Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 33 ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Challenges in Expanding Access to Education Among Pastoralists of South Omo,

Alemayehu Debebe

Abstract

This study explores into mobility patterns and prevalence of conflict as determinants of access to and retention in education. The assessment has been carried out in two educationally underprivileged pastoralist districts of south Omo. Ethnographic visits, key informants interview and focus group discussion were the major tools of data collection. Findings suggest that the area is characterized by regular seasonal mobility, frequent conflicts and conflict induced displacement. For communities in and the situation of no war does not necessarily mean that there is peace. Drought and harsh weather are the driving forces of mobility. Competition over water sources and pastureland coupled with internal border dispute and cattle raid were identified as the long standing causes of armed conflict. Inability of schools to continue their regular functions without disruptions in the area under study is recognized as an adverse effect of both mobility and conflict. Encroachment of rangelands due to large scale agricultural investment and mineral exploration found to be the other frontiers of conflict of interest.

Key words: Cattle raid, conflict, education, investment, mobility, pastoralists

INTRODUCTION Pastoralists’ life style is distinct from their to look for coping mechanisms during agriculturalist counterparts. Farmers are period of stress. One of such coping known for their sedentary living while mechanisms is mobility. United States pastoralists become accustomed to Agency for International Development mobility. Pastoral mobility, however, is not (USAID) (2011) regards pastoral mobility a matter of choice. Rather it is a necessity as the most important adaptive strategy. in order to ensure survival of both human Ikeya and Fratkin (2005) also recognize it beings and herds. Inhabiting in the arid and as an essential condition of maintaining semi-arid areas, pastoralists usually strive herd productivity.

______Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 Education Policy and Leadership Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Pastoral areas are usually branded as areas As noted by Pastoralist Forum -Ethiopia, of adversity. Pastoralists suffer from International Institute for Rural multifaceted challenges. These challenges Reconstruction and Development Fund can roughly be classified as having natural there are a number of good reasons for and manmade dimensions. Natural which pastoralists keep on seasonally problems encountered by pastoralists moving from place to place. First, mobility include but not limited to aridity of the enables pastoralists to make wise use of the areas wherein they reside, scarcity of limited pasture and other resources in a resources to support their livelihood, as sustainable manner. Secondly, mobility lets well as recurrence of contrasting natural pastoralists to carefully manage and disasters like drought at one time and flood conserve rangelands. Particularly, the at another. Manmade aspects of the Ethiopian pastoralists pursue mobility in problem, on the other hand, revolve around search for better grazing, water, and conflicts of different nature. Of course saltlicks as well as averting the risk of conflict is said to be a common place in the animal disease. Besides, there is mobility lives of the pastoral communities. Kimani that may be dictated by emergency (2008), for instance, described the pastoral situations mainly due to flooding of such context as the area characterized by rivers as Awash, Wabi-Shabelle, Ganalle recurring natural disaster and endemic and Omo (Pastoralist Forum-Ethiopia, insecurity. Adan and Pkalya (2005) have International Institute for Rural also identified competition over access and Reconstruction and Development Fund, control of scarce natural resources as the 2010) that calls for unconditional underlying causes of conflict in arid and evacuation of pastoralists. semi-arid settings. Butler and Gates (2010) went on to some distance in establishing Paradoxical as it may sound, pastoral cause and effect relationship between mobility is known for its two opposing drought and pastoral conflict in a way that outcomes. It contains desirable effects on resource scarcity resulting from drought the one end of the continuum and eventually leads to conflict. It becomes a devastation on the other. Pastoralist routinely observable phenomenon that the Forum-Ethiopia, International Institute for “combination of more people with more Rural Reconstruction and Development animals competing for the use of ever Fund (2010) noted that exchanging of shrinking pastures and water sources does information, social interaction, animal produce conflict” (USAID, 2011:7) among husbandry, disease prevention and pastoralist communities. maintaining cross-cultural relations as blessings of mobility. On the contrary, In a further analysis of the conflict situation conflict stands as curse of pastoral mobility prevailing in pastoralist areas, Blench when it involves violent dispute. The (1997) has come up with a list of conflict challenge is that “mobility is an categories. As for Blench, conflict over indispensable element of pastoralist natural resources among pastoralists livelihood” (Pastoralist Forum -Ethiopia, themselves or between pastoralists and International Institute for Rural others may take any of the seven forms1 Reconstruction and Development Fund, identified by the author or a combination of 2010:6). multiple categories. It is clear that Blench’s

