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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

The Essence of Environmentalism: Protection through private

Bill Wirtz Faculty of Law, Université de Lorraine [email protected]

Abstract In the 21st century, public policy actors are increasingly confronted with environmental questions that, as for now, have been solved through actions of state-control. This paper studies the theories and practicality of free market environmentalism and its fundamental difference with current regulatory systems. The research focuses on the conceptualisation of property rights by different economists and philosophers and seeks to illustrate how policies relying on a consistent defence of property rights or the absence of state actors altogether could indeed be beneficial.

The end of the 20th century has started to policy, yet there are a myriad of shape the importance that environ- approaches in the aspect of how to achieve mentalism plays in politics and public a drop in global temperature, less discourse, through the birth of powerful pollution or increased protection of NGO's such as Greenpeace or WWF, the endangered species. development of recycling practices, the Free-market environmentalism arrival of energy produced through (FME), a market approach to the protection alternative energy sources, the ever of the environment, is a lesser known way growing sensitivity towards endangered of tackling these issues, yet it is not only species, the emerging of environmentalist appealing in its radical approach, but also political parties or through political figures divergent in theory within itself. FME has such as Al Gore, the embrace of the a wide scholarly range that derives its political mainstream of environmentalist philosophy from the classical liberal policies. In the 21st century environ- movement, but divides into very differing mentalism is an integrated factor of public perceptions concerning its implimentation.

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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

The liberal scholars, up until the school of climate change and pollution are "market modern anarcho-capitalism, disagree on failures" by the widespread journalistic matters such as taxation or the use of narrative. There is nonetheless a larger property rights, which makes the concept philosophy behind what makes the essence difficult to define. Only a few research of free market theories, which especially groups and think tanks, including the US- goes into the concept of property rights based Property and Environment Research and deep into economic theory. It Center (PERC) or the think tank Strata, promotes the study of spontaneous market both referenced in this paper, focus solely evolution contrary to political action. Over on FME in their policy research. The the course of its analysis, it is to be theories of liberal authors such as Friedrich immediately pointed out that essence of Hayek, , , FME is not to advocate the absence of any or , serve as intervention (or 'doing nothing'), but it the baseline for this research. rather says the actions of property rights In general terms, Free Market through the rule of law and market Environmentalism purports the idea that demands as driving factors for increased current environmental policy is deeply sustainability on environmental issues. mislead on the assumption that The primary question FME raises is actions remidy the problems not “what” should be done, but “who” related to sustainable development. FME should do. FME should be understood as a suggests, as a general rule, that the current movement of scepticism towards state marketplace is overregulated and distorts interventionism and advocacy for private market prices, which contributes to the property rights, which can be either degradation of the environment. enforced in a state of This paper will attempt to illustrate or be understood as concept adhering to the different theories relating to Free the non-aggression principle (aggression Market Environmentalism, to analyise its including the violation of the property of application in practice. another ). What is commonly identified as a would be argued by I. A counter-intuitive advocates of FME to be failures of the concept regulatory state. There is, therefore, not only fundamental disagreement on the

solution to the problem, but also on the At the sound of hearing "free market identification of its cause. environmentalism" (FME), there is a certain tendency to suggest that we are dealing with an oxymoron. A major contributor to this is the notion that

32 II. Theoretic bases corruption within the judiciary, and the ability of and businesses to enforce

." (Heritage Foundation, 2016) This section will explore the different theoretical approaches that exist inside the Property rights are an essential concept of Free Market Environmentalism. good in the striving for free-market It needs to be noted that these theories can environmentalism, since they influ- be in contradiction with each other – for ence human behaviour through the chan- instance, those arguing for the existence of ging perception of responsibility. The government to implement authorities able fundamental claim is that individuals hold to protect rights and those their own property, when it is protected by refuting that state institutions are government, as a higher good than their necessary to reach their goals – without fear of regulatory sanctions. This is negating the general idea that the concept illustrated in the divide between public of individual ownership serves as a property and private property. For protection for the environment. instance, this phenomenon comes to light In general terms, all of the when looking at the water consumption of proponents of these theories can be flat buildings. It is difficult to encourage identified as “libertarians”, with water efficiency through price signals (The distinctions between those who believe Atlantic, 2011), since owners and renter of that state institutions need to be reformed multi-flat buildings do not actually pay or reduced and those believing that state their very own consumption. Instead, the institutions are not only unnecessary but water consumption is divided between all also counterproductive. the tenants. An OECD report (OECD, 1999-

2000) found that two-thirds of OECD 2.1 Property rights and the rule of law member states meter more than 90% of The Heritage Foundation defines property single-family houses, yet for flat buildings rights as follows: the report only mentions "a few a metered".

