five attempts (STEP 0–STEP 4)—of USAF planned geostationary orbit. The booster subsequently renamed Athena I, places Space Test Program ex­per­i­ments designed will not return to service until April 1998 NASA’s Lewis communications satellite in to evaluate standardized, flexible systems with the launch of seven Iridium satellites. orbit. for future spacecraft using new generation Jan. 6, 1998 First launch from Spaceport Aug. 25 USAF launches NASA Advanced of TRW–built, low-cost, lightweight satel- Florida Authority’s Commercial Launch Composition Explorer to provide real-time lites. Complex 46 at Cape Canaveral AS and data on solar disturbances to National Oct. 30 First successful launch to orbit first operational use of Lockheed Mar­tin’s Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou, French three-stage Athena II sends NASA’s Lunar (NOAA) Space Environment Center in Guiana, carries two instrument platforms Prospector spacecraft toward moon. Boulder, Colo. to measure launcher performance, as well Jan. 15 According to Ballistic Missile Aug. 27 Proton K rocket from Baikonur, as several experiments by young graduate Defense Organization, a small piece of un- Kazakhstan, launches PanAmSat Corp.’s trainees. identified orbital debris destroys expended PAS-5 communications satellite, first com- Nov. 2 Brazil’s first space booster, 15 years third stage of modified Min­­­­ute­man II dur- mercial spacecraft to use xenon ion propul- in development by that nation’s Air Force ing test flight that involves Raytheon-built sion, toward geosynchronous orbit. Space Research Institute, is destroyed 65 warhead tracking sensor—Exoatmospheric Sept. 1 Air Force Reserve Command seconds after liftoff from Alcantara Launch Kill Vehicle sensor—over Kwajalein Atoll in acknowledges increasing importance of Center. the Pacific. military space operations by activating its Nov. 4 NASA’s Solar and Heliospheric Jan. 16 NASA Administrator Daniel S. first space group and a space operations Observatory spacecraft detects first major Goldin announces that Sen. John Glenn squadron—the 310th and 8th, respectively. flare—X flare—of new 11-year solar cycle. (D–Ohio), at age 77, will return to space Sept. 1 Although too late for John Blaha, Nov. 5 First outdoor test of laser-boosted in October 1998 as payload specialist on who missed the 1996 presidential election “lightcraft” at White Sands Missile Range STS-95 to assist with research on the ag- because he was aboard Mir, democracy uses 10-kilowatt pulse-beam laser to boost ing process. enters the Space Age with Texas law per- vehicle to altitude of 50 feet. Jan. 22–31 Shuttle Endeavour (STS-89) mitting registered voters flying in space to Nov. 6 Astronomers using NASA’s Rossi carries Andrew S.W. Thomas to Mir to cast ballots via electronic mail. X-Ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) spacecraft replace Wolf, making Thomas the seventh Sept. 3 Boeing, working under USAF report observing space-time distortion by and last American to inhabit the Russian contract, unveils prototype of reusable a black hole, the first evidence to support space station. space vehicle designed for military recon- prediction made in 1918 using Einstein’s Jan. 29 Senior officials from US, Russia, naissance and quick deployment of small theory of relativity. and 13 other nations sign new agreement satellites. Nov. 12 Launch of Orbital Sciences’ to cooperate in building International Space Sept. 9 James W. Benson announces plan Cakrawarta-1, or Indostar-1, satellite marks Station. for his Colorado-based SpaceDev, Inc., to first time outside vendor—Princeton Satel- Feb. 10 Upgraded Taurus vehicle, making become first private organization to land lite Systems—supplied whole set of at- first use of USAF–designed payload isola- spacecraft—Near Earth Asteroid Prospec- titude control algorithms and their software tor system—a ring of shock absorbers that

24 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 replace bolts traditionally used to fasten Service (GBS)—enters orbit atop Atlas II massive black hole at center of nearby gi- satellite to launch vehicle—launches US launched from Cape Canaveral AS. ant galaxy that is feeding on smaller galaxy. Navy’s GeoSat Follow-On oceanographic April 1 Pegasus XL from Vandenberg AFB, May 19 Due to failure of its attitude control satellite and two Orbcomm telecommunica- Calif., launches NASA’s Transition Region processors, PanAmSat’s Galaxy IV space- tions satellites. and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) spacecraft craft begins tumbling and leaves approxi- Feb. 14 Deployment of Globalstar’s $2.6 to collect data on shape and behavior of mately 90 percent of America’s 35 million billion, 48-satellite constellation for tele- upper solar atmosphere, which affects sat- pager customers without service. communications begins with launch of ellite communications and Earth’s climate. May 20 NASA announces that combina- first four spacecraft on Boeing’s new Delta April 3 Spin-2 satellite, sponsored jointly tion of data gathered from Rossi X-Ray II/7420 booster. by Aerial Images, Inc., of Raleigh, N.C., Timing Explorer and Advanced Satellite Feb. 17 Voyager 1, launched from Kennedy and Sovinformsputnik, a branch of Russian for Cosmology and Astrophysics confirms Space Center, Fla., Sept. 5, 1977, be- Space Agency, lands at Baikonur after 45- existence of “magnetars,” a special class comes most distant human-made object in day mission to obtain 2-meter-resolution of neutron stars with magnetic fields space at 6.5 billion miles from Earth. images of southeastern US. one thousand trillion times stronger than Feb. 24 USAF awards Boeing a four-year April 7 ESA announces that its Infrared Earth’s. contract to design and build experimental Space Observatory (ISO), after orbiting May 28 NASA announces Hubble Space Solar Orbit Transfer Vehicle to demonstrate Earth for over two years, has detected Telescope has provided first image of pos- radically cheaper means of boosting pay- water vapor in the atmosphere of Titan, sible planet orbiting another star. loads into high orbits. Saturn’s largest moon, and elsewhere in May 29 In first ever transfer of an opera- Feb. 25 Pegasus XL launches two small universe. tional military space system to a civilian satellites: Student Nitric Oxide Explorer April 17 Ulysses, joint NASA–ESA solar agency, Air Force hands control of Defense (SNOE), developed by University of Colo- probe launched in 1990, completes first Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) rado at Boulder, to study how nitric oxide orbit of sun having delivered reams of data spacecraft to NOAA per 1994 White House layer at approximately 70 miles altitude about solar wind and sun’s magnetic field. directive to merge US military and civilian causes drag on satellites and the space April 17–May 3 Shuttle Columbia (STS-90) weather satellite programs. shuttle; and Teledesic Corp.’s experimental Neurolab mission, seeking to unlock mys- June 1 Pentagon merges high-level man- T1 satellite—designed, built, and launched teries of brain and nervous system, uses agement of classified and unclassified in less than one year—enters orbit to con- more than 2,000 animals—rodents, fish, satellite systems under newly established duct tests for fielding a $9 billion, 288-satel- snails, and crickets—to perform several Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for lite fleet offering “Internet in the sky” ser- space firsts: direct nerve recordings, joint Command, Control, Communications, Intel- vices as early as 2002. recording of sleep and breathing, embalm- ligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance March 5 NASA announces that a neutron ing of animals, and surgery on animals (C3ISR) and Space Systems. spectrometer aboard its Lunar Prospec- meant to survive. June 2–12 Shuttle Discovery (STS-91), tor, launched Jan. 6, has found “significant April 28 Ariane 4 from Guiana Space Cen- using super-lightweight external tank for quantities of water–ice at both lunar poles.” ter, Kourou, launches first Egyptian satel- first time, completes ninth docking mission March 5 First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton lite, NileSat 101, for Egyptian Radio and with Mir and retrieves astronaut Thomas, announces that USAF Lt. Col. Eileen Col- Television Union. thereby ending 812 days of continuous US lins, already first female shuttle pilot, will April 30 Pentagon awards Boeing a three- presence in space. become first woman to command a US year, $1.6 billion contract to design, de- June 17 Hughes, completing first com- spaceflight—Columbia (STS-93). velop, and test variety of components for mercial mission to the moon, uses dual March 12 NASA’s X-38 lifting body, the National Missile Defense system. lunar flybys to maneuver AsiaSat 3 (now crew-return “lifeboat” for International May 13 NOAA-K meteorological satellite, designated HGS-1), left in unusable, highly Space Station, completes first unpiloted launched via Titan II from Vandenberg AFB, elliptical orbit after Dec. 25, 1997, launch flight test after being released from be- includes first flight of Advanced Microwave anomaly, into usable, geosynchronous neath wing of B-52 approximately 23,000 Sounding Unit to peer through cloud cover orbit. feet over the Mojave Desert in Calif. for better monitoring of hurricanes and June 17 National Reconnaissance Office March 16 Navy’s eighth Ultrahigh fre- other severe storms. lifts veil of secrecy surrounding first US sig- quency Follow-on (UFO) Satellite, first DoD May 14 NASA announces Hubble Space nals intelligence satellite, Galactic Radia- communications spacecraft to carry three Telescope has provided unprecedented tion and Background Experiment (GRAB), distinct payloads in three spectra—includ- multiple views of “galactic cannibalism”— launched June 22, 1960. ing package for new Global Broadcast

Recent Space Issues and Developments

■ Advanced technology launchers heavy launch is scheduled for Fiscal 2003. imagery, this year. EarthWatch will orbit The nation continues its efforts to develop In addition, several US companies, with QuickBird 1, an 82-centimeter system in new, lower cost launch vehicles. The Air some USAF support, are planning reusable 1998. Ikonos 2 and QuickBird 2 will be Force announced in November 1997 that or inexpensive disposable boosters for launched within the next eight months. it would award two development contracts smaller satellites. Some of these private Other companies will follow suit in the next for its Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle boosters are scheduled for launch later this few years. The images will be useful for a (EELV) rather than select a single contrac- year. variety of tactical defense missions and for tor. In September 1998, USAF expects ■ Commercial remote sensing mapping. The companies also expect to to award contracts for development and This year, two commercial companies sell imagery to commercial and civil users initial launch services to both Boeing and operating high-resolution, remote-sensing to help agricultural production, urban plan- Lockheed Martin. Each contractor has been satellite systems are expected to begin ning, transportation planning, and many working the 17-month pre–engineering and selling data to DoD, as well as many other endeavors. manufacturing development phase of the commercial and international custom- ■ Communications program. EELV is aimed at evolving current ers. EarthWatch, Inc., orbited its first The LEO multisatellite communications launcher systems into a common core fam- satellite, capable of providing imagery system presents a need for DoD access. ily of medium- and heavy-lift boosters with with 3-meter resolution, Dec. 24, 1997. One of the methods is to use individual launch costs 25 to 50 percent lower than It failed four days later. Space Imag- access devices. But a more efficient today’s rockets. The first medium launch ing, Inc., their leading competitor, plans method is working through a gateway is scheduled for Fiscal 2002, and the first to launch Ikonos 1, capable of 1-meter facility. The companies, with the support

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 25 of DoD, are looking into a mobile gate- way that can be transported to any crisis area. This has the additional capability US Space Funding for high level security in the communica- (Millions of current dollars) tors using the constellation. In another area, USAF last year awarded a $59.2 FY NASA DoD Other Total million contract to develop and produce 1959 $ 261 $ 490 $ 34 $ 785 an engineering prototype for DoD’s next 1960 462 561 43 1,066 generation satellite communications system. This advanced extremely high 1961 926 814 69 1,809 frequency system will include onboard 1962 1,797 1,298 200 3,295 processing capabilities 10 times that of 1963 3,626 1,550 259 5,435 the current Milstar system. Procurement 1964 5,016 1,599 216 6,831 is expected in 2001, with deployment in 1965 5,138 1,574 244 6,956 2006. ■ Space Based Laser (SBL) 1966 5,065 1,689 217 6,971 With the spread of weapons of mass 1967 4,830 1,664 216 6,710 destruction and missile technology, the US 1968 4,430 1,922 177 6,529 and its allies are increasingly in danger of 1969 3,822 2,013 141 5,976 ballistic missile attack from many countries. 1970 3,547 1,678 115 5,340 The Patriot missile system is of some help in a theater role, as will be USAF’s Air- 1971 3,101 1,512 127 4,740 borne Laser system. To supplement them, 1972 3,071 1,407 97 4,575 the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, 1973 3,093 1,623 109 4,825 USAF, TRW, and Boeing are working on 1974 2,759 1,766 116 4,641 the SBL Readiness Demonstrator program. 1975 2,915 1,892 106 4,913 The SBL could add a third tier to theater 1976 4,074 2,443 143 6,660 defense, and it would be available to defend a theater commander in minutes, 1977 3,440 2,412 131 5,983 rather than the days or weeks required by 1978 3,623 2,738 157 6,518 conventional missile defense batteries. Us- 1979 4,030 3,036 177 7,243 ing the Alpha Laser, the plan is to intercept 1980 4,680 3,848 233 8,761 the boosters when they clear the Earth’s 1981 4,992 4,828 233 10,053 atmosphere, as the laser cannot penetrate to the ground. 1982 5,528 6,679 311 12,518 ■ Space Debris 1983 6,328 9,019 325 15,672 The number of objects cataloged by US 1984 6,858 10,195 392 17,445 Space Command in the last two years 1985 6,925 12,768 580 20,273 was in excess of 1,500. The potential for 1986 7,165 14,126 473 21,764 major explosions of payloads or rocket bodies, like the explosion of the Pegasus 1987 9,809 16,287 462 26,558 fourth stage launched in May 1994 that 1988 8,322 17,679 737 26,738 resulted in over 680 new pieces in space, is 1989 10,097 17,906 560 28,563 increasing with all the new payloads being 1990 11,460 15,616 512 27,588 launched. Sometimes there are as many as 1991 13,046 14,181 697 27,924 12 payloads per launch. Because of this, 1992 13,199 15,023 28,991 NASA and DoD have established an Orbital 769 Debris Working Group. The first meeting 1993 13,064 14,106 698 27,868 was held in January 1998. Co-chairmen 1994 13,022 13,166 601 26,789 of the working group are Col. James Bre- 1995 12,543 10,644 629 23,816 chwald of Air Force Space Command and 1996 12,569 11,514 750 24,833 Nicholas Johnson of NASA. The focus will 1997 12,457 11,727 727 24,911 be on collection and interpretation of orbital debris space surveillance data to better Total 241,090 254,993 12,783 508,866 define the current near-Earth environment. They also discussed plans and techniques Figures are expressed in current dollars and are rounded. NASA totals represent space activities only. “Other” category for evaluating the threat of the 1998 Leonid includes the Departments of Energy, Commerce, Agriculture, Interior, and Transportation; the National Science Founda- Meteor Stream/Storm. tion; the Environmental Protection Agency; and other agencies. (Note: NSF recalculated its space expeditures since ■ Unified Command Plan (UCP) for US 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.) Fiscal 1997 figures are preliminary. Space Command The UCP, which was signed into law in January 1998, states that unless otherwise directed by the Secretary of Defense, USCINCSPACE will serve as develop space campaign planning as Engagement, Full Force Integration, and the single point of contact for military part of the joint planning process for Global Partnerships. US Space Com- space operational matters, to include the National Military Strategy. It will mand’s end-to-end planning system uses communications. USCINCSPACE also be the focal point for countering Joint Vision 2010, the National Security must coordinate with other appropriate the proliferation of weapons of mass Space Master Plan, and the US Space CINCs when undertaking any military destruction in space. Command Vision as overarching guid- activities with other nations or unilat- ■ Vision for 2020 ance. Annually the command assesses erally in the area of responsibility of The two principal themes of the US Space current and future space requirements, another CINC. USSPACECOM will Command Vision are dominating the capabilities, and shortfalls in its support also work with other US government, space medium and integrating space- of warfighters. With its vision, USSPACE- commercial, and international agencies power throughout military operations. COM expects to extend the time horizons on military space operations issues, as To transform the vision into capabilities, from the Future Years Defense Plan to well as provide space expertise to other the command has adopted four opera- 2020. CINCs to plan, implement, and assess tional concepts: Control of Space, Global security assistance. The command will

