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Dialect Symbols in Aubery's Dictionary

PAULEENA MACDOUGALL SEEBER Nation, Old Town,

Aubery's Dictionary is composed of two manuscripts, one a French-Abenaki lexicon, and the other Abenaki-French. The French-Abenaki part is dated August 8, 1715. In the introductory notes of the French-Abenaki part, Aubery stated that he had known the , but he waited for more than ten years before setting about writing it down according to the French. He also stated that he probably had missed certain words such as those referring to birds or other similar things in the French. This statement leads me to believe that the French-Abenaki part of the manuscript may have been composed later than the Abenaki-French part. However, there is no date in the Abenaki-French part to verify this hypothesis. Both parts include numerous entries which are in several dialects and languages, although in the main, the dictionary is a record of the Aroosagunticook (, Maine) dialect of Eastern Abenaki. In many cases there is no indication that Aubery was aware of the fact that he was recording samples from more than one variety of speech. Still, Aubery's many years at St. Francis (later called ), must have led to an awareness of the many different languages represented by temporary residents and visiting peoples. In addition, his maps show that he had knowledge of the location of communities of Indians other than his own. Some of Aubery's entries are marked with a small capital "L" and some similarly with a "P". We know that the "L" stands for "Loup" because in one entry marked "L" Aubery wrote "mot Loup". Aubery tells us in his introductory notes to the French-Abenaki part, that the letter "P" is a mark indicating that the word is from another language close to

297 298 PAULEENA SEEBER

Abenaki. Unfortunately, he does not tell us which one. There were several Eastern that were called Loup in Aubery's time. Gordon Day has given an extensive dis­ cussion of the subject in his introduction to "The Mots Loups ot Father Mathevet". Day states that Loup was firstuse d to designate the Mahican of the Hudson River, but as early as 1662 Sokoki indi­ viduals were registered at Notre Dame de under the name Loup. Day's investigations of maps in the Public Archives of revealed that in 1680 a map of Canada shows two types of Loups, Mahicans and Sokokis. Another map (1715, attributed to informa­ tion supplied by Aubery) includes two villages: the "penegou ancien village de loups" of the Merrimac River (or Penacooks), and the Koes (Koasseks) on the upper . In addition, Day cites a reference in which the Loups are called a type of Abenaki living, so to speak with the English, and suggests that this came from Aubery, who must have noticed the linguistic affiliation existing between the Sokokis, Penacooks and the (1975:35-44). A number of communities located in northern were known by names that begin with the letter "P". These include: Penobscot, Pigwacket, Penacook, and Pocumtuck. Moreover, anal­ ysis of the data narrows the possibilities considerably.The problem entails more than just guessing the identity of the two dialects in Aubery. For some time, scholars have noticed that the language spo­ ken at modern Odanak does not appear to be the same language as that of Aubery's dictionary. In fact, the Odanak speech has been classified as Western Abenaki to distinguish it from Eastern Abenaki (first used by Siebert in personal communications to Gordon Day and Ives Goddard in 1960). Eastern Abenaki includes Penobscot, Caniba (the language Rasles recorded in his lexicon), and Aroosa- gunticook (most of Aubery's dictionary). Western Abenaki (WAb) is distinguished from Eastern (EAb) by vocabulary differences, differ­ ent vowel phonemes, and in WAb the obviative is not distinguished as to singular and plural forms as it is in EAb. In addition, God­ dard (1967) has observed differences in the objective and absolute TA verbs in WAb. The problem therefore includes the question of what language is represented by modern WAb? Gordon Day (1981) has discussed the historical data and family names. The present study offers a small contribution towards solving this problem. Before discussing the two word lists labelled "L" and "P" , I would DIALECT SYMBOLS 299 like to present some of the assumptions that have been made in this paper. First, we must assume that each corpus represents a sam­ ple from only one speech community. Within this assumption there is the related notion that Aubery did not err in his understanding or his transcriptions. Both of these assumptions are risky and nei­ ther can be proved irrefutably. In addition, one must assume that the speech communities that we are describing were located approxi­ mately where they always had been. If this is true, one would expect a dialect continuum from east to west and north to south.

