14 14 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14

SUMARI

ARTICLES

One hundred years of science policy and the Institute of Catalan Studies 06 Josep M. Camarasa and Antoni Roca i Rosell

The usefulness and impact of R&D and Innovation certification. Who benefits the most: industry, CONEIXEMENT government, society or the university? 52 Anna M. Sánchez i Granados

An appraisal of the economic impact of the University of Girona on the local environment 90 Miquel Carreras Simó and Ricard Rigall i Torrent CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT NOTES Knowledge and Society. Journal of I

Biocat, fostering the BioRegion of Catalonia 112 SOCIETAT Universities, Research and Innovation. Montserrat Daban, Montserrat Vendrell, Marta Príncep and Manel Balcells Number 14. 1st. semester 2008.

Associations and science 126 Bibiana Bonmatí i Recolons and Jordi Mazón i Bueso http:// www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/coneixementisocietat

RESÚMENES EN CASTELLANO / RESUMS EN CATALÀ 137

One hundred years of science policy and the Institute of Catalan Studies The usefulness and impact of R&D and Innovation certification. Who benefits the most: industry, government, society or the university? An appraisal of the economic impact of the University of Girona on the local environment Biocat, fostering the BioRegion of Catalonia Associations and science

00014

9 771696 738003 . CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT Knowledge and Society. Journal of Univesities, Research and Innovation. Number 14. 1st. semester 2008

Also available on-line in Catalan and in English on the DIUE web site: www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/coneixementisocietat www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/knowledgeandsociety

ISSN (english e-version): 1696-8212 ISSN (catalan printed version): 1696-7380 ISSN (catalan e-version): 1696-8212 Legal deposit (english e-version): B-38745-2004 Legal deposit (catalan printed version): B-27002-2003 Legal deposit (catalan e-version): B-26720-2005

Chief editor Josep M. Camarasa i Castillo

Coordinator Blanca Ciurana i Llevadot

Editorial board Joan Bravo i Pijoan, Roger Cabezas Rodríguez, Joan Cadefau i Surroca, Joan Francesc Cordoba Perez, Iolanda Font de Rubinat i García, Joaquim Ibàñez Fanés, Xavier Lasauca i Cisa, Esther Morales Miquel, Esther Pallarols i Llinàs, Emilià Pola i Robles, Alba Puigdomènech Cantó, Josep Ribas i Seix, Jordi Sort i Miret, Ignasi Vendrell i Aragonès, Fina Villar i López

Coordinating editor and production Mireia Pérez i Bauzà Glòria Vergés i Ramon

Desing Quin Team!

Layout Inom,sa

English translation Alan Lounds Jones, Ailish M. J. Maher, Charles Southgate and Toby Willet

© Generalitat de Catalunya Departament d’Innovació, Universitats i Empresa Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca

The contents of the articles and notes are the sole responsability of the authors. CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT does not necessarily identify with the author Reproduction of articles and notes is allowed, provided that the original author and source are specified.

Subscription to the printed Catalan version of CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT is free. It can be obtained from: Departament d'Innovació, Universitats i Empresa Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca Via Laietana, 33, 6è 08003 Barcelona tel. 935 526 700 Fax. 935 526 701 e-mail: [email protected] 14

CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT Knowledge and Society. Journal of Universities, Research and Innovation. Number 14. 1st. semester 2008. ARTICLES 04 One hundred years of science policy and the Institute of Catalan

Studies Josep M. Camarasa and Antoni Roca i Rosell 06 The usefulness and impact of R&D and

Innovation certification. Who benefits the most: industry, government, society or the university? Anna M. Sánchez i Granados 52 An appraisal of the economic impact of the

University of Girona on the local environment Miquel Carreras Simó and Ricard Rigall i Torrent 90 NOTES 111 Biocat, a driving force for the BioRegion of Catalonia Montserrat Daban,

Montserrat Vendrell, Marta Príncep and Manel Balcells 112 Associations and science Bibiana

Bonmatí i Recolons and Jordi Mazón i Bueso 126 RESÚMENES EN CASTELLANO / RESUMS EN CATALÀ 137 a rticles 06 52 90 One hundred years of science The usefulness and impact of An appraisal of the economic policy and the Institute of R&D and Innovation certification. impact of the University of Catalan Studies Who benefits the most: industry, Girona on the local Josep M. Camarasa and government, society or the environment Antoni Roca i Rosell university? Miquel Carreras Simó and Anna M. Sánchez i Granados Ricard Rigall i Torrent CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 ARTICLES

ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

Josep M. Camarasa* and Antoni Roca i Rosell**

The Institute of Catalan Studies (Institut d’Estudis Catalans, henceforth the IEC) was founded in 1907 by Enric Prat de la Riba with the aim of promoting scientific policy. The underlying rationale was that an institute promoting high culture would reinforce Catalonia’s aspirations for political autonomy. Nonetheless, in addition to this original aim, the IEC has acquired a considerable degree of functional autonomy, indicating preferred directions for research and the dissemination of knowledge, and contributing greatly to the development of a Catalan scientific community. The autonomy of the IEC was unrestricted during the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930), although it received no public funding of any kind. During the Second Republic –covering the years 1931 to 1939 and including the Civil War– the IEC had premises in the Casa de Convalescència (attached to the old Hospital de la Santa Creu). During the Franco dictatorship, the IEC was taken to be defunct, although it was never, in fact, explicitly closed down, and continued to operate in semi-clandestine form. In 1963, Òmnium Cultural (a body promoting Catalan identity, culture and language), granted the IEC premises in the Palau Dalmases. The IEC thus acquired a certain public presence that enabled it to support the activities implemented by its subsidiary societies. In 1976, the IEC was publicly recognised by the governments of Catalonia and of Spain. In recent decades, in an academic context that is very different from that existing in the opening decades of the 20th century and against a very different political background, the IEC has battled to carve out a niche for itself in the Catalan research sector. However, although its success has occasionally been mixed, it recently celebrated its centenary, and the consensus is that its perspectives for the future can only be said to be favourable.

Keywords: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, science policy, research, centenary

Contents

1. Introduction 2. Catalanism and research 3. The IEC as an instrument of Prat de la Riba’s science policy

* Josep M. Camarasa is a science historian and adviser to the Science Secretariat of the Institut d’Estudis Catalans. ** Antoni Roca i Rosell is a science history professor at the Technical University of Catalonia and president of the Catalan Science and Technology History Society (Societat Catalana d’Història de la Ciència i de la Tècnica), a subsidiary society of the Institut d’Estudis Catalans.

6 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

4. Enlargement in 1911 5. Achievements in the period to the death of Prat de la Riba (1911-1917) 6. The Mancomunitat under Puig i Cadafalch (1917-1923) 7. The Primo de Rivera dictatorship (1923-1930) and the Republic (1931-1939) 8. The long dark night of Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975) 9. The rocky transition to democracy (1976-1984) 10. Full recovery and centenary celebrations (1984-2007) 11. By way of a conclusion

1. Introduction1 enabled it to issue a number of publications. During the Civil War (1936-1939), the IEC The Institute of Catalan Studies (Institut d’Estudis established its library in the Gothic naves of the old Catalans, or the IEC) was conceived by Enric Prat Hospital de la Santa Creu and its central services de la Riba, in 1907, as an instrument to develop and subsidiary societies in the nearby Casa de and promote a Catalan research policy and to Convalescència (attached to the hospital). Once disseminate knowledge. The IEC has had a the war was over, however, the new Francoist turbulent existence, so much so that in the 100 authorities expelled the IEC from these premises, years since it was founded it has only functioned thus temporarily interrupting its activities. In 1942, normally for around half that time –53 years in surviving members who had not died, gone into fact, covering the periods 1907-1923, 1930- exile or joined the victors began to meet in private. 1936 and 1977 to date. The role played by the The IEC thus survived until the end of the Franco IEC in research policy and in knowledge dictatorship (1975) in a situation of ‘public dissemination has thus had to adapt to clandestinity’: although it carried out its activities in constantly changing circumstances and to real private, it did not hide from the authorities nor did possibilities for influencing political decisions at it request permission to hold meetings as required any given moment. by the laws of the time. The fact that the IEC was a member of the Union Académique Internationale The fact that the IEC did not function normally for assured it of a certain degree of tolerance by the 47 of its 100 years does not mean that it remained authorities. In the closing years of the dictatorship, inactive, however. During the dictatorship of Primo moreover, this tolerance was extended to the de Rivera (1923-1930) it functioned at well below subsidiary societies of the IEC, which had full capacity, as it had no premises and received gradually become more active in the late 1960s no public funding; private sponsorship, however, and early 1970s.

1 All excerpts from untranslated publications cited in this article have been translated by the translator of the article.

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Such volatile and often adverse circumstances 2. Catalanism and research obviously affected the role played by the IEC in defining and implementing science policy in An interest in research was not a new element in Catalonia. In the early decades of the 20th century, the Catalanist movement of the early years of the the IEC was the primordial instrument for 20th century.2 By the middle of the 19th century, implementing this policy, firstly in the hands of the Catalan intellectuals had already begun to foster Diputació (provincial council) of Barcelona and later in the Catalan language as a public means of the hands of the Mancomunitat (commonwealth) of expression and focal point for Catalan identity. Catalonia. During Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship the These intellectuals manifested a great interest in IEC limited itself to completing tasks already Catalan literature, the history of the Catalan- underway and to maintaining a testimonial willingness Aragonese Crown and medieval art, which, along to act independently of any possible instructions with Romanticism, was coming back into vogue. issued by the Military Junta in regard to science policy. In this blossoming of cultural Catalanism with roots in Romanticism –which detractors disparagingly referred as ‘floral’ or ‘flowery’– science soon began The Institut d’Estudis Catalans (IEC), to feature as a differentiating element. founded in 1907, was conceived by Enric Prat de la Riba as an instrument to develop and One of the earliest outcomes of this convergence between Catalanism and science was the promote a Catalan research policy and to foundation, in 1876, of the Catalan Scientific disseminate knowledge. Excursion Association (Associació Catalanista d’Excursions Científiques), the first such society in Catalonia.3 Apart from the political and cultural During the Second Republic (1931-1939), the implications of the reference to ‘Catalanist’ in its Generalitat (autonomous government) of Catalonia name, there was also an explicit declaration of the was unable to identify a niche for the IEC; association’s mission to organise scientific Republican leaders tended to view the IEC as an expeditions. The idea was to combine the instrument of the Lliga Regionalista, which had pleasures of outings to mountains and nature with been relegated to the opposition by the forces of activities that deepened knowledge of Catalonia the left as having a political ideology that was and of its geography, history, flora, fauna, climate, considered to be inappropriate for the times. Under etc. This is stated clearly in the first article of the Franco’s dictatorship and in the early years of the association’s regulations: transition to democracy, the role of the IEC was almost entirely testimonial. Successive Catalan “The Catalan Scientific Excursion Association, governments under the restored Generalitat have with headquarters in Barcelona, proposes to also failed to locate the IEC within their research explore the territory of Catalonia with a view policies. However, in more recent years the IEC has to recording, studying and preserving all that is taken the initiative itself with some success. remarkable in its nature, history, art and

2 ROCA & SALAVERT, 2003. 3 IGLÉSIES, 1964.

8 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

literature in all their manifestations, as well as to increasingly stimulate its spirit; however, if the typical customs and popular traditions of the catalan rebirth had been, in theory, purely this country, and to disseminate this knowledge literary or historical, then today we could and encourage excursions in this our country categorise it as comprehensive, as it is so that it may be understood and loved.”4 transmitted to all manifestations of life. The science movement, for all that it has been The scientific excursions initially focused on one of the last to manifest itself, is today in archaeology, art and folklore more than the natural luxuriant and delicate bloom, in anticipation of sciences; in fact, it was in early writings of a historical the positive fruits of tomorrow; and, within the bent in which the first indications of the convergence sciences, it is the so-called natural sciences between Catalanism and science were to be found. which attract increasing numbers of cultivators As one example, in 1875 one of the founders of the and which offer the greatest promise.” Catalan Scientific Excursion Association, Josep Fiter i Inglès, published an essay entitled La ciència astrològica a Catalunya, describing the activities of Catalan astrologers since the 10th century. At the turn of the 20th century there was a Excursionists to the fields of geography, meteorology, conviction that science was a distinctive and botany, zoology, geology and speleology also made essential feature of Catalanism. important contributions; in 1899, the Catalan Natural History Institution (Institució Catalana d’Història Natural) was founded with the intention of “linking science with Catalanist policies –just as had been The fact that Font i Sagué should state so explicitly done previously with history, art, literature and even that the inclusion of science meant that Catalanism outings”.5 The young founders of the Catalan Natural could now genuinely be considered to be History Institution soon sought out and recruited to ‘comprehensive’ merely demonstrates how deeply their cause more experienced naturalists. One of the held was the conviction that science was a earliest of these was Norbert Font i Sagué (1874- distinctive and essential feature of Catalanism. 1910), a geologist and cleric, one of the first speleologists in Catalonia and the author of one of the most ambitious works of the period. Published in 3. The IEC as an instrument of Prat 1908, this history of the natural sciences in Catalonia de la Riba’s science policy between the 9th and 18th centuries (Historia de les ciencies naturals á Catalunya del sigle IX al sigle XVIII) In the early years of the 20th century the Diputació had a prologue as follows: of Barcelona was one of the main platforms for political action by the Catalanist movement. There “Political movements in Catalonia determine was nothing new in a provincial council playing a how its history is shaped, and this has served leading role that went beyond its powers; this

4 From the Reglament de l’Associació Catalanista d’Excursions Científiques. Barcelona: La Renaixença, 1879, p. 5. 5 CAMARASA, 1995; CAMARASA, 2000, pp. 13-14.