26 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 AD

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 27 Proposals and Prospects

Launcher Concepts very cost-effective. It is estimated that From their home port of Long Beach, Calif., as few as 10 people will be needed for a the first launch of the Galaxy XI satellite launch. Intrepid I will probably be capable is scheduled for October 1998. Launching ■ Astroliner of launching 1,000 pounds to LEO polar on the equator at 154° west longitude near The Astroliner from Kelly Space & Technol- orbit. Intrepid II will probably be capable Christmas Island, the Zenit launcher can ogy is a manned Single-Stage-To-Orbit of lofting 5,000 pounds to a similar orbit. place an 11,000-pound payload into GTO. (SSTO) vehicle that will deliver satellites Current plans call for operations beginning Sea Launch has 17 additional launches into LEO. It will be towed by a 747 aircraft 1999–2000. purchased. to 20,000 feet and released. (The tow- ■ K-1 ■ VentureStar ing concept was tested successfully six Kistler Aerospace’s K-1 two-stage RLV is If Lockheed Martin’s X-33 (see below) tech- times between Dec. 20, 1997, and Feb. scheduled for its first launch in late 1998. nology proves to be promising, a full-scale 6, 1998, using a QF-106 and C-141.) Because the US government has not ap- RLV will be built. Technology development The Astroliner’s internal motors will then proved launch from Nevada, where Kistler will continue through 1999 when, if the be fired. When in space, the cargo doors is working to establish a test facility, the concept seems viable, vehicle development will be opened and the satellite and its first launch will be out of Woomera, Aus- will take place. The planned VentureStar booster will be released. The Astroliner tralia. Kistler plans to build five launchers will be capable of lifting 24,250 pounds will coast up to about 95 nautical miles using Russian NK-33 and NK-43 rocket to the International Space Station. The before it starts its reentry and comes in for motors. Each will be used 100 times, as cost per pound to orbit is expected to be a a normal airplane-like landing. It can be both stages will be returned to Earth using small fraction of the current costs of more launched from any airfield of 10,000 feet in parachutes and air bags. Launching due than $10,000 per pound. The first flight is length. From Kennedy Space Center, Fla., east from the Nevada site, the K-1 can planned for the beginning of 2004. it can place an 8,800-pound package into place 3,400 pounds into a 650-mile orbit. A ■ X-33 a 28.5°, 100–nautical mile orbit. Suborbital nine-day turnaround is planned. The Lockheed Martin X-33 is a 53 percent– test flights are planned for mid-2001, with ■ MLV-D, MLV-A, HLV-L, and HLV-G scale working model of the VentureStar orbital flights later that year or early 2002. The Lockheed Martin concept for the RLV. The X-33 will take off vertically from The number to be built will depend on the EELV calls for a family of four vehicles Edwards AFB, Calif., and land horizontally need for launch services. featuring a number of common elements. on 15 planned missions. The short mis- ■ Atlas III Those elements include the company’s sions (14 minutes) will climb to 31 miles The Atlas IIIA and IIIB are the new names 12.5-diameter, structurally stable Com- and land at Michael Army Air Field, Utah. for Lockheed Martin’s Atlas IIAR and mon Core Booster, a common propulsion The long missions (24 minutes) will climb IIARC. The Atlas III reduces the number of system featuring the RD-180 engine, and to 47 miles and land at Malmstrom AFB, engines and staging events and requires standard commercial payload adapt- Mont. Flights are scheduled to begin mid- 15,000 fewer parts. Using the Centaur ers and avionics. The four vehicles are 1999. If the X-33 technology works, it will upper stage, the Atlas IIIA can lift 8,940 the MLV-D (8,575 pounds to LEO; 4,060 be transferred to the VentureStar vehicle pounds to GTO. The first flight is expected pounds to GTO), MLV-A (16,100 pounds that is planned to go into space. in December 1998. The Atlas IIIB will use a to LEO; 8,500 pounds to GTO), HLV-L ■ X-34 stretched dual-engine Centaur upper stage (41,000 pounds to LEO), and HLV-G The X-34 is Orbital Sciences’ RLV technol- and be capable of lifting 9,920 pounds to (13,500 pounds to GEO). ogy demonstrator built under contract to GTO. ■ Roton NASA. The X-34 will be carried to altitude ■ BA-1 Rotary Rocket Co.’s Roton is an inexpen- by an L-1011. When released it will reach Beal Aerospace Technologies announced sive, piloted, fully reusable SSTO space speeds of Mach 8 and an altitude of 41 June 16 that it would move directly to vehicle. It is unique in that it is designed nautical miles. It will then return to its development of its commercially financed to return to Earth with a fully loaded cargo launch base. The technology learned will BA-2 Ariane 5–class ELV, bypassing the bay. Although initially intended for the LEO be used in the VentureStar program or to smaller BA-1 it had intended to build telecommunications markets, the piloted build a usable follow-on. A 24-hour turn- first. The BA-1 was projected to lift about return capability will appeal to the space around on a surge basis is planned. 5,800 pounds to GTO, while the BA-2 will manufacturing industry. Rotary Rocket says transport payloads weighing more than it can deliver 7,000 pounds to a 200-mile 11,000 pounds to GTO. The Texas corpora- circular orbit from their Mojave, Calif., Satellite Concepts tion plans to launch the three-stage BA-2 launch site. The first flight tests are planned from the UK dependency of Anguilla in the for the spring–summer of 1999 and will be Leeward Islands. The actual launch site will suborbital. The first flights to orbit will be ■ Combined weather satellites be on Sombrero island (18.5° north), on in late 1999 or early 2000 and probably Civil and military weather LEO polar satel- which Beal has a 98-year lease. The first carry either developmental or micrograv- lites are being merged into a single system. launches are planned for late 1999. ity payloads that will be brought back to The number of satellites will be reduced ■ Delta IV Mojave after a one or two orbit flight. Three from four to three, with savings now esti- The Boeing EELV program is a multiyear to five Rotons are to be built initially and mated at $560 million through 1999. DoD US Air Force effort to reduce launch costs production is expected to continue as the and NOAA are coordinating the purchase by up to 50 percent. The three variants that market builds. Each Roton is designed to of the remaining satellites. NOAA, DoD, will be available in the next century are make at least 100 flights. A one- to two-day and NASA are maintaining a tri-agency the Small (4,800 pounds to GTO), Medium turnaround is expected. office for the National Polar-Orbiting Op- (10,000 pounds to GTO), and the Heavy ■ Sea Launch erational Environmental Satellite System, (33,000 pounds to GTO). Sea Launch Co. is a partnership among which took responsibility for DMSP in May. ■ Intrepid I and II Boeing, Kvaerner Maritime a.s. of Norway, Operational control at the primary site in Universal Space Lines plans to build RSC Energia of Moscow, and KB Yuzh- Suitland, Md., began May 29, 1998, with two Intrepid ELVs that will be launched noye/PO Yuzhmash in Ukraine. The as- the backup site at Schriever AFB, Colo. The from Kodiak Island in the Gulf of Alaska. sembly and command ship and the launch first NPOESS satellite is now scheduled for The simplicity of the design makes them platform have both passed their sea trials. launch in 2007.

28 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 ■ Milstar II capability in all four infrared mission areas from the large Titan IV to Atlas-class The last four Milstar satellites will have a (first launch in 2001). The SBIRS low launchers in the next decade. The NRO higher data-rate capability added to re- constellation of 20 or more LEO satellites study, completed in 1997, provided intel- spond to a shift in emphasis since the end further enhances the SBIRS high and pro- ligence leaders and the Secretary of De- of the Cold War from mostly strategic users vides the unique capability to track ballistic fense with options on how to proceed with to a more tactical use. The medium-data- missiles after booster burnout, significantly NRO’s adoption of small satellites. rate payload takes advantage of current enhancing our nation’s ability to target The Air Force Research Lab’s Space technology and includes two Nulling Spot enemy warheads in midflight for intercept Vehicles Directorate at Kirtland AFB, N.M., Beam Antennas that give the satellite an and destruction. The SBIRS low component is a leader in the development of advanced antijam capability. The launch dates for the is currently in program definition and risk technology for small satellites. It is involved satellites are January and December 1999, reduction phase, with two contractor teams in the Space Test Experiment Platform November 2000, and October 2001. scheduled to launch demonstration satel- series of satellites, having successfully ■ Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) lites in 1999. An SBIRS low EMD milestone launched the STEP/Technology for Autono- Advanced infrared sensing satellites to decision is planned in Fiscal 2000 with mous Operational Survivability satellite, replace the Defense Satellite Program sat- first operational satellite launch projected which has passed its fourth anniversary. ellites and perform the four space surveil- for Fiscal 2004. SBIRS low was formerly Additionally, the directorate is developing lance missions of missile warning, theater known as the Space and Missile Tracking the Clementine 2 microsatellite’s mother and National Missile Defense, battlespace System and, prior to that, as Brilliant Eyes. ship, which will be launched later this year. characterization, and technical intelligence. ■ Small satellites There is also a new, inexpensive series of The SBIRS architecture will deploy a com- The National Reconnaissance Office spacecraft known as MightySat, the first bination of GEO, highly elliptical orbit, and decided in 1996 to move to a smaller class of which is to be launched in September LEO satellite constellations to detect and of satellites than the very large spacecraft 1998. The Kirtland operation also has track advanced missile threats that will not that had supported its intelligence-gather- a program called the Integrated Space be detected by currently fielded DSP sur- ing mission in the past, after pressure from Technology Demonstration, which supports veillance satellites. SBIRS high constella- Congress and an independent advisory the integration and demonstration of tech- tion will include four GEO satellites and two panel. Details of the new satellites and nologies critical to the warfighter. It is also sensor payloads hosted on highly elliptical design changes to current satellites to involved in NASA’s Lewis (failed) and Clark orbit satellites. The SBIRS high component, downsize them remain classified, but one (canceled) and New Millennium small- now in the Engineering and Manufacturing indication of a drop in satellite size was satellite projects. Development phase, provides a near-term a decision to switch some NRO payloads

Major Military Space Commands

Personnel Budget, FY 1999 Activities

Unified Command US Space Command 851 $18.0 million Responsible for placing DoD satellites into orbit and operating them; Peterson AFB, Colo. supports unified commands with space-based communications, weather, intelligence information, navigation, and ballistic missile at- tack warning; enforces space superiority through protection, preven- tion, negation, and surveillance; ensures freedom of access to and operations in space and denies same to adversaries; applies force from or through space; plans for and executes strategic ballistic missile defense operations; supports NORAD by providing missile warning and space surveillance information; advocates the space and missile warning requirements of the other unified commands.

Service Command Operates military space systems, ground-based missile-warning Air Force Space Command 37,797 $1.7 billion radars and sensors, missile-warning satellites, national launch cen- Peterson AFB, Colo. ters, and ranges; tracks space debris; operates and maintains the USAF ICBM force (a component of US Strategic Command). Budget includes funding for 11,326 contractor personnel and operations and maintenance for seven bases and 50 worldwide sites.

Operates assigned space systems for surveillance and warning; provides spacecraft telemetry and on-orbit engineering; develops Naval Space Command 521 $79.7 million space plans, programs, concepts, and doctrine; advocates naval Dahlgren, Va. warfighting requirements in the joint arena. Budget includes funding for nearly 100 contractor personnel and operations and mainte- nance of headquarters, component commands, and field sites.