1 Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 35 assessment put emphasis only on those percent of the goats, 25 percent of the disputes that arise due to competition over sheep, 20 percent of the equines and all of natural resources. Nevertheless, conflicts the camels (PFE, IIRR and DF, 2010). temming from traditional practices such as However, they live in a severe poverty cattle rustling as rite of passage for young situation in spite of their significant warriors, and as a means of regulating the contribution to the national economy. quality of livestock (Mburu, 2001) were overlooked by Blench. Being settled along the international borders, the Ethiopian pastoralists usually Sharing relatively a similar life style with affected by recurring conflicts with fellow pastoralists across the globe, the situation pastoralists across the borders as this with Ethiopian pastoralists is also not an incidence commonly prevails between exception. Owing to their settlement in arid pastoralists in South Omo and their Kenyan and semi-arid areas where water and counterparts. Frequent internal disputes grazing are scarce, mobility is an inherent with neighboring fellow pastoralists due to life style of pastoral communities that cattle rustling, pastureland and water serves as a means of survival. Pastoralists sources put the pastoralist contexts in a in Ethiopia customarily move from place to constant flux. place mainly in search for water and pastureland. Erratic rainfall patterns, high It is very difficult for schools to continue temperatures, floods and drought (USAID, their usual operation under such a security 2011) which are attributable to the ever threat. Parents become anxious about safety escalating climatic change are identified as of their children. The question of well- significant stress bearers on the lives of the being remains a top priority than thinking Ethiopian pastoralists. Regarding the of the instructional tasks among the situation of pastoralists in Ethiopia USAID teaching personnel. School supplies may (2011:2) went on saying the following. cease to exist due to disruption in transport service. This study was carried out to Pastoralists in Ethiopia face a examine the patterns of mobility and number of challenges that threaten prevalence of conflict in two pastoralist the sustainability of their traditional districts of south Omo (Dasenech and practices. As the country has sought Nyangatom) where access to primary to develop and diversify its education is critically low. economy, land has been allocated by Pastoralists are one of the seriously the state for other uses. The disadvantaged groups as far as provision of combination of diminishing grazing formal education is concerned. Their areas and population growth (both insignificant participation in education has human and animal) has contributed significantly limited partaking of to land degradation, competition for pastoralists in the labour market as well. pasture and water, and interethnic Regarding the underrepresentation of and intra-ethnic conflict. pastoralists in education Saverio Krätli’s has to say “Educationally, pastoralists appear to be a paradox. From the point of Ethiopian pastoralists represent ten million view of official education they are a of the total population of the country and complete failure: in terms of enrolment, occupy 61 percent of the total land mass. attendance, classroom performance, They raise about 42 percent of the cattle, 7 achievement, continuity to higher Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 education and gender balance they pastoralist livelihood” (USAID, 2011:7). regularly score at the bottom of the ladder” Even then, living in such a fragile state of ( Krätli, 2001:1) affairs urges pastoralists to look for a relatively safer destination in order to Barriers that limit pastoral access to and escape the disaster to come. Nevertheless, retention in education can take various their frequent mobility in search for refuge interdependent forms. Krätli and Dyer may not be always peaceful. It is common (2009) attribute the daunting pastoralists’ to such migratory moves to face hostile restricted access to education to responses from people who have same incompatibility of the mainstream school- interest over the resources that the migrants based education delivery. This system, as intend to have access to. noted by the authors, lacks responsiveness to the pastoral mobility pattern. Yet, The Southern Nations, Nationalities and mobility is considered to be an essential People’s Region (SNNPR) is home for 56 condition for endurance of the pastoral ethnic groups (SNNPR Nationalities production system. Council, 2009). is one of the administrative units that constitute the Recognition of mobility as an inherent region. This zone is again subdivided into manifestation of the pastoralist style of life eight districts2. In Ethiopia there are 29 may not necessarily be debatable. It is pastoralist communities (PFE, IIRR and simply there since the advent of DF, 2010). Sixteen3 out of the total of 29 pastoralism itself. However, mobility in pastoralist communities are inhabited in most cases does not stand alone. The south Omo zone alone. likelihood of mobility to invite violent conflict is imminent as it is discussed in the South Omo zone is known not only for its preceding section of this study. Mobility pastoralist economic activities. It also and conflict have a role reversal kind of represents the area that is severely relationship. At times mobility triggers disadvantaged with regard to access to conflict, at another conflict causes mobility. education. Primary education in the area is No matter whichever prevails first, both generally characterized by critically low mobility and conflict are serious enrolment and alarmingly impediments of expanding educational opportunities in pastoralists’ areas while high dropping out rates among the other restraining factors kept constant. pastoralist communities. For instance, Nyangatom and Dasenech districts had This study focuses on analysis of patterns 4.3% and 9.1% of net primary school of pastoral mobility and prevalence of enrolment rates respectively while the conflict in south Omo zone of Southern regional average net enrolment rate was set Nations, Nationalities and People’s at 85.1% in 2008 (SNNPR-RB, 2008). In regional state. As it is documented by the addition to this lowest rate in enrolment, USAID (2011) pastoralists in the southern most of the districts are characterized by part of the country are severely affected by high school dropping out. Though it looks a recurring drought which allows no very strange, the primary school dropout interval to recover. Though it sounds rate was 54.1% for Nyangatom, 19.2% for distressing to learn the bitter fact as it is , and 16.8% for Bena-Tsemay taking place in southern Ethiopia districts while the regional average was