There is evidence supporting that "The property rights component is an individual metering of water reduces assessment of the ability of individuals to overall water consumption. In the United accumulate private property, secured by clear Kingdom, a study (Lis Stedman, 2006) laws that are fully enforced by the state. It shows an instant drop of 10%, while the measures the degree to which a country’s laws 1993 German tap water report protect private property rights and the degree (Trinkwasserversorgung in Deutschland, to which its government enforces those laws. It 1993) shows a difference of an 18% lower also assesses the likelihood that private property consumption compared to flats that were will be expropriated and analyzes the not metered. This situation is comparable independence of the judiciary, the existence of to nature of public property, since it

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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

follows the principle of / to best illustrate and . The critique of FME allocation of resources on the marketplace towards this collective ownership is the when confronted with external factors, all loss of individual responsibility, a void in the absence of . Apart from which then has to be filled with regulation. the assumption of the existence of clearly The American Property and Environment defined property rights, Coase did not Research Center (PERC), a research suggest a solution to the confrontation of institute dedicated to study of FME, , he merely observed that if describes to advantageous nature of confronted with the latter, and as long as property rights as follows (PERC, 2016): the problem is reciprocal to conflicting parties, the marketplace would find the "Property rights make the environment an most efficient solution. asset rather than a liability by giving owners The Ronald Coase Institute an incentive for stewardship." develops the concept in his theorem as follows (Ronald Coase Institute, 2016): The defence of property rights demands the existence of the rule of law, a "Coase further suggested that, if transaction justice system ready to establish property costs were zero, then it would not matter which and that punishes its violation. If the use of of the affected parties were found to be legally property rights is not based on proper liable for a , since they could consent and they are in themselves not costlessly negotiate agreements to maximize easily transferable, this would negate the their wealth; and the right to use property, concept of property rights as such and be make noise, or pollute would end up in the contrary to FME (Richard L. Stroup, 2016). hands of the one who values the right the Without the existence of the rule of law most." and its implication of force, restricting the arbitrary use of power (Oxford Online Coase famously illustrated his Dictionary, 2016), property rights would theory on the regulation of radio be a mere philosophical concept that frequencies. In his counter-intuitive would have to be generally accepted argument he suggested that a situation in before it could be established. Illustrations which competing radio stations are trying of the importance for the rule of law will to use the exact same radio frequency, no be given in FME in practice chapter. governmental regulation was needed and that in contrary, competing interests would 2.2 Coase Theorem find the most efficient outcome. As long as The British Nobel Prize-winning economist property rights were in use, the radio and author Ronald Coase (1910-2013), also station that is able to accumulate the known for his works on highest amount of value out of the use of analysis, developed this theorem in order the frequency will end up paying for its

34 use, even if it was owned by a different 2.3 Rothbardian station at the time. Coase opposes resource Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995) was an allocation in its classic economic economist, historian and political theorist perspective between central planning who is at the philosophical heart and spontaneous market order. of anarcho-capitalism. This belief system It needs to be said nonetheless that rejects the concept of a state, generally out Coase recognised that it is impossible to of moral objection, and praises the wind back time, so that initial allocation of effectiveness of peaceful interaction property rights by a governmental between individuals and the guiding hand institution cannot be ignored. The of free markets. Although anarcho- transaction cost must therefore encompass capitalism rejects environmental the "head-start" of the station that the by government by principle, it frequency was given to. does answer nonetheless to environmental In summary, the Coase theorem policy. To understand a Rothbardian seeks companies to internalise externalities interpretation of FME (although Rothbard to its absolute maximum. How does this did notably reject the term of "free market apply to environmentalism? environmentalism"), it needs to be pointed The same principle that applied to out that its proponents define property the example of radio frequencies also differently. applies to environmental externalities. If Rothbardians follow the Labour property rights work identically on factors Theory of Appropriation of . such as pollution, then pollution - as a Locke establishes property through usage result of the production of goods - and declares the possibility to live on an becomes a liability, a negative , own property a natural right. For natural that a company has take into account. law theorists, a declaration of property (for Under these circumstances, actors on the instance through fencing off a piece of marketplace need to negotiate, and thereby land) is meaningless. They believe that internalise these externalities. Supporters individuals own themselves and their own of this theorem as a solution to body, which makes them legitimate environmental problem believe that priv- property holders of their own labour. As ate ownership is the most effective long as an individual utilises a piece of protector of the environment, provided land for his own self-interest by actively ownership is transferable and backed by putting labour into it, he is capable of courts that make people liable when their calling this natural resource his homestead pollutants invade the person or property of property. Rothbardians adhere to this others. concept of self-ownership, however reject Further illustrations on the exam-ples of the concept of the Lockean proviso. The pollution will be given in the chapter FME idea of the Lockean proviso, developed by in practice. the American philosopher

