Provision of Primary Education for Pastoralist Children in Nyangatom Woreda: Challenges and Alternatives

PROVISION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION FOR PASTORALIST CHILDREN IN NYANGATOM WOREDA: CHALLENGES AND ALTERNATIVES

MA THESIS

MOY TOPO MURALE (M.T.M)

SEPTEMBER, 2016 ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA

PROVISION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION FOR PASTORALIST CHILDREN IN NYANGATOM WOREDA: CHALLENGES AND ALTERNATIVES

MOY TOPO MURALE (M.T.M)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE MASTERS DEGREE OF ARTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

SEPTEMBER, 2016 ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA

DECLARATION I hereby declare that this MA thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged.

Name: Moy Topo Murale Signature: ______Date: ______

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SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY ADVISOR APPROVAL SHEET OF THESIS PROPOSAL SUBMISSION This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Provision of Primary Education for Pastoralist Children in Nyangatom Woreda: Challenges and Alternatives” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s with specialization in Educational Psychology, the graduate program of the Department of Psychology, and has been carried out by Moy Topo Murale, Id. No: RMA/056/07, under my supervision. Therefore, I recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Eyob Ayenew (PhD) ______Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

SCHOOL OF GRADATE STUDIES ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY EXAMINERS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET We, the undersigned, members of the board of the Examiners of the final open defense by Moy Topo Murale have read and evaluated reviewed his Thesis work entitled “Provision of Primary Education for Pastoralist Children in Nyangatom Woreda: Challenges and Alternatives” and examined the candidate’s oral presentation. This is, therefore, to certify that the Thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master’s with specialization in Educational Psychology. Ato Anteneh Alem ______Name of the chairperson Signature Date Eyob Ayenew (PhD) ______Name of Principal advisor Signature Date Anto Arkato (PhD) ______Name of internal Examiner Signature Date Kasahun Tilahun (PhD) ______Name of External Examiner Signature Date ______SGS Approval Signature Date Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is contingent upon the submission of the final three copies of the thesis to the department of the candidate on the satisfaction of the advisor.

Stamp of Department Date: ______

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I want to give my thanks to Almighty God for giving me the strength to start and go through with my studies. I would like particularly to extend my heart-felt acknowledgement and appreciate the efforts, guidance and encouragement of my advisor Eyob Ayenew (PhD) in his follow-up and shaping me successfully to carry out this paper from the beginning to the end. My special gratitude goes to Mr. Philemon Nakali, Luke Glawocki and Assefa Derbew for their encouragement, material and financial assistance they supported me in this paper. I would also like to thank my friends; Molaleign Kesesie, Abebe Arba and Psychology department lecturers for their best wish and encouragement.

I particularly express my appreciation to Nyangatom Woreda administrator office for its commitment, financial assistance and encouragement. I also would like to thank the Nyangatom Woreda education officers, teachers, supervisors, students and pastoral community representatives involved in the study for their participation.

I gratefully acknowledge my family for their encouragement and support especially to Ekal Nettir, Mugabe George, Atabo Topo, my mother Akuru Ekeno and my lovely B.M.T for helping me strive towards the realization of my potentials, initiation, encouragement and moral support.

Finally, I cannot mention all the people who assisted me in one way or the other during my research work. However, I feel my acknowledgement would be incomplete if I did not appreciate the contributions and the goodwill of all the friends and relatives who assisted me both materially and morally during my research work. Listing all of you would require a separate report of its own.

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ...... xiiii ABSTRACT ...... xivii CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem...... 4 1.3. Research Questions ...... 6 1.4. Objectives of the Study...... 6 1.4.1. General Objective ...... 6

1.4.2. Specific Objectives ...... 6

1.5. Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.6. Scope of the Study...... 7 1.7. Operational Definition of Terms ...... 7 1.8. Organization of the Study ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1. Historical Overview of Education in Ethiopia ...... 8 2.2. Dimensions of Educational Provision in Ethiopia ...... 9 2.2.1 Access ...... 9

2.2.2. Equity...... 9

2.2.3. Quality ...... 10

2.2.4. Efficiency ...... 10

2.3. Education in Pastoralist Areas of Ethiopia ...... 11 2.4. Challenges in Provision of Primary Education for Pastoral Children ...... 12 2.4.1. Socio-Cultural Factors ...... 12

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2.4.1.1. Perceptions of Society towards Girls’ Education ...... 12

2.4.1.2. Parental Attitude towards Education ...... 13

2.4.1.3. Lack of Role Models ...... 13

2.4.1.4. Lack of Awareness ...... 13

2.4.2. Socio-Economic Challenges ...... 14

2.4.2.1. Parental Educational Background ...... 14

2.4.2.2. The Demand for Child Labor ...... 15

2.4.2.3. Poverty ...... 15

2.4.2.4. Insecurity...... 16

2.4.3. School Related Challenges ...... 17

2.4.3.1. Curriculum Relevance ...... 17

2.4.3.2. Language (Medium of Instruction) ...... 18

2.4.3.3. Distance from School ...... 18

2.4.3.4. Lack of School Facilities ...... 19

2.4.3.5. Flexibility of School Time Table ...... 19

2.5. Alternatives to Enhance the Provision of Primary Education for Pastoralist Children in Some Countries ...... 20 2.5.1. Distance education in Indonesia...... 20

2.5.2. Community Participation - Kenyan Experience ...... 20

2.5.3. Boarding Schools and Mobile Schools in Sudan ...... 21

2.5.4. Mobilizing Females - in Mali and Niger ...... 21

2.6. Alternative strategies used to overcome the problems in Ethiopia ...... 21 2.6.1 Alternative Basic Education (ABE) ...... 21

2.6.2. School Feeding Program...... 22

2.6.3. Mobile Schools...... 24

2.6.4. Boarding Schools ...... 24

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2.7. Conceptual Framework...... 25 CHAPTER THREE 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 26 3.1. The Study Area ...... 26 3.2. Research Design ...... 27 3.3. Sources of Data ...... 27 3.3.1. Primary data sources...... 27

3.3.2. Secondary data sources ...... 28

3.4. Populations, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques ...... 28 3.4.1 Target Population ...... 28

3.4.2. Sample Size and Sampling Technique ...... 28

3.5. Methods of data collection and Procedures ...... 30 3.5.1. Methods of data collection ...... 30

3.5.1.1. Questionnaire ...... 30

3.5.1.2. Interview Guide ...... 31

3.5.1.3. Focus Group Discussion ...... 31

3.5.1.4. Document Review ...... 31

3.6. Data Gathering Procedures ...... 32 3.7. Logistical and Ethical Consideration ...... 32 3.8. Data Analysis ...... 33 CHAPTER FOUR 4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 34 4.1. Introduction ...... 34 4.2. Characteristics of Respondents ...... 34 4.3. Finding and Discussion of the Results ...... 40 4.3.1. The Status of Primary Education Participation of Pastoral Children in NW ...... 40

4.3.2. Major challengers of Educational Provision ...... 42

4.3.2.1. Challenges related with Socio-cultural Factors...... 42

4.3.2.2. Challenges related with Socio Economic Factors ...... 49

4.3.2.3. Challenges Related with School Factors ...... 56

CHAPTER FIVE 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 64 5.1. Summary ...... 64 5.2. Conclusion ...... 65 5.3. Recommendation ...... 69 REFERENCES ...... 71 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………………

LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE

Table: 1 Primary school enrollment rates in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia 2000/2001………..…4 Table: 2 Summary of the study population Sample Size……………….…………………….….29 Table: 3 Nyangatom Woreda Grade 6-8 Primary Schools Data…………………………….…...30 Table: 4 Backgrounds of Teachers, Supervisors by Their Sex, Age, Educational Status and Service…………………………………………………………………………..………35 Table: 5 Characteristics of Students by Their Sex, Age and Grade……..………………….……36 Table: 6 Family Backgrounds of Respondent Students…………………...………………….…37 Table: 7 Pastoral Community Representatives by Their Sex, Age, Occupation and Educational Level…………………………………………………………………………………….38 Table: 8 Backgrounds of Education officer by Their Sex, Age, Qualification and Experience…39 Table: 9 primary education GER and NER in Ethiopia regions…………………………………40 Table: 10 Enrolments and Dropout of Selected Schools………………………………………...41 Table: 11 Socio-Cultural Factors …………………………….……………………………...... 42 Table: 12 Low level of pastoral parents attitude towards education…………………………….44 Table: 13 Pastoralists fear for formal education clash with their cultural norm…………………46 Table: 14 Influence of youth (ngisorok) ritual…………………………………………………...47 Table: 15 Socio-Economic Factors ……………………………………………………………...49 Table: 16 The demand of child labor…………………………………………………………….52 Table: 17 The challenge of conflicts……………………………………………………………..53 Table: 18 School Related Factors ……………………………………………………….……....56 Table: 19 poor school-community relationship………………………………………………….59 Table: 20 School Related Factors ……………………………………………………….……....60 Table: 21 Absence of flexible school calendar…………………………………………..………62

LIST OF FIGURES Figure: 1 The interaction of the challenges for provision of primary education, its effects and

possible alternatives..………………………………………………………………….25

Figure: 2 Map of the Study Area. (Source ET-GIS and CSA)…………….…………………….27

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ABE…………………… Alternative Basic Education EFA……………………..Education for All ETP……………………..Education and Training Policy FGD……………………..Focus Group Discussion FPE……………………...Free Primary Education GER…………………….Gross Enrolment Ratio GMR……………………Global Monitoring Report GTP……………………..Growth and Transformation Plan ILO……………………...International Labor Organization MDGs…………………...Millennium Development Goals MoEST………………….Ministry of Education, Science and Technology MoE……………………..Ministry of Education NER…………………….Net Enrollment Ratio NGOs……………………Non Governmental Organizations NW………………………Nyangatom Woreda OCHA…………………..Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs PE……………………….Primary Education PEHNA…………………pastoral and Environmental Network in the Horn of Africa PFE……………………...Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia PCDP…………………....Pastoralist Community Development Project PDO……………………..Pastoral Development Office SNNPR………………….South Nations, Nationalities and peoples region SPSS…………………….Statistical Package for Social Science UN……………………....United Nation UNDP…………………...United Nations Development Program UNESCO……………….United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHR…………………..Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNICEF………………...United Nations Children’s Fund UPE……………………..Universal Primary Education WFP…………………….World Food Programme

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ABSTRACT Provision of quality and equitable primary education is crucial to all societies, including the disadvantaged people living in developing countries. Such education fills not only socio- economic but also political gaps, which, in turn, fosters local, regional and national development and integrity. The objectives of the study was to identify the major school related factors, socio-cultural and socio-economic factors that hinder participation and suggest possible strategies that need to address the educational marginalization of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda. To achieve this, a descriptive research was used. The study was based on data gathered from three schools; Kangaten, Kibish and Shunkura. The sources of data for the study were 120 students, 9 teachers, 3 supervisors, 2 education officers and 18 pastoral community representatives. Probability and non probability sampling techniques were employed. The methods used for data collection were questionnaires, interview, FGD and document review. The data obtained from questionnaires were analyzed using statistical tools like frequency, percentage, mean and one way ANOVA. The quantitative data was organized and feed in to SPSS 20.0 version software and qualitative data were analyzed by narration. The finding of this study revealed that, primary education participation of pastoralist children was characterized by very low enrollment, male-biased, high dropout rate and cultural biased factors. This study found that most of the pastoralist communities were uneducated and illiterate. Among the factors found to be causes for low school participation of pastoralist children were socio-cultural, socio- economic and school related factors. This study also explored the educational alternatives to promote primary education for pastoralist children. In conclusion, socio-cultural, socio- economic and school related factors affect the primary education participation of pastoralist children. In order to alleviate these problems, the concerned governmental and NGOs should work hard to create awareness about the importance of education for pastoralist children to eliminate the cultural influences against children education through different mechanisms such as train the communities, meeting, workshops, advice with their elders and educated pastoralists and giving prize to those who send their children to school.

Key words: Primary Education, Nyangatom Woreda, Pastoralist Children

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CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Many countries of the world are investing huge amount of resources on education because improvement in education is important for continuous development, environmental protection, enhancement in maternal and child health. Education has a great contribution to various developmental sectors, economic, social, cultural, health care and sanitation (Roba, 2006). Education plays a decisive role in improving the living standards of citizens so that nations without basic knowledge and skills might not fulfill the survival criteria in an increasingly knowledge driven world (Liu, 2004).

Moreover, the provision of education to all citizens has become not only a national issue but also an international agenda linked to humanity. The United Nations’ declaration on human rights states that individuals irrespective of their age, sex and social status have the right to education (Lerner, 1991). The 1959 declaration of the rights of children also clearly stipulates that countries that fail to provide education for all school age children will be deemed to be neglecting their duties. This is because inability to address these rights in some context makes the victims incompetent for sociopolitical participation on the issues that might affect them (UNESCO, 1996).

It was also recognized by international communities that primary education is both a necessity and fundamental human right. To this end, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of human rights (1948), which embodies article 17 stating: ‘access to primary education is the fundamental human rights’ article 26 states ‘everyone has the right to education; education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages’.

Tylor (1997:1) stress: “primary education in developing countries is considered to have greater importance because of its wide range of benefits. It builds a capacity for lifelong learning in

1 individuals and develops knowledge, skills and attitudes, which will contribute to the general development of the community”.

Primary education is assumed to be the basic tool for welfare of the nations through improvement of productivity and reduction of poverty (Colclough & Levin, 1993; Kadzamira & Rose, 2003), conservation of environmental sanitation and assurance of family health (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991) as well as strengthening good governance and participation in the community (World Bank, 1995). Thus, primary education started to be seen not only as part and parcel of major human rights but also as one of the leading political and social agendas of many countries (Tisdell, 1997; UNICEF, 2007).

Of course, this right is assumed to be equally applied for all. In line with this, as it was stated by Oxfam (2005:1) Pastoralist girls and boys have also the right to access basic education. However, pastoralist children still do not enjoy their right to a basic education. According to the London Seminar on “Educating Pastoralist Children” held in September, 2007, it claims, “…limited primary level educational contributions in terms of access in marginalized areas such as pastoral areas, the proportion of children who get even a primary or basic education is very small –in some areas, less than 10% and much less than that for girls” (PENHA, 2007:2). Pastoralist children’s enrolment, attendance, classroom performance, academic achievement, transition to higher stages of education, and gender balance remain much-below those of other groups (GMR, 2010, Dyer, 2010).

As a result, many international conventions demanding expansion of primary education are formulated. For instance in 1990, Article 3 of the World Declaration of Education for All (EFA) identified pastoralists as one of several groups who are discriminated from accessing education services. EFA demanded an “active commitment” to removing educational disparities (Dyer, 2010). After decades, the Jomtien Declaration was reaffirmed and extended at the world education forum in Dakar in 2000. One hundred eighty-nine countries have committed themselves to eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) aimed at eradicating extreme poverty and improving the welfare of their people by the year 2015. The second of the goals is to “Achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE)” with the specific target of ensuring that, by 2015 all children everywhere particularly girls children in difficult circumstance and those belonging

2 to ethnic minorities will have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality (Bruns & Mingat, 2003).

Ethiopia is globally recognized for having taken ownership of the MDGs agenda and integrating them into successive national development plans from the Sustainable Development Poverty Reduction Programme (2002/03-2004/05) to the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) (2010/11-2014/15). Ethiopia has successfully achieved six of the eight MDGs. Even for the other two lagging MDGs—MDG 3 on ensuring gender equality and empowering women, and MDG 5 on improving maternal health—significant progress has been observed.

After two decades, the 2010 Education for All Global Monitoring Report on “Reaching the Marginalized” noted that this challenge had become urgent. The Report noted that on the rapid progress towards education for all (EFA), pastoralists have been left behind, and continue to face extreme educational disadvantage (GMR, 2010:179).

Despite enormous efforts and sacrifices over the past decades, the Dakar Forum acknowledged that several developing countries are far from achieving the goal of UPE. The greatest majority of school aged children are still not in school, the numbers of children out of school increases from year to year (Bruns & Mingat, 2003).

Pastoralists are a significant population worldwide, showing little sign of disappearing and, in some areas, actually expanding. They often represent a significant part of notional food and export commodity production. The problem of the education of nomads is not going to go away, and is now one of the major challenges for education provision in many countries.

Coming to the case of our country, UNESCO, (2002) stated: In Ethiopia, Pastoral people are found nearly in all lowlands on the border of the country. The great majority of those pastoralists’ populations are found in SNNPR, Somali, Oromia and Afar region. Further, UNESCO stated that the state of its pastoralist population seems ever worse. They are among the most deprived and neglected groups in the country. Educationally, they are the least advantaged and least educated. Their participation at the primary level is far below the national average and almost nil at secondary and higher levels of education.