What was the nature of the speech community at Odanak when Aubery was there? According to Pilling, Aubery served as mission­ ary at the St. Francis River or Odanak village from 1707 until he died in 1755. Odanak was a refugee village. As early as 1669 the village consisted primarily of Sokokis. In 1696 some Loups (?) ar­ rived. Abenakis from the Saco, Androscoggin, and the Kennebec Rivers were led by Jacques Bigot from St. Francis de Sales on the Chaudiere to Odanak in the autumn of 1700. In 1702 100 persons including Sokokis, Algonkins, and Abenakis were added. In 1707, the year that Aubery came, there were also Pigwackets arriving, and they remained for seven years. These Pigwackets were politically aligned with the Abenakis of Maine, having reaffirmed peace with one another at in June, 1703. In 1724 Schaghticokes from the Hudson River including some Pocumtucks, Sokokis, Nipmucks and others arrived at Odanak. They were followed in 1730 by some Mississiquoi and in 1754 more refugees arrived from Schaghticoke.

It is likely that the languages that were recorded by Aubery are samples of speech represented by one or more of the groups who were living at Odanak before 1715. The body of Aubery's dictionary is for the most part understood by Penobscot speakers of modern times. Aubery certainly knew Abenaki well enough at some time in his career to be capable of differentiating some of the dialects that were spoken at Odanak.

Following is an annotated list of the words Aubery marked "L" and "P". For the most part, Penobscot words are from Siebert (1984). 300 PAULEENA SEEBER

The "L" Words

180 second pagination nekesebahadighe 'Je lave'; -had8n, haran- 'cela'; Pen:/kasapahatike/ AI 'he does washing'; /nakasapahala/ TA 'I wash him', /nakasapahaton/ TI class 2 'I wash it'; Rasles: nekesesebeharan 'Je le lave', nekesebehad8n 'Je le lave ; Day: ogezebdadigd 'he washes'

133 arekhigan 'une gratte' pl.ar"melius" kak higanar; Pen. /alekhikan/ INAN 'smoke hole cover'; Rasles: Gratte: kakhigan

267 ne matmi-h8e 'Je preste' han 'a luy' h8si 'a moi meme une chose d'autruy' v.g. I borrow, I pay (it); Pen. /matamihawe/ AI 'he borrows from people'; Rasles:415/514 'Je prete v.g. castor' nematmih8e

8 apask8annar 'ble d'inde inele: cuis et seche au soleil'; vel s8 abannar Rasles 60/395 [ble] nied8tsi apask8asit 'Je fais rotir un epi'; /ni etoci apaskwasit/ 'he roasts it in the coals there' (possible cognate)

86 negabasin-aiik8e (mot L.) 'Je tire la chaudiere du fer'; Pen |kape-| 'out of water or medium'; not found in Rasles

259 manrhi-g8 'jongleur' Pen. /mdlhiko/ AI 'he is odd' (special accomplishment skilled at unusual or extraordinary things); not in Rasles

271 mazahnak 'filasses'; Wzokhilain: rrazon 'wild hemp'; PA /*masa:na/ AN nettle (Siebert 1975:362), not used in Pen.

273 meghe-nan-8i8i 'avec chois' (mot loup), meghenan8i arenaribak 'homes choises', ke meghenan8-ermer 'Je te juge le meilleur' a meghenan8-erdigana kk8 'les elire de dieu' Pen. /makanahso/ 'he chooses'; Day:377: omegeno 'he chooses him'

284 merag8e io 'ce a est foible de peu de duree'; not Pen.