“pastoralists themselves expressed doubts 2 about the viability and future of the 3 Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 37 13.7% during the academic year 2010/11 discussion sessions comprised Kebele4 (SNNPR-REB, 2011). Education and Training Board (KETB) members, Parent-Teacher Association This study was undertaken mainly to seek (PTA) members, and members of local answer to the following four research administration council. These participants questions. First, do pastoralists in Dasenech were taken into account purposively in and Nyangatom districts follow defined consideration of their multiple roles in the routes of seasonal mobility where and community as parents, community when the need is there to do so? Second, do representatives and citizens who have stake pastoralists in Dasenech and Nyangatom in education. districts enter into conflict with each other and/or with other neighbouring Focus group discussion was chosen as an communities? Third, what are the instrument of data collection for it enables underlying factors that lead pastoralists into to capture the participants’ views, opinions conflict in Dasenech and Nyangatom and special concerns about what is going districts? Fourth, what are the on in their surroundings regarding mobility consequences of mobility and conflict on and conflict through making reference to children’s schooling in Dasenech and their own experience in a friendly and less Nyangatom districts? formal setup. It also provides opportunity to value participants’ emotion while addressing a certain matter and gives METHODOLOGY possibility of instant cross-checking of A principal research method adopted to contending views. Simple but basic undertake the study was a qualitative questions related to patterns of mobility inquiry approach. Within the qualitative and the resultant conflicts have been used paradigm particular attention was given to to guide the focus group discussion. advocacy perspective. The advocacy Participants ranging from 10-12 persons perspective was chosen for its focus on the took part in each of the six focus group needs of marginalized groups in view to discussion sessions held at three different bringing about change in the lives of the kebeles in each of the sample districts with underprivileged segments of societies equal representation of the three groups (Creswell, 2009). (members of PTA, KETB local Data for this study have been collected administration council). Overall number of from residents of the study settings those of participants was sixty pastoralists drawn who took part in series of focus group from six kebeles in the two districts of discussion sessions. Contents of the FGD Dasenech and Nyangatom. emphasize on examining mobility trends and prevalence of conflict as regards to Analysis of data obtained through focus communities under study. Participants were group discussion sessions was carried out requested to clearly indicate whether they by compiling information from audiotapes seasonally move from place to place, what and field notes into one aggregate format make them leave one location and go to the which serves as basis for the analysis. In other, whether there are specific seasons tape-based analysis audiotapes were that necessitate mobility, whether there are listened to carefully, and an abridged specific mobility routes regularly to take, transcript was prepared. Note-based and prevalence of conflict, consequences of analysis was done through reviewing field mobility and conflict on children's education. Participants of the focus group 4 Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 notes, the debriefing session, and summary qualitative narrative. The most popular comments. Listening to audiotapes was approach is to use a narrative passage to done in order to verify specific quotes and convey the findings of the analysis. to transcribe the oral summary from the end of the session. This approach found to Step 6: Being the final one this step be helpful to safely summarize the data, involves making an interpretation or code them by identifying idea clusters, and meaning of the data. generate a list of key themes. Identification of themes was followed by determining key Furthermore, analysis of data obtained data categories or commonalities among through non-participant observation and comments provided by respondents in captured by field notes has involved four order to carry out interpretation. stages. First, each episode of observation was transcribed and verified for accuracy. The qualitative data analysis was generally At the second stage data were quantified by followed John W. Creswell’s six steps counting instances of such particular framework of qualitative research data prevalence. Then, comparison was made to analysis (Creswell, 2009, pp. 183-190). The pin point differences and similarities steps are briefly summarized as follows. between various observations regarding issues of the research interest. Finally, Step 1: Organizing and preparing the comparison was made between themes data for analysis. This step involves identified through observation and those of transcribing interviews, typing up field which identified through focus group notes or arranging the data into different discussions and interviews. types depending on their sources. Mainly, the ethnographic observation was Step 2: Reading through all the data as a considered as a means of triangulation. It first step to obtain a general sense of the was devised to further verify accuracy of information and to reflect on its overall data obtained through FGDs and interview meaning. sessions. Field observations were guided by an observation checklist. Contents of the Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a checklist include but not limited to the coding process. Coding, according to quality of school facility and supplies, Creswell, involves taking text data or student friendliness of the school pictures gathered during the data compound, in-school interaction among collection, segmenting sentences, and students, as well as quality and adequacy of labelling those categories with a term, water and toilet services.. often a term based in the actual language of the participant.