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(1938-2002), is that the conversion from sulfur oxides—through the air and into the public property into private property lungs of innocent victims, as well as onto their included a moral sense of responsibility: material property. All such emanations which the act of claiming property cannot make injure person or property constitute aggression another individual worse off. against the private property of the victims. Air This minimalist view on the accumulation pollution, after all, is just as much aggression of wealth calls for a certain scepticism in as committing arson against another’s property the realm of free-market thinkers. or injuring him physically. Air pollution that Columnist Matt Zwolinski writes about injures others is aggression pure and simple." this : Anarcho-capitalism therefore takes "This “Lockean proviso” has been thought by a radical position on the question of many to be difficult, if not impossible, to meet. pollution, since it considers it to be in How could any act of appropriation leave as violation with the non-aggression princ- much and as good for others, when natural iple (NAP). The NAP rejects all forms of resources are finite?" (Matt Zwolinski, 2013) coercion and that no form of aggression can ever be justified, which leads its Murray Rothbard rejected the supporters to reject to concept of a state. Lockean proviso in the absence of The radical position of Rothbardian knowledge of how to allocate resources for anarchism on environmental damage has people's good (David Gordon, 2007). been criticised (Ryan McMaken, 2016) for Rothbard also criticised Nozick's view on being too unforgiving and of lacking the compensation, refuting that the act of support of clear definitions when it comes compensating a liability justifies the prior to the quantification of environmental violation of a right (Murray N. Rothbard, damage and its origins. 1982). Here's where anarcho-capitalism parts ways with different other theories: 2.4 Reformed systems – while asserting the importance of property Geolibertarianism rights for the allocation of resources, The geolibertarian philosophy is con- Rothbardians are consistent consequential vergent with and is not when it comes to immediate pollution as a inherently tied to free market environ- committed damage. Murray Rothbard mentalism by its interpretation of property admitted in his 1973 book For A New rights. Although geolibertarians, like all that pollution is a private property libertarians, believe in the concept of self- violation (Murray N. Rothbard, 1973): ownership, that one is the property holder of one's body and therefore holds "The vital fact about air pollution is that the legitimate ownership of the fruits of one's polluter sends unwanted and unbidden labour, they refute that occupation of pollutants—from smoke to nuclear fallout to resources (such as land) for the