318 naasis 'un peu andela' Pen. |nah-| 'downstream', Rasles:27/558:no'ift' 'en bas de la riviere'

352 natie 'chien'; Laurent: atia, Rasles:113/413: atie, atiak, (EAb but not Pen.), Mathevet:68:ntiay 'mon chien' DIALECT SYMBOLS 301

369 nebes 'Lac' 8nebesinn8ak '(Lac des 2 montagnes)'; (name of the people-Nipissings?); (found in Speck's Becancour texts); Laurent:16: nebes 'Lake'; not Pen, not Rasles

374 pessek8 pk8esigan nann8nank piannak 'on vent un pain pour 5 cordes'; Pen. /pesako pkwesikan ndnawak ppihanak./ (/ppihanak/ 'snare')'One loaf of bread for 5 cords.' (of wampum?) Day:387:ptan 'a rope, string'

619 sedi ak kesi8sk Masta, setti, Wzokhilain sedi 'conifer'; Pen. /sati/ 'conifer', /kasiwask/ 'hemlock'; Rasles 30/386 'les ce- dre' sediak, 'epinette rouge' kessih8sk

637 sewi 'continuellement, a chaque fois, en detail'; Pen. /sewe-/ 'at intervals, on and off'; not in Rasles

639 nesi8-erdam 'je m'ennuye pain, Jay de la peine du chagrin'; Pen. /nasiwelatam/ 'I am weary of mind'

670 nedask8an r8e 'Je suis en embuscade' Pen: /nataskahwcdawe/ AI 'I lie in ambush for people'

714 ne tatann 'mon pere' netatanis 'Le frere de mon pere' "Les en- fants vrais abnaquis se servens aussi de ces mots." Pen: /tatat/ b.t.w. father /natatat/ 'my daddy'

746 me the 'coexiT'8-the 'le sien'; Mathevet: niteh; Edwards's Mahi- gan:7:utoA; Nudenans:89:m'£e/i "pro Lupis", 'cor'; "item pro Montanis"; not found in Rasles or Pen.

795 tza8apenigan 'hamecon' Pen: /cawahpanikan/ IN AN 'net sinker, anchor'; Rasles:283/465: 'hamecon' ta8apenigan

820 8ats8 8a 'montagne' Pen: /waco/; not in Rasles, but Nude- nans:97: 8ats8 "Lup." 'mons'

820 8atta beiande 'peut etre viendra' Nudenans:97:8atta "Lup" 'for- tasse' (perhaps) Day:375 baid 'he arrives'

907 8skanar 'os'; not Pen. (except as adeverbal); Laurent:25:«;sA;an; Day:376:os)fcan 'bone'; Nudenans:105: uskan "Lupis significat" 'os (ossis)' 863 8in8s, -ssak 'oignon sauvage' not Pen., not Rasles; Laurent:43:t/n'nos 'an onion'; Nudenans:102: 8in8s (L.) 'cepa, allium' 302 PAULEENA SEEBER

864 n8ina8a 'ma vielle dit l'homme de sa femme'; Pen. /winehsohs/ AN 'old woman'; Rasles:499/542 'vielle' 8ines8ssis

907 8skebi 'peut etre bien'; not Pen., not Rasles; WAb Laurent:87: wskebi 'perhaps'; Nudenans:106: 8skebi, L. 'fortasse', "addita peg8a significat multum Haec vox non est proprie uabanakkaea, sed Luporum." 869 8i8i-ghemin 'inviter a un festin' (not in Abenaki), Mathevet:76: ni8ihiman 'Je l'invite a un festin'

884 8a 8an-8r8et 'qui se derobe a la vue'; St. Francis family name (Day 1981).

101 ned anra8i matemi h8k8 k8kk8ar 'il ne me veut preter pas de chaudiere', Pen. /natalawi-matamihakw kkohkwal/ 'He fails to lend me the pot'

The words marked "P"

442 paak8ina 'sans bruit' not Pen. (no cognates found)

875 ne mansk-8kk8esi 'Je crie de \oin'-tta8ari 'pour l'avertir le faire venir'; Not Pen.; Rasles:73/399: Bruit: on entend bruit comme marcher, gratter mansk8k8es8

504 pesis 'naques poisson' Not Pen.