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same provincial council had played key roles in In view of the circumstances in which he was other events of the 19th century– as one example, elected, Prat de la Riba’s programme of government in the Glorious Revolution of 1868 that led to the was markedly unifying in its endeavour to include proclamation of the First Republic.6 The Catalanist individuals representing all political leanings in his movement of the end of the 19th century was fully policies. These policies included, for example, not cognisant of the fact that town and provincial just the fostering of Catalan linguistic, historical and councils were not only ideal platforms for other cultural bodies, but also the development of regenerating the political system resulting from the secondary rail network, the promotion of ‘social the Bourbon restoration –rotten to the core– but economics’ and an overhaul of the education also for defending Catalan identity and culture. system.7 Prat de la Riba launched his programme The municipal elections of 1901 revealed how the immediately on being elected, and one of his earliest influence of Catalan representatives of what were initiatives was the creation of the IEC. Although referred to as the ‘dynastic’ parties of Spain was Antoni Rubió i Lluch, Josep Pijoan and Jaume starting to wan, with these parties being gradually Massó i Torrents were active in the development of displaced by new Catalanist-conservative and the IEC project, it was Prat de la Riba who gave the Catalan-Republican parties. One example of this IEC its definitive shape.8 Included in the edited new model of party of the masses was the Radical complete works (Obra completa) of Prat de la Riba Republican Party of Alejandro Lerroux. was the agreement of 18 June 1907 by means of which the IEC was created.9 These parties soon made their presence felt in the Ajuntament (city council) of Barcelona, with their The text of the agreement commenced by hegemony becoming a fact from 1905 on –despite explaining that “the Renaixença10 in Catalonia and the fact that mayors could only be appointed by public acknowledgement of the Catalan personality” royal order. Mayors, of necessity, had to be led to new obligations to be attended to by public associated with the dynastic parties– and this corporations and particularly by the Diputació. It naturally rendered ridiculous the whole notion of was acknowledged that, although the state might suffrage. Presidents of the provincial councils had be contributing to the publication of the works of to be elected, however, and so were chosen from Ramon Llull –as just one example of a one-off among the nominees for administrative areas in the activity– there was also a need to foster its interest provinces. In April 1907, with the support of “in the creation of scientific bodies” to meet Solidaritat Catalana (a platform for Catalanist emerging needs. The Diputació, meanwhile, would parties on both the right and left), Enric Prat de la also have to respond to this need in accordance Riba, leader of the Lliga Regionalista, was elected with its own capabilities. It remained unclear, president of the Diputació –an event that however, how this could be done, and the text of represented a true milestone in this council’s the agreement raised doubts on the actions to be history. undertaken:

6 RIQUER, 1987-1988. 7 ALBERDI, 1980, p. 63 et seq. 8 BALCELLS & PUJOL, 2002, pp. 20-21. 9 PRAT DE LA RIBA, 2000, Vol. III, pp. 356-359. 10 The Renaixença (rebirth) was an early 19th century Romantic revivalist movement in Catalonia.

10 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

“The first doubt to be raised is whether it is founding scientific study centres with concrete appropriate to increase staff numbers and the specialisms, whose purpose would not be to funds earmarked for existing scientific bodies, educate but to produce science and facilitate thereby expanding their scope for action, or research so that we can directly learn about all whether it would be preferable to create a that is near to us and not have to learn from new entity which, precisely because it was foreigners conducting studies here.” new, would be obliged to demonstrate activity and would more naturally propose fertile initiatives. This doubt is resolved by the experiences of other countries that have found The goal of the IEC would be research, with themselves in similar circumstances, and so it the idea being that Catalans –and not is considered preferable not to interfere with outsiders– would study what was their own. existing bodies but to create new bodies that would be more specialised and more adapted The new body would need to focus initially on to contemporary demands.” the humanities.

The primordial aim, therefore, was what Prat de la Riba referred to as ‘modernising actions’, there being a preference –as in other countries– for Specialisation, in fact, was a distinctive feature of traditional bodies to carry on as previously and Catalanism. It should be emphasised, however, for new bodies to be created to meet new that the proposed new centre was not intended to demands. To reinforce this emphasis on the need be a teaching centre, and the reason was precisely for new institutions the agreement further stated: because the Diputació itself was already very active in this area. The goal of the new institution “The interests of science today require would be research, with the idea being that increasingly rigorous specialism and Catalans –and not outsiders– would study what resources and a freedom of action which the was their own. The new body would need to focus older bodies, although complying adequately initially on the humanities: with their functions for regulating learning, are incapable of adapting to.” “The first step, as the most necessary, is to create a centre for historical and social Evidently, as far as Prat de la Riba was concerned, criticism based on scientifically verified truths.” existing scientific bodies were overly rigid and poorly adapted to contemporary society.11 He concluded: The new centre would study Catalan archives, forgotten classical Catalan authors and periods of “For this reason the time has come for the Catalan history that were inadequately Diputació to take the initiative in regard to documented. It would initially have the mission of

11 One of the bodies considered to be anchored in the past was the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona (Reial Acadèmia de Ciències i Arts de Barcelona), the doyen of Catalan science societies. It has to be conceded, however, that this body had been undergoing a major overhaul since the end of the 19th century, in preparation for its 150th anniversary (NIETO GALAN & ROCA ROSELL, 2000).

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investigating and publishing historical, literary and repercussions had to be taken. This relationship legal works, and should have the possibility for made the dependency of the IEC on the Diputació subsequently expanding its scope to cover other and Prat de la Riba’s interest in controlling the moral sciences. Although the initial project recently created body patently clear. excluded the natural sciences, the wording of the agreement in regard to possible fields of study by The influence of the excursionists is reflected in the the IEC was, generally speaking, sufficiently very first activity of the recently established IEC: ambiguous to subsequently permit –on the the organisation, by Josep Pijoan, Josep Puig i occasion of enlargement in 1911 and thereafter– a Cadafalch, Joaquim Miret i Sans and Monsignor broader interpretation of its scope: Josep Gudiol, of an excursion to the Pyrenees in search of unknown or half-forgotten monuments, “Hereby created is a centre of studies to be paintings and documents. Organised scientific called the Institut d’Estudis Catalans, to have outings thus became a professional and as its aim advanced scientific research into all subsidised activity of a public body in Catalonia. elements of Catalan culture.” In no time the earliest fruits in the form of publications were produced. At the end of 1907, the first of a series of fascicules on mural paintings The IEC in 1907 was composed of eight (Les pintures murals catalanes), referring to the members organised in four divisions: History, Romanesque church of Pedret, was published, Archaeology, Literature and Law. authored by Josep Pijoan. Published shortly after was the first volume of a compilation of documents dating from the Middle Ages (Documents per a la història de la cultura catalana medieval) by Antoni The IEC in 1907 was composed of eight Rubió i Lluch, and the first volumes of publications members12 organised into four divisions: history, on Catalan coins (Les monedes catalanes), by archaeology, literature and law (with the existence Joaquim Botet i Sisó, and on Romanesque of the law division reflecting the personal interests architecture in Catalonia (L’arquitectura romànica a of Prat de la Riba). Antoni Rubió i Lluch and Josep Catalunya), by Josep Puig i Cadafalch. The Pijoan were the first president and general repercussions of the Catalan mural and secretary, respectively. Both were very different Romanesque architecture publications were far- persons in terms of age, education and character; reaching, contributing to the launch of research Rubió was a respectable university professor of 51, and other initiatives aimed at protecting this nearly whereas Pijoan, who was the youngest of the eight forgotten artistic heritage. The publications of members at 28, was a brilliant cultural activist. Prat the IEC, in fact, made a key contribution to the de la Riba, as president of the Diputació, presided recuperation of this heritage and to the avoidance over sessions in which decisions with financial of mass pillaging.

12 Guillem M. de Brocà i de Montagut, Antoni Rubió i Lluch, Joaquim Miret i Sans, Jaume Massó i Torrents, Miquel dels Sants Oliver i Tolrà, Josep Puig i Cadafalch, Pere Coromines i Montanya and Josep Pijoan i Soteras. Brief biographies (in Catalan) are available in the website of the IEC (). Some of the founders have articles published in the Semblances series (available from the same website).

12 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

The excavations that commenced in Empúries in 1908, under the auspices of the Barcelona Museum As far as Prat de la Riba was concerned, the Board (Junta de Museus de Barcelona) and on the initiative of Puig i Cadafalch, marked a new milestone IEC was, from the outset, to be an instrument in the annals of the IEC. These excavations, which for cultural renewal. would eventually be taken over by the IEC’s own Excavations Service, were reflected in the IEC’s earliest yearbooks. The interest in art and archaeology also led the IEC to cooperate actively with the 4. Enlargement in 1911 Madrid-based Spanish Board for the Advancement of Science and Research (Junta para la Ampliación Towards 1910 the IEC had undoubtedly acquired de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas), with maturity, but it faced a crisis due to the which it jointly founded the Spanish Archaeology geographical distance separating it from its general and History School (Escuela Española de Arqueo- secretary, Josep Pijoan, who had gone to Rome as logía e Historia), based in Rome. Its first secretary head of the Spanish Archaeology and History was Josep Pijoan, who, due to the absence of the School. Pijoan (along with Rubió) had been a key director, Menéndez Pidal, was put in charge of its player in the foundation of the IEC and a main establishment. The IEC also sent students on grants driving force in its early years of existence and to Rome, among them future members like consolidation. Taking advantage of a privileged Francesc Martorell and Ramon d’Alòs-Moner. relationship with José Castillejo, secretary of the Spanish Board for the Advancement of Science As far as Prat de la Riba was concerned, the IEC and Research, Pijoan had managed to ensure that had to act, from the outset, as an instrument for the IEC played an instrumental role in the latter’s cultural renewal. In a matter of a few years it had policy for creating research centres, such as, for become involved in important research projects example, the Centre for Historical Studies (Centre and had published influential studies. Furthermore, d’Estudis Històrics) and the Spanish Archaeology thanks to many donations and to a deliberate and History School in Rome. policy of acquiring books and entire libraries, the IEC was soon able to propose the creation of a The minutes of plenary meetings held by the IEC in national Library of Catalonia (Biblioteca de late 1909 and early 1910 and correspondence Catalunya), which opened to the public in 1914. between Pijoan and Castillejo leave no room for doubt about the IEC’s intentions. At a plenary The initial plans of the IEC had made no explicit session of the IEC held on 6 December 1909 mention of the natural sciences; however, it was (three months before the Centre for Historical not long before an enlargement of the IEC was Studies was created), Pijoan asserted that the proposed in this respect. This step, as commented recently constituted Liberal government in Madrid earlier, represented no great difficulty given that the would “probably accept a proposal to found Catalanists had clearly adopted the sciences as a advanced study centres abroad”,13 adding that key element in their movement. one such centre could well be a study centre in

13 IEC Archives. Plenary minutes, Vol. 6, p. 109.

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Rome, where the Spanish state had premises that before the creation of the Centre for Historical were largely underused. Having heard Pijoan out, Studies– Castillejo notified Pijoan that the Spanish the plenary empowered him, together with Pere Board for the Advancement of Science and Coromines, to study the matter and to draw up a Research had approved the proposal to create the project for what would be the Spanish Spanish Archaeology and History School in Rome Archaeology and History School in Rome.14 At a and asked Pijoan if he wished to accompany continuation of the plenary meeting held a week Ramon Menéndez Pidal, theoretically to be the later, it was agreed that Pijoan and Coromines school’s director, to prepare the premises in would address a letter to the Minister of State, Rome.16 Pérez Caballero, in which they would: The creation of the Spanish Archaeology and “(…) propose the creation in Rome of a History School in Rome led, therefore, to a Spanish school, state that the Institute would distancing of Pijoan from the IEC.17 This distance assist insofar as was possible within its means, that became even greater after 1913; Pijoan and indicate several facilities which he [the became disheartened by the poor results reaped in Minister] and the pensions board [Board for relation to the efforts invested in the Rome project, the Advancement of Science and Research] the lack of empathy with Menéndez Pidal18 and the could contribute by agreement between them, overwhelming obstacles –primarily the persistently with the ministry not being required to do other precarious budget– to converting the school into a than make available the second floor of the centre of reference for foreign intellectuals Collegiata of Saint Montserrat in Rome, established in Rome. He eventually emigrated to currently not being used.”15 Canada (in 1913), only returning to Catalonia and Spain on infrequent visits thereafter.