Southern Nation, Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) is one of the peripheral regions in Ethiopia. And Nyangatom Woreda (NW) is one of the Pastoral Woreda in the region. Central (purpose) to this research is the search for answers to the existing challenges to provision of primary education of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda. This research tries to analyze some of the government efforts towards making education accessible to the pastoralist communities of Nyangatom Woreda.

1.2. Statement of the Problem The Ethiopia’s government had introduced in Education and Training Policy (ETP, 1994) focusing on enhancing school participation at all levels across the country. For this to happen, it has exerted its maximum potential to launch schools for expansion of education, including pastoralist areas of the country. The ETP clearly stated that education is the means and power of a given society to solve their economic and political problems and difficulties. Hence, providing quality and relevant education in all parts of the country is mandatory task, according to Ministry of Education (MoE, 2007).

However, educationally pastoralists appear to be in paradox. (Kratil, 2001:67) states that pastoralists are in complete failure: in terms of enrolment, attendance, classroom performance, academic achievement, continuity to higher education, and gender; adult education; they regularly scored at the bottom of the ladder.

Table: 1 primary school enrollment rates in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia 2000/2001

No Region Number of School age GER primary schools children M F T 1 Afar 131 242601 12.7 9.8 11.3 2 Somalia 250 807841 13.4 7.2 10.3 3 South Omo Zone 77 28990 44.7 27.6 36.2 4 Borena 337 347874 68.2 24.1 46.2 5 National 11780 12904379 66.3 46.1 56.2 Source: MoE- Educational Annual Abstract and UNESCO 2002:30

Schools in pastoral areas have a very high rate of staff turnover and the highest rate of requests for moving to other locations. Teachers are not impressed by the combination of erratically paid low salary, isolation and lack of teaching resources and harsh life. For example teachers may have to travel long distance with no public transport in order to buy food or collect their wage. Moreover, a pastoral background is not always a guarantee that the teachers will settle in the job places than trying to move to town (MOEST, 1999). Furthermore, teachers who are not from the same ethnic group as the pupils are likely to speak a different language, resulting in serious problems of communication in the classroom.

In terms of education, the mobility of pastoralists is a significant issue (Oxfam, 2005:2). As a result of their mobility, pastoralist children are unable to attend normally in school during the usual day- time hours of a conventional school year. This resulted in a largely illiterate pastoral population without the required knowledge and skills to participate in the development endeavor of the country.

In general, the challenges in the literature review and remoteness are clearly technical obstacles to the provision of formal education for pastoral children through the systems that are designed for sedentary people in well-connected and densely populated areas.

According to South Omo Zone Education Bureau (2016) annual abstract, the gross enrolment ratio (GER) of primary school aged children is 79.04%, however, the pastoralist Woreda of Nyangatom is 42.77 percent GER in formal primary education.

The pastoralist area of Nyangatom Woreda is highly deprived of educational opportunities. The people who live in this area are under the influence of harsh climatic condition, deprived of basic social services, susceptible to drought and famine, and suffer from malnutrition (PDO, 2005).

Above all, the enrollment and participation of pastoral children in primary education is still much below the national average. Therefore, the situation in NW is taken as a serious issue. Hence, in dealing with primary education, the researcher has one year experience in teaching and principal position in the study area. The situation, in turn, highly initiated the researcher to assess the major challenges that hinder the provision of primary education in Nyangatom Woreda.

This study therefore sought to examine the challenges that hinder Nyangatom Woreda pastoralist children to participate in primary education.

1.3. Research Questions In light of statement of the problem, the study aims to answer the following questions:  What is the current status of primary education provision in Nyangatom Woreda?  What are other major challenges that hinder the provision of primary education in Nyangatom Woreda?  To what extent do the perceived challenges of educational participation vary among the study schools?

1.4. Objectives of the Study

1.4.1. General Objective  The general objective of the study is intend to examine the extent of challenges that hinder the primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda and come up with alternative strategies that could possibly fix problems.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives  To assess the status of primary education provision in Nyangatom Woreda.  Explore other major challenges that hinder the primary education participation of children in Nyangatom Woreda.  To identify the extent of perceived challenges significant variation among the study schools.

1.5. Significance of the Study This research work has the following significance: It will help to provide valuable suggestion for policy makers, planners and authorized officials to give attention to the problems regarding primary education provision in pastoral areas. In addition, it will also bridge the knowledge gap that exists with provision of primary education in Nyangatom Woreda. Moreover, the result of the study might be used as a stepping stone for scholars who want to conduct further study in the area. Last but not least, the researcher hopes that the outcomes of this research will benefit the Nyangatom Woreda in identifying the

6 problems and giving clue to make the pastoralist children to participate in learning process to attain the intended objectives.

1.6. Scope of the Study The major scope of this study is to assess the present status of primary education provision in Nyangatom Woreda (NW); by examining the major challenges which hinder participation of pastoral children in the Nyangatom Woreda. It is also obvious that challenges which constrain the provision of primary education are many and varied. Therefore, this study is limited to mainly on the major socio- economic, socio-cultural and school related challenges in Nyangatom Woreda. Even though there are many schools in Nyangatom Woreda, the study was limited to Kangaten, Kibish and Shunkura primary schools with a total of 152 students’ 80 male and 40 females, 9 teachers, 3 supervisors, 2 educational officers, 18 pastoral community representatives. Thus, a sample was taken to represent the entire population in each category of respondents.

1.7. Operational Definition of Terms Challenges: is referring to things that are imbued with a sense of difficulty for accessing primary education in the pastoralist community context. Pastoralist: People who are mainly dependent on animal husbandry and subsist on animal products, as their source of food and income. Primary Education: Education in grades 1-8, subdivided in two cycles, the 1st cycle (grades1-4) and 2nd cycle (grades 5-8) and there official age group is from 7-14. Provision: The action of providing or supplying.

1.8. Organization of the Study The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one comprises: background, statement of the problem, research questions, objectives, significance, and scope and operational terms. Chapter two focuses on literature that presents about: Introduction, Education in Pastoralist Area of Ethiopia, Challenges in the provision of primary education and Alternative Strategies. Chapter three deals with Research Methodology: research design and approach, sample and sampling technique, methods of data collection tools and data analysis. Chapter four describes about result and discussion. The last chapter presents summery of research findings, conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Historical Overview of Education in Ethiopia Basically a well-organized system of non-formal education was started in Ethiopia with the introduction of Orthodox Christianity during the Axumite Kingdom in 330 A.D (Bahru, 2002).

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church was the leading institution for education until the introduction of modern education at the beginning of the 20th century. The first Orthodox Christian priest, called Aba-Selama, was also the first teacher in Ethiopia (Haile, 1976). The primary goals of this education were initially to make learners servants of the church and secondly to produce civil servants like administrators, and government officials (Girma, 1967; Teshome, 1979). Modern education was introduced from Britain, France, Italy, the USA and Egypt (Tekeste, 1990).

Emperor Menelik II issued the first proclamation on education in 1906. According to this proclamation all school-age children were required to go to school to get free education. To strengthen education for all school-age children, Menelik agreed with the conservative leaders of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church about teaching modern education in the church in addition to church education, under the supervision of the Ministry of Education (Tekeste, 1990). After the death of Emperor Menelik in 1913, a more conservative empress named Zewditu came to power and then the Ethiopian clergy and nobility closed down modern education (Ayalew, 1982).

Later on, Ras Teferi, also known as Emperor Haile selassie I, who was a student of the Menelik II School, reopened modern schools in Addis Ababa and hired new principals and teachers from France and made them teach in through the medium of French (Teshome, 1979). Even though the clergy strongly pushed Emperor Haile selassie to close modern secular schools again, he continued to expand them (Tekeste, 1990). By 1935 fascist Italian forces completely destroyed the modern system of education in Ethiopia by changing schools into military camps. Moreover, all missionaries except Roman Catholics were made to close their schools and leave the country. As a result, numerous educational materials were destroyed and educated Ethiopians were also

8 systematically killed. The period is known as the eradication of human resources in Ethiopia (Tekeste, 1990).

After the downfall of the Dergue in May 1991, a new governmental system called the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) came into being and ratified a new education and training policy in April 1994. It is currently well recognized by educational planners in Ethiopia that primary education is the most substantive and critical input to get a problem-solving citizen. The country made a commitment to the goal of Education for All (EFA) and MDG by striving to meet the basic learning needs of its population through the provision of primary education for all school-aged children. The country has also been trying to respect the values of equality, particularly equality of educational opportunity for all, irrespective of sex, race, tribe and nationality (Zyin, 2013). Nevertheless, Ethiopia still has tremendous gaps in providing education for pastoralist communities. Here, education for pastoral communities does not only have problems related to access and equity, but also gaps of quality and efficiency (Ayalew, 2000).

2.2. Dimensions of Educational Provision in Ethiopia Educational provision at any level is viewed in terms of four essential elements, namely: access, equity, quality and efficiency.

2.2.1 Access According to the 2012/13 data of the Ministry of Education, efforts to expand primary education have resulted in the country reaching a Gross Enrolment Ratio of 95.3%, the corresponding figure for 1991 being less than 50%. Although the efforts to expand coverage of access to primary education have been tremendous and successful, there are still school-age children with no access to primary education. In Afar and Somali regions, the 2012/13 educational abstract of the Ethiopian MoE indicates that low enrolment added to high dropout has been putting greater pressure on the implementation of EFA and MDGs in the country (MoE, 2012/13).

2.2.2. Equity Various studies have reported that monitoring inequality is much more difficult than monitoring access (GMR, 2009). For example, a global monitoring report indicated that only 8% of the 53 countries studied were planning to monitor inequality in learning (UNESCO, 2014). In spite of this, conducting a study on issues related to educational equity is fundamentally important. This

9 is because the provision of primary education for all entails considering and treating all citizens in a fair and equitable manner (Lewin & Sayed, 2005; Porta et al., 2011). This is still partly because all forms of development in any nation require capacitating all educable individuals in the nation.

2.2.3. Quality Improving the quality of learning and achieving the 6th_ goal of EFA is most likely the central issue to meet the post-2015 global developmental expectation (UNESCO, 2014). The end result of poor quality education is duplication of the existing illiteracy (Lyche, 2010). This is mainly because spending eight years in the full cycle of primary schooling and receiving a certificate for completing that level of education does not guarantee literacy (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991).

Quality in education is viewed not only by what goes into the education process alone, but also mainly by the outcome of the process. Issues that need to be considered in determining the achievements of quality education might include making students competent citizens, helping students develop a culture of sensitivity to problems and building students’ abilities to solve their life problems, enabling students to develop critical inquiry and master meaningful content standards as the result of the learning process, making students aware of the socio-political settings that might affect their lives at national and international levels (MoE, 2010).

2.2.4. Efficiency Efficiency in education is related to the economical use of time, human resources, materials and money available (Monk, 2009). Educational efficiency is very important, particularly in developing countries, where there is serious scarcity of resources (Palmer et al., 2007). Problems related to efficiency are manifested in wastages in education system mainly in forms of school dropout and grade repetition (Grant & Hallman, 2006; Hunt, 2008). In Ethiopia it was reported that of those who begin class in grade one, 40% dropouts and 45% were repeaters, thus, the rate of completion of grade five was very low (UNICEF, 2014).

According to MoE (2010), the picture has changed in that the rate of dropout fell to 20.6% and grade repetition to 5.3% and the rate of completion of grade five jumped to 62.7%. Clearly, over the years dramatic improvements have been recorded. Yet for primary education to be meaningful, the repetition and dropout rates should come down from their present levels. MoE

(2010, p.12) describes that, “many children still do not complete the first cycle of primary and repetition and drop-out rates remain high throughout the whole cycle.

2.3. Education in Pastoralist Areas of Ethiopia Pastoral communities have been neglected for a long period of time and deprived of most basic human needs, including education. Century has elapsed since modern education was introduced in Ethiopia. But, Ethiopia faces many historical, cultural, social and political obstacles that have restricted progress in education. For instance, pastoralist areas had suffered for long time neglect and marginalization under past governments, Markakis (1993) explained that the Ethiopian government rural policy of 1975, i.e. the proclamation for the nationalization of rural lands was largely silent on the formation of associations in the nomadic areas. It merely stated, “All obligations to elders were abolished and the nomadic people shall form associations to effectively carry out this proclamation in manner suitable for development”. As a result, there were no significant activities regarding educational facilities in the arid areas of the country.

At present, the development of education services to the under privileged nomadic society has attracted attention. The government had acknowledged the existence of inequalities and had made commitments towards remedy the imbalances. Article 89 No 4 of the constitution of FDRE states that “The government shall provide special assistance to Nations, Nationalities and Peoples who were least advantaged in economic and social development”.

On the other hand, the ETP (1994) states that; “special financial assistance will be given to those who have been deprived of educational opportunities and steps will be taken to improve the educational participation of deprived region”. Moreover, the policy provides for the use of local languages as a medium of instruction decentralized curriculum and flexible school colanders.

In Ethiopia, for example formal education is supposed to be introduced by change agents within pastoral communities: After acquiring knowledge and skill in modern cattle rising and modern farming methods, basic care and nutrition, they will go back to the communities to serve as change against to improve the living conditions of their people (Sileshi & Girma 1997:36).

However, the existing reality is not computable with the policy documents. There is still low educational enrollment and participation rate in the disadvantaged pastoral region. For instance, according to Oxfam (2005) in the pastoralist area of Fik and Jijiga in Ethiopia, formal basic

11 education provision reaches only 16 percent of children the majority from urban areas. Furthermore, the grass enrollment rate of children in primary school of Afar region is below the national average. The share of participation of Afar children found to be very low compared to that of non-Afar. To put it differently, a large proportion of school age Afar children were out of schooling (Ziyn, 2004:110).

On the other hand, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia in June, 2004 reported that “education is by far one of the biggest burning problems of the Borena pastoral society. The education level has been limited to only 4th grade” (P.3). Because of the constant migration of the nomadic pastoralists, they can’t send their children to schools (Sileshi &Girma, 1995, in Ziyn, 2004:49).

2.4. Challenges in Provision of Primary Education for Pastoral Children It is widely accepted that all children should receive at least primary education to yield sustainability to the development of a country. However, there are many hindrances to popular participation of ethnic minorities and other disadvantaged groups like pastoralists in primary education. Several reasons have been stated for low school enrollment and participation. Of these the major ones can be categorized in to: Socio-Cultural, Socio-Economic and School Related.

2.4.1. Socio-Cultural Factors Education is a social phenomenon aimed at up-grading the overall development of a given society. As a result any change in the society is interrelated with education. However, pastoralist parents may fail to send their children to school or there may be frequent dropout and absenteeism from school due to cultural influence (Kratil, 2001).

2.4.1.1. Perceptions of Society towards Girls’ Education Gender inequality is rooted in individuals’ and societal bias against girls (Colclough, Rose, & Tembon, 2000). It also manifests in the form of domestic chores that are largely gender biased and result in assigning domestic chores exclusively to the female child, thereby compromising girls’ human right to education (Rose & Al-Samarrai, 2001; UNICEF, 1992). Hence girls are very much occupied in undertaking various domestic chores and they do not have time for school. Moreover, some pastoralists assume that formal education might alienate their children from the pastoral community and take them to some other community (Jama, 1993) possibly

12 exposing a daughter to a shameful premarital pregnancy that might condemn a girl to remain unmarried for life (Berhane & Woldu, 1995).

On the other hand, early marriage is one of the socio-cultural factors that hinder the educational participation of girls in most developing countries (Carr-Hill, 2005). One of the factors in Asia, Africa and Latin America is early marriage. Several studies in Africa and other developing countries have shown that there are certain culturally induced practices which encourage early marriage. In Mali, young girls are made to understand that they must marry not to be ridiculed. In Ghana, the dowry and other related systems of giving cattle and sheep are the reasons for early childhood marriage (UNICEF 2011).

2.4.1.2. Parental Attitude towards Education Parental attitude towards education is one of the social factors that affects school enrollment and participation of pastoralist children. Pastoralist families own informal education of their children is concerned with teaching them about their way of life and values (Oxfam, 2005).

In Kenya, one of the reasons for low enrollment is that the value of education might not be fully realized among the pastoralists and schooling is not a priority in their traditional way of life (Norman, 1990; in Ziyn, 2004). A similar case study in Mongolia shows that pastoral parents believe that education undermines the youth’s sense of identity and belongingness to their own ethnic group, their understanding of the pastoral way of life as a life of dignity and independence (Kratli, 2001).

2.4.1.3. Lack of Role Models The lack of a role model has a significant influence on children’s learning. As an important part of social learning, modeling is an important tool to learn acceptable and positive behavior from another significant person. Therefore, absence of formally educated family members in the community makes its own contribution in preventing children from attending school (Kratli, 2001). Absence of role models for females in many pastoral communities has hindered girls’ school attendance (Akaranga, 1995; Teshome, 2003).