525 ne peta8ighe 8ig8anmek 'J'entre a la maison'; Pen./patawike/ AI 'he steps in'; Rasles:22l/446: Entrer nepitighe, v. nepeta8ighe

482 seg8i-pek8 'poudre a tirer',p8ni-pek8angan 'amorce de fusi'; ne pouni-pek8e 'Je la mets'; Pen: /pase/ INAN 'powder, gun­ powder'; /pakw/ 'dust, dirt, ashes, powder'; Laurent:48:pe2a 'gunpowder'

209 n'itsemis 'ma soeur moins agee que moy'; Pen:/nsamis/ 'my cross niece'; Rasles:377/498: Tsemes 'ma niece, la fille de mon frere'; Laurent:22:nichemis 'my younger sibling'; Mathevet:92:m'semzs 'ma petite soeur'

222 kanghesk -esk8si 'cedre'-kie io 'il est de cedre'; Pen:/kdkask/ or /kaksk/ 'piece of cedar wood', /kdkskosi/ AN 'northern white cedar tree', /kdkskiye/ II it is made of cedar wood' DIALECT SYMBOLS 303

268 matanbi 'collier a porter fardeaux'; Pen. and Rasles use /waskwapi 'tumpline'; Mathevet:40,25:matanpt 'collier de portage'

150 pemag8amik 'mousse qui est sur la terre ou sur des planches sur un sois', not Pen.

199 sansanka8 vel sassaghe beghittak 'Le droit fil de l'eau' [probably reduplicated Pen: somkew- 'still, placid'; /sankewapeke/ II 'it is a placid body of water'

161 attek8, tza8apenigan-attek8 vel -akk8em 'bois, manche d'hamecon, peche de ligne'; Pen:/cawahpanikan/ INAN 'net sinker', /makihkanahtakw/ INAN 'fishing rod or pole'. Note: same final, /-ahtakw/ 'stick, stem' and -ahkwem 'pole'.

173 a8ersis 'petit castor'; probably a specific term, not found in other EAb. Note: the presence of c indicates that this is not WAb.

26 ag8 agakk8mae 'crasse' "qui est amassee sur le visage et ailleurs" , Pen. /akwokw/ INAN 'mold, mildew', /akwdkwokame/ II 'dirty body of water'

27 ag8ahda8es 'champignon'

42 ak8ta'i 'en montant la riv. vel naremek, Pen. /nalamak/ loc. 'at the headwaters', Pen. /nalamakwatehe/ AI 'he poles up­ stream'; Rasles:345/488 'monter/on monte v.g. dans la riviere' ak8tehahs8 'a la montee de la riviere' ak8da'i8i

59 8sk8-anbi, et, mat-anbi 'a porter des paquets collier [only mat­ anbi marked "P" see 268, above]

64 paiipen-andaghes8'd'epinette rouge', not Pen., La\iTent:3Z:pobnodage; 'tamarac'

72 ned-aneskam-akresi, n'8r-aneskam-aribis 'ils sont noues', (I am well tied up), intelligible but not Pen. anaskam- 'suspend', kal- 'hold stationary'

119 ned apenigan, epen8a 'Le fils de ma femme ou de mon mari, mon beau fils',Pen . /natahpahkwanikan/ 'stepchild'; [the P mark is on the word epenSa which is not Pen.] 304 PAULEENA SEEBER

129 ne peranb-erdam 'je desespere', Rasles: 176-177 'Je desespere du malade', nenep8ereman, 'Je desespere de cela', nederanberddmen (no cognate for the root per-)

138 eskann 'tranche a percer la glace, cornee a poudre', not Pen.; Rasles:488,489,490: "Tranche trenche p'r la glace, item, gouge, ciseau a pierre a bois', eskan

158 ne'k 8ask8-atsi'j'ay froid', ne kesk8 atsi, ned'anptatsi, ne' g8ask8- sita8-atsi 'J'ai froid aux pieds', Pen. |kwakskw-| to death, /nakwaskwsitawaci/ AI 'my feet are frozen to death', /kawataskihkaco, kawdckihkafio/ AI 'he has cold feet'