In January 1910, in a speech as president of the In 1910, Prat de la Riba pointed to the dawn of Diputació, Prat de la Riba referred to the need to a period of consecration of Catalan as an enlarge the IEC.19 He further asserted that, apart instrument of change in the world of science. from the objective value of the IEC in regard to key elements of the Catalan language and its art and history, it was also important from the patriotic viewpoint to internationalise the Catalan language In parallel with this official initiative, Pijoan was and to consecrate it as an instrument of change in corresponding actively with Castillejo on the same the world of science. Prat de la Riba then summed subject. On 19 February 1910 –some weeks up as follows:

14 IEC Archives. Plenary minutes, Vol. 6, pp. 110-111. 15 IEC Archives. Plenary minutes, Vol. 6, pp. 113-114. 16 Student Residence Archives. Josep Pijoan files, letter dated 19 February 1910. 17 Pijoan’s relationship with Teresa Mestres de Baladia, wife of a well-known industrialist (with whom she had three children), further marked his distancing from the IEC. 18 Menéndez Pidal, who was also the director of the Centre for Historical Studies, returned to Madrid, thereby removing himself from the day-to-day difficulties of the Spanish Archaeology and History School. He had not agreed, furthermore, to the inclusion of the Catalan language in the publications of the school, despite the role played by the IEC in its foundation and the requests of Pijoan. IEC Archives. Plenary minutes, Vol. 10, pp. 19-20. 19 “(...) we need to carry through another of the initiatives of the previous term: the Institute of Catalan Studies.” PRAT DE LA RIBA, 2000, Vol. III, p. 473.

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“Let us, therefore, strengthen and conclude excesses and vulgarity: this act by creating a place of honour for a sciences section next to the history and “Our generation, in its understanding of a archaeology sections. In this way we also Classical renewal, has known how to restore contribute, in a positive manner, to our the tastefulness that has always characterised liberation from foreign tutelage, to no longer all Classicism, the taste for clear, transparent being what we have been to date, which is and efficacious ideas.”23 importers of the science of other peoples, but to being, rather, creators of science, given that Encapsulating this notion was a list of concepts science, as you are well aware, represents formulated by Ors in opposition to the mostly honour and wealth and the superiority and Modernist concepts adhered to by the preceding predominance of a people.”20 generation:

The proposal for enlargement, however, was not “Set against Romanticism, the immortal implemented immediately. In January 1911 the classical tradition; against the Bourgeoisie, the journal Cataluña –a Spanish language platform Trade Union or the Empire; against Liberalism, for political and cultural Catalanism that aimed to Socialism or socialisation; against Democracy, establish a dialogue between Catalanists and proletarianism on the one hand and aristarchy Spanish-speaking intellectuals– published an on the other; against Indifference, the universal extra double issue of 32 pages on Catalan youth restoration of religious values, the idea of ideals and activities (El ideal y la actividad de la religion as indispensable to the unity of mental juventud catalana).21 life and, consequently, to the spirit; against Primarism, philosophy and science.”24 More importantly, the journal included a long article by Eugeni d’Ors on the subject of the renewal of Although this proclamation of Ors may appear the Catalan intellectual tradition (El renovamiento confused and ambiguous, what is clear is that his de la tradición intelectual catalana).22 This text can subsequent shift to authoritarian and espanyolista be considered to be a manifesto for the sentiments from the 1920s did not at all noucentista generation –a Catalan cultural contradict these earlier thoughts, and particularly movement of the early 20th century that originated the explicit statement in regard to primarism and largely as a reaction against Modernism– which science overcoming the ‘primary spirit’. Ors later was about to take centre stage in Catalan politics. vindicated the use of Catalan in all areas of culture The article commenced by defining the cultural and as an indispensable element for the full political programme of the noucentistes, declaring development of the language. He also pointed to a that theirs was a project to restore Classicism and low level of scientific achievement as one of the to accord due value to traditions, but without weaknesses of the Catalan cultural tradition:

20 Ibid., see previous footnote. 21 The issue was dedicated to Prat de la Riba; its editorial stated as its goal to provide a glimpse into the Catalonia of tomorrow. 22 ORS, 1911. 23 Ibid., p. 2. 24 Ibid., p. 3. Punctuation as in the original.

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“The lack of information in science matters, Pursuing a similar line of thought, Ors called for the lack of information on foreign intellectual –in addition to libraries and laboratories– an movements, and the lack of information on overhaul of education in general and specifically of our own past: here we have three other university education, in line with the conclusions of reasons for ideological sterility.”25 the Catalan University Congress of 1903. This overhaul would need to take into account the Ors also analysed the research situation in organisation of student exchanges abroad. Catalonia at the close of the first decade of the 20th century, concluding that the situation was not In another article in the same January 1911 issue of very promising and stating that science could Cataluña, August Pi i Sunyer took up Eugeni d’Ors’ never be a personal initiative but had to be a analysis of the limitations of experimental research collective endeavour in which different people, in Catalonia.28 He commenced by pointing to a nations and generations cooperated.26 Speaking of secular gap between the economic boom in his own research into critical thinking, ethics, Catalonia and “spiritual” manifestations, indicating aesthetics, logic and philosophy, and considering that the stimulus to study was only just beginning to that, above all, what was needed was editorial be perceptible. Nonetheless, a number of initiatives services, he mentioned the IEC as a body for inspired hope in the future of science in Catalonia; disseminating academic research. Another urgent as far as scientific renewal was concerned, one of need according to Ors was to ensure the these was the sound technical training (understood availability of a modern library. Again he was in the broadest sense) already available, i.e., the pointing to the IEC, which was considering the provision of professional training in both technology creation of a library at that time. Ors then made and science. the following statement: However, although Catalonia had individual “Unite the laboratories and the libraries, for the scientists of note, what it lacked was science sciences that need them. Without them schools that provided individuals with guidance, [laboratories] it is impossible to do anything in direction and discipline. The fact that intellectuals several orders of knowledge. Our situation tended to overlook what might be called their in this respect is disastrous.”27 ‘social mission’ contributed to the lack of continuity between gifted individuals in Catalonia: He then referred specifically to the difficulties of August Pi i Sunyer in regard to establishing a centre “Ours is a problem of education, schools, for physiological research under the auspices of the teams, organisation; the scientific ideal for Municipal Laboratory of Barcelona (Laboratori Catalonia is to study, to study again and to do,29 Municipal de Barcelona), pointing out that similar knowing what we are doing, not doing things difficulties were being experienced in other areas. as routine, combining our efforts; in a word,

25 Ibid., p. 4. 26 Ibid., p. 5. 27 Ibid., p. 5. 28 PIISUNYER, 1911. 29 Emphasis as in the original.

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preparing the instruments for mental work that likely be mapped out by the science body that Prat today are totally lacking, just as not too long de la Riba had referred to as so necessary. ago laboratory instruments were lacking. And thereafter ... to have great confidence [and] an It was quite likely that August Pi i Sunyer was aware inexhaustible and guileless optimism, without of the imminent enlargement of the IEC and that Prat which no work is possible.”30 de la Riba was hoping to count both on him and on Eugeni d’Ors. The issue of Cataluña that contains The reference to the confidence of researchers these commentaries concluded with a brief epilogue suitably equipped with the means to do their work by Prat de la Riba himself on the subject of recalls what was referred to as the civil discourse of continuity. Entitled La santa continuidad, the article science, which represented an indispensable underlined the need for an intergenerational framework for the confident work of researchers.31, 32 handover. The article also thanked the contributors to the issue –whom Prat de la Riba saw as In the light of this general statement, Pi i Sunyer representing Catalan youth– for their efforts to reviewed the situation in the disciplines that were develop all areas of knowledge, science and the arts. most familiar to him, pointing to evident progress. Analysed in particular was the biomedical science field, in which the Municipal Laboratory of Barcelona (managed by Ramon Turró) and the university In February 1911, the IEC was enlarged and laboratories played a key role. He also mentioned reorganised into three divisions with seven the establishment of the Fabra Observatory, attached to the Royal Academy of Sciences and members in each, namely, History and Arts of Barcelona, and the Ebro Observatory, Archaeology, Philology, and Science. belonging to the Jesuits. Special mention was made of work in the geology field by Norbert Font i Sagué (who had recently died) and the foundation of the Maritime Biology Station (Estació de Biologia The agreement to enlarge the IEC became Marítima) of Palma de Mallorca under the effective in February 1911. Thirteen new management of Odon de Buén, a professor at members were admitted and the body was the University of Barcelona. Finally, Pi i Sunyer also reorganised into three divisions with seven referred to the work of the Faculty of Pharmacy of members in each: the History and Archaeology the University of Barcelona and to the fact that Division (almost identical to that of the initial IEC), Catalonia had mathematicians of note, particularly in the Philology Division and the Science Division the disciplines of mechanics and physics. It could be (which included the social sciences and deduced from his conclusion, however, that the philosophy). With the exception of Pere general feeling was that a huge amount remained to Coromines (who joined the new Science Division), be done, and that the path to be followed would the eight founding members of the IEC joined the

30 PI iSUNYER, 1911., p. 16. 31 GLICK, 1994. 32 ROCA ROSELL, 2007.

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History and Archaeology Division. The Philology The Science Division bore the distinctive stamp of Division included three distinguished writers Eugeni d’Ors, who, as well as being its secretary, (Josep Carner, Àngel Guimerà and Joan also took over the post of secretary general of the Maragall), two clerics (Antoni M. Alcover and IEC in the absence of Pijoan. The natural sciences, Frederic Clascar), a Greek professor (Lluís the biomedical sciences, the exact sciences, the Segalà), and an engineer-turned-linguist (Pompeu social sciences and philosophy all coexisted in this Fabra). The Science Division was composed of a same division. The justification for the creation of gynaecologist, two biologists, an engineer- the Science Division was clearly provided by Prat physicist-mathematician, an economist, a de la Riba. Declaring that this new unit would foster naturalist and a philosopher. the use of Catalan in science, leading to a ‘comprehensive cultural renewal’, Prat de la Riba dedicated a lengthy paragraph to depicting the links between ‘science and public wealth’, The Science Division covered the natural concluding that: sciences, the biomedical sciences, the exact sciences, the social sciences and philosophy. “It has been said a thousand times in a thousand different ways: without original science in a country, there is no original industry; without original industry, there is no The Philology Division had as its main aim to independent economic life. Any attempt to conduct research into the Catalan language; redeem us from slavery in this sense will be however, as an immediate goal to be achieved in as wasted unless we fight the evil at its brief a time as possible, it was commissioned to foundations. The science of today represents develop a system for normalising the Catalan the public wealth of tomorrow.”33 language. The first language standard (Normes Ortogràfiques) was published in 1912, thereby For this reason it had been considered crucial to placing Catalan on the same level as all other make the IEC more comprehensive: languages whose spelling was standardised. Although this new standard was initially rejected by “(...) by creating a new body, the science some intellectuals, within a few years it had become section, which, located in the same shared widely accepted. This division had also intended to premises as the existing history and publish a standard dictionary; however, the archaeological sections and taking painstaking nature of lexicographical work advantage of some of the methods and combined with the adverse circumstances resulting practices already developed and used from the Primo de Rivera dictatorship led to Pompeu therein, will complement the latter in the Fabra eventually publishing a Diccionari General de science order, thereby equipping a public la Llengua Catalana under his own name, in body that has no desire to grant a distorted fascicules from 1925 and as a single volume in 1932. preponderance to one branch of human

33 PRAT DE LA RIBA, 2000, Vol. III, p. 584. 34 Ibid., p. 585.

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knowledge over another with the necessary during his time in Barcelona. He had also been the complexity.”34 president of the Catalan Natural History Institution on two occasions, resigning the post definitively The Science Division was accorded a scope that shortly before becoming a member of the IEC. covered not just the natural sciences and From 1909 he was also a member of the Royal mathematics but also the social sciences Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona. and philosophy. Its initial composition reflected this Esteve Terradas was a physicist, mathematician principle, which also coincided with the ideas of Ors and engineer, and also a professor of acoustics and and –given the reality of Catalan scientific research optics at the University of Barcelona. In 1909 he at that moment in time– with the predominance of had been admitted to the Royal Academy of the biomedical sciences over physics and Sciences and Arts of Barcelona. His background mathematics, the social sciences and philosophy. and youth meant that he was upheld as the great hope of the physics, mathematics and engineering The president of the Science Division, Miquel A. disciplines in Catalonia. Pere Coromines was a Fargas, was a professor of obstetrics at the lawyer by training with links to left-wing Catalanism. University of Barcelona and also a senior member He worked in the finance division of the Ajuntament of Prat de la Riba’s political party, the Lliga of Barcelona, where he had made profound Regionalista. Of the other Science Division changes to the city’s revenues system. His research members, Ramon Turró, who had trained as a covered the social sciences, mainly economics and veterinary surgeon, was the director of the sociology. Finally, Eugeni d’Ors, secretary of the Municipal Laboratory of Barcelona which, under Science Division and general secretary of the IEC, his management, had become the leading held degrees in law and philosophy, and had spent biomedical research centre in Catalonia. August a number of years in different European countries. Pi i Sunyer, who descended from a long line of He became publicly known largely through his doctors from the Empordà region in northern journalistic contributions (under the title Gloses, Catalonia, had been awarded a physiology meaning ‘notes’ or ‘glosses’) to the Barcelona professorship at the University of Seville in an newspaper, La Veu de Catalunya. Ors is considered open public competition, but had rejected it in to have shown the way in the new noucentista order to continue his research at the Municipal aesthetic and intellectual style. Laboratory of Barcelona, where he was eventually appointed to an honorary physiology chair. He Table 1 was made a senior professor in the Faculty of IEC divisions Medicine of the University of Barcelona in 1916. Division Year created History and Archaeology 1907 Josep Bofill i Pichot was also a physician who, for Philology 1911 health reasons, no longer practised. However, he Biological Sciences 1989a had acquired a reputation as an entomologist, Science and Technology 1989a specialising in insects with negative effects on Philosophy and Social Sciences 1968b agriculture. Bofill i Pichot had been a disciple of a Created when the Science Division (created in 1911) was divided into two. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, with whom he had worked b Removed from the Science Division (created in 1911).