Manages joint tactical use of DSCS through the 1st Satellite Control Battalion; operates the Army Space Support Teams and Army Space Support Cell; operates the Joint Tactical Ground Stations; Army Space Command 625 $51 million operates the Army National Missile Defense Element; manages the Colorado Springs, Colo. Army Astronaut Program.

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 29 Major Military Satellite Systems

Global Positioning System (GPS) ers of ships, aircraft, and missiles during nuclear forces, and National Command Constellation of 24 satellites used by mili- a war, the system’s design and application Authorities. The last two FLTSATCOM tary and civilians to determine a precise have been altered in the aftermath of the satellites (Flights 7 and 8) carry extremely location anywhere on Earth. A small Cold War. Milstar currently serves tactical high frequency (EHF) payloads. In opera- receiver takes signals from four GPS forces as well as strategic, and the last four tion since 1978 in geo­stationary orbit, with satellites and calculates a position. The Milstars (Milstar IIs) will include medium- a minimum of four satellites needed for satellites transmit a highly precise signal data-rate payloads able to transmit larger worldwide coverage. to authorized users, permitting accurate volumes of data up to 1.45 mbps. The four navigation to within 16 meters. DoD has are scheduled for launch between January UHF Follow-On (UFO) Satellites deployed more than 110,000 GPS receiv- 1999 and October 2001. All satellites have New generation of satellites providing UHF ers to US government and allied users, low-data-rate payloads providing communi- communications to replace FLTSATCOM with terminals becoming much more cations at five bps to 2.4 kbps. The system satellites. UFO satellites have 39 chan- widely available since the 1991 Persian can handle a data stream equal to 50,000 nels—compared to the FLTSATCOM’s 23 Gulf War. Civilians use a commercial ver- fax pages an hour and 1,000 simultaneous —are bigger, and have higher power. Com- sion of the terminals, with a degraded users. The satellites are designed to be patible with the same terminals used by signal with an accuracy to 100 meters. jam-proof and use sophisticated techniques the earlier systems. UFO-4 was first in the Receivers are priced as low as $200. The to provide secure communications. series to include an EHF communications less accurate signal prevents adversaries payload with enhanced antijam telemetry, from using GPS for precision weapons Defense Support Program (DSP) command, broadcast, and fleet intercon- targeting. Civilian users are working to ob- Infrared detectors aboard these satellites nectivity. EHF channels provide an addi- tain a much better signal through auxiliary have provided early warning of ballistic tional 11 channels. Ten UFO satellites were equipment, known as differential GPS, missile attack to NORAD since the 1970s. ordered; eight have been launched and are that corrects the degradation. DoD has During Operation Desert Storm, opera- operational. become increasingly concerned about en- tors at Space Command used DSP data emy use of GPS during a conflict and has to provide warnings of Scud attacks to Global Broadcast System (GBS) begun an effort called NAVWAR (naviga- theater commanders, though DSP was not GBS is projected to be a high-speed, one- tion warfare) to protect its advantage while designed to spot and track smaller mis- way broadcast communications system preventing adversary use of GPS. GPS III siles. Information on procurement situation, that provides high-volume information is an overarching requirements process number of satellites launched, and number worldwide directly to theater war­fighters. to develop a document that encompasses to be launched is classified. DoD intends to GBS will provide data to large populations civil, military, scientific, and commercial replace the system with a new spacecraft, of dispersed users with small, mobile re- use of GPS. It is also referred to as posi- the Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS), ceiver terminals. These terminals will allow tioning, navigation, and timing. The cur- designed to spot and track the smaller, data to be disseminated directly to lower- rent constellation is 25 operational Block faster-burning theater missiles that have echelon forces, providing current weather, II/IIA series and one test-and-checkout proliferated in recent years. It will be fielded intelligence, news, imagery, and other mis- satellite. The GPS office has procured 21 in three increments: Increment 1, Fiscal sion- essential information. GBS will be Block IIR replenishment satellites. GPS 1999; Increment 2, Fiscal 2002; and Incre- implemented in three phases. Phase 1 will IIR-2 was destroyed in the January 1997 ment 3, Fiscal 2006. consist of leased commercial transponders. Delta rocket explosion. GPS IIR-3 was Phase 2 will consist of GBS packages launched July 23, 1997. No IIR satellites Defense Meteorological Satellite Pro- aboard three UFO satellites. Phase 3 will are scheduled for launch in 1998. One is gram (DMSP) be an objective system consisting of mili- scheduled for February 1999 and a sec- Weather satellites, whose flight operations tary assets, a commercial leased system, ond in September 1999. were transferred from the military to NOAA or a combination of the two. in May 1998, operate in LEO to collect and Defense Satellite Communications Sys- disseminate global weather information Dark and Spooky tem (DSCS) directly to the warfighter and government An undisclosed number and type of intel- Constellation of five primary spacecraft in agencies. Operating in a two-satellite ligence satellites are operated by intel- geostationary orbit provides voice, data, constellation, each spacecraft collects ligence agencies in cooperation with the digital, and television transmissions be- high-resolution cloud imagery (visible and military. The missions and, especially, the tween major military terminals and National infrared) from a 1,800-mile-wide area be- capabilities are closely guarded secrets. Command Authorities. Secure voice and neath it. Satellites collect other specialized Using a page from the Soviet book on nam- high-data-rate communications, operating data, such as atmospheric temperature and ing satellites, the US government started in superhigh frequency, primarily for high- moisture, snow cover, precipitation intensity in the 1980s calling all government satel- capacity fixed users. Four DSCS satellites and area, and oceanographic and solar– lites “USA” with a sequential number. This remain to be launched in 1999–2003. geophysical information for DoD air, sea, allowed them to keep secret the names Launches are scheduled for July 1999, July land, and space operations. Five satellites of satellites which monitor the Earth with 2000, May 2002, and May 2003. The Air remain to be launched (USAF launched radar, optical sensors, and electronic in- Force has funded a program that will allow its last April 4, 1997). Joint satellites will tercept capability. Most of the names of more tactical users access on DSCS. The be procured with NOAA for the follow-on satellites, like White Cloud (ocean recon- Pentagon is developing the architecture to system, with the first to be launched in the naissance), Aquacade (electronic ferret), replace the capacity in the next decade. 2007–10 time frame. It will be called the and Trumpet (Sigint) are secret and cannot National Polar-Orbiting Operational Envi- be confirmed by the Intelligence Commu- Milstar ronmental Satellite System (NPOESS). nity. However, the move to declassify space The first two Milstars of an intended con- systems has begun, leading to the release stellation of four that would provide cov- Fleet Satellite Communications of selected information on some systems. erage between 65° north and 65° south (FLTSATCOM) Pictures of the Lacrosse radar imaging latitude are in orbit. The first $1 billion Constellation of four satellites operated satellite have been released without details Milstar was launched Feb. 7, 1994, and the by USN, USAF, and the presidential com- on the system. Details of the Keyhole opti- second Nov. 5, 1995. Originally conceived mand network. A secure link among the cal imaging systems in the Corona program as a communications system that could three, providing ultrahigh frequency (UHF) have been released. survive a nuclear conflict and connect Na- communications. Satellites carry 23 chan- tional Command Authorities to command- nels for communications with naval forces,

30 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Major US Civilian Satellites in Military Use

Advanced Communications Technology operate satellites for mobile communica- 1998. DoD will have 2,000 people using Satellite (ACTS) tions. Has 79 member–countries. IMSO is the system, with a potential for as many as NASA’s ACTS was launched in 1993 on 10.5 percent owner of ICO Global Com- 120,000 users. the space shuttle to demonstrate Ka-band munications, which was spun off as a communications and onboard switching separate company in 1995 to develop a Landsat equipment. Military use of the technology satellite system for global mobile telephone US government’s civilian remote sensing demonstration satellite included commu- services. IMSO operates seven satellites, satellite system. Used in polar orbit since nications service to US Army troops de- including the first three of the third-genera- 1972. Carries a multispectral scanner able ployed to Haiti in 1994. tion Inmarsat 3 series and one Inmarsat 2 to operate at a resolution of 30 meters and satellite. Another three satellites serve as provide imagery that can be computer en- Geostationary Operational Environmen- orbital spares. The spacecraft are some- hanced to show deforestation, expanding tal Satellite (GOES) times used by military forces for peacetime deserts, crop blight, and other phenomena. NOAA operates GOES-8 and GOES-9. mobile communications services. In­marsat Space Imaging EOSAT operates the aging GOES-7 provides backup. Satellites hover is prohibited by convention from being Landsat 5. The government plans to launch at 22,300 miles altitude over the equator, used for military purposes. Briefcase- and a Land­sat 7 satellite in 1998. Military use monitoring storms and tracking their move- laptop-sized satellite telephone terminals of Landsat imagery has included mapping ments for short-term forecasting. Satellites are used to communicate through the satel- and planning for tactical operations. are a new design that has improved spatial lites. Inmarsat use in Somalia and Bos­nia resolution and full-time operational sound- included the transmission of medical data NOAA-12, NOAA-14, and NOAA-15 ings of the atmosphere. and supply orders. Three polar orbit satellites for long-term forecasting of weather, operated by NOAA. Globalstar Iridium The satellites fly in a 450–nautical mile or- Globalstar L.P. filed an FCC application Motorola announced its Iridium mobile bit, carrying visible and infrared radiometry in June 1991 for the $2 billion Glo­bal­star communications system plan in June 1990. imaging sensors and ultraviolet sensors to mobile communications system of 48 satel- Iridium, Inc., was incorporated in June map ozone levels in the atmosphere. Pro- lites plus eight satellites as backups. Two 1991 to own and operate the 66-satellite vide weather updates for all areas of the Delta II ELVs have launched eight satellites (plus spaceborne spares) system. The world every six hours to civil and military through May 1998. The system has been system applications are for voice, fax, users. NOAA-15 (formerly NOAA-K) was used for communications links already and and data transmission worldwide using launched May 13, 1998, and will replace will continue to be expanded with three satellite-to-satellite or satellite-to-ground NOAA-12. Launch of NOAA-L is planned launches of SL-16 Zenit launchers out of interfaces. The system was started with the for 1999. Tyuratam, Ka­zakh­stan, with 12 satellites launch of five satellites on a Delta II out of each in 1998. The three final launches will Vandenberg AFB on May 5, 1997. During Orbcomm also be from Tyuratam on SL-04 Soyuz the past year 21 satellites were launched Orbcomm Global L.P.’s first two satellites launchers with four satellites each, dur- from Tyuratam on three Russian SL-12 were launched in April 1995, and commer- ing the first half of 1999. Globalstar has Proton launchers; six (plus two test loads) cial service in the US and Can­ada began in looked into a de­ployable mobile gateway were launched from Taiyuan, China, on four February 1996. Orbcomm is a joint venture that would permit more terminals in a given Long March-2C boosters; 45 have been between Orbital Sciences and Teleglobe area and allow DoD to add security con- launched on nine Delta IIs from Vanden­ of Canada. Orb­comm’s satellite constella- trols. berg AFB. The system is being checked tion will comprise 28 satellites, with an ad- out and will be operational in September ditional eight satellites to serve as ground International Telecommunications Satel- lite Organization (Intelsat) Established in 1964 to own and operate a global constellation of communications Worldwide Launches by Site, 1957–97 satellites. Has 143 members and 21 opera- tional satellites. Intelsat is in the process Launch Site...... Nation...... Launches of restructuring into an intergovernmental Plesetsk...... Russia...... 1,445 treaty organization, which will continue to White Sands Missile Range, N.M...... US...... 1,105 Tyuratam/Baikonur...... Kazakhstan...... 1,019 provide basic global satellite connectiv- Vandenberg AFB, Calif...... US...... 527 ity, and a commercial spin-off called New Cape Canaveral AS, Fla...... US...... 524 Skies, which has been given seven satel- Poker Flat Research Range, Alaska...... US...... 274 lites for competitive services like broadcast- JFK Space Center, Fla...... US...... 107 ing and data networking. The restructuring Kapustin Yar...... Russia...... 83 was approved in May 1998. US signatory Kourou...... French Guiana...... 102 to Intelsat is Comsat Corp. The US military Tanegashima...... Japan...... 29 uses the system for routine communica- Shuang Cheng-tzu/Jiuquan...... China...... 23 tions and to distribute the Armed Forces Wallops Flight Facility, Va...... US...... 24 Radio and TV Services network and used Uchinoura...... Japan...... 22 it to set up a Very Small Aperture Terminal Xichang...... China...... 23 data network for field commanders in Bos- Indian Ocean Platform...... Kenya...... 9 nia in 1996. Sriharikota...... India...... 8 Edwards AFB, Calif...... US...... 5 Hammaguir...... Algeria...... 4 International Mobile Satellite Organiza- Taiyuan...... China...... 4 tion (IMSO) Yavne...... Israel...... 3 Formerly called International Maritime Woomera...... Australia...... 2 Satellite (Inmarsat) Organization. They Svobodny...... Russia...... 2 have retained the Inmarsat name for their Gando AFB, Canary Islands...... Spain...... 1 satellites. Established in 1979 to own and Total...... 5,345

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 31 spares or to be launched at a later date. the Defense Information Systems Agency. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System Twelve were launched by early May 1998, Future plans include the launch and op- (TDRSS) with two more Pegasus XL launches of eration of two additional satellites covering NASA operates six TDRSS satellites to eight satellites each this year that will com- the Asia–Pacific region, Latin America, form a global network that allows low Earth plete the constellation. Orbcomm worked the Middle East, and parts of Russia and orbiting spacecraft, such as the space with DoD in 1995 and 1996 to demonstrate Africa. shuttle, to communicate with a control the potential military use of the commercial center without an elaborate network of system under the Joint Inter­operability Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre ground stations. The geostationary TDRSS, Warfighter Program. Today, DoD still pos- (SPOT) with its ground station at White Sands, sesses more than 100 Orbcomm units. Remote sensing satellite system devel- N.M., allows mission control in Houston oped by the French space agency, CNES. to maintain nearly constant contact with Orion Network Systems Owned and operated by a commercial firm, the shuttle. Other satellites using TDRSS Orion provides commercial satellite-based, SPOT Image S.A. of Tou­louse. Two satel- include the Hubble Space Telescope, rooftop-to-rooftop communications in sup- lites produce images with resolution as fine Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, Earth port of the US Army Trojan program via its as 10 meters and can be used for stereo- Radiation Budget Satellite, and military own satellite as part of the GE American scopic viewing for three-dimensional terrain satellites. TDRSS satellites have been used Communications team. In addition, Orion modeling. SPOT 3 failed Nov. 17, 1996, and since 1983. Three next generation satellites provides communications through whole- SPOT 1 was reactivated to augment SPOT are being built for use with the shuttle, the salers to other DoD agency locations in 2. SPOT 4 was launched March 24, 1998. space station, and other satellites. Hughes the US and Europe. Rooftop-to-rooftop SPOT 5 is scheduled for launch in 2002. is the contractor for TDRS H, I, and J. The support is also provided to selected State DoD is a large customer, purchasing the first will be launched in July 1999. Department overseas locations. Orion images for mission-planning systems, ter- continues its support for the troops de- rain analysis, mapping, and humanitarian ployed to Bosnia via leased capacity to missions.