36 accumulation of wealth makes these odds with certain aspects of most FME resources individual property. They theories, the collective vision of property believe instead that the planet is a common only applies to natural law, as it did for heritage that should be accessed by John Locke. Furthermore, this perception everyone equally under the law. leads geolibertarians to favour centralised Geolibertarians suggest to reform repercussions to the act of polluting, the tax system in order to incentivise through favouring so called Pigouvian environmental protection, without being opposed to the general concept of free markets. They uphold the concept of land "Pigouvian taxes, named after Arthur C. value taxation (LVT). LVT taxes Pigou, a renowned English economist from the unimproved land value (meaning the early 20th century, are designed to correct value of the land without the what economists call "market failures" or improvements made through human "negative externalities" that impose spillover action, such as the construction of a house), costs on society, such as pollution". and redistributes the so called Citizen's (Tax Foundation, 2016): Dividend. This policy is known as the oldest existing basic income proposal, Unlike other collectivist philo-sophies, dating back to 483 BC (Wordsworth, 1996), geolibertarianism only applies Pigouvian when a silver deposit was found in the taxes to environmental exter-nalities such village of Laureium near Athens in Greece. as pollution or the extraction of natural The Athenian leader Themistocles resources. convinced the local population to invest the revenue from this deposit in a large 2.5 Altruistic market demands fleet. This proposal was opposed to the Outside of established theories, there is a idea of the statesman Aristides who point to be made about market demands. wanted to share the dividend from the Microeconomics teaches that individuals mine (10 drachmas each) equally among follow a certain rational of a cost-benefit the population, as a basic income. analysis. However, the charitable aspect of As a proponent of the Lockean consumption cannot be ignored: there is proviso, Geolibertarianism rejects the for instance a higher demand in accumulation of landmass by individuals environmental labelling (so called eco- and therefore encourages taxation as a labelling), than there was before. In order means to come closer to a level playing to illustrate this phenomenon, we’ll take a field. In this instance the LVT is a mere look at the Global Eco-Labelling Network concession issued by the general public for (GEN), a non-profit association dedicated the use of the individual piece of land, to fostering cooperation between different which negates the concept of private eco-labels, promoting the practices of these property. In this philosophy, which is at labels and encouraging the consumption of

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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

sustainable products. Groups like these than double in the period between 2006 to show how market transparency for the 2016. consumer can be a result of voluntary This development is indicative of a cooperation. The GEN differentiates today conscious of environmental protection between three types of labelling among the general population, which does established by the International Organ- not necessate governmental control. ization for Standardisation (ISO) (Global Labelling Network, 2016): III. FME in practice TYPE I: A voluntary, multiple-criteria based, third 3.1 Pollution party program that awards a license that In order to uphold the spirit of FME, authorises the use of environmental labels private property rights need to be upheld, on products indicating overall environ- which is only possible through the rule of mental preferability of a product within a law, thus an effective court system. In particular product category based on life practice, and paired with the definition of cycle considerations. FME being that negative externalities become a liability, it means that in the case TYPE II: of pollution, individuals can sue Informative environmental self-declaration- companies and other individuals for the claims. pollution they committed. In an article for the , Fred L. Smith Jr., and TYPE III: Kent Jeffreys describe this situation as Voluntary programs that provide such: quantified environmental data of a product, under pre-set categories of "Pollution is generally some form of waste, but parameters set by a qualified third party even if pollution were unavoidable in certain and based on life cycle assessment, and manufacturing processes, strongly enforced verified by that or another qualified third property rights would force polluters to either party. clean up or close shop. By definition, pollution The demand for these labels for the is a trespass against someone's property or purposes of consumer transparency has person. If the trespass is so minor that it creates been continuously increasing. This trend no impact or inconvenience for the property has been especially visible for organic owner, it will normally be tolerated, even under products. A study by the Organic common law rules." (Fred L. Smith, Jr., & Trade Association (OTA) has found Kent Jeffreys, 2016) (Organic Trade Association, 2016) the expenditure on organic foods per One example of practicing this household (in the ) to more respect for property rights leads to the

38 inevitable conclusion that the principle internalise externalities: they would ask that the polluter should pay for his the question which additional cost do I pollution is correct. This can effectively be bear for either choice? If it were indeed implemented for instance through the true that plastic bags are more difficult to privatisation of motorways. If we presume dispose than paper bags (which by the the motorway is owned by a private pure nature of this illustration, and the company, then this company will be liable marketplace as such, does not play any to the neighbouring landowners' loss of role), then consumers on all ends would be land value due to pollution and noise. incentivised to opt for the paper bag. Here Compensating those liabilities will be is where the invisiable hand of the costly, and the owner of the motorway will marketplace leads consumers to make proceed to levy this burden on the sustainable choices. consumer, who are the initial polluters. This leads to the conclusion that there will 3.2 Endangered species be major incentives to not make use of a When it comes to the protection of car, since its negative externality has to be endangered species, free-market taken into account. environmentalism draws out the effect of Another effective illustration of this economic incentives. The question asked phenomenon would be the privatisation of must therefore be: what incentivises locals waste disposal. Without looking into the to protect animals they otherwise would question if it is paper or plastic bags in have no interest in whatsoever? FME tries supermarkets that is the harmful choice for to shift the incentive away from escaping a the environment, let us assume that both governmental sanction by leaving these cost the exact same price. Under this animals alone, to a positive and lucrative premise, the market demand will be equal incentive to protect them. for both bags, since it will merely depend A specific example of the effects that on the personal preference of the the rule of the marketplace has on consumer, since he does not carry a endangered species can be seen with exotic heavier cost for one of them. This situation wildlife animals such as the rhinoceros or emerges when waste disposal is run by lions in Africa. There is a consistent public government, since the disposal of either outrage about trophy hunting, meaning bag bears the same cost as well in terms of the act of shooting rare animals for sport. what is charged. The question whether or The Humane Society defines trophy not it is more difficult or not to dispose a hunting as such: plastic bag or a paper bag is never asked, since waste disposal is collectivised. "Trophy hunting is defined as killing wild If we would now assume that waste animals for their body parts, such as head and disposal was a private service, then hide, for display but not primarily for food or consumers and companies would sustenance." (Humane Society, 2016)