Step 4: Use the coding process to RESULTS generate a description of the setting or Seasonal Mobility Routes of the people as well as categories or themes Dasenech Community and the Enduring for analysis. Description involves Conflict Lines detailed rendering information about During rainy season which extends from people, places or events in the setting. mid-May through September, the Dasenech community usually settles back around Step 5: Advance how the description and river Omo bank where the annual themes will be represented in the Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 39 agricultural activity takes place. Sorghum5 land possession with the Hamer sowing is carried out between the end of community. Locations called Narama and October to beginning of November each Fejej are the commonly cited areas of year. The period between January to mid- disagreement. Narama kebele is one of February marks the harvest season whereby hotbeds of such recurring mutual distrust members of each household kept busy in due to the unsettled boundary matters relation to on-farm engagements. Months between the two communities (Dasenech of February, March and April are said to be and Hamer). Both sides claim ownership very dry during which the Dasenechs with right over Narama, a location known for a their herds migrate to the downstream of good deal of grazing. An area called Fejej where water and grass are is another point over which the two supposed to be better available. communities enter into frequent clashes particularly during the dry season. Alike Dasenech is one of the eight districts that the case of Narama, Fejej is a pastureland constitute the South Omo Zone of the over which the two groups claim for Southern Nations, Nationalities and possession. Since there is no clear and People’s Regional State. Omorate is a acceptable demarcation of boundary district capital of Dasenech. Dasenech between these two communities, the shares border with Hamer district in the likelihood of reappearance of same kind of North, in East and South and disagreement is imminent as the situation Nyangatom district in the West. Relatively on the ground indicates. speaking, the Dasenech people belong to a homogenous ethnic composition. Thus, Circumstances observed during the data there is no as such serious conflict between collection period have also witnessed that the members of the Dasenech community the standoff was there. Participants of the which goes beyond the traditional focus group discussion sessions have mediation of the elderly people in charge of ascertained that they are ready to pay any maintaining social cohesion among sacrifice until the Hamer people stop to members of the community. claim their land. To this end, the Dasenechs have pooled women, children and the However, life in the Dasenech community elderly back into a new settlement area is characterized by inter-ethnic conflicts of called Fejej II, which is situated about 20 different nature. They usually enter into kilometres distance into the mainland serious confrontations with almost all Dasenech from what they call “Fejej people sharing boundaries with them. The proper”. Meanwhile, the young and the most commonly prevailing conflict is the able remained there in Fejej with their one with the Turkana pastoralists of Kenya herds determined and armed to respond to in south-west of the Dasenech district. any kind of provocative acts from the Cattle raiding and robbery from either side Hamer side, it was learnt. are the main causes of hostility and unrest between the two neighbouring communities The Dasenechs also have unresolved residing under two different flags. grudge with the neighbouring Nyangatom community with whom they share North of the district is also a dispute corner. boundary in the West. During the data The cause of conflict in the northern part of collection, it was learnt that the two the district, unlike the one with the Turkana communities are usually at odds with each tribe, is characterized by confrontation over other over a grazing land downhill of 5 Terara (Mount Kuraz). Though the Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 area is a border point between the two between Ethiopia and the . districts (Dasenech and Nyangatom), both These two locations are said to be safe parties claim for sole possession of the havens to the during the grazing field there around. The situation dry season where scarcity of water and looks so fragile to the extent of entailing grazing reaches its peak. By and large they armed response even with a mere incidence spend the period between end of December of crossing into the each others’ presumed to first half of May around Tirga and Naita. borderline. The Nyangatoms start to leave from Tirga South-east of the Dasenech district is and Naita areas during the second half of another frontier whereby the Dasenech the month of May. This time, they make community enters into conflict with Boran their return to their traditionally well tribe of Kenya. Grazing areas called Allia, defined land possessions along the Omo Derete and Lankaye are the reported causes river bank, a location they refer to as “our of hostility. Killings and retaliatory killings lifeline”. Land preparation, sowing of coupled with periodic cattle raiding from Sorghum, weeding and harvest are the either side seem to be familiar encounters typical farming engagements of the along with this porous border between Nyangatom pastoralists during the time that Ethiopia and Kenya. stretches from July to the first half of December. Seasonal Mobility Routes of the Nyangatom Community and the There are also other two locations that the Enduring Conflict Lines Nyangatom people very cautiously make Nyangatom represents both name of the arrangements to settle during a dry season. dominant ethnic group settled in the district These places are the downhill areas of and the name of the district itself. Kangaten Mount Kuraz where the Nyangatoms share is a district capital of Nyangatom. This border with the Dasenech district and the district shares international boundary with vicinity of where the South Sudan in the west and Kenya in the Nyangatoms experience unfriendly times south-west. Internally the district is with fellow Kenyan pastoralists. Since bordered with Dasenech in south and east, these locations are very sensitive ones, Hamer in north-east, Salamago in the north decisions to move towards the area need a and Bench zone in the north western serious scrutiny of situations together with edge. analysis of previous tracks of conflict and their respective ways of settlement. Where The Nyangatoms usually live in scattered there exists any outstanding grievance that temporary settlement villages elsewhere is not yet