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5. Achievements in the period to the the journal. Shortly thereafter, Esteve Terradas death of Prat de la Riba (1911-1917) attended the Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte, and, although he may not Enlargement and reorganisation in 1911 launched have recruited a contributor for the journal, his a highly active period for the IEC, which, despite description of the meeting represents a key the obstacles posed by the outbreak of World War testimonial of the state of physics at that time. His 1 in 1914, experienced no further major changes review of Max von Laue’s book on the relativity until after the death of Prat de la Riba in 1917. IEC principle represented one of the earliest implication in the research policy of the Diputació discussions of Einstein’s theory in Spain.37 As is and, from 1914, in the Mancomunitat, was marked evident, the rhythm of publication in the early years by major achievements, including the publication of the IEC was intense; however, it was not of seminal scientific works, the creation of possible to maintain this rhythm and so the subsidiary societies, the creation of departments decision was eventually taken to issue smaller and divisions within the IEC, the organisation of publications less frequently from 1916. advanced study courses and exchanges, and the opening of the Library of Catalonia to the public. Other early publications of the IEC included fascicules on flora and fauna, for two series entitled Flora de Catalunya and Fauna de Catalunya. The proposals for these projects had originated in In 1911, the Science Division commenced the first volume of the Science Division’s yearbook publishing a journal, the Arxius de l’Institut de (Anuari de l’Institut de Ciències), which had Ciències, which was very ambitious in scope. included key articles signed by Josep Bofill i Pichot and Eugeni d’Ors; one proposed the publication of what would be Flora de Catalunya, under the management of the distinguished botanist Joan The Science Division got underway on 1 April Cadevall, and the other proposed the publication 1911. Its first meeting led to an agreement to of what would be Fauna de Catalunya, with Artur publish a scientific journal entitled Arxius de Bofill i Poch and Manuel de Chia i Bajandas l’Institut de Ciències.35 This journal was very commissioned to produce a first fascicule on ambitious in scope, with international contributions molluscs. in the original language of the authors and with reports and sectoral reviews contributed by It was at the second meeting of the Science members.36 That same year, Eugeni d’Ors Division, on 5 May 1911, that Josep Bofill i Pichot participated in the 4th Philosophy Conference of had made the proposal –adopted by the Bologna and was able to recruit the Italian members– to publish the work on Catalan flora that mathematician Giuseppe Peano as a contributor to Joan Cadevall38 had been working on for a number

35 ROCA ROSELL & CASASSAS, 1995. 36 The earliest fascicules, for example, contain reports by August Pi i Sunyer on physiological research in the first decade of the 20th century and by Esteve Terradas on relativity. 37 ROCA ROSELL & SÁNCHEZ RON, 1990. 38 IEC Archives.Science Division minutes. Vol. 1, p. 9.

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of years; Cadevall had, in fact, done most of his endemic species and for black-and-white work on Catalan flora in the Spanish language and engravings of species not featured in Coste’s work. was now working on a translation to Catalan. The By early May 1913 the first fascicule was ready but Science Division also agreed that Cadevall’s for some colour plates that had been original work should include illustrations and be commissioned from Casa Thomas. A lengthy modelled on Flore de France by Hippolyte Coste, printing strike further delayed publication, however, edited by Paul Klincksieck; permission would be until the end of June 1913. requested of the publisher, moreover, to reproduce illustrations for species common to France and Fauna de Catalunya, under the management of Catalonia.39 Àngel Sallent assisted with the Josep Bofill i Pichot got off to an even slower translation and adaptation work, and was also start, commencing with the issue of fascicules responsible for writing notes on the etymologies referring to molluscs and insects, and also one on and origins of the plant names. coelenterates by Josep Maluquer i Nicolau. On 8 March 1912, the Science Division agreed to Although the first fascicule of Flora de Catalunya request Chia i Bajandas to present an extensive was not issued until summer 1913,40 the minutes of monograph on bivalve molluscs that examined the Science Division record how, in September the genus Tapes in depth.43 1911, Cadevall and Sallent were already working on the publication and how they had received the The publishing process for the earliest fascicules first originals in October and November of that on fauna was also slow and laborious, given year. Publication was approved at a meeting of the difficulties arising from the photographs that Chia Science Division in January 1912. In early March, i Bajandas wished to include; Josep Bofill i Pichot, Léon Lhomme,41 the new editor of Flore de France, moreover, insisted on including explanatory notes granted his permission to use the illustrations; for technical zoology terms to make the shortly after Cadevall and Sallent delivered the descriptions more transparent. At the end of materials necessary to complete what would be 1914, Artur Bofill i Poch corrected the galleys for the first fascicule. The artist Pere Viver42 provided the first fascicule on molluscs; however, the war in the original drawings for colour plates of two Europe affected the possibility of obtaining

39 Flore de France was published by the Librairie des Sciences Naturelles in Paris between 1901 and 1906 to great acclaim, given its novelty in comparison to previous publications on the same subject in Europe. Its reputation survives to this day. In his editing, Paul Klincksieck, applied the model developed by the United States botanists Nathaniel L. Britton and Addison Brown in An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 40 On 16 July 1913 Cadevall sent Carlos Pau a copy of this first fascicule (letter from Cadevall to Pau, contained in the Pau Collection in the Archives of the Barcelona Botanical Institute), and the second fascicule was published a year later. The last fascicule of the first volume was not issued until December 1914, however, and even then it was missing its colour plates. The second volume was issued between 1915 and 1919. Cadevall did not live to see publication of the third volume, as he died in November 1921. Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship interfered with the publication of the remaining volumes, which eventually were published under the management of Pius Font i Quer between 1932 and 1937. Font i Quer himself was responsible for the work on gymnosperms and the German Werner Rothmaler contributed with an article on the pteridophytes, thus completing Cadevall’s work with the only two groups that were missing. Font i Quer also included a glossary of obsolete or incorrectly used botanical terms that had featured in the earlier volumes. 41 A nature enthusiast who was very knowledgeable about the Pyrenees, Léon Lhomme (1867-1949), was appointed to replace Klincksieck as head of the Librairie des Sciences Naturelles when the latter died in 1909. 42 Pere Viver (1873-1917) was an exponent of the Modernist landscape school of Terrassa (near Barcelona). He was a brother of the artist Tomàs Viver (1876-1951), who had been director of the Municipal School of Arts and Trades of Terrassa, founded in 1886 on the initiative of Cadevall. Although the published engravings were not signed and the artist’s name was not credited, the fact that the death of Viver was recorded in the minutes of the Science Division of 19 February 1918 would seem to confirm that he was, in fact, the artist. 43 IEC Archives. Science Division minutes. Vol. 1, p. 122.

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supplies of quality paper and this led to a complete the map.45 Faura presented his proposal postponement of some months in publication. for implementing the task in December, and Josep Finally agreed on 10 March 1915 was the layout Bofill i Pichot was made responsible for reporting on of the monographs for Fauna de Catalunya which the proposal to the IEC and the Diputació. The report would carry the subtitle Monografies publicades was viewed favourably and the Geology Map sota la direcció de Josep M. Bofill i Pichot, Service was set up with Faura as its manager and membre de l’Institut de Ciències. The first three with the same people who had worked with Dr. monographs –on molluscs (an introduction Almera as his staff, namely, the topographer Eduard followed by fascicules on Veneridae and Brossa and his assistant Josep Ramon Bataller (then Petricolidae)– were published in July 1915. a seminarian and a student of the natural sciences at the University of Barcelona). Appointments were Also dating from this period were the earliest formally confirmed on 28 June 1915.46 initiatives aimed at creating and publishing geographic and geological maps of Catalonia. On Another initiative of the Science Division was the 18 June 1912 the Science Division agreed to ask Aerology Station of Barcelona (1912), proposed by the Geography and Statistics Institute (Instituto Eduard Fontserè. Fontserè, who was a member Geográfico y Estadístico) in Madrid for the of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of publications necessary to be able to make a Barcelona, had recently taken charge of the geographic map of Catalonia. It was not until 8 Meteorology and Seismology Service of the Fabra May 1914, however, that it was agreed to publicise Observatory. The Aerology Station participated in vacancies for a tomographer and draughtsman for an international programme –the initiative of what would be the Geographic Map Service, with a Vilhelm Bjerknes, founder of modern meteorology– closing date of 30 September for candidate to obtain meteorological data from the atmosphere applications. Finally appointed were José de Rivera using high-altitude hot-air balloons. This station as the topographer and Baldomer Pérez Mayol as represented the beginnings of what would the draughtsman. eventually develop into the Meteorology Service of Catalonia (Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya), Once the geographic map project was underway, a whose establishment was approved in 1919. geology map project was launched. As early as 1913, in fact, Josep Bofill i Pichot had taken the In addition to the Geographic and Geology Map necessary steps to obtain for the IEC a set of Services and the Aerology Station, a Malaria geology maps that had been created by Dr. Jaume Service was set up in 1915 under the management Almera for the Diputació.44 In early November 1914 of Gustavo Pittaluga, an active promoter of a public the Diputació, aware that Almera was unable to health policy for the Mancomunitat. August Pi i continue mapping the province of Barcelona and Sunyer and Leandre Cervera, furthermore, put that he had proposed his colleague Marià Faura i forward a proposal to create a physiology unit as Sans as his replacement, commissioned the IEC to early as 1917, but the death of Prat de la Riba

44 IEC Archives. Science Division minutes, Vol. 2, pp. 7-8. 45 IEC Archives. Science Division minutes, Vol. 3, p. 127. 46 ARAGONÈS, 2005, pp. 172-173.

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delayed the foundation of what became known as Biology Society of Barcelona took place. In its the Physiology Division until 1921. first 12 months, 31 communications were presented at successive scientific sessions by Apart from publications and scientific and Turró, Pi i Sunyer and their colleagues, technical services, the Science Division aimed to between them constituting the core group of the consolidate a community of Catalan scientists by nascent Catalan biology community. These incorporating subsidiary societies. The first of communications constituted the basis for the these, created at the end of 1912, was the first volume of the new publication of the Biology Biology Society of Barcelona (Societat de Society of Barcelona entitled Treballs de la Biologia de Barcelona), today the Catalan Biology Societat de Biologia de Barcelona. Annual Society (Societat Catalana de Biologia). publication of the works presented at scientific sessions held the previous year continued up to The Science Division minutes of 2 November 1920. 1912 would indicate this was not an IEC or Science Division initiative; it was, rather, an initiative by Catalan physiologists, who, according to August Pi i Sunyer, had established The first subsidiary society created by the IEC contact with the Société de Biologie in Paris for was the Biology Society of Barcelona, today assistance with the creation of a sister body in Barcelona, with the idea being to exchange the Catalan Biology Society. three-way communications and correspondence between the French and Catalan associations and what Pi i Sunyer referred to as the “Madrid Biology Society”.47 Science Division minutes for 2 Another member of the Science Division, Josep November of that year merely make brief mention Bofill i Pichot, acted as liaison in terms of of the fact that the new society would be incorporating the Catalan Natural History composed of IEC members. The initiative to Institution as a subsidiary society in the IEC. In this create this body arose, undoubtedly, as a way a more explicit link was established between consequence of a divergence of interests and the scientific excursion tradition in Catalonia and substantial differences in scientific training more recently established research bodies. The among members of the Science Division, it being lengthy and complex incorporation process acknowledged that the masterly efforts of commenced in early 1915 and was not terminated Ramon Turró and August Pi i Sunyer were likely until 6 December 1917, when the members of the to conclude in the creation of a biology body with Catalan Natural History Institution approved the a significant international presence. On 14 new statutes that would govern the body as a December 1912, the first scientific session of the subsidiary society within the IEC.

47 IEC Archives. Science Division minutes. Vol. 1, p. 193. Pi i Sunyer referred to the “Societat de Biologia de Madrid” but the Madrid association referred to is probably the “Sociedad Española de Biologia” (Spanish Biology Society) founded the previous year by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Gregorio Marañón, Juan Negrín and other physicians carrying out biomedical research in a range of centres in Madrid. It is possible that Pi i Sunyer wished to underline his argument in favour of the creation of the Barcelona association by pointing to the example provided by colleagues in Madrid. Alternatively, he may have discussed the possibility of the Spanish associations uniting in a common front with regard to dealings with their French colleagues.

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In 1914, when the Barcelona’s Diputació that scientific activity in Catalonia garnered itself a Pedagogical Research Council (Consell place on the international stage. d’Investigació Pedagògica) expressed a wish to run monographic advanced study courses and organise academic exchanges, the Science 6. The Mancomunitat under Puig i Division immediately responded by expressing its Cadafalch (1917-1923) interest. However, the outbreak of World War 1 prevented researchers from the countries at war Prat de la Riba died in 1917, Puig i Cadafalch from participating and also prevented exchanges became president of the Mancomunitat in 1917 with foreign universities. When the courses were and Joan Vallès i Pujals became president of the launched in 1915, therefore, academics from Diputació in 1918. Although no radical changes regions of Spain other than Catalonia were were brought about in the cultural and scientific invited, commencing with the mathematician policies of the Mancomunitat and the Diputació by Julio Rey Pastor. These and subsequent these events, there was a slight shift in emphasis; mathematics and physics courses developed, in the role of the IEC became slightly less central 1916, into a new series of publications under the –despite the fact that Puig i Cadafalch was a management of Esteve Terradas (Col·lecció de founding member of the IEC and a member of the Cursos de Física i Matemàtica). History and Archaeology Division.