Current US Launchers

Delta II Space Shuttle Titan II

Athena I and II now also used to launch GOES satellites from Cape Canaveral AS is 6,193 to 8,197 Lockheed Martin’s Athena I and II launch for NASA, the X-ray Astronomy Satellite for pounds and 12,144 to 15,895 pounds to a vehicles (formerly LMLV-1 and LMLV-2) pro- the Italian Space Agency, and three UHF polar LEO from Vandenberg AFB. The Atlas vide access to space for small to medium satellites for the US Navy. The four versions IIAR and Atlas IIARC have been renamed class spacecraft. The Athena II launched can lift from 5,000 to 8,000 pounds into Atlas IIIA and IIIB, respectively. They are the Lunar Prospector Jan. 6, 1998. The LEO of 100 nautical miles out of Cape listed in the “Proposals and Prospects” Athena I is capable of lifting 1,750 pounds Canaveral AS. The Atlas I can additionally section. to LEO. The Athena II increases that lift to lift 5,235 pounds to GTO. 4,350 pounds to LEO. Both Athenas can Delta II be launched from Cape Canaveral AS and Atlas II Boeing’s medium launcher, in operation Vandenberg AFB. A modified version of Lockheed Martin’s since 1989. Payloads include Global Posi- Atlas I, the Atlas II carries DSCS satellites tioning System and other DoD, scientific, Atlas I and NASA and commercial payloads. No and commercial communications satellites. The Atlas I, built by Lockheed Martin, is a failures have occurred with Atlas II since Launches from both Cape Canaveral AS two-stage commercial launcher using the first launch Dec. 7, 1991. The range of pay- and Vandenberg AFB. Available in two- Centaur booster as the upper stage. It is loads Atlas II through IIAS can lift into GTO and three-stage configurations. It can lift

32 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Pegasus, mounted under an L-1011

4,120 pounds to GTO or 7,000 pounds launch system. First launch in 1989. Due into a 448–nautical mile sun synchronous to be phased out in 2003. Carried DSP, orbit. Has successfully launched 27 GPS Milstar, and DoD classified satellites and satellites for USAF. Delta IIs have launched NASA’s Cassini to Saturn. With Centaur most of the Iridium satellites and all of the G-prime upper stages, lifts 10,200 pounds GlobalStar units to date. Before the end of to GEO, 39,000 pounds to LEO, and 1998 they will also have launched Deep 32,000 pounds into polar LEO. Titan IVB, Space 1 and the Landsat 7 Earth Resource with upgraded solid rocket motors that Titan IV satellite. provide 25 percent better performance, had its first launch Feb. 23, 1997. The Air Delta III Force has contracted for 40 Titan IVs; 24 Boeing’s Delta III carries twice the payload (with one failure) have been launched as of of the Delta II. It can loft 8,400 pounds to May 1998. Lockheed Martin will complete pounds to 160–nautical mile, 28.5°-inclined GTO and 18,280 pounds to LEO. The first production of all Titan IVs by 1999 but will orbit. The delta-winged orbiters have flown launch this summer is with the Galaxy X continue to launch them until all have been 91 missions since its first use April 12, communications satellite. There are six expended. 1981. There was one failure. The shuttle more confirmed launches before the end of carries scientific and military payloads and the century. Pegasus experiments and will be used to assemble Orbital Sciences’ three- or four-stage the International Space Station starting in Titan II winged small launcher, dropped from an 1999. Modified ICBM. Lockheed Martin has L-1011, the Pegasus and Pegasus XL can modified 14 missiles; seven have been carry payloads of 440 to 615 pounds to a Taurus launched successfully, with the latest 250–nautical mile polar orbit. The Pega- Orbital Sciences’ ground-launched, four- transporting the NOAA-15. Puts 4,200 sus launchers have flown 21 missions stage rocket with some Pegasus com­- pounds into polar LEO. The Air Force used with two failures. The fourth stage, a Star monality. The Taurus family can launch it for DMSP launches. Titan II is launched 27 booster, can give a satellite an Earth from Cape Canaveral AS into a 216–nauti- from Vandenberg AFB. It launched the escape capability. Three launches are cal mile orbit from 2,684 to 3,850 pounds Clementine 1 mission to the moon and scheduled for the remainder of 1998. to LEO; or from 1,125 to 1,472 pounds places NOAA satellites into orbit. In the to GTO. From Vandenberg AFB, they can 1960s, NASA used Titan II for the manned Space Shuttle launch 2,024 to 2,904 pounds into a sun Gemini flights. Manned space transportation system synchronous LEO. Two launches have operated by United Space Alliance, a taken place to date. A classified payload Titan IV venture between Lockheed Martin and and the STEX satellite are scheduled for Lockheed Martin’s heavy-lift launcher, Boeing, under contract to NASA. Launched mid- to late 1998. adapted from an ICBM as an expendable from Kennedy Space Center, lifts 46,000

Russian Space Activity

Russian Launches, 1997 Russian Launch Site Activity, 1997 Launches Spacecraft Spacecraft Number of launches Communications...... 4...... 9 Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, Kazakhstan Photoreconnaissance...... 3...... 3 Proton-K...... 9 Unmanned space station resupply...... 4...... 4 Soyuz-U...... 7 Navigation...... 2...... 2 Tsyklon-M...... 1 Military ocean surveillance...... 1...... 1 Total...... 17 Manned flight...... 2...... 2 Science...... 1...... 1 Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Plesetsk, Russia Commercial...... 7...... 20 Tsyklon-3...... 1 Remote Sensing...... 1...... 1 Kosmos-3M...... 2 Early Warning...... 3...... 3 Soyuz-U...... 3 Total...... 28...... 46 Molniya-M...... 3 Total...... 9 Svobodny Cosmodrome, Siberia, Russia Start-1...... 2 Total...... 2 (Maiden launch from Svobodny was March 4, 1997.)

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 33 Russian Operational Spacecraft, 1997

Mission Type Number Kosmos (Yantar-4K class)...... 1 Communications ...... Kosmos (Strela-3)...... 20 Kosmos (Arkon-1)...... 1 Gonets-D...... 6 Remote sensing ...... Okean-O...... 2 Raduga/Raduga-1...... 7 Resurs-01...... 1 Gorizont...... 9 Sich...... 1 Molniya-1...... 4 Resurs-F1M...... 1* Molniya-3...... 4 Geodesy ...... Kosmos (Etalon)...... 2 Kosmos (Geizer)...... 2 Kosmos (GEO-IK)...... 1 Luch/Luch-1...... 2 Radar calibration ...... Kosmos (Romb)...... 1 Ekran-M...... 1 Space station activity ...... Mir...... 1 Ekspress...... 2 Kvant-1...... 1 Gals...... 2 Kvant-2...... 1 Radio Rosto...... 1 Kristall...... 1 Kupon...... 1 Spektr...... 1 Navigation ...... Kosmos GLONASS...... 20 Priroda...... 1 Kosmos (military)...... 6 Soyuz TM...... 1 Kosmos (civil)...... 4 Progress M...... 1 Meteorology ...... Meteor-2...... 1 Scientific activity ...... Foton...... 1* Meteor-3...... 2 Coronas-I...... 1 Elektro (GOMS)...... 1 Granat...... 1 Early warning ...... Kosmos (Oko)...... 6 Interball ...... 2 Kosmos (Prognoz)...... 2 MAGION 4 (Czech satellite)...... 2 Electronic intelligence ...... Kosmos (Tselina-2)...... 3 Kosmos (EORSAT)...... 2 Older spacecraft sometimes are placed in orbital standby mode. Photoreconnaissance ...... Kosmos (Orlets-1)...... 1* *Number of spacecraft launched during 1997 but not in orbit at the end of the year.

Comparison of US and Russian Space Activity

Military vs. Civilian Launches

Military Civilian Year US Russia Year US Russia Year US Russia Year US Russia 1978...... 8...... 60 1957...... 0...... 0 1978...... 24...... 28 1957...... 0...... 2 1979...... 4...... 60 1958...... 0...... 0 1979...... 12...... 27 1958...... 7...... 1 1980...... 5...... 64 1959...... 6...... 0 1980...... 8...... 25 1959...... 5...... 3 1981...... 5...... 59 1960...... 10...... 0 1981...... 13...... 39 1960...... 6...... 3 1982...... 6...... 68 1961...... 19...... 0 1982...... 12...... 33 1961...... 10...... 6 1983...... 7...... 58 1962...... 31...... 5 1983...... 15...... 40 1962...... 21...... 15 1984...... 12...... 63 1963...... 26...... 7 1984...... 10...... 34 1963...... 12...... 10 1985...... 6...... 64 1964...... 32...... 15 1985...... 11...... 34 1964...... 25...... 15 1986...... 3...... 63 1965...... 28...... 25 1986...... 3...... 28 1965...... 35...... 23 1987...... 6...... 62 1966...... 32...... 27 1987...... 2...... 33 1966...... 41...... 17 1988...... 6...... 53 1967...... 24...... 46 1988...... 6...... 37 1967...... 34...... 20 1989...... 13...... 42 1968...... 20...... 49 1989...... 5...... 32 1968...... 25...... 25 1990...... 13...... 45 1969...... 16...... 51 1990...... 14...... 30 1969...... 24...... 19 1991...... 9...... 30 1970...... 15...... 55 1991...... 9...... 29 1970...... 14...... 26 1992...... 12...... 32 1971...... 10...... 60 1992...... 16...... 22 1971...... 22...... 23 1993...... 13...... 26 1972...... 11...... 53 1993...... 10...... 21 1972...... 20...... 21 1994...... 12...... 26 1973...... 8...... 58 1994...... 14...... 22 1973...... 15...... 28 1995...... 9...... 15 1974...... 6...... 52 1995...... 18...... 17 1974...... 18...... 29 1996...... 11...... 8 1975...... 7...... 60 1996...... 22...... 17 1975...... 21...... 29 1997...... 9...... 10 1976...... 7...... 74 1997...... 28...... 18 1976...... 19...... 25 Total...... 486...... 1,614 1977...... 9...... 69 Total...... 641...... 935 1977...... 15...... 29

34 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Comparison of US and Russian Space Activity

Manned Spaceflights Payloads by Mission, 1957–97 US Russia Category US Russia Year Flights Persons Flights Persons Platforms...... 0...... 492 1961 2 2 2 2 Earth orbital science...... 226...... 211 1962 3 3 2 2 Automated lunar, planetary...... 59...... 86 1963 1 1 2 2 Moon...... 25...... 34 1964 0 0 1 3 Mercury...... 1...... 0 1965 5 10 1 2 Venus...... 8...... 33 1966 5 10 0 0 Mars...... 11...... 19 1967 0 0 1 1 Outer planets...... 5...... 0 1968 2 6 1 1 Interplanetary space...... 9...... 0 1969 4 12 5 11 Applications...... 490...... 509 1970 1 3 1 2 Communications...... 355...... 294 1971 2 6 2 6 Weather...... 101...... 74 1972 2 6 0 0 Geodesy...... 20...... 34 1973 3 9 2 4 Earth resources...... 12...... 97 1974 0 0 3 6 Materials processing...... 2...... 10 1975 1 3 4 8 Piloted activities...... 157...... 243 1976 0 0 3 6 Earth orbital...... 107...... 90 1977 0 0 3 6 Earth orbital (related)...... 13...... 145 1978 0 0 5 10 Lunar...... 20...... 0 1979 0 0 2 4 Lunar (related)...... 17...... 8 1980 0 0 6 13 Launch vehicle tests...... 11...... 22 1981 2 4 3 6 General engineering tests...... 57...... 4 1982 3 8 3 8 Reconnaissance...... 430...... 1,088 1983 4 20 2 5 Photographic...... 249...... 798 1984 5 28 3 9 Electronic intelligence...... 94...... 131 1985 9 58 2 5 Ocean electronic intelligence...... 39...... 83 1986 1 7 1 2 Early warning...... 48...... 76 1987 0 0 3 8 Minor military operations...... 44...... 161 1988 2 10 3 9 Navigation...... 84...... 213 1989 5 25 1 2 Theater communication...... 0...... 535 1990 6 32 3 7 Weapons-related activities...... 2...... 56 1991 6 35 2 6 Fractional orbital bombardment...... 0...... 18 1992 8 53 2 6 Antisatellite targets...... 2...... 18 1993 7 42 2 5 Antisatellite interceptors...... 0...... 20 1994 7 42 3 8 Other military...... 18...... 1 1995 7 42 2 6 Other civilian...... 3...... 2 1996 7 43 2 5 Total...... 1,581...... 3,623 1997 8 53 2 5 Total 118 573 85 191