160 eghek8ssar certaine plante a fleur blanche, not Pen., but |ekh-| 'hang'

176 ereg8ahmek 'to dream', Pen. /elakwamak/ c. conj. 'where there is dreaming', /alakwahsawakan/ INAN 'a dream', /alakwahso/ AI 'he dreams (thus)'

183 az8b-apesk8 'pierre ne repasser a affiler a oter le morfis', Pen. /asopahpaskw/ INAN 'smooth rock'

195 (second pagination) n'iddokkann 'mon frere a ne dit l'h., es la femme', Pen. /natohkan/ DN AN 'my favorite younger sibling'

205 n'irem8s 'la soeur de ma femme vel. la frere de mon mari', Pen. /nilamohs/ DN AN 'my parallel sibling-in-law'

225 ned ekk8ahbi-ari na8aii a8eni 'c'est pour la premiere fois que je vois une personne d'un tel ca.-actere'; intelligible in Pen. /natahkwapi-alinawa awen/ 'I see someone in this way at a certain point' but more commonly would use /natahkwopi- namiha/

262 kesi-te 'il est chaud, (intelligible, but not Pen.), Rasles: 104/409 'cela est chaud,' kesabede v. keside, Mathevet:73:kessitenam 'Je sue'

282 ket8o 'il fais du bruit,' kesi-ket8o 'beaucoup', Pen. /kasi-/ 'in­ tense'; Rasles:73/399:'bruit' ked8its8an v. ked8e8ets8an, Pen. /katawamo/ AI 'he makes a roaring sound', /katawi-/ prev. 'make noise, sound'

309 g8arik8ne 'de conjuge zelotipus (jealous) est tipa' not Pen. DIALECT SYMBOLS 305

323 ne k8i 'mon sang', not Pen.

327 ne nanb8-h8massi 'Je lui disens' (not transitive, 'I quote things'), Pen. /nanccpo hamawa/ 'I quote him', /nandpohaman/ 'I quote it'

416 ab ask8an 'sagamite de ble mele', Pen. /nsdpan/,'soup' [sim­ ilarly Rasles:454/525: ntsanbann, and Mathevet:13:chanban] (also entered under "L")

494 n'8ri pene 'j'ay un sort heureux' "on prononce pne", Pen. /nolfhpane/ AI 'I have good testicles' (someone was pulling Aubery's leg)

498 peranbi8i 'en perdans courage a cause de la difficulte ou impos- sibilite', not Pen.

510 pian 'corde', this is St. Francis meaning, Pen. /ppihan/ 'snare' is more specific

540 pp8 'il nege', not Abenaki or Mathevet, (a final in some SNE languages)

574 ne reg8as 'Le fils de ma soeur moi home', ne reg8ssak 'mes neveux', Pen. /nalakwass or nalakws/ 'my cross nephew'; ne reg8sesk8e 'ma niece la filled e ma soeur moi h. ou de m. fr. moi f.' Pen. /nalakwsaskwe/ 'my cross niece' (these forms are rare or archaic in Pen.)

593 psig sag8 'un piece de bois fendu, une planche, un madrier'; Pen. /psiksakw/ INAN 'board, plank' (in songs, used for a paddle)

663 kankess-8ghen-skam-an8di kisi pem8sset 'ayant fais plusieurs jours de marche', Pen. /kokehso kani skamowati kisi-pamohse/ 'He finishedwalkin g on the short path after many days.'

551 psk-higan 'fusil' v. pesk, Pen. /peskahwati/ INAN 'gun' [simi­ larly in Rasles:263/460:'fush" pesk8andi, but Laurent:47:;?asA:At'aan 'a gun'

597 sa sanbe net 'ce qu on fais passer sans obstacles une aiguille' -netak, Pen. |sap-| 'in and out', /nasdphaman/ 'I pierce it', |sasccp-| redupl., /sasdpham/ 'he pierces over and over 306 PAULEENA SEEBER