At the outset Puig i Cadafalch and Eugeni d’Ors had been in agreement in terms of considering the IEC The death of Prat de la Riba and Puig i as yet another element in the cultural machinery of Cadafalch’s appointment as president of the the Mancomunitat, although they also felt that it Mancomunitat led to a shift in emphasis and a needed to have more autonomy. However, less central role for the IEC. differences gradually arose between Puig i Cadafalch (and other members of the IEC) and Eugeni d’Ors that eventually became public, and in 1920 the latter was removed from all his To sum up, the Science Division’s contribution to responsibilities. This event partially explains the loss the science policies of the Diputació and the of influence and the restriction in the functions of the Mancomunitat went beyond even the most IEC. Also significant was the general deterioration in ambitious aspirations of Prat de la Riba, resulting in the social climate from around 1917 and the fact scientific publications in the Catalan language that the IEC’s budget was first frozen then reduced (except for works by foreign authors published in from 1920. The situation did not improve in the years other languages in the Arxius de l’Institut de subsequent to the abrupt dismissal of Ors; repeated Ciències), the supervision, inspection and complaints were made against him, mainly by the management of scientific and technical services, Science Division, and especially from 1922. support for the creation of research centres and scientific societies, and finally, the organisation of The Mancomunitat had begun to directly take over advanced study courses. All these activities, IEC services and powers or had transferred these moreover, highlighted a clear ambition to ensure to other bodies or institutions some months before

24 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

the death of Prat de la Riba. Thus, for example, in Laboratory), which was launched in 1919 under the 1917, the Natural Sciences Board of Barcelona management of the Belgian psychologist Georges (Junta de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona) was Dwelshauvers and formally inaugurated in 1922. converted into a mixed body with the participation of the Diputació (previously it had been exclusively The most significant creation in this period was municipal), and was given responsibility for the the Meteorology Service, founded in 1921 under the Geographic and Geology Map Services of the IEC, management of Eduard Fontserè. This body resulting in a physical relocation of these services commenced as the Aerology Station of Barcelona, from the Seminary Museum to the Museum of founded in 1913. Together with the Physiology Catalonia. On 30 June, Prat de la Riba authorised Division of August Pi i Sunyer and Jesús M. Bellido the same board to also take possession of and the Excavations Service of Pere Bosch i the Diputació’s natural history collections and the Gimpera, the Meteorology Service is probably the Geology Map Service collections so as to ensure most representative institution of the noucentista continuation of work in these fields. In 1917, when vision of research policy. These three centres carried its scope was broadened to include tuberculosis out basic research, which they combined with the and typhoid, the Malaria Service (Servei Tècnic del provision of a public service –whether the promotion Paludisme) was renamed the Healthcare Studies of public health, the preservation of archaeological Service (Servei d’Estudis Sanitaris) and, in 1920, heritage or the provision of weather forecasts. was transferred to the Mancomunitat.

During the early years of this period, a number of new The creation of the Meteorology Service of centres were created within the IEC: the Pedagogical Catalonia (1921) was probably the most Seminary-Laboratory (1918), the Philosophy and Psychology Seminary-Laboratory (1918) and the representative institution of the noucentista Physiology Seminary-Laboratory (1920). The vision of research policy, combining, as it Physiology Seminary-Laboratory, however, failed to did, basic research with the provision of a meet the expectations of August Pi i Sunyer and public service. Jesús M. Bellido in regard to their project for a physiology unit as proposed to Prat de la Riba in early 1917. What was eventually called the Physiology Division was responsible for training The dismissal of Ors in 1920 marked a turning large numbers of researchers who would form point in the role played by the IEC in the web of what gradually came to be recognised as a Catalan cultural and scientific policies of the school of biology attached to the University of Mancomunitat. In that year, the Mancomunitat Barcelona. The Pedagogical Seminary-Laboratory took over the most important responsibilities of and the Philosophy and Psychology Seminary- the provincial councils of Catalonia, which meant Laboratory, both closely identified with Eugeni that it inherited the Diputació’s relationship with d’Ors, did not survive for long and were the IEC (and with the Natural Sciences Board of suppressed in 1921, with the exception of the Barcelona, the Barcelona Museum Board, etc). Experimental Psychology Laboratory (a spin-off of Eugeni d’Ors by this stage held considerable the Philosophy and Psychology Seminary- sway in the Mancomunitat, as he was both

25 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 ARTICLES

responsible for the Directorate of Public 7. The Primo de Rivera dictatorship Instruction and president of the Pedagogical (1923-1930) and the Republic (1931- Council (derived from the Diputació’s Pedagogical 1939) Research Council). Space here is too brief to analyse Ors’ fall from grace, which has, in any A coup d’état was proclaimed by General Primo de case, been studied in depth elsewhere; suffice it Rivera on 13 September 1923 in Barcelona, where to say that one of the consequences as far as the Primo was Captain General. The coup was IEC was concerned was its loss of influence in originally welcomed by conservative elements in terms of defining and regulating science policy Catalan society, including the Lliga Regionalista. in Catalonia. The last issue of the Crònica Oficial (official gazette of the Mancomunitat), dating from September 1923, contained a declaration (published previously in the press) by the president, Puig i During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Cadafalch, expressing the hope that the new IEC’s role in science policy became wholly direction taken by the Spanish government would irrelevant, bereft as the body was of any public resolve the serious problems being experienced by the country.48 To little avail, however, as Puig i funding, expelled from its premises and with all Cadafalch was soon dismissed (January 1924), its services transferred to the Diputació. and the Monarchist Alfons Sala was appointed as president of the Mancomunitat, which was, nonetheless, gradually dismantled, to be finally suppressed in March 1925. Social conflict between workers and capitalists –which continued until well after World War 1 led to a It goes without saying that, in the situation created distrust of more left-wing intellectual sectors and to by the Military Junta headed by Primo de Rivera, the gradual shift to the right of the Lliga Regionalista. the IEC’s role in science policy became wholly This distrust particularly affected the Science irrelevant, bereft as the body was, from 1925, of Institute, despite the fact that prestigious individuals any public funding, expelled from its premises and such as Pi i Sunyer and Fontserè were implementing with all its services transferred to the Diputació. key projects such as the Physiology Division and the Meteorology Service. From 1920, the flow of IEC Even services transferred to the Diputació publications almost completely dried up, not to experienced a degree of precariousness that, in recommence again until the period of the Republic some cases, brought them to near demise. Only and then only briefly. One final achievement in this the Meteorology Service and, to a lesser extent, stage of the IEC’s history, however, was the creation the Physiology Division survived with a certain of another subsidiary society, namely, dignity, although they were both ordered to use the the Catalan Philosophy Society, which, sadly, had Spanish language in their publications. Of the IEC barely come into being when General Primo de subsidiary societies, only the Catalan Natural Rivera staged his coup d’état. History Institution continued to function, publishing

48 Mancomunitat de Catalunya, Crònica Oficial, Year 4, No. 8.

26 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

news (the Butlletí series), but not works (the Taberner, among others. Appointed as president of Treballs series), as normal. It too was obliged not the Diputació was Joan Maluquer i Viladot and only to translate its name to Spanish but also to appointed as mayor of Barcelona was Baron adapt the name of its news journal, in October Santiago Güell, one of the IEC’s sponsors during 1925, to the rather odd Butlletí de la Institución the dictatorship. Catalana de Historia Natural,49 which was the name it bore until December 1929. Maluquer i Viladot was a conservative politician and monarchist, founder and president of the Other publications of the IEC continued, thanks to Monarchist Autonomic Federation (Federació funding provided by some 30 private sponsors, Monàrquica Autonomista). He was also a known mainly Rafael Patxot and Francesc Cambó. Rafael Catalanist and a reputable jurist. Three of his Patxot, for example, financed the publication of offspring were members of the Catalan Natural Annual Reports for the History and Archaeology History Institution (two, in fact, were founders). Division (to replace its Yearbooks), for the Science Hardly surprising then that one of the first steps Division (to replace its Arxius de l’Institut de taken by the new Diputació, of which he was Ciències) and for the Philology Division, and also president, was to re-establish its patronage of the subsidised a number of issues of the publication IEC and to restore many of the services that had on dialects (Butlletí de Dialectologia). His own been removed from it.50 Returned to the IEC, for Patxot Foundation was responsible for publishing a example, was its preeminent role on the board of rainfall atlas (Atlas pluviomètric de Catalunya), an trustees of the Library of Catalonia. The IEC was international atlas of cloud formations (Atlas also commissioned to conduct a study on the internacional dels núvols i els estats del cel), and an reorganisation of the Geology and Topography edited version of a manuscript describing Division whose functioning had been suspended. celebrations of all kinds in Barcelona between 1383 and 1719 (Llibre de les solemnitats de The IEC was soon sufficiently consolidated to Barcelona). consider the possibility of establishing a new basis for its relationship with the Diputació –and not When, in 1930, Primo de Rivera departed into excluding, for example, the possibility of being exile, a transitional government was appointed converted to a private association (although this under General Berenguer which combined idea was soon ruled out). It did manage to authoritarianism with a certain degree of civil liberty. persuade the Diputació to accord it a fair degree of As for the provincial councils, some of their autonomy; thus, on 2 July 1930, the Diputació deputies of before the coup of 1923 (those who granted the IEC the power to approve and adopt had obtained most votes) were allowed to return. its statutes and the right to receive subsidies, and For the Diputació of Barcelona, this meant the the agreement in this respect was approved at a return of Josep Puig i Cadafalch and Ferran Valls i plenary meeting of the IEC held two days later.

49 The oddness resulted from the combination of the Catalan word for gazette with the Spanish language version of the name of the society. 50 Not returned were the Meteorology Service and the Physiology Division, however, as these were now independent foundations. Links with the IEC were maintained, however, through the directors of these two bodies, Eduard Fontserè and August Pi i Sunyer, both members of the IEC, and through the appointment of an inspector from the IEC to each of the foundations (BALCELLS & PUJOL, 2002, p. 230).

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As the autonomy of the IEC was enhanced and as premises in the old Hospital de la Santa Creu and it was returned its sources of funding and its the Casa de Convalescència. The IEC was thus services, the Ajuntament, following the example able, according to its records, to celebrate its of the Diputació, and bearing in mind the anniversary in the Casa de Convalescència imminent 25th anniversary of the IEC, adopted an premises in 1931 and 1932. Likewise, in the new agreement to grant premises in the old Hospital de premises in 1932, the new Catalan Physical, la Santa Creu and Casa de Convalescència for the Chemical and Mathematical Sciences Society Library of Catalonia and for IEC departments, (Societat Catalana de Ciències Físiques, Químiques services and subsidiary societies.51 The premises i Matemàtiques) was launched. In 1935, the Biology were formally handed over on 30 March 1931, just Society of Barcelona inaugurated its new a fortnight before the proclamation of the Republic. premises in the Casa de Convalescència, which Even the Spanish government recognised the IEC also hosted the meetings of the Science Division in February 1931, when it formally requested it to and the courses of the Mathematical Studies nominate speakers (and substitutes) for the public Centre (Centre d’Estudis Matemàtics). In early competition panels that would examine candidates 1936, the Catalan Natural History Institution, the for university professorships. Catalan Physical, Chemical and Mathematical Sciences Society and the Catalan Geography Society (Societat Catalana de Geografia) –newly created in 1935– all moved into the new premises. In 1931, bearing in mind the imminent 25th anniversary of the IEC, in 1932, the Ajuntament The slowness of the move by the IEC and the Library granted premises in the old Hospital de la Santa of Catalonia (the library was only moved on the eve of the Civil War), however, created an ongoing Creu and Casa de Convalescència for the atmosphere of transition in the IEC, accentuated by Library of Catalonia and for IEC departments, the distancing of certain political leaders with links to services and subsidiary societies. the IEC and by differences between some IEC members with respect to the left-wing politicians who controlled the Generalitat and the Parliament of Catalonia.52 Nonetheless, Puig i Cadafalch, Pere The return to normality occurred smoothly and Coromines, Eduard Fontserè and Pompeu Fabra as remained unaffected by the consolidation of the presidents of the IEC between 1931 and 1939, newly declared Republic and the constitution of an managed somehow to keep the IEC on the political autonomous government, called the Generalitat, in sidelines. Under the Generalitat, the IEC thus failed Catalonia. The Generalitat took over from the to recover the central place it had occupied in Diputació in terms of providing funds to operate the cultural policies of the Mancomunitat.53 The the IEC and to pay for refurbishment of its new Physiology Division and the Meteorology Service

51 Property of the Ajuntament, these premises had remained unused since 1930 when the hospital moved to new grounds as the Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, financed by Pau Gil, owner of the gas and electricity company Catalana de Gas i Electricitat. 52 For example, Puig i Cadafalch, as a key leader in the Lliga Regionalista, and Ferran Valls i Taberner, as a Lliga deputy in the Parliament of Catalonia, were politically in conflict with the Catalanist left, but also with the right-wingers that controlled the government of the Republic from 1934 to 1936. 53 BALCELLS & PUJOL, 2002, p. 243.