Military Functions in Space

Communications siles launched against forward deployed Spacelift Provide communications from National US forces, allied forces, or US territory. Prepare satellite and booster, joining the two. Conduct checkout prior to launch, Command Authorities to Joint Force Com- Navigation mander. Provide communications from JFC Operate GPS network and certain smaller carry out launch, and conduct on-orbit to squadron-level commanders. Permit Navy systems. Enable commanders to checkout. transfer of imagery and situational aware- determine precise locations of friendly and Strategic Early Warning ness to tactical operations. Permit rapid enemy forces and targets. Permit accurate, Operate satellites to give national lead- transmission of JFC intent, ground force timely rendezvous of combat forces. Map ers early warning of all possible strategic observations, and adaptive planning. minefields and other obstacles. events, including launch of ICBMs. Identify launch locations and impact areas. Cue Environmental/Remote Sensing On-Orbit Support Use space systems to create topographi- Track and control satellites, operate their area and point defense systems. cal, hydrographic, and geological maps and payloads, and disseminate data from them. Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment charts and to develop systems of topo- Discharge the NORAD mission calling for graphic measurement. Reconnaissance and Surveillance Identify possible global threats and surveil- use of all sensors to detect and character- Space Environment/Meteorological lance of specific activity that might be ize an attack on US or Canadian territory. Support threatening to US or allied military forces US Space Command carries out similar NOAA took over flight operations of DMSP or US territory. Reduce effectiveness of tactical warning in other theaters. weather satellites from the Air Force in May camouflage and decoys. Identify “centers of Force Application 1998. The Air Force operates ground-based gravity” in enemy forces. Accurately charac- US Space Command is identifying potential systems and directs NOAA on the opera- terize electronic emissions. future roles, missions, and systems which, tions of space-based systems to provide if authorized by civilian leadership for Space Control solar/geophysical support to the warfighter. development and deployment, could attack The weather systems provide data on Control and exploit space using offensive and defensive measures to ensure that terrestrial targets from space in support of worldwide and local weather systems af- national defense. fecting combat operations. friendly forces can use space capabilities, while denying their use to the enemy. This Missile Defense mission is assigned to USCINCSPACE in Employ space assets to identify, acquire, the Unified Command Plan. track, and destroy ballistic and cruise mis-

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 35 Gen. James V. Hartinger, here with Gen. Jerome F. O’Malley (left) and Edward C. Aldridge Jr., became the first commander of Air Force Space Command, upon its establishment Sept. 1, 1982, at Peterson AFB, Colo.

Air Force Space Command Headquarters, Peterson AFB, Colo.

Commander Gen. Richard B. Myers*

Space Warfare Center • Schriever AFB, Colo. Commander Brig. Gen. William R. Looney III

14th Air Force • Hq., Vandenberg AFB, Calif. 20th Air Force • Hq., F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo. Commander Maj. Gen. Gerald F. Perryman Jr. Commander Maj. Gen. Donald G. Cook

21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, Colo. 90th Missile Wing, F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo. 30th Space Wing, Vandenberg AFB, Calif. 91st Missile Wing, Minot AFB, N.D. 45th Space Wing, Patrick AFB, Fla. 341st Missile Wing, Malmstrom AFB, Mont. 50th Space Wing, Schriever AFB, Colo.

*Confirmed by Senate June 25, 1998; assumes position upon retirement of Gen. Howell M. Estes III.

Air Force Space Acquisition Organizations

Air Force Materiel Command • Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio Air Force Program Executive Office • Pentagon Commander Gen. George T. Babbitt Jr. Air Force Acquisition Executive (Vacant)

Space and Missile Systems Center • Los Angeles AFB, Calif. Program Executive Officer for Space Programs Commander Lt. Gen. Roger G. DeKok* Brent R. Collins Defense Meteorological Satellite SPO1 MILSATCOM Launch Programs SPO Launch Systems Advanced Systems SPO Space Based Infrared System Satellite and Launch Control SPO Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle 2 Navstar Global Positioning System JPO ICBM/National Missile Defense Space & Missile Test & Evaluation Directorate, Kirt- land AFB, N.M. 1System Program Office 2Joint Program Office *DeKok nominated June 18, 1998, to be DCS, Plans & Programs, USAF, Pentagon.

36 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 AD

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 37 Major US Agencies in Space

National Imagery and Mapping Agency Space Center, Fla.; Lewis Research Cen- Structure (NIMA) ter, Cleveland; Lang­ley Research Center, NRO is a DoD agency, funded through part Headquarters: Bethesda, Md. Hampton, Va.; Ames Research Center, of the National Foreign Intelligence Program, Established: Oct. 1, 1996 Mountain View, Calif.; Dryden Flight Re- known as the National Reconnaissance Director (acting): Army Maj. Gen. James search Center, Edwards AFB, Calif.; Sten- Program. Both the Secretary of Defense and C. King nis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Miss.; Jet Director of Central Intelligence have ap- Mission, Purpose, Operations Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.; proval of the program. Four offices and four Provide timely, relevant, and accurate and Goddard Space Flight Center, Green- directorates report up to the level of the imagery intelligence and geospatial infor- belt, Md. director. Offices are management services mation to support national security objec- Personnel and operations, plans and analysis, space tives. This DoD–chartered combat support Civilians...... 18,500 launch, and operational support. Director- agency is also a member of the Intelligence Contractors...... 166,000 ates are signals intelligence systems ac- Community and has been assigned, by quisition and operations, communications National Oceanic and Atmospheric statute, important national-level support systems acquisition and operations, imag- Administration (NOAA) responsibilities. ery systems acquisition and operations, Headquarters: Washington, D.C. Structure and advanced systems and technology. Established: Oct. 3, 1970 Three principal directorates: Operations, Personnel Administrator and Undersecretary for Systems and Technology, and Corporate Staffed by CIA (37 percent), USAF (51 per- Oceans and Atmosphere: Dr. D. James Affairs. cent), Navy (7 percent), Army (1 percent), Baker Major facilities in Virginia, Maryland, Wash- and National Security Agency (4 percent), ington, D.C., and Missouri, with the NIMA Mission, Purpose, Operations both military and civilian employees. Exact College located at Ft. Bel­voir, Va. Also, Provide satellite observations of the global personnel numbers are classified. customer support teams and tech­nical rep- environment by operating a national sys- National Security Agency (NSA) resentatives stationed around the world at tem of satellites. Explore, map, and chart Headquarters: Ft. Meade, Md. major customer locations. the global ocean and its resources and Established: 1952 Personnel: Classified describe, monitor, and predict conditions in the atmosphere, ocean, and space environ- Director: Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. Minihan, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) ment. Its National Environmental Satellite, USAF Office of Development and Engineering Data, and Information Service processes Mission, Purpose, Operations Headquarters: Washington, D.C. vast quantities of satellite images and data. Protect US communications and produce Established: 1973 Its prime customer is NOAA’s National foreign intelligence information. Supply Director: Dennis Fitzgerald Weather Service, which uses satellite infor- leadership, products, and services to pro- Mission, Purpose, Operations mation in creating forecasts. tect classified and unclassified information Develop systems from requirements defini- Structure from interception, unauthorized access, tion through design, testing, and evalua- National Environmental Satellite, Data, and and technical intelligence threats. In the tion to operations. Works with systems not Information Service foreign signals intelligence area, the central available commercially. Disciplines include National Weather Service point for collecting and processing activi- laser communications, digital imagery National Ocean Service ties conducted by the US government, with processing, real-time data collection and National Marine Fisheries Service authority to produce signals intelligence in processing, electro-optics, advanced signal Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Re- accord with objectives, requirements, and collection, artificial intelligence, advanced search priorities established by the CIA director antenna design, mass data storage and NOAA Corps with the advice of the National Foreign retrieval, and large systems modeling and Office of Sustainable Development and Intelligence Board. simulations. Work includes new concepts Intergovernmental Affairs Structure and systems upgrades. Coastal Ocean Program Established by a presidential directive in Structure: Classified Personnel 1952 as a separate agency within DoD Personnel: Classified National Environmental Satellite, Data, and under the direction, authority, and control Information Service...... 839 of the Secretary of Defense, who serves as National Aeronautics and Space Other NOAA employees...... 11,055 the executive agent of the US government Administration (NASA) Total...... 11,894 for the production of communications intel- Headquarters: Washington, D.C. ligence information. The Central Security Established: 1958 National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) Service was established in 1972 by a presi- Administrator: Daniel S. Goldin Headquarters: Chantilly, Va. dential memorandum to provide a more Established: September 1961 Mission, Purpose, Operations unified cryptological organization within Director: Keith R. Hall Explore and develop space for human DoD. The NSA director also serves as chief enterprise, increase knowledge about Mission, Purpose, Operations of the CSS and controls the signals intel- Earth and space, and conduct research in Design, build, and operate reconnaissance ligence activities of the military services. space and aeronautics. Operate the space satellites to support global information Personnel: Classified superiority for the US. It has operated hun- shuttle and lead an international program Other Agencies to build a permanently occupied space dreds of satellites during its nearly 37-year history. Responsible for innovative technol- The White House Office of Science and station, which will be launched starting in Technology Policy; Defense Advanced 1998. Launch satellites for space science, ogy; systems engineering; development, acquisition, and operation of space recon- Research Projects Agency; Ballistic Missile Earth observations, and a broad range of Defense Organization; US Space Com- technology Research and Development. naissance systems; and related intelligence activities. Supports monitoring of arms mand and the component commands of Conduct aeronautical R&D. the Air Force, Navy, and Army; NORAD; Structure control agreements, military operations and exercises, natural disasters, environmental and the FAA’s Office of Commercial Space Ten centers around the US: Johnson Transportation. Space Center, Houston; Marshall Space issues, and worldwide events of interest to Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.; Kennedy the US.

38 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Other Spacefaring Nations

For eight years after Sputnik manages launches. France, Ita- went into orbit in October 1957, ly, and Germany all have strong Launches the two superpowers alone programs. Year France China Japan Europe India Israel were able to launch spacecraft. France broke the monopoly in India launched its first satellite, 1965...... 1 1965, establishing an indepen- Rohini 1, into orbit in July 1980. 1966...... 1 dent capability. China, India, Ja- The Indian Space Research Or- 1967...... 2 pan, and Israel also have hurled ganization operates an offshore 1968 satellites into space using indig- Sriharikota Island launch site in 1969 enously built rockets. European the Bay of Bengal. India’s boost- 1970...... 2...... 1...... 1 capabilities are embodied in the er program includes the Satellite 1971...... 1...... 1...... 2 European Space Agency (ESA), Launch Vehicle, Augmented 1972...... 1 cur­­-rently a group of 14 nations. Satellite Launch Vehicle, and 1973 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. 1974...... 1 China launched its first satellite The latter is capable of plac- 1975...... 3...... 3...... 2 in 1970 and has had at least 50 ing spacecraft into polar orbit. 1976...... 2...... 1 satellites on orbit. China also India is particularly interested 1977...... 2 launches science and military in remote sensing for resource, 1978...... 1...... 3 reconnaissance satellites and weather, and reconnaissance 1979...... 2...... 1 has made commercial launches purposes. An Indian cosmonaut 1980...... 2...... 1 for other nations. Its primary flew on a Soviet Soyuz mission 1981...... 1...... 3...... 2...... 1 launch site is near Jiuquan, in in 1984. 1982...... 1...... 1 northern China; a newer site is 1983...... 1...... 3...... 2...... 1 near Xichang, in southeastern Israel launched its first test sat- 1984...... 3...... 3...... 4 China, and a third is at Tai­yuan. ellite, Ofeq 1, into orbit Septem- 1985...... 1...... 2...... 3 The launch program relies on ber 1988 and has had two more 1986...... 2...... 2...... 2 the Long March series of rock- successful flights since then. 1987...... 2...... 3...... 2 ets, one version of which has a Launched from the Palmachim 1988...... 4...... 2...... 7...... 1 cryogenic upper stage. Chinese missile range in the Negev Des- 1989...... 2...... 7 astronauts were in training in ert, satellites in the Ofeq series 1990...... 5...... 3...... 5...... 1 the 1970s, but the country has are thought to be dedicated to 1991...... 1...... 2...... 8 indefinitely deferred manned military purposes. Ofeq is seen 1992...... 4...... 1...... 7...... 1 space­flight. as a step toward creation of a 1993...... 1...... 1...... 7 military satellite reconnaissance 1994...... 5...... 2...... 6...... 2 ESA was formed in 1975 for system. The prime booster is 1995...... 2...... 1...... 11...... 1 civilian activities only. It has 14 Shavit, possibly based on the 1996...... 3...... 1...... 10...... 1 members: Austria, Belgium, Jericho 2 missile. 1997...... 6...... 2...... 12...... 1 Denmark, Finland, France, Total...... 10...... 50...... 51...... 96...... 8...... 3 Germany, Ireland, Italy, Nether- Japan put its first satellite into lands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, orbit in 1970 and has made at Switzerland, and the UK. A least 51 successful satellite of Space and Astronautical Sci- toss spacecraft into deep space. major activity is development of launches. Communications, ence. Main launch sites are Ka- N‑1 and N-2 rockets were based the Ariane rocket. France led de- remote sensing, weather, and goshima, on Kyushu, southwest on the US Delta. The H-series velopment of the booster, which scientific satellites are on orbit. of Tokyo, and Tanegashima, an is replacing the N-1 and N-2 is launched from Kourou, French Japan’s satellite program is run island south of Kyushu. The Mu boosters. The H-2 booster was Guiana. Arianespace, a private by the National Space Develop- series of launch vehicles is used first launched in 1994. company, markets Ariane and ment Agency and the Institute to orbit scientific satellites and