2.4.1.4. Lack of Awareness Lack of interest in education is also attributed to Lack of Awareness. Illiterate parents are insensitive to the value of education and therefore difficult to persuade. On the other hand, the

‘value of education’ is such a strong dogma amongst educated extension agents, teachers and program staff, that even when faced by the huge limits of the education systems on the ground, low attendance rates are still attributed to parental ignorance.

A good recent survey of education in northern Kenya acknowledges the extremely low quality of the service, including unhealthy boarding conditions, frequent practices of child abuse, comparatively high costs, and virtually no possibility of finding employment once graduated. Nevertheless, when just a few pages later it comes to discussing low enrolment, the explanation given is that ‘the high rates of illiteracy among parents contributed to the ignorance of the value of education’ (MOEST, 1999: 17).

2.4.2. Socio-Economic Challenges From the economic constraints in the provision of primary education for pastoral children; poverty, the demand for child labor, educational background of parents and insecurity are discussed below.

2.4.2.1. Parental Educational Background A number of studies have found that educational background of parents is important for the determinant of children’s educational and dropout. For example, Hyde, (1989), reveals that educated parent is more likely to send their children and keep them longer than illiterate parents. Most illiterate parents lack the ability to initiate and support their children in education as that of the literate ones. Illiterate parents may also think that formal education is a threat to their cultural or become openly hostile to it as they have no exposure to modern life.

Additionally, the educational level of household members is particularly influence in determining whether and for how long children access schooling. Parental education is the most consistent determinant of the child education, also the mother education in particular has a greater effect on daughters access (Ersado, 2005; in Hunt, 2008).

Similarly, research findings in Tanzania (Al Samarrai and Peasgood’s 1998; in Hunt 2008) indicated that fathers’ education has a great influence on boy’s primary schooling and mother’s education on girls; while a married mother’s primary education can increase the probability of girls enrolling in primary schooling by 9.7 percent and secondary by 17.6 percent.

Parents who have reached a certain education level can be expected to want their children to reach at least the same level, and for the educational participation of girls, the mother education will probably be especially important (Breen and Goldthorpe, 1997; Emerson and Portela, 2007). Furthermore, (Hunter and May, 2003, in Hunt, 2008) claim that, youth from poor families, the child of poorly educated parents and a child with fewer role models in his/her families have higher education were more likely to drop out. In general, majority of the pastoralist community are uneducated and illiterate (Netsanet, 2011) as a result, the society did not understand the benefit of education, and the value given to education was very low. They give priority to their traditional customs than education.

2.4.2.2. The Demand for Child Labor A Child domestic labor is a common phenomenon in many developing counties. A side from the lack of school opportunities low-quality schools, the absence of choice in educational provision and poverty (Willmore 2004, Tomasevski 2001a, in Ishmael & Sara, 2010), child labor remains one of the greatest impediments to attaining the goal of universal basic education. Children are persons aged between 5 and 17 years and, child labor, according to the international labor organization (ILO), encompasses “any work that is likely to be hazardous or interfere with the Child’s education or be harmful to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development” (ILO, 2005).

Children’s involvement in the household division of labor is negatively referred to as “child labor” and represented as situations that deprive children of their fundamental right to education. Child work with nomadic society is seen as resulting from their economic life style, a backward way of life and effect of poverty (Kratil, 2001). Children’s dropout from school before the end of the year on their own accord; because of their families need their labor (World Bank, 2003).

2.4.2.3. Poverty Poverty is the most prevalent economic situations among rural communities. It has a significant effect on schooling families with low-income status could not provide their children with the necessary requirement for schooling. Poverty has been widespread in many sub-Saharan African countries including Ethiopia. Although people experience poverty in different ways: - lack of land, unemployment, lack of social services, etc. Most define it as inability to meet basic needs (UNESCO, 2005).

Several factors can contribute for the highest rate of poverty and the least access to social services in pastoralist area. These include intermittent, drought, displacement and eviction, deforestation and desertification, inter-ethnic conflicts, lack of communication and infrastructure, lack of income-generation into the national social and political economies (UNESCO, 2005).

Pastoralist peoples generally live in the poorest part of the country. They feel the financial burden of providing education services more than other wealthier communities (Oxfam, 2005). In general, poverty is found to be one of the problems faced in the universalization of education, and its associated effects was the main challenging force behind the provision of primary education for pastoral children.

2.4.2.4. Insecurity Ethiopian pastoralists used to live in the peripheral areas close to international borders with so many other geo-economic quandaries forcing them to face a precarious existence (Ziyn, 2013). They are prone to tribal conflict related to resources, such as water and pastures, that may lead to loss of property, and then to poor school attendance (UNESCO, 2002). In northern Kenya for example, schools in remote areas are good targets for the abduction of girls by raiding groups (Carr-Hill & Peart, 2005; Kratli, 2001). The Ethiopian experience also indicates that frequent internal disputes with neighboring pastoralists due to cattle rustling, competition over pastureland and water sources put the pastoralists in constant danger (USAID, 2011). Moreover, Pavanello, (2009) describes the situation why conflict arises in pastoralists’ area in the following way:- Loss of communal grazing land due to increased farming activities or due to environmental degradation has fueled conflicts in a number of pastoral areas across the horn of Africa. For example in the Awash Valley in Ethiopia, home of the Afar pastoralists for centuries, the irrigation potential of the Awash river has been attracting the attention of the Ethiopian state since the 1950s. The gradual appropriation of large areas along the river for cultivation purposes by the state has led to the progressive exclusion of Afar pastoralists from some of the most important resources of the valley. ….The competition for scarce resources with the neighboring clan, the Somali Issa, has led to the conflict between the two clans, with raids and counter-raids being a regular feature (p.14). As discussed above, lack of resources due to various reasons

16 creates insecurity in the pastoralist community which in turn constrains their participation in education.

2.4.3. School Related Challenges Researches in education indicated that school related factors affect the participation, enrollment and dropout of children’s in schooling. According to Aoki and his colleagues (2004:27; in Dereje 2005), even where adequate school places exist, parents may not choose to enroll their children because the school lacks electricity or toilets, because of the behavior or perceived effectiveness of teachers, because of a lack of books and materials because of the language on instruction used or other reasons. Some of these factors are discussed as follows:

2.4.3.1. Curriculum Relevance Education systems rely almost on standard curricula: all pupils in the same grade everywhere in the country learn the same things more or less in the same way. However, pupils’ environment and experiences can vary greatly from place to place and from one way of life to another (Kratil, 2001:32), lack of curriculum differentiation has become one of the major explanations for pastoralists’ supposed low interest in education and for the high drop-out rate from schools.

As different research findings indicate, the school curriculum developed for sedentary people has no relevance for pastoral community (UNESCO, 2002). In relation to this, Kratil (2001: 34) stated that “School curricula are developed by sedentary people for sedentary people (urban dwellers for urban dwellers) and therefore are largely irrelevant to nomads’ experience and concerns”.

Kratil (2001) responsive approaches should overcome the risks associated with the curriculum relevance explanatory paradigm by using participatory methods to involve pastoralists in the process of definition and identification of what is relevant to them, or in the generation of the curriculum itself, retaining fusibility in order to be able to adapt when the need for change arise.

One of the ways of developing the motivation of learning is preparing the curriculum in such a way, with flexibility for local and regional diversity, to meet the learning needs of the citizens in general and the pastoral nomads in particular according to their livelihood system. If it is not, the teaching learning process would be negatively affected and students may lack interest in learning. Which causes absenteeism, dropouts and repetition, the result is educational wastage.

2.4.3.2. Language (Medium of Instruction) Language as a medium of instruction makes a greater contribution in the teaching and learning process (McNab, 1988; Smith, 2008; UNESCO, 1985) and currently the international agreement is that every child should start his/her learning in the mother tongue (McNab, 1990; Tomasevski, 2004). In spite of this, children in most disadvantaged communities are learning in a language that they do not speak (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991). The authors further report that: Children who speak a language other than the language of instruction confront a substantial barrier to learning. Particularly in the crucial early grades, when the children are trying to acquire basic literacy as well as adjust to the demands of the school setting, not speaking the language of instruction can make a difference between succeeding and failing in school, between remaining in school and dropping out (p. 153).

Generally, it is true that educational provision in primary schools requires delivering instruction to all children in their own respective mother tongues. Therefore, it is impossible to think of achieving education for all without considering various languages of the communities from which the school children originate (Cohen, 2007).

2.4.3.3. Distance from School Distance to school creates negative attitudes among the students and their parents towards education in rural communities. In the case of pastoral nomads it gets serious. That is, pastoralist live far from the towns and are also constantly on move. In connection with these (Oxfam, 2005:4) stated, pastoral children living in dispersed mobile groups may have many kilometers to walk each day to and from school. This raises safety issues for girls on the way, and also in school, where they may be far from their family and therefore more vulnerable to abuse.

Similarly, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (2004) reported that, “Borena pastoralist are not very comfortable with sending girls to school because the schools are located for away in towns. Children could not travel to faraway places to attend class. Particularly the girls are victims of this situation” (P.3). Furthermore, according to Lockheed and Verspoor (1991) the most detrimental factor of primary school enrollment in rural areas is the proximity of schools to primary school age children, because at the early age, it is so difficult for a child to walk a long distance to attend school.

2.4.3.4. Lack of School Facilities In pastoralist area school facilities has a great importance to attract pastoral children in to school. Water, toilet and clinic have a great value for pastoral children because they live in semi-desert areas and harsh climate. In relation to this, Oxfam (2005:4) states that if schools have no toilets or running water that is safely accessible to girls, they may miss many weeks a year of schooling while menstruating.

One of the most common constraints of enrollment and participation of children at school is shortage of school facilities like, inadequate buildings, latrines, water, learning material etc According to Ziyn (2004), improved facilities are systematically beneficial to students learning. Especially in the areas where there is a shortage of furniture in the classroom and where students are required to sit on the floor, parents are reluctant to send their children to school (World Bank, 1996). In some countries, parents are against sending their daughters to school because of the absence of separate classroom and toilets (World Bank, 1997).

Furthermore, Roa (1985:182, in Ziyn, 2004) with his case study in Kawahla pastoralists, in the schools, the majority of children simply sit on the floor, there was no toilet and facilities for drinking water, and only half of the students had the necessary books and writing materials. In general, lack of school facilities is one of the factors that hinders the, enrollment, dropout and achievement of students.

2.4.3.5. Flexibility of School Time Table Many children in developing countries are out of schooling. From these pastoralists take the largest share because of their mobile life. As a result of their mobility, pastoralist children are unable to attend formal education because, formal schools system works in rigid time table within extremely determined school hours and fixed school calendar. This is not work for educating pastoral children, unless they are settled.

Kratil (2001) more compromising approaches have adopted on evening, short, or flexible school time-table in order to minimize; (a) The drop-out of children due to labor commitments or other aspects of students’ life conditions: (b) the economic disadvantage of removing child labor from the pastoral economy: and (c) the resistance of the parents to send children to school. Flexible age entry may also be adopted, in order to facilitate older out-of school children. On the other

19 hand, early entry age or a longer time in school does not appear to have a relevant effect on achievement (Husen 1972; in Kratil, 2001).

In general, to promote primary education enrollment in pastoral areas, the school calendar should be flexible, based on the seasonal movement of the community and the school time table should be negotiated in order to allow pastoral children to attend classes.

2.5. Alternatives to Enhance the Provision of Primary Education for

Pastoralist Children in Some Countries Different measures were taken in different countries to overcome the challenges to reach the unprivileged and disadvantaged part of the society.

2.5.1. Distance education in Indonesia Indonesia uses broadcasting as a key element in its plans for overall development, using the media to integrate school, non school, agricultural, informal and other development agencies. Students who are far remote and in rural areas and are marginalized or denied access can be reached and benefit from distance teaching. Radio, television or satellite can reach the most isolated and hard-to-reach places where transportation is most difficult. Distance teaching thus enables countries to provide an alternative way of educational instruction to remote areas and distant villages where there are no facilities like transportation or electricity with less cost since they can operate with batteries and no school buildings are needed. It has also the advantage of reaching many students at a time than the classroom teaching (Bishop, 1989:157).

2.5.2. Community Participation - Kenyan Experience In Kenya in 1988, the community of Wajir raised funds on behalf of girls’ education and constructed a girls’-only primary school in Garissa, as a reaction towards the killing of pastoralist girls travelling from Wajir, residence area, to the boarding school which is located 200 kilometers away in a car accident. What the community did was they hired educated female teachers trained also to promote gender equality, girls’ right and cultural practices in a district where there was strong opposition to educating girls. The result was that enrolment has since then increased from 40 girls to 576 girls (Oxfam, 2005). Community participation makes schools relevant to the local needs and conditions and more efficient. It helps students develop self

20 confidence and awareness, helps teachers and principals develop leadership abilities, and communities benefit from the outcome of producing literate community (Teshome, 2007: 7).

2.5.3. Boarding Schools and Mobile Schools in Sudan In the pastoral areas of the Sudan, education was offered by establishing boarding schools and was controlled to some degree by parents and it didn’t disrupt traditional cultural values and lifestyle. Teachers are recruited from a good pastoral background, teaching cycles are adapted to pastoral seasonality and special provision is made to ensure that girls have equal access to school (MRG, 1999:6).

The Darfur mobile school is a one-teacher multi grade school, supported by Oxfam, set up to provide schooling for small numbers of children travelling with their families in small groups. Low population density, high mobility, and limited demand for schooling imply that, under certain circumstances, a multi grade model can be highly applicable and is appropriated. However, the multi grade model approved by the government restricts schooling to only the first four years of basic education and the primary school is not complete. (Oxfam, 2005:7)

2.5.4. Mobilizing Females - in Mali and Niger In pastoralist communities in north-eastern Mali and western Niger, Oxfam is working with school and community or female mobilisers, in order to encourage higher rates of attendance and participation by pastoralist girls in formal schooling. The mobilisers help to tackle some of these issues by working with parents and teachers (mostly male) to change negative attitudes towards girls and schooling, and to reinforce the right to an education and these have helped to make the school environment more friendly to girls, and the walk to school safer (Oxfam, 2005: 8).

2.6. Alternative strategies used to overcome the problems in Ethiopia In Ethiopia different strategies were attempted to minimize the problems related to education in the pastoralist areas in Afar, south Omo Zone, Somali, and Oromiya.

2.6.1 Alternative Basic Education (ABE) Alternative basic education has been a very important school equivalency program opening up access to education for a number of rural, poor, remote and other vulnerable groups across Ethiopia and it has been particularly useful for pastoral groups. It targets children ages 7-14, but practically, youth, and even adults, attend the classes.

In the pastoralist areas of Fik and Jijiga of Somalia state in Ethiopia, formal basic education provision reaches only 16 per cent of children, the majority from urban areas. In order to address the severe problem of lack of basic education in rural areas, Save the Children UK, working with the Regional Education Bureau, is implementing an alternative basic education program for pastoral and agro-pastoral children. An appropriate and relevant curriculum has been developed, adapted from the existing formal education curriculum, and locally recruited teachers are given training in basic teaching skills and subject matter.

The school calendar is flexible, based on the seasonal movement of the community, and the school timetable has been negotiated in order to allow both boys and girls to attend classes. Links with the formal education system have been established in order to allow children who complete the three-year alternative basic education cycle to join the second cycle of primary education in the formal system (Oxfam, 2005).

In some regions, like Somali, of the regional government, where other models like boarding schools and mobile schools were being piloted, and regional bureaus identified alternative basic education over and above other models like boarding schools or mobile schools as a primary strategy to bring educational access to pastoral children. The Ministry of Education also reports that alternative basic education contributed to 5.5% of the nation’s GER in the 2005-6 school year (MoE, 2007 in Pact Ethiopia, 2008). However, the increase in enrolment of the pastoralist population under alternative basic education is uneven. In Borena Zone, 34 % of children were out of school in the 2005-6 school years. And, 30% of this 34% were pastoral children. The fact that local materials like building elements, furniture, and teaching materials serve for the time they are is in use only, concerns of quality, that teachers with only a few weeks training do not perform as well as others who have been certified or upgraded and the like are some of the shortcomings of adult basic education. Therefore, if alternative basic education is to be mainstreamed by the government, it needs to receive adequate resourcing, management and programmatic inputs.

2.6.2. School Feeding Program The World Food Programme (WFP) operates school feeding across Ethiopia, working in Afar, Amhara, Oromia, Somali, SNNPR and Tigray. School feeding is operating in 1090 schools in 137 woredas and WFP states that it is reaching 80% of food vulnerable areas. The program

22 serves 544,000 children in Ethiopia, 41% of these being female. WFP states that its intervention has increased girls ratio of participation in school from 3.57 in 1998/9 to 39.17 in 2002/3, and that enrollment in 2002/3 school year increased by 9.37% in school feeding schools, while it increased by only 5.90 in non-assisted programs (WFP Circular).