28 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

had been separated from the IEC in 1930 at the The Generalitat also viewed favourably the decision IEC’s request; in 1936, the Excavations Service and of the IEC and the Meteorology Service to the Monument Preservation Service were participate in International Polar Year 1932-1933 transferred to the Generalitat’s Department for and to install Catalonia’s first permanent mountain Public Instruction, in application of the Catalan meteorology observatory on Turó de l’Home Statute of Autonomy of 1932, which, as it (opened in October 1932). happened, made no mention of the IEC. It was the Science Division which took the initiative of requesting the reconstitution of the Geology Map Service with Marià Faura i Sans as director, a The Catalan Natural History Institution proposal that was acted on by the Generalitat in the experienced a genuine golden age coinciding early months of 1933. A proposal by Esteve with the two terms of office of Pius Font i Terradas at around the same time led to the creation of the Mathematical Studies Centre by the IEC, Quer as president (1932-1933 and 1934-1935). launched in 1933 under the management of Pere Pi Calleja. This centre was originally intended to be run in cooperation with the University of Barcelona, although this finally proved to be impossible. Nonetheless, it was the subsidiary societies which were most involved in the cultural and science An example of the difficulty of slotting the IEC into policies of the Generalitat of the Second Republic. public cultural and scientific projects was provided After a number of years of relative inactivity and by the project to create a new literary body, having had little contact with the IEC during the proposed by Ventura Gassol to the Generalitat’s Primo de Rivera dictatorship, the Catalan Natural Culture Council in 1931. This body, which took History Institution was now experiencing a shape in 1937 in the form of the Catalan Letters genuine golden age coinciding with the two terms Institute (Institució de les Lletres Catalanes), of office of Pius Font i Quer as president (1932- competed directly with the IEC in terms of certain 1935). It doubled its membership, substantially activities implemented by its Philology Division. The enhanced its level of activity, updated the Butlletí, Generalitat, however, did commission the IEC with recommenced organising thematic outings, and a number of important tasks: supervision of opened up to new sources of members; there inventory-taking of the monuments of Catalonia were also significant qualitative improvements. (one of the transfers anticipated in the Catalan It was in the education area that the IEC was able Statute of Autonomy of 1932) and a review of to decisively focus its growth and renewal; this toponyms so as to determine definitive place gave it an important sense of direction names and complete a map of Catalonia in –comparable to that of the years prior to the Primo impeccable Catalan. The Generalitat also showed de Rivera dictatorship– until the Civil War (1936- its interest in the proposal of the History and 1939) abruptly truncated its progression. Rafael Archaeology Division to edit the historical Dietaris Candel, president of the Excursions Committee de la Generalitat de Catalunya, a description of very cleverly managed to ensure that the political, military, religious and social events of the Barcelona press mentioned the Catalan Natural period 1411 to 1714. History Institution calls for participants in outings.

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Table 2 IEC subsidiary societies Institució Catalana d'Història Natural / Catalan Natural History Institution (1899 / IEC 1915) Societat Catalana de Biologia / Catalan Biology Society (1912) Societat Catalana de Filosofia / Catalan Philosophy Society (1923) Societat Catalana de Geografia / Catalan Geography Society (1935) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Històrics / Catalan Historical Studies Society (1946) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Litúrgics / Catalan Liturgical Studies Society (1970) Societat Catalana de Musicologia / Catalan Musicology Society (1973) Amics de l'Art Romànic / Friends of Romanesque Art (1977) Societat Catalana d'Economia / Catalan Economics Society (1977) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Numismàtics / Catalan Numismatic Studies Society (1979) Associació Catalana de Ciències de l'Alimentació / Catalan Food Sciences Association (1979 / IEC 1992) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Clàssics / Catalan Classical Studies Society (1979) Associació Catalana de Sociologia / Catalan Sociology Association (1979) Societat Catalana d'Ordenació del Territori / Catalan Territorial Planning Society (1979) Societat Catalana de Pedagogia / Catalan Pedagogy Society (1979) Societat d'Història de l'Educació dels Països de Llengua Catalana / Society for the History of Education in Catalan Speaking Lands (1982) Institució Catalana d'Estudis Agraris / Catalan Agrarian Studies Institution (1984) Societat Catalana de Comunicació / Catalan Communication Society (1985) Societat Catalana de Física / Catalan Physics Society (1986) Societat Catalana de Matemàtiques / Catalan Mathematics Society (1986) Societat Catalana de Química / Catalan Chemistry Society (1986) Societat Catalana de Tecnologia / Catalan Technology Society (1986) Societat Catalana de Llengua i Literatura / Catalan Language and Literature Society (1986) Societat Catalana d'Història de la Ciència i de la Tècnica / Catalan Science and Technology History Society (1991) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Hebraics / Catalan Hebrew Studies Society (1995) Societat Catalana d'Estudis Jurdics / Catalan Legal Studies Society (1995) Associació de Sociolingüistes de Llengua Catalana / Catalan Language Sociolinguistics Association (2008) Associació Catalana de Terminologia / Catalan Terminology Association (2008)

Professors and lecturers in a number of important Given the cultural and political context in which it education centres –Escola Normal, Escola Superior occurred, an excursion to Minorca in April 1933, d’Agricultura, Institut-Escola, Institut de Cultura per assumed particular importance. The Catalan Statute a la Dona, Escoles Italianes, Liceu Francès and even of Autonomy had been approved not long before (9 the Autonomous University of Barcelona (to which September 1932), and in Minorca a lively debate Pius Font i Quer was appointed as a professor in was taking place between advocates of Catalan 1933)– also actively promoted the excursions. autonomy (in favour of Minorca joining Catalonia), These outings attracted large numbers of those who sought autonomy for Minorca, advocates individuals, many of whom eventually took up of a statute of autonomy for the Balearic Islands and membership in the IEC. This explosive growth in those who rejected all notions of autonomy.54 The the IEC in the pre-war years can largely be IEC group effectively acted as a cultural delegation attributed to the Generalitat’s educational reforms. from the Generalitat to the institutions and people of

54 QUINTANA, 1998.

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Minorca; it brought with it a formal greeting from experts to work alongside physicists, chemists and president Francesc Macià, which was read after an mathematicians. This society was generally very extraordinary meeting held on 15 April in the plenary active between 1932 and 1936, publishing dozens hall of the Ajuntament of Maó in the presence of city of monographs on a number of subjects ranging dignitaries, representatives of Minorcan scientific from thermodynamics to biochemistry, meteorology and cultural bodies and members of the public. and aluminium metallurgy. The session concluded by paying homage to the memory of the Minorcan naturalist, Joan Joaquim Once the Catalan Physical, Chemical and Rodríguez Femenias, and a commemorative Mathematical Sciences Society was consolidated, plaque was unveiled on the facade of what had Fontserè commenced promoting (in 1933) the been his home.55 creation of the Catalan Geography Society, finally founded in 1935. Its first president was Pau Vila, who The Biology Society of Barcelona also lived through had been an outstanding member of the Catalan a golden age in the 1930s and –unlike the Catalan Territorial Division Board (Ponència de la Divisió Natural History Institution– was able to remain active Territorial de Catalunya), which concluded its work in practically to the end of the Civil War. In the early 1933. The new society was thus associated, from its years of the war it hosted scientific meetings origins, not only with new trends in academic attended by important physiologists from Madrid geography but also with an important project of the (including Juan Negrín, president of the Republic), Generalitat –that of dividing Catalonia into functional exiled to Barcelona as a consequence of Madrid administrative and service units on the basis of being converted into a front in the Civil War. Juan practical realities (thereby supplanting a barely Negrín, himself the oldest member of the society, functional division on the basis of provinces that was attended the ceremony commemorating the 25th perceived as imposed by the state). anniversary of the Biology Society of Barcelona on 14 December 1937. Other of the physiologists from Madrid who participated in scientific meetings during With the outbreak of the Civil War, the IEC had the Civil War included Francisco Grande Covian, no choice but to restrict itself to completing who (along with Josep Puche) gave a talk on the metabolism of people experiencing war shortages in tasks already underway. Madrid, and José Royo Iranzo, who (also with Josep Puche) gave a talk on the ascorbic acid content of different varieties of Valencian oranges. The outbreak of the Civil War in 1936 frustrated all possibilities for terminating this project, however, The Catalan Physical, Chemical and Mathematical which had already been affected by many Sciences Society responded to several initiatives by complications arising from political disturbances in Eduard Fontserè that ultimately resulted in bringing, October 1934. The Generalitat was beginning to into the academic circles of the IEC, technical focus its energies on the demands of war and the

55 CAMARASA 2000, p. 82. This was an initiative of the IEC board, possibly at the instigation of its president, Pius Font i Quer, who, stationed in Maó as a military pharmacist between 1911 and 1914, had had the opportunity to meet and become friends with many of the disciples and colleagues of Rodríguez Femenias. The expense was apparently borne by the Natural Sciences Board of Barcelona.

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IEC had no choice but to restrict itself to completing November 1937, and meetings took place at least tasks already underway. The minutes of the Science up to 1 April 1938 (the date of the last documented Division, for example, feature a request from the meeting).56 In its first meeting in Barcelona, the Economic Council of the Generalitat for an IEC Delegated Committee appointed four Catalan representative to sit on a committee set up to study members, namely, Pompeu Fabra and Carles Riba and propose a structure and functioning for a new from the Philology Division, and Antoni Trias i Pujol Advanced Institute for Technical Research (Institut and Joaquim Xirau from the Biology Society of Superior d’Investigacions Tècniques) for Catalonia. Barcelona. Josep Puche, also a member of the In August 1937 the final volume of Flora de Catalunya Biology Society of Barcelona, was another member was published (the minutes record the intention to of the Delegated Committee. hold a celebration to communicate the event to the media and the public in general, although there is no These new members were not invited to sit on the record that the celebration actually took place). The Delegated Committee –as might be imagined– for Biology Society of Barcelona managed to maintain mere reasons of courtesy; Riba and Xirau attended its level of activity up to the close of the Civil War (the all five meetings for which minutes have been last meeting reported in La Medicina Catalana was preserved and Fabra and Trias attended four of the for 23 March 1938). five. It goes without saying that their participation in discussions on a wide variety of themes was active. Surprising are the efforts of the members of the Delegated Committee to function as normal, despite The IEC was not explicitly listed among the adversities and calamities of the Civil War. Also suppressed and prohibited institutions and surprising is the continuity of routine budgetary was probably assumed to be defunct by the control by the IEC over grants and the centres and Franco government. laboratories that continued to operate, and the initiation of new projects, such as the acquisition of the plant collection and library of the botanist Carlos Pau (who died in 1937) and the printing of plates The circumstances in the closing months of 1937 from the Quinologia (by the Spanish naturalist José and in 1938 –with Franco’s Madrid offensive forcing Celestino Mutis, who died in the early 19th century).57 a withdrawal of the Republican government, first to Valencia, then to Barcelona– led to what would be a final involvement by the IEC and some of its 8. The long dark night of Franco’s subsidiary societies (and key members) in science dictatorship (1939-1975) policy –but of the Republic not of the Generalitat. At its headquarters, the IEC played host to the With Franco’s victory in the Civil War, the IEC found Delegated Committee of the Spanish Board for itself in an ambiguous situation. During the war or the Advancement of Science and Research from shortly thereafter, key members such as Joaquim

56 Student Residence Archives. Delegated Committee minutes. Vol. IX. The minutes are cut off at the end of this volume, which would indicate that there was a tenth volume, now lost. The IEC archives make no reference to these or subsequent meetings. 57 CAMARASA & ROCA ROSELL (in press).