Payloads in Orbit Italy...... 3 Japan...... 5 (As of end of 1997) Launcher/operator Objects Launcher/operator Objects Luxembourg...... 7 Spacefarers Nation Persons Argentina...... 3 Australia...... 6 Malaysia...... 2 Mexico...... 1 (As of end of 1997) Brazil...... 6 Mexico...... 5 Nation Persons Mongolia...... 1 Canada...... 17 NATO...... 8 Afghanistan...... 1 Netherlands...... 1 China...... 24 Norway...... 2 Austria...... 1 Poland...... 1 Czechoslovakia...... 3 Philippines...... 1 Belgium...... 1 Romania...... 1 ESA...... 35 Portugal...... 1 Bulgaria...... 2 Russia...... 86 France...... 30 Russia...... 1,364 Canada...... 6 Saudi Arabia...... 1 France/Germany...... 2 Saudi Arabia...... 6 Cuba...... 1 Switzerland...... 1 Germany...... 15 South Korea...... 4 Czechoslovakia...... 1 Syria...... 1 India...... 17 Spain...... 5 France...... 7 Ukraine...... 1 Indonesia...... 9 Sweden...... 6 Germany...... 8 United Kingdom...... 1 Israel...... 2 Thailand...... 3 Hungary...... 1 United States...... 233 Italy...... 7 Turkey...... 2 1 United Kingdom...... 24 India...... 1 Vietnam...... 1 ITSO ...... 54 United States...... 778 Total...... 368 Japan...... 63 Total...... 2,511 1International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 39 Selected NASA Projects Fiscal 1999 Proposal Current Dollars

■ AXAF, $92.2 million. Space science. The Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facil- The Golden Age of NASA ity spacecraft to study the composition Name Project Mercury and nature of galaxies, stellar objects, and Duration Nov. 3, 1958–May 16, 1963 interstellar phenomena. Scheduled for Cost $392.1 million (cost figures are in then-year dollars) First US manned spaceflight program launch aboard the space shuttle in 1998 Distinction Highlight Astronauts are launched into space and returned safely to Earth but schedule under review. Number of flights Six Key events May 5, 1961 Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard Jr. makes first US manned flight, a ■ Cassini, $8.8 million. Space science. 15-minute suborbital trip. Spacecraft mission to Saturn. Seeks data Feb. 20, 1962 Lt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr. becomes first American to orbit Earth. on formation of solar system and on how May 15, 1963 Maj. L. Gordon Cooper Jr. begins flight of 22 orbits in 34 hours. the building blocks needed for the chemi- cal evolution of life are formed elsewhere Name Project Gemini Jan. 15, 1962–Nov. 15, 1966 in the universe. Launched in October 1997. Duration Cost $1.3 billion Scheduled to arrive in Saturnian system in Distinction First program to explore docking, long-duration flight, rendezvous, space walks, and 2004. guided reentry Highlight Dockings and rendezvous techniques practiced in preparation for Project Apollo ■ Discovery, $126.5 million. Space Number of flights 10 science. Lunar Prospector launched in Key events June 3–7, 1965 Flight in which Maj. Edward H. White II makes first space walk. January 1998. In March, its instruments Aug. 21–29, 1965 Cooper and Lt. Cmdr. Charles “Pete” Conrad Jr. withstand detected significant amounts of water–ice weightlessness. March 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong and Maj. David R. Scott execute the first space in the shaded polar regions. The Stardust docking. mission, scheduled for launch in February Sept. 15, 1966 Conrad and Richard F. Gordon Jr. make first successful automatic, 1999, is designed to gather dust sam­ computer-steered reentry. ples from the comet Wild-2 and return the samples to Earth for analysis. Discovery Name Project Apollo is intended as NASA’s low-cost planetary Duration July 25, 1960–Dec. 19, 1972 exploration program. NASA’s next two Cost $24 billion Discovery missions are: Genesis, which will Distinction Space program that put humans on the moon Highlights Neil Armstrong steps onto lunar surface. Twelve astronauts spend 160 hours on collect samples of charged particles in the the moon. solar wind and return to Earth laboratories Number of flights 11 for study; and the Comet Nucleus Tour Key events May 28, 1964 First Apollo command module is launched into orbit aboard a (Contour), which will intercept and collect Saturn 1 rocket. data on three comets. Launch for Genesis Jan. 27, 1967 Lt. Col. Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom, Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. Chaffee, and is January 2001, and launch for Contour is White die in a command module fire in ground test. June 2002. Oct. 11–22, 1968 First manned Apollo flight proves “moonworthiness” of space- craft. Dec. 21–27, 1968 First manned flight to moon and first lunar orbit. ■ Earth Observing System, $659.1 mil- July 16–24, 1969 Apollo 11 takes Armstrong, Col. Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin Jr., and lion. Earth Science Enterprise (formerly Lt. Col. Michael Collins to the moon and back. Mission to Planet Earth) environmental Armstrong and Aldrin make first and second moon walks. project. Series of satellites to document Dec. 7–19, 1972 Final Apollo lunar flight produces sixth manned moon landing. global climatic change and observe envi- ronmental processes. Scheduled launches start in 1998. operations of mission to explore Jupiter rock samples from Mars. Follow-on orbiter ■ Explorer, $114.3 million. Space sci- and its moons. launch is planned for December 1998, ence. Four missions and spacecraft de- and the first lander launch is scheduled for velopment. Study of X-ray sources, solar ■ Mars Surveyor, $164.0 million. Space January 1999. corona, and organic compounds in inter- science. Launch of the Mars Global Sur- stellar clouds. Scheduled launches each veyor orbiter occurred in November 1996. ■ New Millennium Spacecraft, $90.0 year from 1997 to 2000. It arrived in September 1997. Development million. Space science. Flight-technology of spacecraft for new Mars exploration demonstration to produce new microspace- ■ Galileo, $30.0 million. Space science, strategy. Mapping, in situ climate and soil craft with reduced weight and life-cycle planetary exploration. Funds to support measurements, and eventual goal to return costs. Funding increase to spur deep- space mission technology and develop- ment. Deep Space 1 mission will test several new technologies during its flight. NASA Spending on Launch is scheduled for October 1998. Upcoming Shuttle Flights Major Space Missions FY 1999 Proposal ■ Relativity (Gravity Probe B), $37.6 FY 1999 Proposal, Current Dollars million. Space science. Major test of Ein- Project Office Millions Month/Year Mission Name stein’s general theory of relativity. Develop- 10/1998 STS-95 Discovery ment of a gravity probe. Launch is sched- Human spaceflight $5,511.0 uled for March 2000. Space science 2,058.4 12/1998 STS-88 Endeavour Earth science 1,372.0 1/1999 STS-93 Columbia ■ Space shuttle, $3.1 billion. Spaceflight. Aeronautics 1,305.0 5/1999 STS-96 Atlantis Program emphasizes continuing improve- ment of safety margins, fulfillment of the 6/1999 STS-92 Discovery Mission communication services 380.0 flight manifest, reduction of costs, and Life and microgravity sciences 242.0 8/1999 STS-97 Endeavour launch of nine flights for Fiscal 1999 and Safety and mission assurance 35.6 9/1999 STS-99 Atlantis nine in Fiscal 2000. Total $10,904.0

40 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 ■ International Space Station, $2.3 ■ US/Russian Cooperative Program. ■ Other space operations, $526.6 mil- billion. Spaceflight. International manned (Funding ended in Fiscal 1997, but activi- lion. Space science. Operation of Hubble space facility. Ultimate capacity for seven ties still ongoing.) Spaceflight. Program Space Telescope, the AXAF program, the persons. Crew capability for three persons provides for contract with Russian Space Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, and to be available with delivery of Soyuz crew Agency for services and hardware and joint the International Solar Terrestrial Physics transfer vehicle in Fiscal 1999. Efficiencies activities with Russia on the Mir. The ninth program. Support of planetary missions gained through design changes and partici- and final joint shuttle–Mir mission took includes Galileo, NEAR, Mars Surveyor, pation of the Russians in an international place in June 1998. Cassini, Lunar Prospector, and Stardust. partnership.

US Space Launch Sites

Orbital Sites site for Orbital Sciences’ Pegasus mis- to 8,000 pounds into polar LEO, primarily sions. Additional small launch vehicles are communications, remote sensing, and Cape Canaveral AS, Fla. expected to be launched from Wallops with scientific satellites. The site has the capac- Located 28.5° N, 80° W. One of two pri- the establishment of the Virginia Space ity for a total of three launchpads. With its mary US space launch sites. Handles Flight Center. Site for launches of NASA’s large launch corridor, the spaceport would piloted, lunar, and planetary launches and suborbital sounding rockets and the like. provide an additional backup launch capa- launches of satellites into geostationary or- Conducts about 15 suborbital launches bility for both polar satellites and for DoD’s bit. First US satellite in space, first manned per year. Covers 6,166 acres on Virginia’s ICBM launches at Vandenberg AFB. spaceflight, and first flight of a reusable eastern shore. spacecraft all originated here. Scene of Virginia Space Flight Center more than 3,000 launches since 1950. Spaceport Florida Facility Located 38° N, 76° W. NASA and the Com- Tract covers more than 15,000 acres. Cape Located 28.5° N, 80° W. New commer- monwealth of Virginia reached an agree- Canaveral also provides range operations cial launch site at Cape Canaveral AS. ment in March 1997 for the establishment for NASA’s shuttle, military, civil, and com- Designed to meet growing demand for of a Virginia Spaceport on the south end of mercial space launches, and military bal- private-sector access to space and to tap Wallops Island. Construction of the com- listic missile tests. underutilized military launch sites. Oper- mercial launch facility began in 1998. The ated by the Spaceport Florida Authority, flight center can currently accommo­date John F. Kennedy Space Center, Fla. a state agency. Launch Complex 46 some small ELVs using up to a Castor 120 Located 28° N, 80° W. NASA’s primary launchpad has been converted to handle power plant at the EER Systems launch launch base for the space shuttle. Occu- small to medium commercial launch ve- tower located on the island, in addition to pies 140,000 acres of land and water on hicles, boosting satellites into equatorial payload processing. When fully operational, Merritt Island, adjacent coastal strand, and orbit. The Navy originally used LC-46 to the flight center is expected to be able to the Indian and Banana Rivers and Mos- support land-based testing of the Trident handle launch vehicles up to the Athena III. quito Lagoon surrounding the center. NASA II fleet ballistic missile program. The holdings include 84,031 acres. The Merritt Naval Ordnance Test Unit will maintain Suborbital Sites Island location was better suited than near- launch capability for future programs. by Cape Canaveral to serve as a launch Lockheed Martin launched NASA’s Lunar Poker Flat Research Range, Alaska site for the Apollo program’s 363-foot-tall Prospector Jan. 6, 1998, aboard their Located 65° N, 147° W. Owned by the Saturn V, the largest rocket ever built. With Athena II. Expected to handle up to 12 University of Alaska. Established 1968. the 1972 completion of the Apollo lunar launches per year. Operated by the Geophysical Institute landing program, KSC’s Complex 39 was under contract to NASA’s Goddard Space used to launch four Skylab missions and for California Spaceport Flight Center, Wallops Flight Facility. Only the Apollo spacecraft for the Apollo–Soyuz Located 34.33° N, 120.37° W. Designed to US launch facility currently in polar region. Test Project. In the mid- to late 1970s, the handle polar and near-polar LEO launches, World’s largest land-based range. Payload Kennedy facilities were modified to accom- the California Spaceport is a commercial recovery and observatories in flight zone modate the space shuttle program. launch facility at Vandenberg AFB. Space- extending north 600 kilometers to coast port Systems International, a limited part- and over Arctic Ocean. Conducts launches Vandenberg AFB, Calif. nership formed by ITT Federal Services primarily to investigate aurora borealis and Located 35° N, 121° W. Second of two Corp. and California Commercial Space- other middle- to upper-atmosphere phe- primary US launch sites. Used for satellites port, Inc., is to build and operate the facility. nomena. Site of more than 274 military and (mostly weather, remote sensing, naviga- The spaceport will provide both commercial civilian launches. tion, communications, and reconnaissance) launch and payload processing capability. that must go into polar orbits. Provides Payload processing is operational. Con- White Sands Missile Range, N.M. basic support for R&D tests for DoD, USAF, struction of the launch duct was completed Located 32° N, 106° W. Established July 9, and NASA space, ballistic missile, and in early 1997, with design plans ongoing for 1945, as White Sands Proving Ground. Site aeronautical systems. Furnishes fa­cil­i­ties launchpad completion. The launchpad will of July 16, 1945, Trinity shot, world’s first and essential services to more than 60 have an initial rate of 15 launches per year. test of atomic bomb, and of postwar test aerospace contractors on base. Base cov- and experimental flights with captured Ger- ers 98,400 acres. Originally Army’s Camp Alaska Spaceport man V-2 rockets. Scene of Feb. 24, 1949, Cooke, taken over by the Air Force June 7, Located 57.5° N, 153° W. Designed for launch of Bumper rocket, whose second 1957. polar and near-polar launches, the dual- stage achieved altitude of 244 miles—be- use commercial launch facility is sited on coming the first man-made object in space. Wallops Flight Facility, Va. 3,100 acres at Kodiak Island, Alaska. With Now used for launches of suborbital sound- Located 38° N, 76° W. Founded in 1945 funding secured by the Alaska Aerospace ing rockets. New Mexico is in the process of on Wallops Island, Va. One of the oldest Development Corp., Alaska’s spaceport au- establishing a spaceport adjacent to White launch sites in the world. First research thority, construction for the Kodiak Launch Sands for commercial orbital launches. rocket launched July 4, 1945. Resumed Complex is scheduled for completion by orbital launches in 1995 with the EER June 1999. KLC’s initial operational capa- Systems Conestoga rocket. From 1961 to bility is September 1998 for AADC’s first 1985, 21 satellites were placed in orbit from scheduled launch by the Air Force. There Wallops using the Scout vehicle. Wallops will be an eventual capacity for nine launch- currently serves as the East Coast launch es per year. KLC will launch payloads up