School Feeding remains a polemic (dispute) issue. Some laud the praises of school feeding, noting how it has helped 15 million children recover from conflict, improve learning achievement, raise girls’ enrollment and reduce dropout. Yet others cite how school feeding can create a culture of dependence, waste teachers’ time with logistics, result in school attendance only during feeding distribution times, and create expectations that cannot be sustained by the system. School feeding has often had adverse effects on educational programs in neighboring communities, creating a ‘culture of incentives’.

In Ethiopia, when school feeding happens, it is associated with formal schools and it tends to reach the towns and population centers, not remote areas (Pact-Ethiopia, 2008: 35). Children who are the ones more likely to go to formal school already have better access to services and better ability to reach the town. It is those who are far from town who are the most in need. Therefore, in regions with majority pastoral populations, like Afar and Somali, school feeding is without a doubt, reaching pastoral children and increasing enrollment.

In Somali, officials state that enrollment has skyrocketed by ten to twenty-folds in some schools and that overcrowding has now become a problem. However it is not reaching the most needed children and the most mobile pastoralists, those who are farthest away from towns. Furthermore, some implementers of the program report that while enrollment has certainly increased, the level of enrollment reported is sometimes inflated in order to boost rations delivered to the schools.

In other regions, it was found that pastoralists were who formerly mobile or semi-mobile would settle around school feeding sites. Some that were “fiercely independent” communities became quickly wrapped in a cycle of dependency after becoming involved in school feeding programs (Pact-Ethiopia, 2008). In Oromia, it was found that some students purposely failed in order to continue attending class and receiving the food supplements. Even implementers of school feeding wonder how long funding will last to continue the current level of effort.

2.6.3. Mobile Schools Pastoralists are located in water-scarce environments and move when drought, disease or other need for resources arise and compel them to do so. In some regions, communities stay together and travel as a community. However, in other areas, like in Somali state, they may not go in the same direction. The camel herder and the cattle herder may want to go in different directions.

According to Pact Ethiopia (2008), Oromia pastoralists dealt with the challenge of mobility by using sticks to construct temporary schools that can be shifted (moved) easily because they could be easily disassembled and packed to the next location. But one problem is that teachers don’t want to move with the pastoralists and they often want to stay stable being closer to larger population settlements. In Gambella state-sponsored centers, because Gambella Regional Bureau follows the centers, providing supervision, support and ensuring that they are not left behind, the teachers move with the group, carrying all the necessary materials with them.

2.6.4. Boarding Schools Boarding School is one of the alternatives in the provision of primary education to improve the literacy rate of nomads in Ethiopia. As follow-ups to these directives, intensive studies has been carried out to determine where to located and construct boarding schools in the nomadic areas of the country. Based on the studies, there were plans to open 18 boarding schools in the following areas for the nomadic children. Gambella, kumurck, Negele, Gode, Gewane, Akobo, Chagni, Moyale Horewa, Awassa, Maji, Asosa, Pawe, Elkere, Kebridehare, Dlecha and Guraferda (Sileshi and Girma, 1995:37 in Ziyn, 2004).

Farther more, boarding schools were established in Kenya to cater for wastage in primary school due to the migratory life style of the communities as well as probative distance from schools (Akaranga, 1995, in Dereje, 2005). Boarding schools have also been established in towns to cater for children from mobile families, but these have often been hampered by lack of demands, high running costs, poor families, shortage of regular supplies of food, and lack of security, particularly for girls (Oxfam, 2005:3-4).

2.7. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study is based on the interaction of the challenges for

provision of primary education, alternatives and its effects.

Cultural barriers Economic barriers School barriers

Challenges

Alte  Alternative basic Education  School feeding program rnati  Mobile schools ves  Boarding schools

 Increase of cultural beliefs  poverty  Low enrollment

Effects  High dropout rate

Figure 1: The interaction of the challenges for provision of primary education, possible alternatives and its effects.

As indicated in figure above, access to provision of primary education for pastoralist children: challenges remains a great problem. This is as a result of barriers which includes; school related constraints, economic constraints and cultural constraints. To overcome these challenges, alternatives should be put in place which requires policies from the government and partnership with stakeholders such as parents and teachers. These alternatives are Alternative Basic Education (ABE), School feeding program, mobile schools and boarding schools. If these alternatives are adopted, it will result to the following outcomes: high enrollment, low dropout rate and reduction of traditional beliefs. However if there are no alternatives put in place to overcome the challenges, the following outcome will result in: Low enrolment, high dropout rate, increase in traditional beliefs and poverty. Pastoralist children gain access to provision of primary education by being beneficiaries of the free primary education.

CHAPTER THREE

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. The Study Area Nyangatom Woreda is located in South Omo Zone of SNNPR in Southwest part of Ethiopia. It is one of the eighth Woredas in South Omo Zone established in 2006 with an area of 2652 km2. Geographically, it is situated in the 40.85'-50.67'N & 350.75'-360.23'E. Kangaten, the capital of Nyangatom Woreda, is located some 948 km southwest of Addis Ababa. It is inhabited mainly by Nyangatom accounting for 87% of the total population (CSA, 2007). The woreda consists of hot and dry climates. The Woreda is surrounded by Salamaga Woreda and Bench-Maji Zone in the north, South Sudan and Ilemi Triangle in the west, Dasenech Woreda and Kenya in the south and Hamer Woreda in the east.

Demographically, the Nyangatom Woreda has a total population of 32, 6871 with 162, 029 males and 164, 842 females (CSA, 2007). Ethnically the Woreda constitutes 87% Nyangatom and 95% of these people live in the rural areas. The other ethnic groups in the Woreda are Koygu and Murle. The predominant economic activity of Nyangatom Woreda is animal husbandry, mainly cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys. The great majority of Nyangatom people migrate seasonally in search of grazing and water for their animals. However, the overarching vision of the federal government is the transformation of this pastoral society into settled agro-pastoralists along the banks of rivers (FDRE, 2006). As a result, some of the Nyangatom people have settled along the banks of the Omo River and begun to adopt a sedentary life.

Nyangatom Woreda holds two of the biggest parks in Ethiopia. They are Omo and Mago National park and Murle game reserve. The Woreda has also two archaeological sites; Shunkura (lower Omo) and Kibish sites. The Woreda has also cultural events (ekumomar) conducted in year. The Woreda has two hot springs. They are Lokulan and Narus. The selection of the Woreda was based on the fact that Nyangatom Woreda is semi arid area with little access of children to education in the pastoral community of SNNPR in South Omo Zone, the Woreda is also affected by traditional beliefs which affects education and it is also situated at junction of three countries; Ethiopia, Kenya and South Sudan. It was therefore that these factors were explored and studied.

Figure 2: Map of the Study Area. (Source ET-GIS and CSA)

3.2. Research Design This study focused on the major challenges that affect provision of primary education for pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher employed descriptive survey design with mixed quantitative and qualitative methods. Descriptive survey was selected and applied because it helps to collect data in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject existing in the study area. A descriptive survey is also concerned with relationships that exist, identifying facts, practices that are prevailing processes that is going on, effects that are existing in the study area.

3.3. Sources of Data To accomplish this study, both primary and secondary data have been applied.

3.3.1. Primary data sources The primary data used in the study was collected from 120 students of grade 6-8, (these students were taken as a sample by assuming that they had better awareness about the issues) 9 teachers, 3 supervisors, 2 education officers and18 pastoral community representatives.

3.3.2. Secondary data sources Secondary data like guidelines, reports, annual statistical abstract collected from sample primary schools and Woreda education office were used to produce data to compare it with the primary data and to triangulate it. 3.4. Populations, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques 3.4.1 Target Population The target population refers to all the members of real set of people, events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of our research (Borg and Gall 1977). The primary focus of this study is to find out about the views and characteristics of a population from a given perspective but because of the area square kilo meter of the Woreda, the Woreda is very vast, it is not practicable to study all of the schools. Therefore, it is compulsory to study a segment of the population. The total sample subjects for this study were 152 respondents which consisted of 120 students, 9 teachers, 3 supervisors, 2 educational officers and 18 pastoral community representatives. In Nyangatom Woreda, there are five full primary schools. Three schools were drawn in this study Kangaten (60 students), Shunkura (30 students) and Kibish (30 students) primary schools of Nyangatom Woreda.

3.4.2. Sample Size and Sampling Technique In order to make the sample size manageable, it is necessary to determine the number of schools. To carry out the study, the researcher selected three primary schools: Kangaten, Kibish and Shunkura primary schools randomly from the five primary schools in Nyangatom Woreda. A total of 40 girls and 80 boys giving a sample of 120 students were used in the study. Stratified random sampling was deployed to select students, from each class because this type of sampling permits the researcher to identify sub-groups within a population and create a sample which mirrors these sub-groups by randomly choosing subjects from each stratum/classes. Such a sample is more representative of the population across these sub-groups than a simple random sample would be. The number of sampled students was proportionally selected from each class based on their gender differences. In general, students from grade 6-8 were taken as a sample by assuming that they had better awareness about the issues. Therefore, all three schools subjects in the sample represented 37.5% of all the 320 subjects in the target population.

Table: 2 Summary of the Study Population Sample Size Respondents Target population Sample size Technique M F T M F T Students 245 75 320 80 40 120 Stratified random sampling Teachers 19 9 28 6 3 9 Simple random sampling Supervisors 4 1 5 2 1 3 Purposive sampling community representatives 25 15 40 12 6 18 Purposive sampling Education officers 2 - 2 2 - 2 Purposive sampling Total 314 100 395 102 50 152 M= Male F = Female T = Total In this study, a sample of 60% of the 5 primary schools in the woreda was selected for the study. There were 5 full public primary schools in the woreda, which the sample represent 60%. The simple random sampling technique was used to get the 3 schools in all the 5 schools. All the names of the 5 schools in the Woreda were written in a piece of paper, folded, put into a tin, shaken well and drawn. Two officers in the education sector of the Woreda were selected purposefully. These individuals have a great deal of practical experiences regarding the overall challenges and achievements in the provision of primary education under their respective spheres of influence. According to Peilm, _ (1982), purposive sampling is suitable because the sample chosen fill certain criteria and is chosen for intensive study, as they are considered typical. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) states that purposive sampling is a technique that allows a researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to the objectives of the study. Eighteen pastoral community representatives were needed not only to identify the real problems in the provision of education among Pastoral children, but also to get data on school related, socio- cultural, and economic constraints related to participation in primary education.

Table: 3 Nyangatom Woreda Grade 6-8 Primary Schools Data

School Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Total population M F T M F T M F T M F T Kangaten 66 27 93 56 20 76 51 18 69 173 65 238 Shunkura 22 1 23 13 - 13 9 - 9 44 1 45 Kopiriai 7 1 8 11 - 11 - - - 18 1 19 Kibish 21 5 26 10 3 13 7 1 8 38 9 47 Kuchuru 10 - 10 17 - 17 - - - 27 - 27 Total 126 34 160 107 23 130 67 19 86 300 76 376 M= Male F = Female T = Total Source: Nyangatom Woreda Education Office. (2016)

3.5. Methods of data collection and Procedures

3.5.1. Methods of data collection In this study both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using questionnaire, interview, focus group discussion and document analysis.

3.5.1.1. Questionnaire Questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. It is a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions, or attitudes of some sample of individuals. It is the most frequently used very concise, preplanned set of questions designed to yield specific information to meet a particular need for research information about a pertinent topic.

Therefore, in this study, open and close ended item questionnaires were developed for 120 students. A total of 40 items were developed. Before using data collection instruments, particularly the questionnaire were checked by experts. The instruments were developed by the researcher guided by the objectives of the study. Both types of the questionnaires were prepared in English only since English is medium of instruction at this level. (Unclear questions were explained by the researcher). The first part of the questionnaire includes background information of the respondents (8 Q). The second part of the questionnaire contains closed and open ended

30 items about the general information of pastoralist children primary education (7 Q). The third part of the questionnaire contain items about the major challenges affecting the primary education participation of pastoral children which were prepared in the form of Likert type rating scale, and level of agreement was indicated by five point scales ranging (very high =5, high =4, moderate=3, low =2 and very low =1 (20 Q)). And the forth part of questionnaire asks short explanations (5 Q). This was in line with attaining the study objectives. As stated by Gall (1996) that questionnaires are appropriate for research studies since they collect information that is not directly observable. They also have the advantage of being less costly and using less time.

3.5.1.2. Interview Guide Interview was conducted to elicit detailed data from the teachers, supervisors and educational officers. In this study the focus of the interview was to understand the experience, perception, interest, views, and difficulties the participants face in primary education provision and participation. The information obtained from the interview helped what to do next. The participants interviewed within their locality that means the teachers and supervisors at schools and education officers at the office.

3.5.1.3. Focus Group Discussion FGD, which is an essential data collection instrument for understanding the perceptions, ideas, thoughts and experiences of different groups of people (Bryman, 2008; Krueger & Casey, 2000; Morgan, 1998), was used to collect data from18 pastoral community representatives. The semi- structured FGD guide was prepared. Totally 18 pastoral community representatives were participating in the focus group discussions. These members were needed to identify the real problems in the provision of primary education among pastoral children and also to get data on socio-cultural, socio-economic and school related constraints related to participation in primary education. The participants FGD was held within their locality that means in their localities. The guide was prepared in English only.

3.5.1.4. Document Review Document analysis was used to assess the extent of primary education enrollment and drop-out rate of pastoralist children in the study area. Document reviews was collected from record office in the three selected schools and educational office of statistics in the Woreda.

3.6. Data Gathering Procedures The data were collected using the instruments mentioned above according to the following procedure. First of all, questionnaire, which is the main instrument of data collection in this study, was prepared and distributed to 10 students selected from Kopiriai primary school. The school selected for pilot study was excluded in the main date collection of the study. The data obtained from pilot study was administered using Crobach alpha in order to test the content validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The coefficient of reliability of items found (μ= 0.74), it was within an acceptable range.

The pilot survey was used in order to determine whether the words in each item were properly understood, that each item measured what it was intended to measure, and that the items were interpreted similarly by all respondents, and that each item contained an adequate range of response categories. Depending on the feedback obtained, two questions which were not appropriate to the study were edited. After correction had been made to the questionnaire, it was distributed to the respondent students found in the selected three primary schools in the sample. After the questionnaire was duly filled in, relevant documents were critically reviewed. Finally, interview was conducted with Woreda education officers followed by focus group discussion with pastoral community representatives. The interview and FGD data were collected by note taking, tape and video recording as much as possible. The researcher followed these producers to compare the data obtained through questionnaires, interview, and FGD and document analysis to triangulate the findings.

3.7. Logistical and Ethical Consideration The researcher obtained a recommendation letter from the Arbaminch University prior to the data collection day. The researcher got permission from the Nyangatom Woreda Education office and Head teachers of the selected primary schools before the actual day. Ethical considerations such as confidentiality and informed consent were adhered to. The researcher explained to the respondents the purpose of the study and assured them that the data to be collected was solely for research purposes and that such information would not be disclosed to any other person due to confidentiality.

3.8. Data Analysis The data in the study was collected through different tools and analyzed in line with the basic questions raised in chapter one. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to analyze the data. The demographic characteristics of the respondents were analyzed using frequency, percentage and mean. One Way ANOVA was used to identify the significant difference among the study schools on the major challenges. While data having qualitative nature was analyzed by narration. This qualitative method was chosen because the data were categorized according to themes and objectives in relation to the opinion, views and perception of the respondents. To analyze the data obtained from the questionnaire, SPSS version 20.0 software was used.

CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction This chapter deals with the analysis, presentation and interpretation of the data collected from grade six to eight students through questionnaires. Two sets of questionnaires (open and closed) were deployed to 120 students. And, all the questionnaires were properly filled and returned. On similar manner, semi structured interview guide questions were presented to 9 teachers, 3 supervisors and 2 Education officers and Focus group discussion was held with 18 pastoral community representatives.

The analysis and interpretation of the data has been made based on the responses obtained from the respondents. The discussion of the findings focuses mainly on the challenges which hinder the provision of primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda. Most of the data gathered were organized using table followed by discussions. Furthermore, the qualitative data gathered from open-ended questions, interviews and focus group discussions are used as additional inputs to supplement the discussion.

4.2. Characteristics of Respondents The purpose of this sub topic is to give some basic background information about the subjects of the study. The subjects of the study were students, teachers, supervisors, education officers and pastoral community representatives from the three primary schools; Kangaten, Kibish and Shunkura.