32 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

Ruyra, Lluís Segalà, Josep Bofill i Pichot, Ferran de Even so, the IEC managed to maintain a minimum Sagarra, Pere Coromines and Ramon d’Alòs-Moner but effective presence for Catalan culture in a had all died. Eugeni d’Ors, Ferran Valls i Taberner number of international initiatives and to continue and Esteve Terradas had, meanwhile, sided with the publishing in the Catalan language in a wide range of victors, whereas Pompeu Fabra, Lluís Nicolau fields in both the sciences and the humanities. d’Olwer, Jaume Serra i Hunter, Pere Bosch i Between 1950 and 1951, for example, the IEC had Gimpera, August Pi i Sunyer, Josep Carné, Carles exchanges with 168 academic bodies and received Riba and Puig i Cadafalch were all in exile (Puig i 1,381 books and journals as donations or in Cadafalch from as early as 1936). exchanges. From 1950, Ramon Aramon, as secretary of the IEC, participated regularly in The IEC was not explicitly listed among assemblies of the Union Académique Internationale. suppressed and prohibited institutions and was probably assumed to be defunct by the victors. As For the subsidiary societies of the IEC recovery had happened during the dictatorship of Primo de was more difficult. The first to attempt a revival, in Rivera, IEC services were absorbed by the 1945, was the Catalan Natural History Institution Diputació and its staff were dismissed. The IEC’s which, inspired by the great enthusiasm of Pius premises were given to the Spanish Mediterranean Font i Quer, organised small encounters of Studies Institute (Instituto Español de Estudios botanists. Subsequently, in 1949, a number Mediterráneos), conceived and created to play the of commemorative acts were held to celebrate the role formerly played by the IEC; this body never Catalan Natural History Institution’s 50th anniversary, really became fully functional, however. and a special edition of its Butlletí was published. From this point on, however, activities were again In early 1940 the last remaining IEC unit, the restricted to occasional meetings of botanists and Lexicography Service, was expelled from encounters of geologists and paleontologists. In the premises in the Casa de Convalescència. For a 1968, its activities ceased altogether, although the period of two years thereafter the IEC effectively momentum provided by a new generation of seemed to have gone fully underground. In April naturalists soon led to its revival in 1973.58 1942, however, surviving members of the IEC living in Barcelona and Puig i Cadafalch (who had returned from exile) met at the latter’s house and From the 1960s, the IEC began to establish a agreed to continue operating the IEC, consider exiled members as present, fill vacancies, and certain public presence. become active again as soon as possible. Supporters of Franco, moreover, would not be dismissed as members. Meanwhile, two new subsidiary societies were founded: the Catalan Historical Studies Society The clandestinity in which the IEC –more or less (Societat Catalana d’Estudis Històrics) in 1946 and tolerated– operated meant that it was unable to play the Catalan Legal, Economic and Social Studies a public role in cultural and scientific events or acts. Society (Societat Catalana d’Estudis Jurídics,

58 CAMARASA, 2000, pp. 90-96.

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Econòmics i Socials) in 1950. The Catalan This fact did not stop the IEC, in 1968, from Geography Society, furthermore, discretely discreetly undertaking negotiations with the new resumed its activities in 1947. These three president of the Diputació, Josep M. de Muller i societies, like the Catalan Natural History d’Abadal. It also reformed its statutes, founded a Institution, played a modest but important role in new Philosophy and Social Sciences Division maintaining continuity between pre-war and post- (Secció de Filosofia i Ciències Socials) distinct from war generations. In 1954, the Catalan Biology the Science Division, and created a Permanent Society (formerly the Biology Society of Barcelona) Council to govern over the presidents of the met, using as an excuse a conference by Josep different divisions. This council would be re-elected Trueta on poliomyelitis, a subject that was very every three years by a plenary meeting of members topical at that time. It was unable to meet again, but would only be eligible for one additional however, until February 1962, when it did so under consecutive mandate. Ramon Aramon was the pretext of preparing commemorative events for appointed as its general secretary for an indefinite its 50th anniversary. It was in 1962 that it resumed period of time. By 1971 it was becoming clear that publication of Treballs.59 The Catalan Physical, negotiations with the Diputació were not bearing Chemical and Mathematical Sciences Society met fruit (and did not do so, in fact, until after the death in 1959 for the first time since the Civil War. of Franco on 20 November 1975). Nonetheless, under the presidency of Joan Antoni Samaranch, the Diputació budget for 1975 featured –for the On 26 November 1976, a royal decree first time since the early 1930s– a subsidy for the IEC amounting to 2 million pesetas recognised the IEC as an academic and (approximately 12,000 euros). The IEC also had cultural body whose scope covered the the support again of the Òmnium Cultural (which Catalan language and Catalan culture. continued until 1981). In the 1976 Diputació budget (approved before the death of Franco), the amount earmarked for the IEC was doubled. The IEC was also informed that it would be From the 1960s, the IEC began to establish a returned its premises in the Casa de certain public presence. The Òmnium Cultural, an Convalescència, once new premises were found association founded in 1961 and aimed at for the bodies and services housed there. defending and promoting the language, culture and national identity of Catalonia, greatly assisted the IEC, especially by making space available to 9. The rocky transition to the IEC at its headquarters at the Palau Dalmases democracy (1976-1984) in Barcelona. The fact that the Òmnium Cultural had its activities suspended by the government The changeover from the Franco dictatorship to between 1963 and 1967, however, hindered democracy, commonly referred to as the ‘transition’, public projection of the activities of the IEC in that commenced immediately after Franco’s death on period. 20 November 1975. On 26 November 1976, a

59 ALSINA, 1985.

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royal decree (published in the Official Spanish research, although calls were made for it “to adapt Gazette (Boletín Oficial del Estado) on 21 January its functioning to contemporary needs”. The 1977) recognised the IEC as an academic and Physics Section of the Catalan Physical, Chemical cultural body whose scope covered the Catalan and Mathematical Sciences Society proposed language and Catalan culture. This decree was converting the IEC into a kind of ‘senate’ for the as passed in exceptional circumstances, as on 18 yet undefined science policy of the Generalitat.61 November the Franco legislature had passed a law on political reform that marked the end of the Criticisms and pressures from some of the dictatorship; this law was submitted to referendum subsidiary societies of the IEC –mainly scientific on 15 December. The recognition of the IEC in the ones such as the Catalan Biology Society, the royal decree was exceptional, as it had never before Catalan Natural History Institution and the Catalan received recognition to this extent.60 It was Physical, Chemical and Mathematical Sciences recognised as an autonomous legal entity, its scope Society– led to internal reforms and enlargement of of action was identified with the Catalan language, the IEC. The IEC at that time was headed by Dr. and it was enabled to create new subsidiaries, Josep Alsina i Bofill as president (1974-1978), divisions, departments and research centres. who, some years earlier, had been the driving force Although specific reference as to how the IEC was behind the reorganisation of the Catalan Biology to be financed was missing, neither were any Society. One of the first reforms was to create possible sources of funding specifically excluded. associate membership status, so as to be able to have more than seven members in each division. In Recognition by the Spanish state was followed by 1978 seventeen associates were admitted to the that of the Diputació and the Ajuntament of Science Division (among them, the first woman Barcelona. Just before the first local elections of the member of the IEC, the bryologist Creu Casas) and democracy (1979), these bodies confirmed that another six to the History and Archaeology the IEC would be given premises in the Casa de Division, representing the largest enlargement in Convalescència, to be refurbished at the expense of the history of the IEC. At the same time, a process the Diputació. The Casa de Convalescència was for creating and incorporating new subsidiary finally made available to the IEC in 1982. societies was launched, largely as a consequence of the debate that took place during the Catalan Meanwhile, during the Catalan Culture Congress Culture Congress. This process unfolded very (held over two years from 1975 to 1977), critical rapidly; in 1979 alone, four new subsidiaries were voices were raised against the IEC, which was founded, namely, the Catalan Sociology viewed by the younger generations as old- Association (Associació Catalana de Sociologia), fashioned and poorly adapted to new social the Catalan Classical Studies Society (Societat realities– unlike some of its offshoots, which were, Catalana d’Estudis Clàssics), the Numismatic as it happens, playing an active part in different Studies Society (Societat d’Estudis Numismàtics) areas of the congress (research, territorial planning, and the Territorial Planning Society (Societat etc). The IEC was rated more highly in terms of d’Ordenació del Territori).

60 GABANCHO, 1982. 61 GACIA & ROCA ROSELL, 2000.

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In the years when the Generalitat was provisional attached it to the Department of the President. Its (1977-1980) and immediately after it was fully scant resources meant, however, that this body did restored (in the aftermath of the first elections to little other than provide subsidies for small-scale the Parliament of Catalonia in 1980), great hopes initiatives, and its main emphasis was ultimately were pinned on the capacity for action of the new not on funding entire programmes but on human autonomous government in the area of science resource training –with the aim being to make policy. The Catalan Statute of Autonomy of 1979 Catalan research groups more competitive at the granted exclusive powers in research matters to Spanish and European level.62 the Generalitat of Catalonia. Unfotunately, just as staff and material resources were on the point of Despite adverse circumstances, the IEC continued being transferred from the Spanish Higher Council to create research centres, such as, for example, the for Scientific Research (Consejo Superior de Eduard Fontserè Geophysical Studies Laboratory Investigciones Científicas) to Catalonia, the (Laboratori d’Estudis Geofísics Eduard Fontserè), attempted coup d’état of 23 February 1981 was founded in 1982. However, this initiative was not staged. At this point in time, some sectors of the associated with public research policy but rather with IEC had been actively preparing a proposal in an agreement with the electricity company FECSA in which the IEC would play a central role in the regard to the installation of a local network to study Generalitat’s science policy. Unfortunately, the coup possible seismic movements in the region of the not only frustrated the anticipated transfer of Ascó and Vandellòs nuclear plants. In 1984 the IEC powers; it also led to political conditions that created the Mathematical Research Centre (Centre were contrary to autonomous government. de Recerca Matemàtica), which, in 2001, was converted into a consortium with the participation of the Generalitat. In fact, the publication and presentation to the Generalitat in 1982 of IEC Under the initial governments of Jordi Pujol, proposals for a technology and energy policy which earmarked few resources for research, concluded a period in which its efforts to participate the IEC only played a marginal role in Catalan in the science policy of an autonomous Catalonia science policy. failed to obtain a response from the Generalitat, which in its early years, did not rate research as a priority and so assigned it few resources.

Consequently, although it maintained its moral authority, the IEC continued to only play a marginal 10. Full recovery and centenary role in Catalan science policy. In part this was also celebrations (1984-2007) due to poor relations with the initial governments of Jordi Pujol, who instead created the Interministerial The fact that funding of the IEC left off being the Commission for Research and Technological responsibility of the Diputació of Barcelona to be Innovation (Comissió Interdepartamental de Recerca assumed by the Generalitat of Catalonia implied no i Innovació Tecnològica) at the end of 1980 and improvements. The Generalitat, in fact, as in the

62 CRUZ CASTRO & SANZ MENÉNDEZ, 2005.

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1930s, was not exactly generous with the IEC. It the mission it had been charged with. Emili Giralt seems that the president of the Generalitat, Jordi then pointed to the miserly subsidies received Pujol63 was wary of what he perceived as the by the IEC and to the contempt in which the IEC excessive autonomy of the IEC –this despite was held by the public authorities. the presence in his government of three members of the IEC, namely, Miquel Coll i Alentorn (Department of the President), Ramon Trias Fargas (Department of Finance) and Josep Laporte The irregularity of subsidies frequently left (Department of Health). In fact, the irregularity of the IEC on the brink of insolvency. subsidies– irrespective of whether they were granted by the Diputació or by the Generalitat –frequently left the IEC on the brink of insolvency. Funds were simply insufficient for it to finance its It has to be conceded that the Generalitat was activities, although it occasionally did obtain one-off experiencing its own financing difficulties, which grants for seminars, courses and symposia. It also had aggravated since 1984. Furthermore, in 1986, entered into agreements with the Interministerial approval by the Spanish state of a science law Commission for Research and Technological aimed at promoting and coordinating scientific and Innovation for concrete projects, such as the technical research seriously restricted the publication, in 1990, of the white paper on research possibilities of the Catalan government to foster its in Catalonia (Llibre blanc de la recerca a Catalunya), own research policy, as this legislation limited it to commissioned in 1982.64 actions in the university sector. Paradoxically, it was at around the time of this new legislation The coffers were empty by the end of 1985, and –impinging as it did on the powers of the the next two years were especially difficult, with Generalitat in matters of research and ruling out insufficient funds to even pay salaries by October any transfers of resources– that the Generalitat 1987. On the occasion of the 80th anniversary of started to set up new centres and implement the IEC (16 November 1987), its president, Emili specific research programmes –for example, the Giralt, made a speech in the presence of Biotechnology Agency (Agència de Biotecnologia), representatives of the Diputació of Barcelona and the Fine Chemistry Programme (Programa de of the Parliament of Catalonia. Expected to be Química Fina) and the International Centre for merely protocolary, the speech, in fact, referred in Numerical Methods in Engineering (Centre the crudest possible terms to the seriousness Internacional de Mètodes Numèrics a l’Enginyeria)65– and the injustice of the situation being sometimes in cooperation with the IEC, as experienced by the IEC, with Giralt stating that happened with the Centre for Ecological “as in the times of the Primo de Rivera and Franco Research and Forestry Applications (Centre de dictatorships” the IEC was being denied the Recerques Ecològiques i Aplicacions Forestals) resources necessary to be able to implement founded in 1987.

63 Jordi Pujol, interestingly, has been a member of the Catalan Biology Society since the 1960s. 64 IEC-CIRIT, 1990. 65 VILLAR, 2006, pp. 58-59.

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The year 1988 marked a turning point. Although the more aimed at academic research. This process Generalitat subsidy remained at the level of was reinforced by the appointment of Heribert previous years, a bank loan from Caixa de Barrera to the vice-presidency of the Interministerial Catalunya enabled the IEC to avoid imminent Commission for Research and Technological financial collapse. At the end of the same year, the Innovation at the end of 1988; Barrera was a IEC and the Generalitat signed an agreement that member of the Science Division of the IEC and would lead to a six-fold increase in the subsidy to a former professor of inorganic chemistry at the the IEC. Although a cause-effect relationship Autonomous University of Barcelona. cannot be assured, it is significant that the Interministerial Commission for Research and As these new perspectives –certainly more Technological Innovation was transferred, in July favourable to the interests of the IEC– were being 1988, from the Department of the President to forged, the IEC debated and approved new the Department of Education, coinciding with the statutes. Thus, appointments for life were appointment of Josep Laporte as head of the latter prohibited, the number of members was increased, ministry. In the 1960s, Laporte, along with Josep and the category of honorary membership was Alsina i Bofill and Pere Babot, had played an active created for members aged over 70 (who would role in re-establishing the Catalan Biology Society. thus preserve all their rights while vacating seats for younger members). The number of members per division was also increased from seven to 21. The At the end of 1988, the IEC and the Generalitat overall number of members further increased when the Science Division was split into two new signed an agreement that would lead to a six- divisions in 1989, namely, the Biological Sciences fold increase in the subsidy to the IEC. Division and the Science and Technology Division.