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 41 Space Firsts

Feb. 24, 1949 Project Bumper, the first fully Discoverer 14 becomes first orbital pay- first space probe to encounter another successful two-stage rocket-launch into load recovered in midair by C-119 Flying planet. space, reaches a record altitude of 244 Boxcar. miles. June 16, 1963 Valentina Tereshkova of Jan. 31, 1961 Preparing for manned USSR pilots Vostok 6 to become first July 24, 1950 Bumper–WAC becomes first spaceflight, US launches a Mercury cap- woman in space. missile launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla. sule carrying the chimpanzee Ham on a suborbital trajectory. July 26 Hughes Corp.’s Syncom 2 (proto- Sept. 20, 1956 US Jupiter C rocket type of EarlyBird communications satel- achieves record first flight, reaching an al- Feb. 16 Explorer 9 be­comes first satellite lite) orbits and “parks” over the Atlantic titude of 682 miles and landing 3,400 miles launched from Wallops Island, Va. to become world’s first geosynchronous from Cape Canaveral. satellite. April 12 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin Aug. 21, 1957 First successful launch of pilots Vostok 1 through nearly one orbit to Oct. 17 Vela Hotel satellite performs first Soviet R7 rocket, which six weeks later will become first human in space. space-based detection of a nuclear explo- loft Sputnik into orbit. sion. May 5 Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard Jr., Oct. 4 USSR launches Sputnik 1, the first aboard Freedom 7 Mercury capsule, be- July 28, 1964 First close-up lunar pictures man-made satellite, into Earth orbit. comes first American in space, climbing to provided by Ranger 7 spacecraft. 116.5 miles during suborbital flight lasting Aug. 14 First Atlas/Agena D standard Nov. 3 First animal in orbit, a dog, is car- 15 minutes, 28 seconds. ried aloft by Soviet Sputnik 2. launch vehicle successfully fired from Oct. 27 First flight of Saturn rocket marks Vandenberg AFB. Dec. 6 First US attempt to orbit satellite beginning of more than 11 years of Apollo March 18, 1965 First space walk conduct- fails when Vanguard rocket loses thrust and launches. explodes. ed by Alexei Leonov of Soviet Voskhod 2. Feb. 20, 1962 Project Mercury astronaut Lt. March 23 Gemini 3 astronauts Maj. Virgil Dec. 17 First successful Atlas booster Col. John H. Glenn Jr., aboard the Friend- launch. I. “Gus” Grissom and Lt. Cmdr. John W. ship 7 capsule, com­pletes the first US Young complete world’s first piloted orbital Jan. 31, 1958 Explorer 1, first US satellite, manned orbital flight. maneuver. launched. July 17 Air Force Capt. Robert M. White June 4 Gemini 4 astronaut Maj. Edward H. May 15 USSR launches first automatic sci- earns astronaut wings when he reaches White performs first American space walk. entific lab aboard Sputnik 3, proving satel- altitude of nearly 60 miles in rocket-pow- lites can have important military uses. ered X-15, the first aircraft to be flown to July 14 Mariner provides the first close‑up the lower edge of space, considered to be pictures of Mars. Dec. 18 Project Score spacecraft conducts 50 miles. first US active communication from space. Aug. 21 Gemini 5 launched as first manned Dec. 14 Mariner 2 passes Venus at a spacecraft using fuel cells for electrical Feb. 28, 1959 Discoverer 1 becomes first distance of 21,600 miles, becoming the power rather than batteries. satellite launched from Vandenberg AFB, Calif. June 9 First engineer group arrives at Cape Canaveral to prepare Atlas booster carrying first Mercury capsule. Aug. 7 Explorer 6 spacecraft transmits first television pictures from space. Sept. 12 Soviet Union launches Luna 2, which two days later becomes first man- made object to strike the moon. April 1, 1960 TIROS 1 becomes first US weather satellite to go aloft. April 13 Transit 1B becomes first US navi- gation satellite in space.

May 24 Atlas D/Agena A booster places Russian Space Agency photo courtesy of NASA MIDAS II, first early warning satellite, in orbit. June 22 US performs first successful launch of multiple independently instru- mented satellites by a single rocket. Aug. 11 Capsule ejected from Discov- erer 13 parachutes into Pacific Ocean and becomes first orbital payload ever A view of US space shuttle Atlantis docked to the Kristall recovered. module of the Russian space station Mir. This photo was taken from a Soyuz spacecraft by Mir-19 cosmonaut Nikolai Aug. 12 First passive communications car- M. Budarin July 4, 1995, shortly before completion of the ried via Echo 1 satellite. historic first docking mission between a US shuttle and the Russian space station. Aug. 19 Capsule containing first satellite photographs of Soviet Union ejected from

42 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 AD

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 43 March 16, 1966 Gemini 8 astronauts Neil July 20, 1976 NASA’s Viking 1 performs Jan. 13, 1993 USAF Maj. Susan Helms, A. Armstrong and Maj. David R. Scott first soft landing on Mars and begins cap- flying aboard Endeavour, becomes first US perform first manual docking in space with turing images of Red Planet’s surface, with military woman in space. Agena rocket stage. Viking 2 doing the same on Sept. 3. July 19 Launch of a DSCS Phase III sat- June 2 Surveyor 1 is first US spacecraft Aug. 12, 1977 Space shuttle Enterprise ellite into GEO provides the first full five- to land softly on the moon. It analyzes soil performs first free flight after release from a satellite DSCS III constellation. content and transmits surface images to Boeing 747 at 22,800 feet. Earth. Dec. 2–13 USAF Col. Richard O. Covey pi- Feb. 22, 1978 Atlas booster carries first lots shuttle Endeavour on successful $674 Jan. 25, 1967 Soviet Cosmos 139 antisat- Global Positioning System (GPS) Block I million mission to repair $2 billion Hubble ellite weapon carries out first fractional orbit satellite into orbit. Space Telescope, a mission for which the bombardment. crew wins the 1993 Collier Trophy. Dec. 13 Successful launch of two DSCS II Jan. 27 First deaths of US space program satellites puts a full four-satellite constella- Jan. 25, 1994 Launch of the 500-pound occur in flash fire in Apollo 1 command tion at users’ disposal for first time. unpiloted Clementine spacecraft marks the module, killing astronauts Gris­som, White, first post-Apollo US lunar mission. and Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. Chaffee. July 18, 1980 India places its first satel- lite, Rohini 1, into orbit using its own SLV-3 Feb. 7 First Titan IV–Centaur booster Sept. 8 Surveyor 5 conducts first chemical launcher. launches first Milstar Block I satellite into analysis of lunar soil. orbit. April 12–14, 1981 First orbital flight of Oct. 20, 1968 Soviet Cosmos 248 and Cos- shuttle Columbia (STS-1) and first landing March 13 First launch of Taurus booster mos 249 spacecraft carry out first co-orbital from orbit of reusable spacecraft. (from Vandenberg AFB) places two military antisatellite test. satellites in orbit. Dec. 20, 1982 First Defense Meteorologi- Dec. 21–27 Apollo 8 becomes first manned cal Satellite Program (DMSP) Block 5D-2 June 29 First visit of a US space shuttle to spacecraft to escape Earth’s gravity and satellite launched. a space station, the Russian Mir. enter lunar orbit. First live lunar television broadcast. June 13, 1983 Pioneer 10 becomes first Nov. 5 Ulysses, first probe to explore the spacecraft to leave solar system. sun’s environment at high latitudes, com- March 3–13, 1969 Apollo 9 crew members pletes a pass over the sun’s southern pole Col. James A. McDivitt, Col. David R. Scott, June 18 Space shuttle Challenger crew and reveals that solar wind’s velocity at and Russell L. Schweickart conduct first member Sally K. Ride becomes first Ameri- high latitudes (i.e., about two million mph) test of lunar module in Earth orbit. can woman in space. is nearly twice its velocity at lower latitudes. July 20 Apollo 11 puts first human, Neil A. Sept. 11, 1985 International Cometary Feb. 6, 1995 Shuttle Discovery (STS-63) Armstrong, on the moon. Explorer becomes first man-made object to and space station Mir perform first US– encounter a comet (Giacobini–Zinner). Russian space rendezvous in 20 years, Nov. 14–24 US Apollo 12 mission deploys with Air Force Lt. Col. Eileen M. Collins first major scientific experiments on the Sept. 13 First US antisatellite intercept test destroys Solwind scientific satellite by air- coincidentally becoming first woman to pilot moon and completes first acquisition of a US spaceship. samples from an earlier spacecraft—Sur- launched weapon. veyor 3. Oct. 3, 1985 First launch of Atlantis (STS- March 14 US astronaut Norman E. Tha- 51J) results in first launch of pair of DSCS gard becomes first American to accompany Feb. 11, 1970 Japan launches first satel- Russian cosmonauts aboard Soyuz TM‑21 lite, Osumi, from Kagoshima Space Center III satellites from space shuttle using Iner- tial Upper Stage. spacecraft and, two days later, becomes using Lambda 4S solid-fuel rocket. first American to inhabit space station Mir. Jan. 28, 1986 In the first shuttle mishap, Jan. 31, 1971 Apollo 14 launched; its astro- June 29 Atlantis (STS‑71) docks with Mir, nauts will complete first manned landing on Challenger explodes after liftoff, killing seven astronauts. the first docking of a US spacecraft and a lunar highlands. Russian space station. Feb. 22 France launches first Satellite Pour April 19 First space station, Salyut 1, goes March 8, 1996 First successful launch of aloft. l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) for remote sensing. Pegasus XL rocket from beneath modified June 6 USSR’s Soyuz 11 performs first L-1011 aircraft sends Air Force Radiation successful docking with Salyut space sta- Aug. 12 First launch of Japanese H-I rocket Experiment–II satellite into polar orbit. tion. puts Experimental Geodetic Satellite into circular orbit. June 27 Galileo captures first close-up im- Oct. 28 First British satellite, Prospero, ages of Jupiter’s moon Ganymede. launched into orbit on Black Arrow rocket. May 15, 1987 USSR stages first flight of its Energia heavy launcher, designed to lift April 21 Celestis, Inc., of Houston performs Nov. 2 Titan IIIC launches first Defense 100 tons into Low Earth Orbit. first space “burial” when Pegasus rocket Satellite Communications System (DSCS) launched from L-1011 off coast of north- Phase II satellites into GEO. Nov. 15, 1988 USSR makes first launch of west Africa carries cremated remains of 30-ton shuttle Buran using Energia rocket. “Star Trek” creator Gene Roddenberry, LSD April 16–27, 1972 Apollo 16 astronauts guru Timothy Leary, and 22 other space Capt. John Young, Lt. Cmdr. Thomas K. Feb. 14, 1989 Launch of first Block II GPS enthusiasts into orbit 300 miles above Mattingly II, and Lt. Col. Charles M. Duke satellite begins an operational constellation. Earth. Jr. are first to use the moon as an astro- Jan. 17, 1991 What the Air Force calls “the nomical laboratory. April 29 US astronaut Jerry Linenger and first space war,” Operation Desert Storm, Russian cosmonaut Vasily Tsibliev com- July 23 US launches first Earth Resources opens with air attacks. plete five-hour space walk outside Mir, the Technology Satellite (ERTS A), later re- Oct. 29 Galileo swings within 10,000 miles first such joint excursion in space history. named Landsat 1. of Gaspra, snapping first close-up images June 27 In first flyby of “dark, primitive Dec. 3, 1973 Pioneer 10 becomes first of an asteroid. main-belt” type asteroid, NASA’s Near- space probe to come within reach of Ju- May 13, 1992 The first trio of space-walk- Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft piter. ing astronauts, working from the shuttle passes 253 Mathilde. July 15, 1975 US Apollo and Soviet Soyuz Endeavour, rescues Intelsat 6 from useless 19 perform first international docking of low orbit. spacecraft in space.

44 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Space Leaders (As of July 1, 1998) Space and Missile Badges Commanders in Chief, US Space Command

Gen. Robert T. Herres...... Sept. 23, 1985–Feb. 6, 1987 Gen. John L. Piotrowski...... Feb. 6, 1987–March 29, 1990 Gen. Donald J. Kutyna...... March 29–June 30, 1992

Commanders, Air Force Space Command

Gen. James V. Hartinger...... Sept. 1, 1982–July 30, 1984 Gen. Robert T. Herres...... July 30, 1984–Oct. 1, 1986

Maj. Gen. Maurice C. Padden...... Oct. 1, 1986–Oct. 29, 1987 Space/Missile Badge Lt. Gen. Donald J. Kutyna...... Oct. 29, 1987–March 29, 1990 Lt. Gen. Thomas S. Moorman Jr...... March 29, 1990–March 23, 1992

Commanders in Chief, US Space Command, and Commanders, Air Force Space Command

Gen. Donald J. Kutyna...... March 23, 1992–June 30, 1992 Gen. Charles A. Horner...... June 30, 1992–Sept. 13, 1994 Astronaut Pilot* Gen. Joseph W. Ashy...... Sept. 13, 1994–Aug. 26, 1996 Gen. Howell M. Estes III...... Aug. 26, 1996–(Oct. 1, 1998)* Gen. Richard B. Myers...... (Oct. 1, 1998)– *Announced retirement date.