598 ssane io, sanes8 8a 'il est ferme forte stable, Pen. ahsane- 'firm, dense', /ssani-/ prev. 'dense, firm,' /ssaniko/ AI 'he is tight, compact, dense, solid, firm' 598 sen, senar 'pierres'; Laurent:16:sen, senis 'stone, pebble', not Pen. 598 amante sangrek nere8ahgan'p\us adieu que mon coueur fus' Pen./dmocnte sdkalek nalewotkan/ 'Would to God my heart is strong', [note EAb 'heart']

658 si8an 'sel', not Pen., Laurent:28:siu;ara 'salt', PA /*8i:w-/ 'sour' (Siebert 1975:374)

683 8sanmi-p8nessans8 'il y a trop de bois au feu', Pen./wasami- ponassaso/ 'there is a little bit too much placed on', Lau- rent:189 ponasi 'put, place' 684 ne mitsi-kad8ssin 'sur la terre nue'

719 teganbas 'il est penche', not Pen. [not found in Rasles or Math- evet]

811 8ahsi-kkianaht, ttanarit 'qui a un cote du nes coupe', Pen. /we- sikihtanoct/ AN part, 'one with an injured nose'

833 8ebe, 8ebeni [marked "P"] vel keserarimseni tag8ahangan 'moulin a vens'; Rasles:348/490: tag8ahangan, Mathevet:25 tak8aahgan 'moulin a scie', windmill, sawmill, Pen. /takwahcckan/ 'mor­ tar' 801 8tsipireg8 idem v. 8tsipir8ess8 c:] a un retirement de nerfs', Pen./wacfpilakwe/ 'he has a convulsion, seizure'

850 erem-8ghenik vel. 8ghenakkebae 'il viendra quelquun des jours suivants', Pen. /kehsokani/ 'many days', /nisokani/ 'during two days'

856 8igaghi8i 'sans sujet, sans y penser, sans en parler', Pen. /wikaki/ pc. 'without cause, reason'

858 8ig8esk8 'ecorce dans on les fais', Pen. /wikwesk/ AN yellow 876 n'8kk8mis 'La soeur de ma mere' d.h. et f., Pen. /nohkam/ 'paternal aunt', /nohkamass/ 'grandmother'; Rasles:377/498 'mere, grandmere, ma tante' n8'k8mes, n8'k8mi DIALECT SYMBOLS 307

885 8ig8a 8r d'ecorce (canot), not Pen.

907 8skebi peg8a 'est ce petitement id est beaucoup', Day:386 'per­ haps' weskebi, Pen. |pakwa-| ext.rt. 'in/with full measure' There are 29 entries marked "L" and 58 entries marked "P". Some of the entries are single words, and some are phrases or short sentences. A comparison of the sample marked "L" reveals 22 Abenaki words, 14 found in EAb and 10 in WAb, 2 words can be found in both languages. I was unable to locate 5 of the entries in any Abenaki lex­ icon. The sample appears to be an Abenaki language which is very close to both modern Eastern and Western Abenaki. It has the term /waco/ 'mountain' as an animate noun, as in general Abenaki, since in the Southern New England the term is inan­ imate. The word for heart is 8the, which is not found in Abenaki, but is found in Mathevet's Loup and Edward's Mahican. In addi­ tion, Aubery listed the word for dog as natie, which is EAb but not Pen. Some of the forms corresponding to Western Abenaki include: 8in8s 'onion', 8skebi 'perhaps', 8skanar, 'bones', nebes 'lake', and pian 'cord'. This latter term is found in Penobscot but has the more restricted meaning 'snare'. The vocabulary comparisons indicate that this is an Abenaki language. However, vocabulary is the least satisfying data to use in a dialect study. Phonology is much more useful. We know that WAb has an o where e is found in EAb. We find an a/e contrast in two words, natie 'dog', and pessek8, 'one'. Both terms show the e, where WAb would have an a as in atia, and passek8. If Mathevet's Loup represents Pocumtuck or Nipmuck as Day and other scholars contend, then this sample most likely exhibits a speech community somewhat north and east, having more Abenaki vocabulary and including one or more words not generally found in Abenaki but in the Southern New England languages. We know that some Sokokis were residing at St. Francis during Aubery's time there. Day has shown that Sokokis lived on the Connecticut River at Squakheag, (Northfield) when Druillettes met with them in the winter of 1650-1651. Druillettes met with the Sokokis, Penacooks, Pocomtucks and Mahicans to try to get them to fight the Mohawks. The proximity of the Sokokis to these peoples may account for the presence of the small amount of vocabulary found in the sample which is similar to Mathevet's Loup and Edwards's 308 PAULEENA SEEBER