Table: 4 Backgrounds of Teachers and Supervisors by their sex, age, Educational status and service No Variables Teachers Supervisors F P F P 1 Sex Male 6 66.7 2 66.7 Female 3 33.3 1 33.3 2 Age 18-25 2 22.2 1 33.3 26-30 4 44.4 2 66.7 31-35 2 22.2 - - Above 36 1 11.1 - - 3 Educational status Certificate 3 33.3 - - Diploma 4 44.4 1 33.3 BA degree 2 22.2 2 66.7 6 Experience in 1-2 years - - - - pastoralist area 3-5 year 2 22.2 1 33.3 6-10 3 33.3 2 66.7 Above 10 year 4 44.4 - - F= frequency P =percentage As shown in Table 4, a total of 9 teachers were involved in the study selected from the three schools. Regarding their sex, 6 (66.7%) of the respondents were males and 3 (33.3%) of the respondents were females. With respect to supervisors, 2 (66.7%) are males while 1 (33.3%) female. Regarding the age of respondents, 2 (22.2%) and 4 (44.4%) of the teachers were between the age group of 18-25 and 26-30; respectively. The remaining 2 (22.2%) and 1 (11.11%) of them are between the age group of 31-35 and 36 above. Concerning the age of supervisors, 1 (33.3%) and 2 (66.7%) are between the age group of 26-30 and 31-35 years.

Concerning the educational background of respondent teachers, 3 (33.3%) of them were certificate holders, 4 (44.4%) of them were diploma holders and 2 (22.2) of them were BA degree holders. Regarding the educational status of supervisors, 1 (33.3%) of respondent supervisor is diploma holder, and the remaining 2 (66.7%) of them were BA degree holders.

Regarding their service years, 2 (22.2%) of respondent teachers were 3-5 years, 3 (33.3%) served between 6-10 years and 4 (44.4%) served above 10 years. This shows that the majority of the teachers were familiar with the background of pastoralist community or experienced in the study area. This was essential to obtain relevant data for the study about the major school related, socio-cultural and socio-economic factors which hinder the primary education participation of pastoralist children. The: 5 Characteristics of Students by their sex age and grade level

No Variable F P 1 Sex Male 80 66.7 Female 40 33.3 2 Age 11-14 36 30

15-18 51 42.5

Above 18 33 27.5

3 Grade 6th 42 35

th 7 41 34.2 th 8 37 30.8 F= frequency P= percentage As is shown in Table 5, out of the total of 120 students involved in the study, 80 (66.7%) are males and 40 (33.3%) are females. This data shows that the primary education participation of pastoralist girls in the study area was very low. As to their age, 36 (30%) of respondent students were found between 11-14 years, while 51 (42.5%) and 33 (27.5%) of them were found between the age category 15-18 years and above 18 years respectively. This indicates that most primary school pastoral students in the study area are above primary school age standard. As lined with MOE (2011), the standard age for primary school children starts from 7 to 14 years.

Regarding their grades, 42 (35%), 41 (34.2%) and 37 (30.8%) of the respondents students were grade 6, 7 & 8. This might have a positive contribution on the relevance of the data; because the respondents’ students are proportionally distributed equally to each grade by the researcher.

Table: 6 Family Backgrounds of Student Respondents No Item F P 1 Father’s Illiterate 89 74.2 level of Can read and write 8 6.7 education Grade 5-8 10 8.3 Grade 8 and above 13 10.8 2 Mother’s Illiterate 109 90.8 level of Can read and write 3 2.5 education Grade 5-8 7 5.8 Grade 8 and above 1 0.8 3 Father’s Pastoralist 96 80 occupation Government employee 15 12.5 others 9 7.5 4 Mother’s House wife 97 80.8 occupation Government employee 3 2.5 others 20 16.7 F= frequency P= percentage Concerning the respondents’ father educational background, 89 (74.2%) of their fathers are illiterate, 8 (6.7%) can read and write. Whereas, the remaining 10 (8.3%) and 13 (10.8%) of them were grade 5-8 and above grade 8. Regarding the respondents mother educational background, 109 (90.8%) of their mothers are illiterate, 3 (2.5%) can read and write. Whereas, the remaining 7 (5.8%) and 1 (0.8%) of them were grade 5-8 and above grade 8. With regard to their fathers’ occupations, most of the respondents’ fathers, 96 (80%) were pastoralist, 15 (12.5%) and 9 (7.5%) were government employees and others. With regard to mothers occupation, 97 (80.3%) indicated that their mothers were housewife in family, 3 (2.5%) and 20 (16.7%) were government employees and others. This might have a great negative effect on the educational participation of pastoralist girls in primary school (Ersado, 2005; in Hunt, 2008).

Table: 7 Pastoral Community Representatives by their sex, age, Occupation and education No Variables F P 1 Sex Male 12 66.7 Female 6 33.3 2 Age 20-30 - - 31- 40 4 22.2 40 above 14 77.8 3 Occupation Pastoralist 18 100 Government employee - - Small business - - 4 Education Illiterate 18 100 Can write and read - - 5- 8 grade - -

F= frequency P= percentage Referred to the Table 7, 18 Pastoral community representatives from the sample three primary schools were involved in the focus group discussion of the study. Among the participants, 12 (66.7%) of them are male and 6 (33.3%) are females. Regarding their age, 4 (22.2%) and 14 (77.8%) of the respondents were in between 31-40 and above 40 years old. Regarding their occupation, all of the respondents 18 (100%) are pastoralists. This reveals that all of the community members in the study area run their living by animal rearing. Regarding their education, all 18 (100%) are illiterate. This reveals that all of the pastoral community representatives in the study area are illiterate.

Table: 8 Backgrounds of Education Officers by their sex, age, qualification and experience No Variables F P 1 Sex Male 2 100 Female - - 2 Age 25-30 1 50 31-40 1 50 40 above - - 3 Qualification Certificate - - Diploma 1 50 Degree 1 50 4 Experience Below 5 2 100 6-10 - - Above 10 - - F= frequency P= percentage

As is shown in Table 8 above, regarding the gender of Woreda Education officers participated in the interview, all the two are male. This indicates that the participation of females in the education sector of the Woreda is almost none; even no females are participating in the secretary position in the sector as the researcher observed in the fieldwork.

With regard to their education, 1 (50%) is BA degree holder and 1 (50%) is diploma holder. Regarding their experience, 2 (100%) all of them are below 5 year experience in the office but have experienced in teaching. This indicates that the officials participated in this study had a poor experience in the office but experienced in teaching. Therefore, this can help to obtain valuable qualitative information for the study.

Table: 9 Primary Education GER and NER in Ethiopia regions Regions GER (1-4) GER (5-8) NER(1-4) NER (5-8) M F T M F T M F T M F T Tigray 105.3 103.5 104.4 86.2 92.6 89.4 94.8 96.3 95.6 69.1 78.6 73.8 Afar 52.2 56.4 54.3 15.3 13.5 14.4 42.1 47.6 44.5 7.9 8.2 8.0 Amhara 115.1 113.8 114.4 70.2 80.1 75.1 101.3 100.6 100.9 48.9 60.3 54.5 Oromia 107.9 98.8 103.4 62.3 56.4 59.3 94.9 88.8 91.9 44.6 42.7 43.7 Somali 98.3 93.1 95.52 19.3 17.7 18.9 79.0 73.6 76.7 11.9 10.6 11.4 Gumuz 140.4 115.5 128.1 100.3 73.8 87.1 101.1 89.2 95.2 52.9 44.9 48.9 Gambela 158.4 144.1 151.7 111.6 98.6 105.2 108.6 97.9 103.6 51.9 43.6 47.7 SNNPR 115.6 104.8 110.2 78.3 70.0 74.1 103.1 94.0 98.5 58.5 54.2 56.4 Harari 103.8 88.5 96.1 74.0 61.2 68.0 88.8 77.7 83.2 51.9 43.6 47.7 A. A 105.7 108.2 107.1 93.9 87.4 90.3 74.1 69.2 71.4 60.6 53.5 56.6 Diredawa 96.3 90.8 93.6 77.6 63.2 71.4 74.0 71.4 72.7 48.9 42.3 45.6 Total 109.5 103.2 106.4 63.9 63.3 65.6 94.4 89.8 92.2 47.0 49.2 48.1 Source: Adopted from MoE annual educational abstract, (2012/13) The Ethiopian educational statistics annual abstract (MoE, 2012/13) shows that the low participation rate of children in Ethiopian pastoralists, particularly in Afar region, is becoming a persistent problem requiring in-depth study to minimize the serious gaps constraining implementation and achievement of the internationally agreed educational conventions and declaration.

4.3. Finding and Discussion of the Results

4.3.1. The Status of Primary Education Participation of Pastoral Children in NW The first basic question of this study was concerned with assessing enrollment rate and dropout rate of primary education in Nyangatom Woreda. To answer this question, the researcher used document analysis in the data collection. The data obtained from the sample schools are summarized as follows.

Table: 10 Enrollment and dropout rate of selected primary schools in Nyangatom Woreda No Schools Year Enrollment Dropout Rate M F T M F T 1 Kangaten 2008 E.C 317 177 494 11.0 0.2 5.8 2 Kibish 2008 E.C 189 76 265 10.0 6.7 8.3 3 Shunkura 2008 E.C 117 42 159 11.9 16.6 14.3 4 Nyangatom Woreda 2008 E.C 1285 1009 2294 5.9 2.7 7.7 Source: Nyangatom woreda educational office M= male F= female T= total As is shown in Table 9 above, the average participation of female pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda was less than by 1/3 from males in the first semester. The reason for this gender gap might be a very high parental influence on female pastoralist children. Since the pastoral community female children are considered in the community as wealth of their families or a source of income. Opposing this, Netsanet (2011) stated: in South Omo Zone pastoralist communities females are not equally considered as males, that females have low status in the society. They expect nothing from them or their education; rather they are looking them as a source of income for the family and doing household activities.

In general, the participation of female children is very lower than males. Especially, in Kibish and Shunkura primary schools, the participation of male is twofold greater than that of the females’. There is also a high dropout rate in the NW. When we observe the overall dropout rate of each school there were a large number of pastoral children dropped out from school.

4.3.2. Major challengers of Educational Provision

4.3.2.1. Challenges related with Socio-cultural Factors Table: 11 Cultural Factors which affect the Primary Education of Pastoralist children N Variable School Res Level of Influence M P o Pod V. High High Moderate Low V. Low ents 5 4 3 2 1 F P F P F P F P F P 1 Perception of Kangaten 60 25 41.7 28 46.7 4 6.7 3 5 - - 4.2 .241 pastoral parents Kibish 30 14 46.7 13 43.3 2 6.7 1 3.3 - - 4.3 for daughters as Shunkura 30 18 60 10 33.3 2 6.7 - - - - 4.5 source of income Total 120 57 47.5 51 42.5 8 6.7 4 3.3 - - 43.3 2 Low level of Kangaten 60 15 25 19 31.7 13 21.7 8 13.3 5 8.3 3.5 .029 parents attitude Kibish 30 9 30 13 43.3 5 16.7 3 10 - - 3.9 towards Shunkura 30 11 36.7 14 46.7 3 10 2 6.7 - - 4.1 education Total 120 35 29.2 46 38.3 21 17.5 13 10.8 5 4.2 3.7 3 Early marriage Kangaten 60 17 28.3 18 30 10 16.7 11 18.3 4 6.7 3.5 .200 Kibish 30 12 40 9 30 5 16.7 4 13.3 - - 3.9 Shunkura 30 9 30 14 46.7 3 10 3 10 1 3.3 3.9 Total 120 38 31.7 41 34.2 18 15 18 15 5 4.2 3.7 4 Pastoralist fear Kangaten 60 13 21.7 16 26.7 15 25 10 16.7 6 10 3.3 .009 formal education Kibish 30 9 30 14 46.7 6 20 1 3.3 - - 4.3 clash with Shunkura 30 10 33.3 12 40 3 10 5 16.7 - - 3.9 culture Total 120 32 26.7 42 35 24 20 16 13.3 6 5 3.6 5 The youth Kangaten 60 13 21.7 16 26.7 14 23.3 10 16.7 7 11.7 3.3 .004 (ngisorok) ritual Kibish 30 9 30 12 40 5 16.7 4 13.3 - - 3.8 Shunkura 30 11 36.7 13 43.3 4 13.3 2 6.7 - - 4.1 Total 120 33 27.5 41 34.2 23 19.2 16 13.3 7 5.8 3.6 6 Fear of Kangaten 60 13 21.7 19 31.7 9 15 15 25 4 6.7 3.3 .116 abduction Kibish 30 12 40 9 30 5 16.7 3 10 1 3.3 3.9 Shunkura 30 10 33.3 8 26.7 6 20 4 13.3 2 6.7 3.6 Total 120 35 29.2 36 30 20 16.7 21 17.5 7 5.8 3.5 F= frequency P = percentage M= mean P= p-value

Regarding the perception of pastoral parents for daughter as source of income (dowry or akuta), 27 (90%) of kibish, 53 (88.3%) of Kangaten and 28 (93.3%) of Shunkura respondents replied the challenge is very high. In general, 108 (90%) of the respondents replied the intense of the challenge on female pastoralist children is very high. The result clearly shows that the pastoral

42 parents’ believes of their daughters as source of income is the major challenging factor for the weak participation and high dropout of pastoral females in primary education in Nyangatom Woreda without variation among the schools.

Concerning the analysis of variance, One Way ANOVA result indicated that there is no statistically significant mean difference among the three study schools F (2, 117) = 1.439, p=0.241. The analysis result clearly shows that the pastoral parents’ believes of their daughters as source of income is the major challenging factor for the weak participation and high dropout of pastoralist females in primary education in Nyangatom without variation among the schools.

In this regard, the data obtained from focus group discussion participants of pastoral community representative made the following statement concerning the situation; “The pastoral society perceives daughters as source of income or wealth of their family. The father of a female child expects to regain the amount that he paid to his wife’s family for marriage dowry (akuta) as a response to his daughter’s marriage. If she is educated, they feared that she would not be marrying to their community and they would lose dowry and she might undermine their culture.”

One pastoral community representative said, “It is impossible for other communities (ethnics) to marry our girls because they cannot pay a large amount of cattle we need. And also we did not need our girls to marry someone who is poor within the community”. The interview data also supports the above as stated below; “…women as subjugated and exploited creature sold for cows and forced by their fathers into early marriages with lusty old men and enslaved by husbands.” Another participant states the situation in Shunkura; “…in our community, women are subjugated even for marriages with the name of dead men.” Above all, they think that their daughter would illegally marry someone out of their culture, if they send her to school; so that they might not get the amount of dowry (150 cattle) which they expect. As the researcher experienced in the culture, the Nyangatom community believe dowry as their wealth. In Nyangatom community, women are for their income. Females are given in marriage for everyone in the community who can paid her parents cattle, if she refuses, she would be forced to marry him or sometimes she would be beaten and forced until she accept or some of females used to hung themselves and die.

Regarding the low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education, 22 (73.3%) of Kibish, 34 (65.7%) of Kangaten and 25 (83.3%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge is high. In general, 81 (67.5%) of the respondents replied the intense of the challenge on the primary education of pastoralist children is high. The result clearly shows that, half of the respondents agreed the low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education significantly affects primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda.

Concerning the analysis of variance, one way ANOVA result indicates that the challenge of low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education is significantly varies across the three schools F (2, 117) = 3.641, p= 0.029.

Multiple Comparisons Table:12 Low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education

Scheffe (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.41667 .24312 .234 -1.0195 .1861 kangaten 3.00 -.61667* .24312 .044 -1.2195 -.0139 1.00 .41667 .24312 .234 -.1861 1.0195 kibish 3.00 -.20000 .28074 .776 -.8961 .4961 1.00 .61667* .24312 .044 .0139 1.2195 shunkura 2.00 .20000 .28074 .776 -.4961 .8961 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of low level of Pastoral Parents attitude towards education on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.059). In general, the result reveals that the intensity of the challenge is not similar among the schools of Nyangatom Woreda. The challenge is higher in Shunkura and Kibish and lower in Kangaten primary school. This is because the pastoralist around kangaten are near to the town if compare to those of shunkura and kibish; in this case they have the access of education awareness. As the interview of one education officer, he states; “The pastoralist communities think modern education spoils their ways of life.” As the interview of one teacher in Kangaten, she said that;

“Pastoralists’ attitude towards school is described as irrationally against their own interest. They do not see the importance of being ‘enlightened’, pulled out of their primitive darkness and into the modern world. They do not even see that education would provide the family with a source of income that will ‘make them less dependent on livestock’. In Nyangatom community if someone joins the town, they said that he has died or lost. You will not be included as a part of family and you will be called echampait (a foreigner).

Regarding early marriage, 21 (70%) of Kibish, 35 (58.3%) of Kangaten and 23 (76.7%) of Shunkura primary school respondents rated the challenge high. In general, 79 (65.8%) of the respondents rated the intensity of the problem of early marriage on pastoralist female children primary education is high. This shows that early marriage affects Kibish and Shunkura if compare to Kangaten primary school. This indicates that, the majority of the respondents strongly agreed that early marriage is one of the major challenges for the low primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda.