Directors, NASA

T. Keith Glennan...... Aug. 19, 1958–Jan. 20, 1961 James E. Webb...... Feb. 14, 1961–Oct. 7, 1968 Thomas O. Paine...... March 21, 1969–Sept. 15, 1970 James C. Fletcher...... April 27, 1971–May 1, 1977 Robert A. Frosch...... June 21, 1977–Jan. 20, 1981 Missile Badge James M. Beggs...... July 10, 1981–Dec. 4, 1985 James C. Fletcher...... May 12, 1986–April 8, 1989 Richard H. Truly...... May 14, 1989–March 31, 1992 Daniel S. Goldin...... April 1, 1992–

Directors, National Reconnaissance Office

Joseph V. Charyk...... Sept. 6, 1961–March 1, 1963 Brockway McMillan...... March 1, 1963–Oct. 1, 1965 Alexander H. Flax...... Oct. 1, 1965–March 11, 1969 John L. McLucas...... March 17, 1969–Dec. 20, 1973 Missile Badge with Operations Designator James W. Plummer...... Dec. 21, 1973–June 28, 1976 Thomas C. Reed...... Aug. 9, 1976–April 7, 1977 Hans Mark...... Aug. 3, 1977–Oct. 8, 1979 Robert J. Hermann...... Oct. 8, 1979–Aug. 2, 1981 Edward C. Aldridge Jr...... Aug. 3, 1981–Dec. 16, 1988 *The astronaut designator indicates a USAF rated officer qualified to perform duties in space (50 miles and up) and who Martin C. Faga...... Sept. 26, 1989–March 5, 1993 has completed at least one operational mission. Pilot wings are used here only to illustrate the position of the designator on the Jeffrey K. Harris...... May 19, 1994–Feb. 26, 1996 wings. Keith R. Hall (acting)...... Feb. 27, 1996­–March 27, 1997 Keith R. Hall...... March 28, 1997–

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 45 0.05 g 60,000 miles

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit 22,300 miles

Hard vacuum 1,000 miles

Medium Earth Orbit begins 300 miles

0.95 g 100 miles

Earth Low Earth Orbit begins 60 miles Astronaut wings awarded 50 miles

Limit for ramjet engines 28 miles

Limit for turbojet engines 20 miles

Stratosphere begins 10 miles

Space Terms

Aerospace. A physical region made up listic missile—i.e., before the rocket Ecliptic plane. The plane defined by the of Earth’s atmosphere and the space burns out. circle on the celestial sphere traced by beyond. the path of the sun. Burn. The process in which rocket Aerospace plane. A reusable space- engines consume fuel or other propel- Elliptical orbit. Any non­circular, closed craft able to operate effectively in both lant. spaceflight path. the atmosphere and space. Also known Circumterrestrial space. “Inner space” as a “transatmospheric vehicle” or, more Exosphere. The upper limits of Earth’s or the atmospheric region that extends currently, “spaceplane.” atmosphere, ranging from about 300 from 60 miles to about 50,000 miles miles altitude to about 2,000 miles Apogee. The point of greatest distance from Earth’s surface. altitude. from Earth (or the moon, a planet, etc.) Constellation. A formation of satellites Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV). A achieved by a body in elliptical orbit. orbiting for a specific combined purpose. Usually expressed as distance from launch vehicle that cannot be reused Earth’s surface. Deep space. All space beyond the after one flight. Earth–moon system, or from about Atmosphere. Earth’s enveloping sphere 480,000 miles altitude outward. Ferret. A satellite whose primary func- of air. tion is to gather electronic intelligence, Eccentric orbit. An extremely elongated such as microwave, radar, radio, and Boost phase. Powered flight of a bal- elliptical orbit. voice emissions.

46 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 Geostationary Earth orbit. A geo- Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). Flight path Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV). A synchronous orbit with 0° inclination between LEO, which ends at about 300 launch vehicle that can be reused after in which the spacecraft circles Earth miles altitude, and GEO, which is at an flight. 22,300 miles above the equator and ap- average altitude of 22,300 miles. An aerospace vehicle that car- pears from Earth to be standing still. Rocket. Mesosphere. A region of the atmo- ries its own fuel and oxidizer and can Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). sphere about 30 to 50 miles above operate outside Earth’s atmosphere. An orbit at 22,300 miles that is synchro- Earth’s surface. An orbit set at nized with Earth’s rotation. If a satellite Semisynchronous orbit. A condition in which an altitude of 12,834 miles. Satellites in in GEO is not at 0° inclination, its ground Orbital decay. spacecraft lose orbital altitude and this orbit revolve around Earth in exactly path describes a figure eight as it travels orbital energy because of aerodynamic 12 hours. around Earth. drag and other physical forces. Single-Stage-To-Orbit (SSTO) system. Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit Orbital inclination. Angle of flight path A reusable single-stage rocket that can (GTO). An orbit that originates with the in space relative to the equator of a take off and land repeatedly and is able parking orbit and then reaches apogee planetary body. Equatorial paths are 0° to boost payloads into orbit. at the GEO. for flights headed east, 180° for those Stratosphere. That section of atmo- Ground track. An imaginary line on headed west. sphere about 10 to 30 miles above Earth’s surface that traces the course of Space that extends Earth’s surface. another imaginary line between Earth’s Outer space. from about 50,000 miles above Earth’s center and an orbiting satellite. surface to a distance of about 480,000 Sun synchronous orbit. An orbit inclined about 98° to the equator and High Earth Orbit (HEO). Flight path miles. at LEO altitude. At this inclination and above geosynchronous altitude (22,300 Flight path in which altitude, a satellite’s orbital plane always to 60,000 miles from Earth’s surface). Parking orbit. spacecraft go into LEO, circle the globe maintains the same relative orientation High-resolution imagery. Detailed in a waiting posture, and then transfer to the sun. representations of actual objects that payload to a final, higher orbit. satellites produce electronically or opti- Thermosphere. The thin atmosphere Any spacecraft’s crew or cally on displays, film, or other visual Payload. about 50 to 300 miles above Earth’s cargo; the mission element supported by devices. surface. It experiences dramatically the spacecraft. increased levels of heat compared to the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). A two-stage The point of minimum altitude lower layers. solid-rocket motor used to propel heavy Perigee. above Earth (or the moon, a planet, etc.) satellites into mission orbit. Transfer. Any maneuver that changes a maintained by a body in elliptical orbit. spacecraft orbit. Ionosphere. A region of electrically The amount of time a spacecraft charged thin air layers that begins about Period. Transponder. A radar or radio set that, requires to go through one complete 30 miles above Earth’s atmosphere. upon receiving a designated signal, orbit. emits a radio signal of its own. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Flight path Earth orbit with a 90° between Earth’s atmosphere and the Polar orbit. Troposphere. The region of the atmo- inclination. Spacecraft on this path could bottom of the Van Allen belts, i.e., from sphere from Earth’s surface to about 10 pass over every spot on Earth as Earth about 60 to 300 miles altitude. miles above the equator and five miles rotates under the satellite’s orbit (see above the poles. This is where most Magnetosphere. A region dominated orbital inclination). clouds, wind, rain, and other weather by Earth’s magnetic field, which traps Images of Earth occurs. charged particles, including those in the Remote imaging. generated from a spacecraft that provide Van Allen belts. It begins in the upper data for mapping, construction, agri- Van Allen belts. Zones of intense radia- atmosphere, where it overlaps the iono- culture, oil and gas exploration, news tion trapped in Earth’s magnetosphere sphere, and extends several thousand media services, and the like. that could damage unshielded space- miles farther into space. craft.

Reading About Space

Boyne, Walter. Beyond the Wild Blue: A Dauber, Philip, and Richard Muller. The US Civil Space Program. Melbourne, Fla.: History of the United States Air Force, Three Big Bangs: Comet Crashes, Explod- Krieger Publishing Co., 1994. 1947–1997. New York: St. Martin’s Press, ing Stars, and the Creation of the Universe. Launius, Roger D., ed. Organizing for 1997. Reading, Mass.: Addison–Wesley Publish- the Use of Space: Historical Perspec- Burrows, William E. Deep Black. New ing Co., 1996. tives on a Persistent Issue. San Diego: York: Berkley Publishers Group, 1988. Fleeter, Rick. Micro Space Craft. Order American Astronautical Society, Univelt Canan, James W. War in Space. New York: from: Edge City Press, 10912 Harpers Inc., 1995. Harper & Row, 1982. Square Ct., Reston, Va. 22091, 1995. Logsdon, John M., ed., with Dwayne Day Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The Grinspoon, David H. Venus Revealed: and Roger Launius. Exploring the Un- Voyage of the Apollo Astronauts. New York: A New Look Below the Clouds of Our known: Selected Documents in the History Viking Penguin, 1994. Mysterious Twin Planet. Reading, of the US Civil Space Program, Volume II, Mass.: Addison–Wesley Publishing Co., External Relationships. Pitts­burgh: Govern- Clark, Phillip, ed. Jane’s Space Directory 1997. ment Printing Office, 1996. 1997–98. Alexandria, Va.: Jane’s Informa- tion Group, Inc., 1997. Hobbs, David. Space Warfare. Engle­wood Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. Lost Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1986. Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13. Collins, John. Military Space Forces. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Washington, D.C.: Pergamon–Brassey’s, Koppeschaar, Carl. Moon Handbook: A 1989. 21st Century Travel Guide. Chico, Calif.: Mantz, Michael R. The New Sword: A The- Moon Publications Inc., distributed by Pub- ory of Space Combat Power. Maxwell AFB, Cruikshank, Dale, ed. Neptune and Triton. lishers Group West, 1995. Ala.: Air University Press, 1995. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1995. Launius, Roger D. NASA: A History of the Martin, Donald H. Communications Satel-

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998 47 lites 1958–1995. El Segundo, Calif.: The Aerospace Press, 1996. Orbits Mather, John C., and John Boslough. The Very First Light: The True Inside Story Orbits result from the mutual attraction of any two bodies with a force pro- of the Scientific Journey Back to the Dawn portional to the product of their individual masses and inversely proportional of the Universe. New York: Basic Books, to the square of the distance between them. The curvature of the Earth, on 1996. average, drops 16 feet below the horizontal over a distance of about five miles. McDougall, Michael R. The Heavens and A spacecraft circling above would “fall” that same amount over the same the Earth: A Political History of the Space distance. It travels five miles in one second if gravitational pull equals one g. Age. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univer- Therefore, spacecraft velocity of five miles per second (18,000 mph) produces sity Press, 1997. perpetual orbit at sea level, unless the spacecraft’s flight is upset by perturba- tions, such as solar wind or mechanical anomalies. Muolo, Michael L., Richard A. Hand, Bonnie Houchen, and Lou Larson. Space Handbook (two volumes). Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1993. 5 mi. Pace, Scott, et al. The Global Positioning t. 16 f System: Assessing National Policies. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Critical Technologies 100 mi. Institute, 1995. 5 mi. i. . Parkinson, Brad, and James Spilker Jr., 0 m 6 ft eds. Global Positioning System: Theory and 10 1 Applications (two volumes). Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996. Richelson, Jeffrey T. America’s Secret Eyes in Space. New York: Harper & Row, 1990. Ruffner, Kevin C., ed. Corona: Amer­ica’s Orbital Altitude Orbital Inclinations First Satellite Program. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995. LEO Low Earth Orbit 1 Equatorial Sagan, Carl. Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the MEO Medium Earth Orbit 2 Sun synchronous Human Future in Space. New York: Ran- GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit 3 Polar dom House, 1994. HEO High Earth Orbit Schultz, Richard H. Jr., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff Jr., eds. Space: A New Strate- gic Frontier, The Future of Airpower in the HEO 22,300–60,000 mi. Aftermath of the Gulf War. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1992. Seamans, Robert C. Jr., Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans 3 Jr. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing 2 Office, 1996. LEO Shepard, Alan, and Deke Slayton, with 60–300 mi. Jay Barbree and Howard Benedict. Moon 1 Shot, the Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon. Atlanta: Turner Publishing Inc., 1994. MEO Slayton, Donald K., with Michael Cassutt. 300–22,300 mi. Deke!: US Manned Space From Mercury to the Shuttle. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Smith, Marcia S. US Space Programs. GEO 22,300 mi. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1993. Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit Stoker, Carol, and Carter Emmart, eds. Strategies for Mars: A Guide to Human Ex- Target Apogee burn ploration. San Diego: Univelt for American orbit It is common procedure to Astronautical Society, 1996. pick an initial “parking” orbit, usually at LEO, then boost Stuhlinger, Ernst, and Frederick I. Ord- LEO, parking orbit payloads to higher altitude. way III. Wernher von Braun: Crusader for Engines are fired first (at peri- Space, combined edition. Melbourne, Fla.: gee) to reach the apogee of Krieger Publishing Co., 1996. an elliptical transfer orbit and Transfer Timnat, Y.M. Advanced Airbreathing Pro- then are fired again to put the ellipse pulsion. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing spacecraft into a circular orbit Co., 1996. at that higher altitude. Voyage Through the Cosmos: Outbound. Alexandria, Va.: Time–Life, Inc., 1989. Perigee Illustrations are not drawn to scale. Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: burn Bantam Books, 1980. ■

48 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1998