Mahican. Thus it seems possible that this may be a sample of Sokoki. If it is, then Sokoki was an EAb dialect. At the same time Penacook cannot be ruled out entirely, since they were also called Loups and are near the other Abenakis. Either the Penacooks or the Sokokis probably spoke a Western Abenaki di­ alect. Day (1965) reported the meaning of the term Sokoki, which is 'people broken off'. Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the patentee of the Province of Maine stated (1658) that Bashaba (chief of the Penob­ scots) had many enemies, including Sockhigones to the West and Southwest. These Sockhigones were undoubtedly Sokokis (Siebert 1973) who had separated from the remainder of the nation and moved to the upper Connecticut River. Most other known bands can be ruled out on the basis of their geographical position, or known samples of their language. Pena­ cook has been considered a probable candidate for the origin of the WAb language found at Odanak in modern times. Other bands lo­ cated further west such as the Mahicans, and those located along the Connecticut river valley in general can probably be ruled out as the source of this speech sample. The entries marked with a "P" do not represent a sample of Penobscot. There are 33 entries that correspond to EAb. There are 8 entries that are WAb terms. Fifteen entries could be found neither in EAb nor in WAb lexicons. One entry was located in Mathevet's Loup. Some additional evidence includes the word si8an 'sel' which cor­ responds to the WAb word for salt and differs from that of Penobscot or Mathevet's Loup. The word 'heart' is given as nere8angan, an Abenaki term differing from the one given in the list of Loup words. The word 'sister' is rendered nitsemis, which matches the WAb term and also differs from Penobscot, Rasles' Abenaki and Mathevet's Loup, although the Loup word in Mathevet is a close cognate. The word given for blood is nek8i, which is not Abenaki. Also, 8ig8esk8 is given for 'birch bark canoe'. This is a WAb term also given in the list of Loup words. There are six EAb kinship terms. Phonemically, the e is found throughout. For example, nelewangan is given instead of the WAb nelawangan.The three sentences all translate easily into Penobscot, and would be understood by Penobscot speakers. The material presented supports the notion that this is an EAb language. The presence of WAb vocabulary along with two or three DIALECT SYMBOLS 309 forms not found in the other EAb languages, suggest that this lan­ guage may have represented a speech community on the western fringe of the EAb group. Also, it should be noted, that the forms cited that represent EAb more often are closer to forms in Rasles lexicon than in modern Penobscot. The Pigwacket band was located between the Penacook and the Androscoggin. We know that they were politically allied with the Abenakis of Maine. Their presence at Odanak for a period of seven years corresponds to the firstseve n years of Aubery's ministry there. Other scholars, including Siebert, Day, and Goddard have discussed the possibility that this list of words might represent the Pigwacket dialect. The systematic analysis of the vocabulary, phonemes, and syntax suggest an Eastern Abenaki language that is geographically between the Androscoggin dialect of EAb and WAb. Thus, Pig­ wacket is the most logical choice for the speech community repre­ sented by this small vocabulary list. Finally, I think that the association of the "L" and "P" words is such a close one, that it leads me to believe that the two word lists represent a closely related dialect and thus, perhaps the Sokokis were broken off from the Pigwacket band. The two samples are small, and only three corresponding entries could be found. The first shows a contrast in vocabulary: The "P" sample has ner£8ahgan which is an EAb term for heart, but nethe is given in the "L" sample and is not an Abenaki word, but is found in Mathevet's Loup. This may be a borrowing from the Nipmuck since the Sokoki were in close asso­ ciation with the Nipmuck. The second term is abask8an 'sagamite' (soup or stew) is found in both samples. The only difference between the two entries is that one sample is given in the singular, and the other in the plural. I have not found this word elsewhere. The third term tza8apenigan-attek8, tza8ape-nigan 'bois manche de hamecon, perche de ligne, hamecon' (fish hook) is nearly the same in both sam­ ples and is an Abenaki word. In Penobscot, this term has a different meaning, 'net sinker'. Rasles gives the same translation 'hamecon' as found in the two Aubery samples. Both samples contain a mixture of EAb and WAb vocabulary. The "L" sample has 46 percent EAb and the "P" has 60 percent EAb. The "L" has 34 percent WAb but the "P" has only 10 percent WAb. Since dialects usually blend into one another, thus forming a space continuum (where languages are related), the samples indicate that the "P" forms represent an EAb 310 PAULEENA SEEBER