With regard to the analysis of variance, One Way ANOVA result indicated that the challenge of early marriage is no significantly different across the three schools F (2, 117) =1.631, p=0.200. In this regard, the data obtained from focus group discussions participants of pastoral community representative believe that; “Parents especially the fathers of female child need to regain the amount of resource (dowry) he paid to his family-in-law as a gift for marriage earlier. He doesn’t worry if his daughter makes early marriage because his prime aim is regaining the resource through her marriage.” As stated by one pastoral community representative, ‘‘in our community, 9 to 15 year old girl would marry old man or a man older than her father, we do not care, we need only cows to paid dowry for her mother.’’ We married a girl to a dead man name in our community. This is cultural norm. In relation to this in rural Amhara (2003/04), there were strong social and cultural pressures for girls to marry before they were 14 years old.

Dereje (2005), early marriage is one of the major socio-cultural problems affecting girls’ education in Somali region pastoralist areas, because early marriage was high valued traditional practice of the societies for various cultural and economic reasons. In contradicted form, one pastoral community representative from Kangaten said, “Things are now changing, the government is arresting people who marry young girls and everybody is afraid to marry young girls near here.

Regarding Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm, 23 (76.7%) of Kibish, 29 (48.3%) of Kangaten and 18 (60%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge is high. In general, 74 (61.7%) of the respondents replied the challenge of pastoralist fear of formal education on the primary education of pastoralist children is high.

The analysis of variance result indicated that the challenge of Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm significantly varies across the three schools F (2, 117) =4.895, p =0.009. Multiple Comparisons Table:13 Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm Scheffe (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.70000* .25064 .023 -1.3214 -.0786 Kangaten 3.00 -.56667 .25064 .082 -1.1881 .0548 1.00 .70000* .25064 .023 .0786 1.3214 Kibish 3.00 .13333 .28941 .899 -.5842 .8509 1.00 .56667 .25064 .082 -.0548 1.1881 Shunkura 2.00 -.13333 .28941 .899 -.8509 .5842

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.881). The result reveals majority of the respondents agreed the Pastoralists fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm significantly affects the primary education participation of children in Nyangatom Woreda. In connection to this as the interview of one education officer states; “The pastoralist society wants their children to act in the way they passed through; they perceived that modern education vanishes (spoils) their way of life.” One pastoral community representative said that, “modern education brought selfishness poverty to our community we do not need it. We have lost our wealth every day because all the youth run to the town and no one will look for cattle”. Another states that, “modern education brought

46 begging in our society, a long time ago there was no begging of clothes, money and buying food on it happened”.

Regarding the influence of youth (ngisorok) ritual, 21 (70%) of Kibish, 28 (46.7%) of Kangaten and 24 (80%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the influence of ngisorok ritual challenge is high. In general, 73 (60.8%) of the respondents replied the ngisorok ritual challenge is high.

One Way ANOVA result shows the influence of ngisorok ritual statistical significant mean difference among the three schools F (2, 117) = 5.677, p = 0.004. Multiple Comparisons

Table:14 Influence of youth (ngisorok) ritual Scheffe (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.56667 .25551 .090 -1.2002 .0668 1.00 3.00 -.80000* .25551 .009 -1.4335 -.1665 1.00 .56667 .25551 .090 -.0668 1.2002 2.00 3.00 -.23333 .29504 .732 -.9649 .4982 1.00 .80000* .25551 .009 .1665 1.4335 3.00 2.00 .23333 .29504 .732 -.4982 .9649 *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of ngisorok ritual on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of ngisorok ritual on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.688). In general, the result clearly shows the challenge of youth ritual on the primary education participation of pastoral children varies among the schools in Nyangatom Woreda and its challenge is very high on Kibish and Shunkura primary schools.

As a result obtained from the focus group discussion, the pastoral community representative made the following statement concerning the ngisorok ritual, they said that: “Every male child and girls establishes their own ngisorok or ngasorok based on their age group for various purposes. For example, for boys, they shepherd their family’s cattle; they go out for defense when conflicts occur; they go out for abduction if their partner wants to marry, and for any kind of co-operations as a group in their ngisorok. For girls, they go to collect firewood to gather and fetch water.

In line with this, L Bradley and C O’Meara (2008:10), the young men in all of the communities were involved in caring for animals. This included herding animals, milking animals, searching for fodder, making enclosures for animals, searching for pasture and watering animals. In addition, as interview made with one supervisor’s he stated; “Sometimes ngisorok took out their partners’ from school and punish/weep him/them”. No one can deny them because; he is a member of their ngisorok…If anyone from the teaching staff makes an attempt, they would claim that as if he/she shouldn’t intervene in their norms of ngisorok.” In relation with this, the researcher also belong into youth group call ostrich (Ngimerkopir) one of the most well known youth group in the Woreda.

Concerning the fear of abdication, 21 (70%) of Kibish 35 (58.3%) of Kangaten and 22 (73.3%) of Shunkura respondents replied the challenge of fear of abdication is high. In general, 71 (59.2%) of the respondents replied fear of abdication highly affects the primary education of pastoralist female children in Nyangatom Woreda.

The analysis of variance result shows that the perception of the three schools respondents on the challenge of fear of abdication is not statistical significantly different F (2,117) =2.196, p=0.116. The result clearly shows fear of abdication significantly affects the primary education participation of children in Nyangatom. Concerning the situation, the FGD participants made the following statement; “Abduction is one of the cultural ways of marriage in the pastoral community.” In addition, one officer said; “Abducting females by ngisorok is a common phenomenon in the community; for fear of abduction females will not go to distant school.” when the researcher was in the field work in Kibish, three youth abducted a girl and rape her on her way when she was cutting grass for her family and the abductors were punished.

4.3.2.2. Challenges related with Socio Economic Factors Table: 15 Socio-Economic Factors which affect the PE Participation of Pastoralist Children

No Variable School Res Level of Influence M p pon V. High High Moderate Low V. low dents 5 4 3 2 1 F P F P F P F P F P 1 Pastoralist Kangaten 60 23 38.3 28 46.7 6 10 3 5 - - 4.1 .301 way of life Kibish 30 14 46.7 15 50 1 3.3 - - - - 4.4 (mobility) Shunkura 30 14 46.7 13 43.3 2 6.7 1 3.3 - - 4.3 Total 120 51 42.5 56 46.7 9 7.5 4 3.3 - - 4.2 2 Parents Kangaten 60 24 40 29 48.3 5 8.3 2 3.3 - - 4.2 .463 illiteracy Kibish 30 13 43.3 15 50 2 6.7 - - - - 4.3 Shunkura 30 10 33.3 15 50 4 13.3 1 3.3 - - 4.1 Total 120 47 39.2 59 49.2 11 9.2 3 2.5 - - 4.2 3 Pastoralist Kangaten 60 18 30 24 40 10 16.7 6 10 2 3.3 3.8 .238 Sparse Kibish 30 10 33.3 13 43.3 5 16.7 2 6.7 - - 4.0 Settlement Shunkura 30 15 50 10 33.3 3 10 1 3.3 1 3.3 4.2 Total 120 43 35.8 47 39.2 18 15 9 7.5 3 2.5 3.9 4 Demand Kangaten 60 12 20 19 31.7 15 25 9 15 5 8.3 3.4 .000 for child Kibish 30 13 43.3 16 53.3 1 3.3 - - - - 4.4 Labor Shunkura 30 15 50 11 36.7 4 13.3 - - - - 4.3 Total 120 40 33.3 46 38.3 20 16.7 9 7.5 5 4.2 3.8 5 Conflicts Kangaten 60 16 26.7 20 33.3 13 21.7 6 10 5 8.3 3.6 .023 Kibish 30 12 40 13 43.3 4 13.3 1 3.3 - - 4.2 Shunkura 30 14 46.7 8 26.7 5 16.7 3 10 - - 4.1 Total 120 42 35 41 34.2 22 18.3 10 8.3 5 4.2 3.8 6 Poverty Kangaten 60 15 25 19 31.7 9 15 11 18.3 6 10 3.4 .169 because Kibish 30 9 30 13 43.3 5 16.7 2 6.7 1 3.3 3.9 of drought Shunkura 30 7 23.3 12 40 6 20 4 13.3 1 3.3 3.6 Total 120 31 25.8 44 36.7 20 16.7 17 14.2 8 6.7 3.6

F= frequency P = percentage M= mean P= p-value

As shown in the table above, regarding the pastoralist way of life /mobility/, 29 (96.7%) of Kibish, 51 (85%) of Kangaten and 27 (90%) of Shunkura school respondents replied the challenge is very high. In general, 108 (90%) of the respondents replied the challenge of the pastoralist way of life (mobility) on primary education is very high.

The analysis of variance result shows that there is no significant difference in the pastoralist way of life (mobility) across the study schools F (2,117) =1.215, p = 0.301. The result clearly shows that the pastoralist way of life (mobility) significantly affects the primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom. In line with this, the result obtained from FGD discussions with pastoral community representatives, they believe that; “When the parents move, they take away their belongings to the place where they could find water and pasture for their cattle in arid season, regardless of their children’s schooling.” “In such season, children living in the hostel continue their education, because they live separately from their parents and they join their basic needs in the hostel. But the children who live with their family drop out their education and move with them.”

From the above discussions it can be seen that, pastoral children enrolled in school is dropout their education due to the mobility of their parents. Consistent with this, the finding of Dereje (2005) among Somali pastoralists showed that the mobility of the pastoralist communities is one of the major challenges for the educational participation of Somali children.

Concerning parents’ illiteracy, 28 (93.3%) of Kibish, 52 (86.7%) of Kangaten and 26 (86.7%) of the Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge is very high. In general, 106 (88.3%) of the respondents rated the challenge of the pastoralist parents illiteracy on the primary education of pastoralist children is very high.

The One Way ANOVA result indicates that there is no statistical significant difference in the challenge of the pastoralist parents’ illiteracy among the three schools F (2,117) = 0.775, p=0.463. In this relation the interview with one education officer, he said; “Almost 95 percent pastoralist parents are uneducated and illiterate; they do not understand the benefit of education, they know about their traditional way of life, culture and livestock based economy.” Another officer adds; “Still, they persist in accumulating huge herds of cattle without any care for their

50 quality. Their illiteracy force them to live a nomadic way of life, in order to feed the livestock, even they are careless for themselves; they can’t live in a proper house.” From the above discussions it can be seen that pastoralists’ resistance to change and ignorance are blamed for the low levels of parents’ education in pastoral areas.

Regarding the pastoralist sparse settlements, 23 (76.7%) of Kibish, 42 (70%) of Kangaten and 25 (83.3%) of the Shunkura respondents rated the challenge is very high. In general, 90 (75%) of the respondents replied the challenge of the pastoralist sparse settlements on primary education is very high.

One Way ANOVA result indicates that there is no statistical significant difference in the challenge of the pastoralist sparse settlements among the study schools F (2, 117) = 1.453, p = 0.238. The result clearly shows the challenge of the pastoralist sparse settlements is similar among pastoral schools of Nyangatom. In relation to the pastoralist settlement from experience of the researcher the settlement style of pastoralist in Nyangatom is sparsely distributed.

One of the interview teacher said that, to work in pastoralist area is so difficult, because it is rear to get students in appointed place of study because early in the morning parents used their children to water animals. In Nyangatom Woreda, people used to settle based on their blood relationship or clan sections .Therefore, it is difficult to build schools since people are scattered.

Concerning the demand for child labor, 29 (96.7%) of Kibish, 31 (51.7%) of Kangaten and 26 (86.7%) of Shunkura respondents rated the challenge is very high. In general, 86 (71.7%) of the respondents replied the challenge of the demand for child labor on the primary education is high.

The analysis of variance result shows that the demand for child labour is statistical significant difference among the study schools F (2,117) = 15.357, p = 0.000.

Multiple Comparisons Table:16 The Demand for Child Labor

Scheffe (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -1.00000* .21737 .000 -1.5390 -.4610 kangaten 3.00 -.96667* .21737 .000 -1.5056 -.4277 1.00 1.00000* .21737 .000 .4610 1.5390 kibish 3.00 .03333 .25100 .991 -.5890 .6557 1.00 .96667* .21737 .000 .4277 1.5056 shunkura 2.00 -.03333 .25100 .991 -.6557 .5890 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of the demand for child labour on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of the demand for child labour on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.989). In general, the result depicts that the intense of the challenge is not similar among the study schools of Nyangatom Woreda. This shows that, the demand for child labour problem affects Kibish and Shunkura if compare to Kangaten primary school. This is because these two areas have the highest number of cattle in the study area. Therefore, the demand for child labor is one of the major challenges for the low participation and high dropout of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda.

In reality the situation is more complex, and within any given family there are likely to be some children who are, or have been attending school and others who are not. The extent of this relative engagement with education is reflected in the fact that only 2 (13.3%) of pastoral community representative in the focus group discussion for this study had sent all of their school-aged children to school. The others had decided to keep at least some of their children at home. According to the FGD data, Pastoralist parents view the concept of child labor as part of their culture; they say children are being prepared to become the herders of tomorrow as one participant says; “Children do what they can in helping their parents who are busy providing food and other basic needs. Further, this prepares children for their roles as they grow into adulthood.”

One pastoral community representative said, in our community, we send lazy children to school because they have nothing to do in the community. Another participant adds; “Most of the children are used as laborers at homes for example looking after animals.” The interview data also supports the above as stated below; “Almost all of the pastoral parents want their male children to herd their cattle; as well as their female children to engage in house hold activities rather than sending them to school.” This was echoed by another participant; “Child labor in the form of herding animals or getting employed as household help at community cause’s high drop out from schools or non attendance.” The interviews and FGD participants also repeated this reality. Since the livelihoods of pastoralists are fully depending on livestock production, pastoralist community enforced to use their children for herding of cattle. As Ziyn, (2013) said, pastoralists’ children are significant contributors to the household income through their labor.

Regarding the challenge of conflicts on the primary education of pastoral children, 25 (83.3%) of Kibish, 36 (60%) of Kangaten and 22 (73.3%) of Shunkura school respondents replied the challenge is high. In general, 83 (69.2%) of the respondents replied the challenge of conflicts on primary education in Nyangatom Woreda is high.

The analysis of variance result shows the challenge of conflicts in Nyangatom Woreda is statistical significant difference across the three studied schools F (2, 117) = 3.913, p = 0.023.

Multiple Comparisons Table:17 The challenge of conflicts

Scheffe (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.60000* .24276 .039 -1.1763 -.0237 kangaten 3.00 -.50000 .24276 .103 -1.0763 .0763 1.00 .60000* .24276 .039 .0237 1.1763 kibish 3.00 .10000 .28031 .932 -.5654 .7654 1.00 .50000 .24276 .103 -.0763 1.0763 shunkura 2.00 -.10000 .28031 .932 -.7654 .5654 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of conflicts on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but

53 the challenge of conflicts on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.054). In general, the result clearly implies that, conflicts between inter-tribal and inter- territorial among pastoral communities significantly affect the primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda. Thus, conflict is one of the major challenges which affect the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda.

As the data obtained from focus group discussions participants; “Conflict is common for the community. It is correlated with the nature of pastoralist’s mobility and settlement, when they move from place to place in search of pasture and water for their livestock during the dry seasons they move out of their boundary; as a result, inter-tribal and inter-territorial conflict occurs among pastoral communities.” Conflict in this area is also used for bravery and wealthy. Communities in this area raid and loot other communities’ animals for marriage case.

The interview data obtained from education officer stated; “For example ‘Kibish’ primary school was closed above a month because of the inter-territorial conflict with Turkana of the Republic of Kenya.” In the fieldwork, the researcher has realized the fact. The conflict is typical in this area (Kibish) due to it’s nears to the border of Kenya, at a distance of five kilometers. The interview teacher in Kibish states this, in Nyangatom, the issue of peace and security needs to be handled as a matter of urgency. Cattle theft, rustling and raids are too much. Government and the relevant stakeholders need to bring this deplorable state of persistent insecurity to an immediate end. Without peace and security in Nyangatom, non-formal education programmes or any other developmental programmes will not succeed.

One of the interview supervisor said this, “peace and security should prevail in Nyangatom to make education program run smoothly. There is a rampant cattle rustling in the Woreda. This has often destabilized the population, thereby affecting both the students and us the programme facilitates. Combined efforts of government and the warring groups are required to bring this business of cattle rustling to an end so that NGOs, Government and the local communities can embark on developmental activities without interruption”.