addressed only controlled and across the district under normal cautious movements into the area are circumstances. These normal circumstances allowed. In the case of this kind of limited refer to the situation where there is no access to these locations, it is only the able drought and strife. During the dry season and armed people with their herds are that usually extends from end of December allowed to be stationed there up until the to May of each year the Nyangatom people dry season subsides. Women, children and move to the two important places called the elderly people made must stay away Tirga and Naita. The former is found in the from such contentious environs. north western border of the district. The later is in the Western part of the district Conflict tends to be a common place in the that is situated along the borderline lives of the Nyangatom people. Practically, Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 41 all of the movements made from the centre afraid, your decision may amount to peripheries in search for water and to declaring that the poor members grazing during the dry season are of the Nyangatom community characterized by rival acts and counteracts remain unmarried, have no children except the case of a movement towards and die without leaving anyone Naita, a porous borderline between behind. Do you like us to perish? Ethiopia and the South Sudan. People in Naita usually welcome the Nyangatoms for the reason that they trace their origin into The above statements made by one member same ancestors as participants of the study of the focus group and shared among the have uncovered it. entire participants is partly in line with Mkutu’s (nd) remarks that consider cattle The Nyangatom community enters into raiding as pastoralist tradition which traces recurring dispute with Dasenechs due to its roots into distant pasts. Mburu (2001: cattle raiding and competition over water 152) also further elaborates the purposes of and grass resources. Cattle raiding, also cattle raiding as “a strategy for coping with alternatively named as cattle stealing or natural disasters, political domination of cattle rustling by Adan and Pkalya (2005), neighbours through the monopoly of is the act of robbing herds that belong to a animal wealth, rite of passage for young different social group other than one’s own warriors, and a means of regulating the community. This practice is also frequently quality of livestock”. cited as a major cause for inter-ethnic conflicts. One of the questions during the focus group discussion sessions was In addition to the commonly prevailing whether the participants of the study reciprocal act of cattle raiding, the recognize cattle raiding as a lawful act. The Nyangatoms clash with the Dasenech participants, all at once, nodded and community over a grazing land downhill of murmured in affirmation of the following Mount Kuraz particularly during the statements made by one of the focus group occurrence of extended dry season. In fact, discussion participants during a session both parties claim for exclusive possession held at Kibish kebele. of the area. Infrequent and small scale dispute is also there between the Cattle raid is our tradition. Our Nyangatom and Hamer Communities along fathers and fore fathers have done the north eastern border of the Nyangatom it. What is special with us to district. Participants of the study have consider it as an unlawful practice? underlined that the main cause of conflict Is it not a means through which a between these two communities are killings poor young man secures heads of and retaliatory killings from both sides cattle to be able to pay for the bride related to the act of cattle raiding and price? If someone has enough competition over water sources and number of his own cattle or his rangeland. relatives are willing to contribute to his dowry payment, there is no Northern end of the district of Nyangatom need to go for raid. However, we is identified as an area of continuous must not forget that cattle raid is uncertainty. Principally a locality called one of the options that one would Kakuta, the kebele administration consider at last. If you perceive bordering with , is said to cattle raid as wrong doing, we are be a place of insecurity as articulated by the Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 community representatives. Men from grazing land and strictly limits pastoral tribe of Bench Maji zone and the access to the area. Nyangatoms usually meet while hunting in the territory of the Omo National Park. Allocation of large size of land for Most often there happens reportedly agricultural investment is another area of unintentional killing which is attributed to a unease as long as the issue of conflict of miss target shooting as indicated by the interest is concerned. For instance, respondents. However, neither side Nebremus kebele is one of handful fertile tolerates this kind of none premeditated locations in the Dasenech district. homicide as so they say. Rather a vicious Pastoralists usually migrate to this area cycle of retribution killing continues from during the dry season. Ten thousand both sides either promptly or in any hectares of land in Nebremus has been convenient time and place afterwards. This leased to a foreign company (lease state of affairs leaves residents of that certificate number EIA-IP 19214/10). The particular locality in a constant alert of said agreement remains in force for 25 emergency. years effective 01/08/2010 through its expiry on 30/07/2035. Shenkora kebele is Nyangatoms are also very uncomfortable known as a place of safety for pastoralists with the repulsive relationship that they in Nyangatom particularly during the dry have with the adjacent Kara community in season. Nevertheless, 5000 hectares of land the north eastern part of the district. in Shenkora is leased out to a private Lokulan is a fertile farmland investor for the duration of 25 years administratively demarcated into district of stretching from 09/04/2003 to 08/04/2028 Nyangatom. The Karas, dwellers of Hamer Ethiopian calendar. district, however, insist on re-demarcation of the area into their territory and removal As it has been tried to make it clear in the of members of the Nyangatom community foregoing discussion, pastoral mobility is from the said location. This kind of strained neither an act of leisure nor travelling for relationship periodically manifests itself pleasure. Rather, it is a permanent race with through robbery, asset destruction, physical nature to ensure continued existence. The assault and murder at worst as underlined pastoralist production system, therefore, by respondents of the study. demands for enough space to stretch over during the time of need.