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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

This hunting sport has gotten The author and libertarian increasingly popular over the years. As economist (Walter Block, National Geographic reports in 2016, these 2016) described further illustrations in a hunters imported more than 1.26 million lecture for the Australian Mises Seminar trophies to the United States between the (Walter Block, 2013). In fact, Block talks years 2015 and 2014, which is an average about the specific privatisation of animals of 126,000 trophy imports a year, or 345 a on a large scale. With the inquiry: "How day (National Geographic, 2016). come the bison came close to extinction, Trophy hunting however is not the yet there is still cattle?", Block explains the reason for why these species are incentive of protection of animals if they endangered in the first place, they suffer are private property. This is the so-called considerably more form loss of habitat and Tragedy of the Commons. This poaching (Scientific American, 2016; phenomenon is being defined as: PoachingFacts, 2016). In the case of loss of habitat, the endangered animals are driven "Archetypical social phenomenon where an out due to agricultural expansion for the attempt to exploit others (or 'the system') in harvesting of timber, wood or fuel (WWF, one way or the other eventually turns out to be 2016). self-defeating.” (Business Dictionary, 2016) In accordance with FME, the local population can be incentivised econom- Bison were considered as wildlife ically to protect these animals. In fact, in that did not have a specific owner, so in Namibia, the revenue from trophy hunting order to maximise profit, people would is the main revenue source for the funding hunt as many of them as possible, which of wildlife conservancies (Biological ultimately drove them extinct. Cattle on Consevation, 2007) and in South Africa the other hand were privatised, so killing trophy hunting reportedly incentivised cows that were not wild created a liability locals to give rhinoceros' land to live on and a situation of violation of property, and to protect them form poachers since they belonged to someone else. This (Conservation Magazine, 2015). This system has not only protected cows from evolution has led the number of existing becoming extinct, it made it an incredible rhinoceros to jump from 100 in 1916 to numerous animal that is harvested in over 18,000 today (World Wildlife Fund, multiple manners by modern agriculture. 2016). According to South Africa’s Others, such as Peter J. Hill (PERC Department of Environmental Affairs the research), have concluded that the near total revenue from trophy hunting was extinction of the bison was due to the close to R807 million (52.3 million euros) in increasing demand in land for cattle, 2012 and just over R1 billion (64.8 million which proceeded to deprive them of their euros) in 2013 (South Africa Department of natural habitat. In his publication Are All Environmental Affairs, 2012, 2013). Commons Tragedies? The Case Of Bison In