PEHANA (2007) in the southeastern Somali Region, seasonal flooding, ethnic conflict between residents in border areas, and even internal conflicts within the Somali ethnic group often adversely affect schooling. Glawocki, L. (2015) who carried a research in Nyangatom

54 community states that, raiding in Nyangatom provides reproductive benefits to warriors over lifetime. Raiding in this community is for wealth and bravery.

Regarding the challenge of poverty due to drought, 22 (73.3%) of Kibish, 34 (56.7%) of Kangaten and 19 (63.3%) of Shunkura school respondents replied the challenge is high. In general, 75 (62.5%) of the respondents replied the challenge of poverty on primary education in Nyangatom Woreda is high.

One way ANOVA result shows, the challenge of poverty because of drought is no statistical significant difference among the three schools F (2,117) = 1.803, p = 0.169. This result shows that poverty is one of the major challenges which affect the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda. In line with this, PEHANA, (2007), in February, at least 17,000 primary school children in Ethiopia reported to have dropped out since the beginning of the 2012-2013 school years, mainly due to drought-related migration.

As the interview participants believe that lack of basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter are also obstacles to educational access for pastoralist children due to poverty, some participants have put it; “Poor feeding especially in primary schools and inadequate basic needs such as clothes and a permanent home to stay.” Another participant adds; “Most pastoral children do not get food on time in their homes. Unless the schools provide the children with food, children are not interested to go to school due to severe shortage of food.”

4.3.2.3. Challenges Related with School Factors Table: 18 School Related Factors that affect the Participation of Pastoral Children’s in PE N Variables Schools Res Level of Influence M P o pon V. High High Moderate Low V. Low den 5 4 3 2 1 ts F P F P F P F P F P 1 Irrelevance Kangaten 60 22 36.7 29 48.3 5 8.3 3 5 1 1.7 4.1 .241 of Kibish 30 11 36.7 16 53.3 3 10 - - - - 4.2 curriculum Shunkura 30 15 50 9 30 4 13.3 2 6.7 - - 4.2 Total 120 48 40 54 45 12 10 5 4.2 1 0.8 4.2 2 Absence Kangaten 60 21 35 24 40 7 11.7 5 8.3 3 5 3.9 .714 of water Kibish 30 11 36.7 13 43.3 2 6.7 4 13.3 - - 4.0 in school Shunkura 30 12 40 11 36.7 5 16.7 2 6.7 - - 4.1 Total 120 44 36.7 48 40 14 11.7 11 9.2 3 2.5 3.9 3 Distance Kangaten 60 18 30 21 35 11 18.3 10 16.7 - - 3.7 .480 from home Kibish 30 7 23.3 16 53.3 5 16.7 2 6.7 - - 3.9 to school is Shunkura 30 10 33.3 12 40 7 23.3 1 3.3 - - 4.0 far Total 120 35 29.2 49 40.8 23 19.2 13 10.8 - - 3.8 4 Poor school- Kangaten 60 15 25 20 33.3 10 16.7 8 13.3 7 11.7 3.4 .037 community Kibish 30 9 30 14 46.7 6 20 1 3.3 - - 4.0 relationship Shunkura 30 10 33.3 12 40 5 16.7 3 10 - - 3.9 Total 120 34 28.3 46 38.3 21 17.5 12 10 7 5.8 3.7 F= frequency P = percentage M= mean P= p-value

As shown in the Table 18 above, regarding the irrelevance of the curriculum, 27 (90%) of Kibish, 51 (85%) of Kangaten and 24 (80%) of Shunkura schools respondents rated the level of challenge is very high. In general, 102 (85%) of the respondents rated the challenge of curriculum irrelevance is very high. This indicates that majority of the respondents strongly agreed that the irrelevance of curriculum is a major factor for the low primary education participation of pastoralist children.

The analysis of variance result indicated that the challenge of curriculum irrelevance is not significantly varied across the study schools F (2, 117) =1.439, p=0.241. In general, the results reveal that the irrelevance of curriculum is the major challenging factor that hinders the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom without variation among schools.

It is true that the medium of instruction is the major concern of curriculum development. However, as the results obtained from interview one teacher in Kibish, he states; “Most pastoralist children drop out from first cycle primary schools particularly, because they don’t know the medium of instruction as they speak only their mother tongue.” Another officer adds; “The teachers on their part do not speak the language spoken in the environment because they did not come from same ethnic group (Nyangatom).” This is because almost all teachers teaching in the study area came from other places. This is why there is a problem in teaching. (The investigator used this based on the data gathered and has also experienced that problem in the study area. The language problem is one of the factors affecting students even in secondary schools in Nyangatom Woreda).

As a result, it creates communication barrier between the teachers and the students. To confirm this, Kratli (2001): teachers who are not from the same ethnic group as the pupils are likely to speak a different language, resulting in serious problems of communication in the classroom. Furthermore, in relation to curriculum irrelevance he stated that “School curricula are developed by sedentary people for sedentary people (or even by urban dwellers for urban dwellers) and therefore are largely irrelevant to nomads’ experience and concerns” (p.34). UNESCO (2002) as different research findings indicate the school curriculum developed for sedentary people has no relevance for nomadic pastoral people. As the researcher has experienced in the study area, most students in the study area did not speak National language (Amharic) fluently even those who are in secondary schools. Most of them prefer their mother tongue (Nyangatom) instead of Amharic and also the Woreda is located at the border which means far from the center of country.

Concerning the absence of water in school, 24 (80%) of Kibish, 45 (75%) of Kangaten and 23 (76.7%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge of absence of water in school is very high. In general, 92 (76.7%) majority of the respondents rated the challenge of absence of water in school is very high. The result reveals that almost half of the respondents agreed that the absence of water in school affects the primary education participation of children in NW.

On the other hand, the analysis of variance result indicated that the challenge of absence of water in school is not statistically significant different across the three schools F (2, 117) = 0.338, p=0.714. The analysis result clearly shows the level of the challenge is nearly similar among primary schools of NW. Therefore, it is possible to generalize that absence of water in school is a major challenge that affects the primary education participation of pastoral children.

PEHANA (2007), in the northeastern Afar Region, some 15 schools have closed down due to lack of water during the current dry season, affecting some 1,899 children, 29 percent of whom are girls, according to 11 March update by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). As one pastoral community representative from Shunkura said that, “in our school, there is no water, students used to go and fetch water (Omo River) for about 2.5 kms”. One teacher said that, we need the government to construct water taps here for the children to get water nearby. We need also the Pastoralist Community Development Project (PCDP) to reconstruct the spoiled taps.

Regarding school distance, 23 (76.7%) of Kibish, 39 (65%) of Kangaten and 22 (73.3%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge of school distance is high. In general, 84 (70%) of the respondents replied the challenge of school distance in NW affects the primary education participation of children. Therefore, the result implies that the challenge of school distance is one of the factors for the low participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda.

The analysis of variance result indicated that the challenge of school distance is not significantly varies among the three schools F (2, 117) =0.738, p=0.480. Therefore, the results reveal that the challenge of school distance is major factor for the low participation of pastoralist children in primary education in Nyangatom Woreda without variation among primary schools.

The FGD participants made the following; “The pastoralist parents are not willing to send their children to school far from their village unless they were provided with hostel service.” Another said, “We fear security problems here in our area (Kibish)”. Oxfam (2005) pastoralist children living in dispersed mobile groups may have many kilometers to walk each day to and from school. This raises safety issues for girls on the way, and also in school, where they may be far from their family and therefore more vulnerable to abuse. Interviewed officer states that, pastoralist in this community did not even send their children to near schools. They always ask

58 food feeding programme before sending their children to school. One of the studies conducted on the pastoralist region of Afar assured that distance from home to school was one of the impediments for accessing primary education for pastoralist children (Ziyn Engdasew, 2012).

Concerning poor school-community relationship, 23 (76.7%) of Kibish, 35 (58.8%) of Kangaten and 22 (73.3%) of Shunkura school respondents agreed poor school-community relationship affect the primary education participation of pastoral children. In general, 80 (66.7%) of the respondents rated poor school-community relationship affects the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda. When we compare the three schools, Kibish and Shunkura schools are affected more than Kangaten.

Concerning the analysis of variance, one way ANOVA indicated that the challenge of poor school-community relationship is significantly different among the three schools F (2, 117) =3.380, p=0.037.

Multiple Comparisons Table:19 Poor school-community relationship

LSD (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.56667* .25223 .027 -1.0662 -.0671 kangaten 3.00 -.50000* .25223 .050 -.9995 -.0005 1.00 .56667* .25223 .027 .0671 1.0662 kibish 3.00 .06667 .29125 .819 -.5101 .6435 1.00 .50000* .25223 .050 .0005 .9995 shunkura 2.00 -.06667 .29125 .819 -.6435 .5101 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of poor school-community relationship on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of poor school-community relationship on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically significant (P>.108). In general, the results reveal that poor school-community relationship affect the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda with variation among schools. In this relation, as interview of education officers, they stated; “Except very few pastoral community representatives attempt to participate those around Kangaten primary school, the school participation of pastoral

community is very low, in Kibish and Shunkura almost nil for females. “On contrary, same pastoral parents take out their children from school rather than encourage their children education and participating in the school improvement.”

Table: 20 School Related Factors that affect the Participation of Pastoral Children’s in PE N Variables Schools Res Level of Influence M P o pon V. High High Moderate Low V. Low den 5 4 3 2 1 ts F P F P F P F P F P 5 Absence of Kangaten 60 13 21.7 17 28.3 12 20 10 16.7 8 13.3 3.2 .079 pastoral Kibish 30 9 30 12 40 5 16.7 3 10 1 3.3 3.8 role Shunkura 30 8 26.7 14 46.7 4 13.3 1 3.3 3 10 3.7 models Total 120 30 25 43 35.8 21 17.5 14 11.7 12 10 3.5 6 Lack of Kangaten 60 11 18.3 15 25 18 30 9 15 7 11.7 3.2 0.35 school Kibish 30 9 30 8 26.7 6 20 5 16.7 2 6.7 3.5 facilities Shunkura 30 11 36.7 9 30 7 23.3 3 10 - - 3.9 Total 120 31 25.8 32 26.7 31 25.8 17 14.2 9 7.5 3.4 7 Shortage of Kangaten 60 13 21.7 14 23.3 17 28.3 11 18.3 5 8.3 3.3 .732 experience Kibish 30 10 33.3 7 23.3 6 20 3 10 4 13.3 3.5 d teachers Shunkura 30 8 26.7 7 23.3 6 20 4 13.3 5 16.7 3.3 Total 120 31 25.8 28 23.3 29 24.2 18 15 14 11.7 3.3 8 Absence of Kangaten 60 9 15 12 20 15 25 13 21.7 11 18.3 2.9 .045 flexible Kibish 30 5 16.7 8 26.7 11 36.7 6 20 - - 3.4 school Shunkura 30 7 23.3 10 33.3 5 16.7 8 26.7 - - 3.5 calendar Total 120 21 17.5 30 25 31 25.8 27 22.5 11 9.2 3.1 F= frequency P = percentage M= mean P= p-value

Concerning the absence of pastoralist role models in educating all of their children, 21 (70%) of Kibish, 30 (50%) of Kangaten and 22 (73.3%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the absence of role model is high. In general, 73 (60.8%) of the respondents rated the absence of pastoralist role models in educating all of their children affects the primary education of pastoralist children

60 in Nyangatom Woreda. The result also shows that, role model affects Kibish and Shunkura More than Kangaten.

The analysis of variance result indicates that there is no significant mean difference among the three schools respondents perception on the absence of pastoralist role models in educating all of their children F (2,117) = 2.600 p =0.079. This result indicates that the intense of the challenge is nearly similar among the schools of Nyangatom Woreda. But it is higher in Kibish and Shunkura if compare to Kangaten. The result clearly shows absence of pastoralist role models in educating all of their children significantly affects the primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda. Concerning the absence of role model parents in relation to educating their children; as the data obtained from interview, one participant noticed that; “No one among our community takes initiation to make use of their resource for their children education. Most parents perceive using their wealth for their children’s marriage, as well as performing various socially accepted cultural rituals brings about a great honor for them.”

This was confirmed by another participant; “By doing so, they think they are successful family among the community. As a result, there is no one who can be a role model to the society by spending his/her resource for his/her children’s education.” One pastoral community participant in Kangaten said that, things are now changing, some students in hostel go to their parents after school and they were given goats for their transportation services. Other participant said that, I have sent two of my children to school and I am buying books for them and I need the rest of my colleagues in the community to do that.

Regarding lack of school facilities, 17 (56.7%) of Kibish, 26 (43.3) of Kangaten and 20 (66.7%) of Shunkura school respondents rated the challenge is high. In general, 63 (52.5%) of the respondents replied the challenge of lack of school facilities is high.

On the other hand, One Way ANOVA result shows that the challenge of lack of school facilities significantly varies across the three study schools F (2, 117) =3.450, p=0.035. The pair wise multiple comparison result indicated that the challenge of lack of school facilities on Kangaten primary school is significantly lower than on Kibish and Shunkura primary school (P<.05), but the challenge of lack of school facilities on Kibish and Shunkura schools was not statistically

61 significant (P>.101). As we can see from the result, the challenge of school facilities is higher in Shunkura then Kibish and Kangaten. One of the teacher interviewed said that lack of school facilities such as library, text books, chairs are some of the problem in this school. Our school is recently opened and shortage of school grant is some of the problems we face here.

Regarding the shortage of experienced teachers, 17 (60%) of Kibish and, 27 (45%) of Kangaten and 15 (50%) of Shunkura respondents rated the challenge is high. In general, 59 (49.2%) of the respondents replied shortage of experienced teachers is high.

The analysis of variance result indicated that the challenge of shortage of experienced teachers is no significantly varies across the three schools F (2, 117) = 0.313, p=0.732. The result shows that shortage of experienced teachers is a challenging factor in Kibish school, if compare to Kangaten and Shunkura schools. As one education officer who was a head teacher in Kibish said that, one teacher was killed in Kibish a year ago, so most teachers feared to teach there. Therefore, we rotate the teachers to make the matter easier. The result shows that shortage of experienced teachers is a challenging factor in Shunkura and Kibish schools, but not in Kangaten.

Regarding absence of flexible school calendar, 13 (43.3%) of Kibish, 21 (35%) of Kangaten and 17 (56.7%) of Shunkura respondents rated the challenge is high. In general, 51 (42.5%) of the respondents rated the challenge of absence of flexible school calendar is high.

Concerning the analysis of variance, the result reveals that the absence of flexible school calendar is statistically significant different across the three schools F (2, 117) =3.191, p=0.045.

Multiple Comparisons Table:21 Absence of flexible school calendar

LSD (I) school (J) school Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound 2.00 -.48333 .27052 .077 -1.0191 .0524 1.00 3.00 -.61667* .27052 .024 -1.1524 -.0809 1.00 .48333 .27052 .077 -.0524 1.0191 2.00 3.00 -.13333 .31238 .670 -.7520 .4853 1.00 .61667* .27052 .024 .0809 1.1524 3.00 2.00 .13333 .31238 .670 -.4853 .7520

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The results reveal that the absence of flexible school calendar is not a major factor for the low PE participation of pastoral children in NW. However, it does not means that the school calendar is suitable for the education of pastoralist children, whereas from the view of respondents is not the main reason for the low primary education participation of children in NW. The interview officer states that, “All the schools are following the same school calendar of a country.’’

CHAPTER FIVE

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this chapter, based on the analysis and discussion of the result, the following summary, conclusions and recommendations are made.

5.1. Summary The study set the tasks at the beginning of this research aimed to answer the basic questions raised in relation to the educational participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda. The research examined the status of pastoralist children’s primary education participation, and identifying the major factors which hinder the primary education participation of pastoralist children and possible alternatives strategies to alleviate the problems. The data obtained were analyzed using the help of different statistical tools, frequency, percentage, mean and one way ANOVA. The analyses made revealed the following summary of major findings:

The primary education participation of pastoralist children in Nyangatom Woreda is low. In Nyangatom woreda, male and female pastoralist children are not equally participating in primary education. Unlike males, the participation of female children was very low or even nil in Kibish and Shunkura (grade eight) as the researcher observed in field. Majority of the pastoralist parent interest to educate their children is low, they did not give priority for their children education; they need their children for household activity to develop the pastoral way of life.

Regarding the socio-cultural factors, the perception of pastoral parents for daughter as source of income is the major factor for the weak participation and high dropout of pastoralist females. The low level of pastoral parents’ attitude towards education, early marriage, Pastoralists’ fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm, the youth age ritual and fear of abdication are other challenges that hinder the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda.