Investment and Conflict: Thinking the Expanding investment opportunities and other Side of the Coin undertaking large scale development Above all, it seems very plausible that the projects are key indicators of economic existing conflict situation in Dasenech and success. Petroleum exploration in Nyangatom districts may follow an Dassenech and large scale commercial farm increasing trend than declining since the activities in both Desenech and Nyangatom grazing areas continue to shrink. The can be taken as an integral part of the shrinkage is not only due to an increase in national development endeavours. But human and animal population. Large scale development initiatives of this kind may commercial farms and mineral exploration come up with the intended and unintended activities are the emerging threats to the outcomes together. Thus, alternative pastoral production system. Petroleum mechanisms need to be thought about in exploration activity in central Dasenech mitigating the adverse effects of such an ultimately narrows down the size of the unintended outcome. Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 43 The investment activities mentioned above opportunities for illiterate pastoralists in aggravate the problem of shrinkage of order to effectively address a conflict of rangelands. The projects also put interest arising between the investors and restrictions on pastoralists to have access to the indigenous people”? their most important and resourceful locations. It is clear that most of pastoral conflicts arise from competition over DISCUSSION access and ownership of natural resources. People may have emotional attachments Hence, how can peace be maintained with places they reside in, things they between pastoralists and the investment possess, ideals that shape their personality, operations taking place in pastoral settings situations that have big places in their lives unless their conflict of interest is and most importantly with the community constructively addressed? that they belong to. Departing from such important contexts and social ties usually Job opportunity creation is one of the major results in emotional distress. After all, it is benefits of investment. Actually, not an easy experience to decide about investment stimulates the local economy leaving one’s domicile and uncertainly for it opens up prospects for employment. thinking of being reinstated at another. The But the employment opportunities are not effect becomes strangely devastating when unconditional. To begin with, a minimum such displacement is induced by violent level of education or training is required in conflicts. Ferris and Winthrop in their order to qualify to join the labour market. assessment of the conditions of refugees Literacy, among others, is a decisive factor and internally displaced persons have that determines employability. identified ranges of apprehensions of people affected by conflict. These authors In Ethiopia average adult illiteracy rate noted that losing a loved one, economic goes as high as 64% for both sexes. It is hardship and displacement were the three 50% among men and escalates to 77% most feared consequences of conflict among women (MoE, 2010). Adult among refugees and the internally illiteracy rate among pastoralists reveals displaced persons. Fear of death was another uncomfortable reality. According to mentioned as the sixth most feared UNESCO (2010) proportion of adults of encounter following fear of physical injury age 17 to 22 with fewer than two years of and sexual and gender-based violence, education was estimated at 39% and 60% (Ferris and Winthrop, 2010). among men and women respectively. The average sharply rises to 85% and 88% Adan and Pkalya (2005), on the other hand, among pastoralist men and women have identified the following major correspondingly. consequences of conflict while they examined the socio-economic impacts of At this point in time, we need to remind conflict on pastoral and semi pastoral ourselves that we are living in a knowledge economies in Kenya and Uganda. dependent world. Let alone aspiring to Primarily, conflict claims lives of people obtain a decent placement in the labour and entails displacement. Secondly, it market, our everyday life situation destroys assets, disrupts farm activities and demands attainment of “basic reading, results in food crisis. Thirdly, the already writing and numeracy skills” (UNESCO, fragile delivery of social services like 2010: 95). The question, therefore, is that education and health turn to be non-existent “can the investment operations offer job due to conflict. Fourthly, conflict leaves Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 people vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection Despite the unparalleled role of education due to rape which is a common evil during in promoting individual, social and the war time and/or when the displaced economic development, millions of persons engaged in risky sexual behaviours children living mainly in conflict affected as a means of survival. parts of the world have no access to education. According to UNESCO (2011) Conflict has immense negative effects on 28 million children of primary school age, children’s development in general and their living in conflict affected countries, which education in particular. Whenever there is a account for 42% of the world’s total out of situation that leads to conflict, schools are school population were not attending the first institutions that are forced to classes. disrupt their operation at best. The worst scenario is that it may become extremely The tragedy is that parties in conflict dangerous to go to school or the school usually set aside or wrongly manipulate the itself get destroyed (International Save the delivery of education to be Children Alliance, 2010). counterproductive to its desired end, which is enhancing peaceful coexistence, Disruption of schooling, on the one hand, tolerance and promoting mutual respect. means denying children the right to The essence is that human societies need to education which shapes their future. acclaim schools as “places for imparting Moreover, the situation may contribute to the most vital of skills: tolerance, mutual increasing tendency of the youth to be respect and the ability to live peacefully conflict perpetrators. To this end, Jackson with others” (UNESCO, 2011:3). UNICEF (2011) has underscored that the early (2000) also recognizes education as having school leaver Somali pastoral youth dual role of deconstructing structures of especially males migrate from conflict- violence and constructing structures of prone rural locations to urban areas in peace through fostering tolerance and inter- search for employment opportunity. The group understanding as well as promoting fact that the urban centres are home for a healing and reconciliation. large pool of job seeking youth, the migrants remain unemployed and become susceptible to recruitment and inducement However, thinking of a conflict situation to violence. from its very beginning threatens education - a transforming agent which can possibly Lack of proper education has far reaching change conflict into cooperation. It is impacts on human life. According to customary that a kind of inverse UNESCO (2010) uneducated or relationship between conflict and education undereducated people remain vulnerable to leads schooling to a complete crisis during multiple forms of disadvantage. Their a time of violent clash. In sum, conflict chances of getting decent jobs, enjoying seriously and directly affects schooling for better health and participation in the it incites displacement of the local political processes that have direct bearings community to whom the schools were built on their lives are very much diminished. to serve, teaching personnel abandonment Despairingly, “restricted opportunity in and school facility closure (Krätli and education is one of the most powerful Swift, 1999; Omosa, E. K., 2005; and mechanisms for transmitting poverty across Kimani, 2008). generations” (UNESCO, 2010: 8). Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 45 Accordingly, the study has revealed that play a central role in responding to conflict pastoralists residing in the study areas are situations. generally living in uncertainty and with a Following are some reflections indicating a constant alert to respond to any upcoming way forward with regard to addressing the conflict. Competition over water and persistent problem of mobility and conflict pastureland, cattle raiding and retaliatory in the areas under this study. killings were found to be the three major 1.1 Even though mobility and conflict are causes of conflict in the area under study. considered to be the major detractors Drought is a driving force for mobility in of delivery of education in pastoral search for safer place for both human districts of Dasenech and Nyangatom, population and herds. This kind of in most cases participants of the focus movement pays lesser attention to group discussion sessions seemed to be restrictive political boundaries. Availability cautious in applauding the benefits of of resources dictates the direction to take. education too. This may call for more There appears conflict to happen unless a sensitization about the benefits of kind of traceable kinship between the education through the use of educated migrating group and the host community is local role models’ campaign. The well acknowledged such as the case of sensitization campaign may have Naita community in Suoth Sudan and the twofold purposes. First, it helps to Nyangatoms from Ethiopia. raise parental awareness of benefits of education. Second, creates opportunity Pastoralists in both districts proudly speak to pastoral children to learn from of their acts of cattle raiding. To them, it is experiences and achievements of a normal course of action. Rather what they educated local role models. The are much concerned about is the time and process of campaigning through the the manner of executing a successful use of educated local role models also operation of cattle raiding. Though it is helps children to identify themselves clear to the actors of raiding that there with the exemplary figures and get would be armed responses from pastoralists inspired to proceed with their on the other side, there is no sign of giving education despite the constraining it up. circumstances. 1.2 Designing a school structure that better Mobility and conflict affect education in responds to the mobility needs of the multiple ways. Where there is a shortage of pastoral communities is another water, parents do not let children to school essential consideration. The less even before they decide to migrate. When flexible school timetable and capital migration tending to be unavoidable option intensive formal school buildings thinking about schooling remains so trivial. rarely satisfy the learning needs of By the time local communities within the pastoral communities. Innovative and catchments of a particular school setup simple school structures like tent decide to move to another location, the schools which can easily move from formal education system proves its place to place while the community irrelevance to serve the purpose of migrates may be worthwhile. Since educating pastoral children. Where there is pastoralists in both Dasenech and conflict, older children abandon Nyangatom mostly follow defined schooling and turned to be combatants routes of mobility during wet and dry either on request from parents or obeying seasons, adoption of mobile school the traditional norm that requires them to structure would be beneficial to tackle Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 the problem of school abandonment 1.6 Schools also need to prove their while mobility becomes a necessity. relevance to the local community in 1.3 Distance mode of delivery being addition to their instructional supervised by district education responsibilities. This can take place offices may contribute in addressing through provision of such the problem of schooling disruptions community services as consulting and security concerns. Use of radio pastoralists on human and animal instruction as a complementary health issues and environmental means would also be an effective protection mechanisms with due way of taking education to each regard to the pastoralists’ useful household than always requiring traditional natural resource children to fit into a rigid schedule management and conservation of formal school establishments. practices. Since pastoralists have 1.4 All efforts made towards individual keen interest in such practical and societal development may not be interventions, this may foster sense successful without security. recognition of schools as useful Conversely, pastoral areas in institutions which are there to serve Dasenech and Nyangatom are stages interests of pastoralists as well. of recurring conflicts most of which are resulting from mishandling of minor incidences and lack of tolerance between parties in dispute. REFERENCES Clear demarcation of boundaries between neighbouring pastoralists Adan, M. and Pkalya, R. (2005). An with their consent and on the basis assessment of the socio- of win-win-approach would be very economic impacts of conflict on helpful in arresting conflicts arising pastoral and semi pastoral from border disputes. In some cases, economies in Kenya and establishing institutions like Uganda. Nairobi: Practical veterinary clinic that serves the Action-Eastern Africa. interests of both sides claiming for sole possession of a disputed over Bell, A., Bowles, S., Fazzio, W., Hazzah, area may calm down the hostility. L., Hertz, T., Ila, I., McElreath, 1.5 Encouraging peace dialogues R.L. and Mulder, M.B. (2010). between neighbouring pastoralists is Pastoralism and wealth instrumental to significantly reduce inequality: Revisiting an old prevalence of conflict. The peace question. Current Anthropology, dialogue can be mediated by 51(1), 35-48. government or nongovernment agencies for initial period until Blench, R. (1997). Aspects of resource mutual trust building matures conflict in semi-arid Africa. between communities involved in London: Overseas Development conflict. The ultimate goal of such Institute. mediation, however, needs to be geared towards enabling the local Butler, K. and Gates, S. (2010). African communities to be able to manage range wars: Climate, conflict, matters leading to conflict on their and property rights. A own. Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 47 conference paper presented at 03/2012 from: “Climate Change and Security”, www.savethechildren.net/rewrite 250th Anniversary Conference thefuture organized for the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences Jackson, E. (2011). The role of education and Letters, Trondheim, Norway, in livelihoods in the Somali 21-24 June 2010. region of Ethiopia. Medford, MA: Feinstein International FDRE Population Census Commission. Center, Tufts University. (2008). The 2007 population and housing census results of Kimani M.J. (2008). Access-management- Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: ownership: The ‘water & pasture Population Census Commission. menu’ in pastoralist conflicts in the greater horn of Africa. A Ferris, E. and Winthrop, R. (2010). conference paper presented at a Education and Displacement: conference jointly organized by Assessing Conditions for Institute for Security Studies and Refugees and Internally Human Security Initiative, Displaced Persons affected by hosted at the United Nations Conflict; Paper commissioned Conference Centre, Addis for the EFA Global Monitoring Ababa-Ethiopia, Nov.13–14. Report 2011; The hidden crisis: Armed conflict and education. Krätli, S. and Swift, J. (1999). Retrieved March 20/2012from: Understanding and managing http://www.brookings.edu/resear pastoral conflict in Kenya: A ch/reports/2011/03/~/media/Rese literature review. Brighton: arch/Files/Reports/2011/3/02%2 Institute of Development 0unesco%20idp Studies, University of Sussex. %20ferris/2011_02_idp_unesco_ ferrise.PDF Krätli, S. (2001) Education provision to nomadic pastoralists: A literature Ikeya, K. and Fratkin, E. (2005). review. London: Institute of Pastoralists and their neighbours: Development Studies. Perspectives from Asia and Africa. SENRI Ethnological Krätli, S. and Dyer, C. (2009). Mobile Studies, 69: 1-14. pastoralists and education: Strategic options. London: International Save the Children Alliance. International Institute for (2010).The future is now: Environment and Development. Education for children in countries affected by conflict. Machel, Graça (2000). “The impact of London: Save the Children UK. armed conflict on children: A critical review of progress made International Save the Children Alliance and obstacles encountered in Secretariat. (nd). Education’s increasing protection for war- role in conflict prevention and affected children”. A Paper peace-building: Where peace presented at the International begins. Retrieved March Conference on war-affected Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 11 No 2 March 2016 children, Winnipeg, Canada, promote peace-building. September 2000. Retrieved Medford, MA: Feinstein May12/2012 from: International Center, Tufts http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefwe University. b.int/files/resources/A89D76934 993B592C1256C1E00413175- Save the Children Alliance Secretariat. armedconfchildren.htm (nd). Education’s role in conflict prevention and peace-building: Mburu, N. (2001). Firearms and political Where peace begins. Retrieve power: The military decline of May 06/2012 from: the Turkana of Kenya 1900- 2000. Nordic Journal of African www.savethechildren.net/rewrite Studies, 10 (2), 148-162. thefuture