40 The Nineteenth Century (P.J. Hill, 2014), petrol costs for their vehicules. Evidently Hill explains that even though property so, the volatility of the petroleum market rights in the open prairies were not well has also fostered the development of defined for the bison, there is no reason to electrical cars. believe that the tragedy of the commons If, on the contrary, governmental applies. He claims that the bison is simply institutions were to overtax carbon not a valuable ressource, and there the emissions to a degree that the usage of a establishment of rights for bison was vehicule becomes a questionable invest- deemed unnecessary. ment for the consumer, then the lower demand will manifestly hamper 3.3 Innovation innovation. This leads to the conclusion The underlying concept of all FME that in order to innovate in the sector of thinkers is the belief of the inability of sustainable development, the exact knowing the future, being opposed to products that today are considered to be what Nobel-prize winning economist harmful for the environment necessitate an Friedrich A. Hayek (1899-1992) called the increased demand. pretence of knowledge. They believe that future innovation is unpredictable, yet that its historical trend has only been positive IV. Critique on the current in the sense of sustainability. Indeed, centralized regulatory despite the dramatic population growth and therefore increased energy consu- system mption, many everyday devices turn out to improve significantly over time. A 4.1 The failure of market notable example to this is the historical F.A. Hayek's pretence of knowledge applies to , the environment or public evolution of fuel economy in cars: in policy in general. He wrote in “The Fatal statistics (EPA, 2011) published by the US Conceit”: Environmental Protection Agency (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2011) show that fuel "The curious task of economics is to economy has dramatically increased since demonstrate to men how little they really know 1975, rising from about 10 MPG (miles per about what they imagine they can design." gallon) to over 30 MPG until 2010. Free-market environmentalist issue Although the agency might suggest the same critique towards the regulatory that these changes are due to system we are momentarily in. They environmental protection regulation and presume that knowledge about how to carbon tax measures, more needs to be best preserve the environment cannot said: companies are, by nature, incenti- possibly lie in a political bureau, it is vised to produce cars with a higher fuel spread among all individuals. The same way that economic intervention creates economy, since consumers demand lower

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Maastricht University Journal of Sustainability Studies 2017

malinvestments, government institutions while individuals cannot act themselves on unintentionally create wrong incentives the pollution of their property by someone and hamper economic growth. else. Allowing a court system to act upon Regardless of the nomenclature liabilities would, according to FME employed by market socialism, the goal thinkers, significantly reduce pollution. remains the same: directing human behavior through state action. The presumption that advocates of state V. Conclusion intervention defend is that individuals cannot possess the necessary knowledge Environmental protection is undoubtedly and make "wrong choices". FME advocates one of the main challenges of the 21st tend to respond that if the concern that century. This paper investigates the individuals fail to make the right choices is incentives created through the marketplace legitimate, then transferring the power of in the absence of centralised state decision-making from some individuals to regulation, how inducing personal a group of individuals now called responsibility through private property government is inherently counter- helps to protect the environment, or the productive. FME rejects the notion that absence of state actors altogether fosters environmental solution can ever be sustainable development. Some FME directed through centralised control. A report by the Utah-based policy research thinkers purport the idea that if environmental protection includes the group Strata explained this phenomenon protection of property rights through the as such: rule of law, then we can expect significant

reduction of pollution and increased “Unintended consequences easily arise from sustainable development over time. Others even the most well-inetnioned policies. When reject the idea the the state is needed, and making policies, government officials cannot know all relevant information or foresee all that a society based on voluntary ex- changes between consenting individuals is possible outcomes. Even with large numbers of essential for behaviour that leads to well-educated advisors, policymakers can still sustainable development. In general terms, pass flawed laws that impose unintended Free market environmentalism refuses the economic or environmental harm.” concept of the pretence of knowledge and (Strata, 2016) recognises that the competencies regarding

environmental protection lie in each and 4.2 Easement of significant pollution every individual. Free-market environmentalists criticise This inability to define FME as a furthermore that unlike the pretended defined school of thought is a weakness defence of the environment, current environmentalists fail to punish significant when it comes to identifying its proponents, but it simultaneously excludes pollution. By denying the concept of it being a mere theory used for policy property rights and therefore regarding advocacy. In fact, the that it polluting someone else's private property supports would not support corporate as trespassing, state-environmentalists rely interests, but could, depending on the solely on the sanctioning of legislation, all model that would be implemented, even

42 be harsher on businesses and individuals of acting on environmental issues is attempting to disregard the environmental widespread, yet FME is still differing on costs of their actions, by making them bear the fundamental question regarding the full costs they brought on other property. This can be perceived as individuals through hurting them or their discrediting and exclude FME advocates private property. from the discussion on urgent environ- The fact that property rights stand mental policies. at the core of the FME-argument is not Nonetheless, despite the views problematic, yet the fact that the thinkers expressed in FME, which are off the disagree on how to make private property mainstream, it provides a necessary rights respected, be that through state incentive for policy makers to take a step institutions or through the non-aggression back and re-evaluate if current policies are principle as a moral value held by effective not only on their intentions, but indidviduals can be regarded as pre- also on their results. carious. The feeling of urgency on the issue

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