Concerning socio-economic factors, the pastoralist way of life (mobility) was major factor that affects participation of children at school. The pastoralist parent’s illiteracy, the pastoralist sparse settlement, demands for child labor, Conflicts and Poverty are other challenging factors for the

64 low participation and high dropout of children in primary education in Nyangatom Woreda. With regard to school based factors, majority of the respondents of the Woreda indicated the irrelevance of curriculum affects the primary education participation of children. Almost all primary schools in the study area have no water supply. The school distance is another factor for the low participation of pastoralist children in primary education. Poor school-community relationship and Lack of educated pastoralist role models are also other of the challenges that affect the primary education participation of pastoral children in the Nyangatom Woreda. Lack of school facilities, Shortage of experienced teachers and Absence of flexible school calendar are not found as a major school related factor that hinder the primary education participation of children’s in Nyangatom Woreda.

5.2. Conclusion Based on the findings and discussions above, the researcher has concluded as follows: Educationally, pastoralists appear to be in paradox. In terms of literacy, majority of the pastoralist community found to be uneducated and illiterate. Due to their illiteracy background, the society did not understand the benefit of education; they give high priority for their culture and traditional way of life. The value given to education was very low. They are keeping huge herds of cattle without any care for their quality. Large herds force them to live a nomadic way of life. Moreover, the pastoralists’ resistance to change, ignorance, the determination to exploit their own children for labor rather than working harder themselves and high gender bias are the results blamed for the low levels of education in pastoral areas.

With respect to the current status, the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda was very low, as a result of the communities’ low attitude towards the importance of education. As education is widely perceived in the area, unlike education for overall development of the society, most parents are not willing to send their children to school. This, in turn, brought a huge gap between the number of students enrolled at the beginning of the academic year and number of students who complete the grade by the end of the academic year.

In addition, there is a huge gender gap in pastoralist children school participation due to the community’s low perception for female children/ not as equal as male, as a source of income or wealth of their families, and high demand for household labor. In general, the status of primary

65 education provision in Nyangatom Woreda is characterized by low enrollment, male biased, high dropout rate and cultural beliefs.

Coming to socio-cultural factors, such as perceiving female as a source of income (fear of losing dowry or akuta), low level of pastoral parents attitude towards education, early marriage, fear of formal education clash with their cultural norm, ngisorok (youth) ritual and fear of abdication.

Since female children are culturally considered as the wealth of their family, almost all females are not sent to school for fear they could loss akuta (dowry) and it could also untimely spoil their identity. Instead, parents especially the fathers of female child expect to regain the amount of resource he paid to his family-in-law as a gift for marriage, which is locally known as akuta. For this reason, almost all pastoral fathers decide to engage his daughter to someone assuming that he would get the dowry back. As a result, he doesn’t worry if his daughter makes early marriage because his prime goal is to regain the resource through her marriage earlier. The same is true to her would-be husband for his wife to give birth and regain the amount of resource he paid.

Still, fear of modern education is regarded as a hindering factor for low school participation. For the society to perceive that modern education vanishes their way of life, they don’t want to send their children to school. Because they want their children to act in the way they passed through. That means, they are interested in keeping the male child to develop a pastoralist way of life in his life time i.e. is raiding, looking after cattle and female for dowry and household activities.

Moreover, the peer-age group influence which is locally called ngisorok is one of the major challenges for primary school participation in the study area. In Nyangatom Woreda, every male and female child establishes their own ngisorok based on their age for various purposes. For example, for male, they shepherd their family’s cattle; they go out for defense when inter-tribal or inter-territorial conflicts occur; go out for abduction if their partner wants to marry, and for any kind of co-operations as a group in their ngisorok. The members of each ngisorok traditionally take an oath not to deviate from the norms of the group. Therefore, no children from ngisorok go to school without the group’s agreement for fear that they would punish him. If anyone from the teaching staff makes an attempt, they would complain.

The other challenge related to the low primary school participation of pastoralist children in the study area is socio-economic factors; these are the pastoralist way of life (mobility), parents’

66 illiteracy, sparse settlement, the demand for child labor, conflict and poverty. The first and foremost problem depriving the pastoral children from primary education is the mobility nature of the society. It’s common for the community in the study area to move from place to place in search of pasture and water during the dry seasons. The parents take away their belongings to the place where they could find water and pasture for their cattle; regardless of their children’s schooling. During such season, children are forced to leave their school for they have no food and anybody who takes care for them (Kibish and Shunkura most).

In Nyangatom Woreda, majority of the pastoralist parents are uneducated and illiterate. For they do not understand the benefit of education, they do not send their children to school. They only focus on their traditional way of life and livestock based economy. They do not understand the benefit of education for their social and economic development. Still, they persist in keeping (accumulating) huge herds of cattle without any care for their quality. Large herds force them to live a nomadic way of life, in order to feed the livestock, even they are careless for themselves; they can’t live in a proper house. In general, pastoralists’ resistance to change, ignorance and the determination to exploit their own children rather than working harder themselves are blamed for the low levels of parents’ education in pastoral areas.

The high demand for child labor is the other threat for the low primary school participation of pastoralist children in the study area. Almost all of the pastoral parents want their male children to herd their cattle; as well as their female children to engage in household activities rather than sending them to school. Every household activity is believed as females’ jobs, including building the hut, fence and sowing sorghum.

The other reason that correlates with the nature of their mobility is the occurrence of inter-tribal and inter-territorial conflict among pastoral communities. In the study area, the conflict is typical to kibish area due to its living place is near the border of Kenya, at a distance of five kilometers. Therefore, this kind of common problem in the area affects the school participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom Woreda.

The Nyangatom Woreda is known for its being of drought and famine stricken. Poverty is noticed as a hindering factor for the school participation of pastoral children. Because of this, the

67 children cannot get food on time at their homes. Thus, unless the schools provide the children with food, children are not interested to go to school because of severe shortage of food.

With respect to school related factors, curriculum irrelevance, absence of water in school, school distance, poor community-school relationship, absence of pastoral good - role model and lack of school facilities are considered the major factors hindering students to come to school in the study area.

The irrelevance of curriculum is noticed as one of the challenge of school related factors. Owing to this, there is a huge communication-gap between the students and teacher which hinder the pastoral children to go to school. As their mother tongue is not used as a medium of instruction in classroom, they could not understand what is said by the teacher in the class; particularly grade 1-5. As a result, they think going to school is of no use. (This is the general idea researcher got from interviewed teachers. The researcher noted here as they state, Nyangatom Woreda is one of the least in education in SNNPR, this affects students in curriculum and also the researcher used only the English because students who are in grade 6-8 can understand the questionnaires and almost all subjects in this level are given in English.

In addition to this, the researcher was present during questionnaire period to explain to the students if there are any unclear questions). Secondly, the absence of water in the schools is another challenging factor that affects the pastoralist children school participation next to Irrelevance of Curriculum. In Nyangatom Woreda, all primary schools do not have water supply. As a result, many students will go out of school to search for water and they will not come back.

With regard to the third affecting school related factors, the school distance is noticed. In the pastoral area of Nyangatom Woreda, a child was supposed to walk many kilometers in a day. This is because of the community sparse settlement and the very few numbers of full primary schools in the area. As a result, the students are not interested to go to distant schools, especially, after promoting to the second cycle (Grade 5). Instead, they claim to go to the former school which they are familiar with; even to attend the same grade as if they didn’t promote to the next level (Kibish and Shunkura). In fact, they have the right to learn in their locality. Poor community-school relationship is regarded as the fourth affecting factor for the participation of pastoral children primary education. The absence of good-role model in relation to educated

68 personality is also a challenge for school participation in the study area. It has been noticed that no one among the very section of the society takes initiation to make use of their resource for their children education. Most parents perceive that using their wealth for their children’s marriage, as well as performing various socially accepted cultural rituals (ekumomar) brings about a great honor for them. By doing so, they think they are successful family among the community. As a result, there is no one who can be a role model to the society by spending his/her resource for his/her children’s education. Finally, lack of school facility is one of the school related factor for low participation of pastoral children in primary education. In the study area, the classrooms of schools are not built well so that it affects the students’ learning. Moreover, there is a huge shortage of chair, chalks, blackboard, desks and libraries.

On the top of the above major factors, playing pool, karabula, watching films during school hours, fishing and harvesting season for sorghum affects the primary school participation of pastoral children’s. During harvesting season, students prefer to spend their time in the farming land instead of going to school.

5.3. Recommendation Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends the following recommendations to alleviate the situation in relation to low primary school participation of children in NW.

 The Woreda Administration should work with NGO’s working in education sector, such as Save the Children and PCDP to upgrade the available schools to full cycle primary. It should regularly conduct awareness creation to bring the parents’ positive attitudinal change towards the importance of formal education for the betterment of their life.  WFP should design applicable system in which avoidance of irregularities and ensures uninterrupted distribution of supply for school feeding program prior to the academic year sets in. And, it could possibly increase the number of schools with school feeding program.  The concerned bodies, such as Office of Women, Youth, and Children Affair along with office of Education should maintain Sustainable system to promote gender equality as well as enhancing the rates of female children’s participation in primary education through well- organized community discussion.  The Woreda Administration along with NGOs should establish discussion forums with elders of the community and all members of ngisorok focusing on the objectives of formal

education to exert their maximum potential on the realization of the Education Development Packages. The kebele chiefs along with office of Pastoralists of the NW should encourage pastoral parents to send their children to school and to make use of their resources to their children’s education in line with cultural rituals. It should also publically award those who help their children to finish their primary education study as role model in the community.  Office of Pastoralist along with the zonal government should increase the number of hostels provision in the NW so as to help the children stay in the hostel during the mobility season. This, in turn, may possibly avoid several related factors, such as unwanted ngisorok influence, school distance and shortage of food that hinder them to come to school.  The Woreda office of pastoralist along with concerned NGOs should organize some feasible ways to effectively use the available grazing land and water resources around the study area aiming at alleviating the intense of mobility in search of pasture and water during the dry season. By doing so, it could be possible to manage inter-tribal and inter-territorial conflicts in case of mobility.

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APPENDIX

Appendix-1

Arbaminch University School of Post Graduate Department of Psychology Questionnaire to be filled by students The purpose of this questionnaire is together the necessary information for the study on “Provision of Primary Education for Pastoral Children in Nyangatom Woreda: Challenges and Alternatives”. It also aimed at identifying the major challenges and come up with the alternative strategies that should be implemented to minimize the challenges of Primary Education Provision for Pastoral Children in Nyangatom Woreda. Therefore, you are kindly requested to fill in the questionnaires in order to know the option about the difference issues related to the study. The success of this study directly depends up on your honest and genuine response the questions.

Thank you in advance for your cooperation

Part I. Background information Instruction: - 1. Please put “X” mark in the space provided for your answer 2. Please circle the appropriate choice 3. Give short answer in the space provided 4. Do not write your name 1. Name of your school ______2. Sex Male Female 3. Age ______4. Grade ______5. Your fathers level of education A) Illiterate B) can only read and write C) 5-8th grade D) 8th complete and above 6. Your mothers level of education A) Illiterate B) can only read and write C) 5-8th grade D) 8th complete and above

7. Your father’s occupation A) Pastoralist B) Government employee C) Other 8. Your mother’s occupation A) House wife in family B) Government employee C) Other Part II: - General Information about pastoralist children primary education 1. How many kilometers your school far from home? A) Less than 2 Km B) 2-5 Km C) Above 5 Km 2. While your family moves with animals in search of pasture and water, what is the chance of you at school? A) Dropout education and move with them B) Discontinue education for a few weeks C) Continue education D) Other (mention) ______3. Is the existing school calendar favorable to your schooling? A) Yes B) No 4. If your answer for question number 3 is ‘yes’ or No what shall better? yes______No______5. Which one of the following school program is good for your learning? A. Single shift B) Double shift C) Flexible time 6. Do your parents encourage your education? A) Yes B) No 7 if question 6 is yes how if No why explain yes______No______

Part III: - Challenges which hinder the primary education participation of pastoral children in Nyangatom woreda Instruction: - Pleas indicate your level of agreement to the items given below by putting a “circle” or “X” mark on the number (which indicate the level of influence) on the space provided in the table below. Please use the following rating scales Key: - 5- Very high 4- High 3- Moderate 2- low 1- Very low No Hindering Factors Rating Scale 5 4 3 2 1 1 Socio-Cultural Factor 1.1 The perception of pastoral parents for daughter as source of income 5 4 3 2 1 1.2 Early Marriage 5 4 3 2 1 1.3 Low level of pastoral parents attitude towards education 5 4 3 2 1 1.4 Pastoralist fear of formal education clash with their cultural norms 5 4 3 2 1 1.5 The (youth) ngisorok ritual 5 4 3 2 1 1.6 Fear of abdication 5 4 3 2 1 2 Socio Economic Factors 2.1 The pastoralist way of life (mobility) 5 4 3 2 1 2.2 Parents illiteracy 5 4 3 2 1 2.3 The pastoralist sparse settlements 5 4 3 2 1 2.4 The demand for child labor 5 4 3 2 1 2.5 Conflicts 5 4 3 2 1 2.6 Poverty because of drought 5 4 3 2 1 3 School related factors 3.1 Irrelevance of curriculum 5 4 3 2 1 3.2 Absence of water in school 5 4 3 2 1 3.3 Poor school –community relationship 5 4 3 2 1 3.4 Distance from home to school is too far 5 4 3 2 1 3.5 Lack of school facilities 5 4 3 2 1 3.6 Absence of flexible school calendar 5 4 3 2 1

3.7 Shortage of experience teachers 5 4 3 2 1 3.8 Absence of role model pastoralists in educating all their children 5 4 3 2 1

Part III: - Give short explanations for the following questions 1. What constraints other than those mentioned above do you think hinder the participation of pastoral children in primary education? ______2. What kind of alternative strategies are currently applied to promote the participation of pastoral children in primary education? ______3. What strategies do you think or suggest increases the participation of pastoral children in primary education? ______4. is there any NGO assisting you at school? A) Yes B) No If yes what does it provide you at school? A) School materials B) food C) others (mention) ______5. Will you mention any recommendations you like the government, community elders, teachers and NGOS to do in order to encourage the participation of pastoral children at primary education?______

Appendix - 2

Interview Guideline for Teachers and Supervisors Part II: - General information about pastoralist children primary education 1. Do you think the school has an accessible distance? A. Yes B. No 2. What is the educational back ground of most pastoral parents? A. Illiterate B. can only read and write C. 1-5 grade D. 5-8 grades E. 8 grade above 3. Do you think that parental educations influence their children education? A. Yes B, No If yes how? ______If No how______5. Do pastoralist children attend class properly? A, Yes B, No 6. If No, what is the reason? Explain it ______7. from your experience in which age most pastoralists get married? 8. From your experience, are pastoralist parents willing to send their children to formal primary school far from their village? A, Yes B, No If No, explain______9. At which grade level most pastoral children stop their education? 10. Do you think most parents in the pastoral community understand the benefit of education of their children? A. Yes B. No If no explain______11. Will you mention any constraints which affect the provision of primary education for pastoralist children? A) ______B) ______12. What constraints other than those mentioned above do you think can hinder the participation of pastoral children in primary education?______13. What kinds of alternative strategies are you currently applying to promote the participation of pastoral children in primary education?______14. Can the above mentioned strategies effectively increase the participation of pastoral children in primary education? Yes ______No ______

APPENDIX -3 Interview Guideline for Education Officers 1. What is the status of pastoral school age population school participation? 2. Do male and female pastoral children’s has equal participation in education? If no why? 3. How is the rate of pastoral children’s school dropout? At which grade high dropout observed? Why? 4. What major factors that affect the school attendance of pastoral children in primary education? How? 5. What school related factors hinder the participation of pastoral children in primary education? 6. What Socio- cultural practices hindered the participation of pastoral children in primary education? How? 7. What socio-economic factors that hinder primary school participation of pastoral children? 8. What kind of alternative strategies currently your offices apply to promote the provision of primary education for pastoral children? 9. What possible strategies do you propose to provide opportunity for all school age pastoral children to join their right of schooling? 10. What are the major reasons for less participation of female students at school? 11. What do you think about the roles of the community, the government, and NGOs in promoting the school participation of pastoral children?

APPENDIX – 4

Focus Group Discussion Guideline for pastoral community representatives 1. Do you think that all school age children in your community/kebele joined school? A) Yes B) No 2. If No, why? Explain. 3. How do you see the provision of primary education in your community being pastoral community representatives? 4. Do you believe the provision of primary education in your community is equally accessible to males and females students? a) Yes b) No 5. If No, why? 6. What are school related factors that hinder the participation of pastoral children in primary education in your area? 7. What are Socio- cultural practices that hindered the participation of pastoral children in primary education? How? 8. What are socio-economic factors that hinder primary school participation of pastoral children? 9. As pastoral community representatives, what do you think the role of the community, the government, and NGOs in providing appropriate primary education at your area? 10. What type of primary education provision is more appropriate for your community? Why? 11. What possible strategies do you suggest to alleviate problem and improve the participation of pastoral children in primary education in your area?