dialect with a minimum of WAb overlap. Admittedly, there are problems preventing a firm resolution of the identity of the dialects marked in Aubery. One problem is that one would expect to find many of the forms marked "P in the Aroosagunticook dialect. It thus seems odd that Aubrey dis­ tinguished these as being from another dialect. Another problem is that the "L" list may be a mixture of Sokoki with Nipmuck, although the data suggests that this is mostly an EAb dialect. Nevertheless I believe that it is reasonable to hypothesize that these are samples of Sokoki and Pigwacket and further, that they are actually closely related dialects of EAb. My conclusion does not solve the problem of the origins of WAb, but it may eliminate some of the candidates.1

REFERENCES Aubery, Joseph A. 1715 Dictionnaire Abnaquis-Francois; Francois-Abnaquis. Manuscript preserved in the museum of the Societe historique d'Odanak, Odanak,

Day, Gordon 1964 A St. Francis Abenaki Vocabulary. UAL 30:371-392.

1965 The Identity of the Sokokis. Ethnohistory 12:237-249.

1975 The Mots Loups of Father Mathevet. National Museum of Man Publications in Ethnology 8. Ottawa.

1981 The Identity of the St. Francis Indians. National Museum of Man Mercury Series 71. Ottawa.

Edwards, Jonathan 1788 Observations on the Language of the MUHHEKANEEW INDIANS. New Haven: Josiah Meigs

Goddard, Ives 1967 The Algonquian Independent Indicative. Pp. 66-106 in Contribu­ tions to Anthropology: Linguistics, I (Algonquian). Anthropolgical Series 78, National Museum of Canada Bulletin 214. Ottawa.

JThe preparation of this article was supported by the National Science Foun­ dation Grant No. BNS-8406950. DIALECT SYMBOLS 311

Laurent, Joseph 1884 New Familiar Abenakis and English Dialogues. Quebec: L.Brousseau

Masta, Henry Lome 1932 Abenaki Indian Legends, Grammar and Place Names. La Voix des Bois-Francs: , Quebec.

Nudenas, J.B. 1760 Radicum wabannakk Ae Arum Sylva Ex Variis Veterum et Recen- tiorum Manuscriptis Codicibus

Rasles, Sebastien 1833 A Dictionary of the Abnaki Language in . John Pick­ ering, ed. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1:375-574. Siebert, Frank T. 1973 The Identity of the Tarrantines, with an Etymology. Studies in Linguistics 23:29-76.

1975 Resurrecting Virginia Algonquian from the Dead: The Reconsti­ tuted and Historical Phonology of Powhaten. Pp. 285-453 in Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages. James M. Crawford, ed. Athens: University of Georgia Press.

1984 Penobscot Dictionary. [Preliminary draft in process of enlargement and revision.]

Wzokhilain, Pial Pol 1830 Wobanaki Kimzowi Awighigan. : Crocker and Brewster. 312 PAULEENA SEEBER

a p p r o x . boundaric Eastern Abenaki

Map showing location of languages and •SCALE OF Mlt.CS dialects mentioned in text