Mkutu, K. (nd). Pastoralism and conflict in Save the Children. (2012). Breaking the the Horn of Africa. Bradford: cycle of crisis: Learning from the Department of Peace Studies, Save the Children’s delivery of University of Bradford. education in conflict affected fragile states. London: Save the MoE. (2010). Education sector Children Fund. development program IV (2010/2011 – 2014/2015): Smith, Alan (2010). The influence of Program action plan. Addis education on conflict and peace Ababa: Ministry of Education building. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring MoE. (2011). Education statistics annual Report 2011, The hidden crisis: abstract. Addis Ababa: Ministry Armed conflict and education. of Education. Paris: UNESCO. Omosa, E. K. (2005).The impact of water SNNPR Nationalities Council. (2009). conflicts on pastoral livelihoods: Southern Nations, Nationalities The case of Wajir district in and People’s profile (in Kenya. Winnipeg: International ). Aawassa: SNNPR Institute for Sustainable Nationalities Council. Development (IISD). SNNP-REB. (2008). Educational statistics Pastoralist Forum-Ethiopia, International annual abstract. Addis Ababa: Institute for Rural Alpha Printers. Reconstruction and the Development Fund. (2010). SNNP-REB. (2011). Educational statistics Pastoralism and Land: Land annual abstract. Addis Ababa: tenure, administration and use Alpha Printers. in pastoral areas of Ethiopia. Nairobi: PFE, IIRR and DF. UNESCO. (2010). Reaching the marginalized, the EFA global Richards, S. and Bekele, G. (2011). monitoring report 2010. Paris: Conflict in Somali region of UNESCO. Ethiopia: Can education Mobility and Conflict: Persistent Alemayehu D. 49 UNESCO. (2011). The hidden crisis: Armed conflict and education, the EFA global monitoring report 2011. Paris: UNESCO.

UNICEF. (2000). The two faces of education in ethnic conflict: Towards a peace-building education for children. Florence: UNICEF.

UN Security Council. (2006). Profile: Children and Armed Conflict 12 July 2006. Retrieved June 12/2012 from:

http://www.securitycouncilreport. org/site/c.glKWLeMTIsG/b.184 6403/k.49B3/Profile_Children_a nd_Armed_ConflictBR12_July_ 2006.htm

USAID. (2011).Climate change and conflict in pastoralist regions of Ethiopia: Mounting challenges, emerging responses. Washington DC: USAID.