An agreement signed on 22 December 1988 by Jordi Pujol and Emili Giralt opened up new A member of the IEC since 1978,66 Laporte was a horizons. Under this agreement the IEC would be former rector of the Autonomous University of awarded a budget for the coming year of 566 Barcelona (1976-1977) and a health minister in the million pesetas (approximately 3.4 million euros). first two governments formed by Jordi Pujol As Giralt pointed out, it was not an “insignificant (1980-1988). The transfer of the Interministerial sum”, nor was it “a sum adequate to developing a Commission for Research and Technological science policy”; it was, rather, a sum that merely Innovation, marked, according to Cruz Castro enabled what he called a “modest presence” in the and Sanz Menéndez,67 a redefinition of research world of research and advanced science.68 and development policy preferences by the Generalitat, from a model that favoured the private Even so, this presence would become less modest sector and industrial innovation to a model that was in the following years, despite the lack of clarity and

66 Years later he would be appointed president of the IEC, between 2002 until his death in 2005. 67 CRUZ CASTRO & SANZ MENÉNDEZ, 2005, p. 39. 68 GIRALT, 1989, p. 209.

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the fluctuations in science and cultural policies of and Research Commission, to be attached to the successive autonomous governments and other Department of the President and to be headed by public authorities in the different regions where Josep Laporte. the Catalan language was used. From 1990 and the joint publication (with the Interministerial Commission for Research and Technological From 1990, the role played by the IEC as a Innovation) of a report on Catalan research (La recerca científica i tecnològica a Catalunya: 1990), consultative body of the Generalitat and the role played by the IEC has been enhanced as a other public bodies located in Catalan consultative body of the Generalitat and of other regions has been enhanced. public bodies located in Catalan-speaking regions.

The Philology Division of the IEC has also garnered recognition for its role as an academy of the Catalan These new research and development policies of language by the Generalitat of Catalonia (1991), the the Generalitat, even though they represented a Government of Andorra (1993), the Government of more favourable environment for the IEC, led to the Balearic Islands (2000) and the Consell General uncertainties about the role to be played by the dels Pirineus Orientals (2007). The Generalitat has latter in Catalan research and development. also accorded the role of history academy to the Blocked its options for creating its own research History and Archaeology Division in matters related centres or incorporating centres devolved to to the protection of the Catalan historical and Catalonia, and limited its possibilities for taking the archaeological heritage and the approval of flags and initiative in terms of research projects of its own, coats-of-arms for local bodies. The IEC (or one of its the idea began to germinate that the IEC should subsidiary societies) has representatives in act as an umbrella research body for Catalonia and trusteeships and on the boards of a number of the Catalan speaking regions, fostering academic nature parks and other protected nature areas in exchanges and interdisciplinary cooperation within Catalonia, as well as in research and other trusts and a broader framework than is permitted by specific consortia. agreements between universities and research centres. The subsidiary societies –28 in total as of The new academic direction of the research and the beginning of 2008 and with a membership development policies of the Generalitat was further of close to 9,000 individuals– could play a underlined after 1988 with the creation of four new particularly relevant role in this respect. The IEC public universities (Pompeu Fabra University, also had a role to play as a consultative body to the University of Lleida, University of Girona and Rovira Generalitat and other public authorities in Catalonia i Virgili University) between 1990 and 1991. These and the Catalan regions in matters related to new universities together with the three existing science, language and historical, archaeological universities (University of Barcelona, Autonomous and natural heritage policies. University of Barcelona and Technical University of Catalonia) are home to most of the researchers Given this perspective, in 1995 the Universities and practising in Catalonia. In recognition of this fact, Research Commission, in the framework of the First the new legislature of 1992 created a Universities Catalan Research Plan (1993-1996), commissioned

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a project to study the state of research in Catalonia content in Catalan in the sciences and in the new in terms of internationally recognised criteria and technologies associated with the information based on a series of regular reports on each of the society. Although Andreu Mas-Colell attached knowledge areas into which research activities can great importance to developing centres of be categorised. The first series, entitled Reports de excellence and infrastructures (as he had la recerca a Catalunya, structured in 24 thematic done previously in the Universities and areas and covering the period 1990 to 1995, was Research Commission), overall he maintained a commenced in December 1995 and published research and development direction that was between 1996 and 2001. more academic than industrial. Nonetheless, special emphasis continued to be placed on the information and communication technologies, Despite the practical difficulties implied by bearing in mind the ministry’s information society responsibilities. the interaction of the IEC with the scientific and cultural policies of the Generalitat, a In 2003, the IEC was commissioned by the certain equilibrium seems to have been ministry to produce a second series of Reports de achieved with the signing of the programme- la recerca a Catalunya covering the period 1996 contract 2005-2008. to 2002, and structured, on this occasion, in terms of 27 thematic areas (with the additional areas covering languages other than Catalan, philosophy and the information and With the conclusion of the first series in 2001, a communications sciences). This task, which was further relevant change occurred in the research concluded in two years, counted on the and development policies of the Generalitat. In participation of teams of researchers for each April 2000, the Universities and Research knowledge area. It also included a public Commission and the Information Society exhibition phase aimed at recording the Commission were combined in a new ministry comments and corrections of the academic called the Department of Universities, Research community. The series was not published until and the Information Society (Departament February 2006, however. Shortly afterwards, the d’Universitats, Recerca i Societat de la Generalitat signed a first four-year programme- Informació), headed by Andreu Mas-Colell, the contract (2005-2008) with the IEC. In this former head of the Universities and Research programme-contract, the IEC undertakes to fulfil Commission. The new ministry was created with three strategic aims, as follows: the four-fold aim of ensuring the quality of the Catalan university education system, developing – As the regulatory body for the Catalan language, a high-level and competitive science, technology to advance commitments undertaken in regard and innovation system, adapting Catalonia to the to Catalan language standards for Catalonia and information society and encouraging access all the Catalan regions. thereto by individuals, companies and institutions, and finally, ensuring a greater – To become a genuine Catalan national presence for the Catalan language and for language academy that will act as a referent for

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public authorities in terms of official reports on 11. By way of a conclusion strategies affecting the future of Catalonia. As commented in the introduction, for nearly half of – To develop a greater openness and to foster a its existence the IEC has experienced extremely process of internal discussion that will lead –in adverse conditions; as for the other half of its the form of a strategic plan– to a definition and existence, conditions cannot be said to have been design of the societal role of the IEC in Catalonia exactly propitious. Since its foundation in 1907, the and all the Catalan regions. IEC can hardly be said to have developed in a typical manner. Neither public nor private, neither The IEC celebrated its centenary in 2007 having an academy nor a research centre, it was created largely complied with the aims and activities of the by a provincial authority (the Diputació) but programme-contract. Tasks are on line to be fully charged with a mission to serve an internationally concluded by the end of 2008, during which but not universally recognised culture, which is, negotiations will commence in regard to a second moreover, fragmented between four states and, four-year programme-contract. Despite the practical within one of those states (Spain), between five difficulties implied by the interaction of the IEC with different administrative regions.70 It is hardly the scientific and cultural policies of the Generalitat surprising, therefore, that slotting the IEC –which (the programme-contract requires dealings with has undoubtedly had brilliant and decisive three ministries, namely Presidency, Innovation, moments– into scientific policy has historically Universities and Enterprise), a certain equilibrium been problematic. seems to have been achieved. To cite the institutional statement made at the close of the conference entitled ‘Perspectives del Segle XXI: Since its foundation in 1907, the IEC can Recerca i País’ (Perspectives on the 21st Century: Research and Country) held on 21 October 2004: hardly be said to have developed in a typical manner. Neither public nor private, neither “The Institute of Catalan Studies can play a an academy nor a research centre, it was key role in research itself and in programmes for overseeing and evaluating research, in created by a provincial authority but with a following up the results of initiatives proposed mission to serve an internationally but not to foster research, and, most particularly, in universally recognised culture. socially disseminating and promoting science and research.” 69

The IEC can and will play this key role. Indeed, the In its early years, under the patronage of its founder vitality of the 100-year-old IEC makes it impossible Prat de la Riba, the IEC participated in defining and to imagine otherwise. executing the science and cultural policies of the

69 INSTITUT D’ESTUDIS CATALANS, 2004, p. 22. 70 The states are Andorra, Spain, France and Italy, and the Spanish administrative regions are Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, the Balearic Islands and Murcia.

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Diputació and the Mancomunitat, and, in the area leaders tended to view it as an instrument of the of linguistics, developed a standard for written conservative Lliga Regionalista. Even so, many IEC Catalan for all the regions where Catalan was used. members participated actively in defining some of It also participated –whenever circumstances were the most important government initiatives of the favourable– in defining research policies for the time in the area of advanced education and Spanish state under the auspices of the Spanish research –Jaume Serra i Hunter, Pere Bosch i Board for the Advancement of Science and Gimpera, Pompeu Fabra and August Pi i Sunyer, Research. for example, in the case of the Autonomous University of Barcelona; Eduard Fontserè in relation Between the death of Prat de la Riba (1917) and to the continuity of the Meteorology Service and the coup d’état of Primo de Rivera (1923), Catalan participation in International Polar Year confrontations between Puig i Cadafalch and 1932-33; Josep Bofill i Pichot in the endeavour to Eugeni d’Ors undermined the role played by the maintain the Geology Map Service afloat; and IEC in the scientific and cultural policies of finally, Pere Coromines in developing the Catalan the Mancomunitat, which endeavoured to directly Statute of Autonomy of 1932 and in his later role as manage many of the initiatives and most of the Commissar of Museums during the Civil War. services that had formerly been entrusted to the IEC. This crisis of confidence occurred despite In the Franco years the IEC was logically offered no the fact that the president of the Mancomunitat opportunity to participate in public research was Puig i Cadafalch himself –a founding member policies –although its bearing and conduct was, in of the IEC. There was also an important internal itself, a policy of sorts. The fact that the IEC crisis, with the IEC split between supporters and continued to publish scientific articles in Catalan, detractors of Eugeni d’Ors who had been organise and grant awards, participate in dismissed from the IEC. international bodies and foster scientific encounters whenever circumstances would In his crusade for unity, the dictator Primo de Rivera permit, all helped to establish lines of action that tried to eliminate the IEC through inanition. However, have undoubtedly aided in the development of a the efforts of its members and the financial scientific community in Catalonia. The IEC that assistance provided by sponsors enabled the IEC to eventually stepped onto the democratic stage did partially maintain its research efforts. Under the more so with a dual nature: as the academy of benign dictatorship of General Berenguer, the academies and as a point of cohesion for Catalan Diputació, the Ajuntament and a number of other scientists and researchers. institutions and private individuals provided the IEC with resources that it would soon have the Sadly, neither the transition to democracy nor opportunity to bring into play, given the new cultural recognition by the Spanish state brought the policies to be introduced by the Generalitat. anticipated tranquility to the IEC. As had happened during the Republic of the 1930s, the new Catalan, It was in the period of the Republic that the IEC Valencian and Balearic governments were obtained true institutional autonomy. The suspicious of the IEC. Furthermore, a lack of Generalitat, however, was unable to identify a resources and the fact that adequate powers had suitable niche for the IEC, as the Republican not been devolved seriously limited the possibilities

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for the governments of the regions implementing unique proposal is being imaginatively developed their own scientific and cultural policies. Financial by the IEC, which relies on the deep roots that resources awarded to the IEC have always been connect it to the Catalan scientific community. In insufficient –at times, cripplingly so. more recent times, a series of agreements with the Generalitat, followed by the award of a In this context the IEC views its role as that of an programme-contract in 2005, have led the IEC independent analytical and consultative body, down more favourable pathways in terms of its although it still reserves the right to promote its participation in the definition of research policies in own research programmes. This original and rather Catalonia.

Referències

ALSINA I BOFILL, J. “La represa de la Societat Catalana de Biologia”. In: CAMARASA, Josep M. [ed.]. Homenatge al doctor Pere Babot i Boixeda, secretari general honorari de la Societat Catalana de Biologia. Barcelona: Societat Catalana de Biologia, 1985, pp. 13-19. ARAGONÈS, “El mapa geològic i topogràfic de la província de Barcelona: la sèrie 1:40.000 (1888-1914)”. Treballs del Museu de Geologia de Barcelona, 13 (2005), pp.155-280. BALCELLS, A. & PUJOL, E. Història de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans, vol.1. Catarroja, Barcelona: Afers, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 2002. BALCELLS, A.; IZQUIERDO, S.; PUJOL, E. Història de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans, vol. 2. Catarroja, Barcelona: Afers, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 2007. BENET, J. Maragall i la Setmana Tràgica. Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 1963. BOLÓS, O. de. “Present i futur de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans”. Revista de Catalunya, (nova etapa). no. 17 (març 1988), pp. 33-44. CACHO VIU, V. El nacionalismo catalán como factor de modernización. Madrid-Barcelona: Publicaciones de la Residencia de Estudiantes- Quaderns Crema, 1998. CAMARASA, J.M. “Josep Maluquer i Nicolau (Barcelona1883-1960). La gestió empresarial en la ciència, la gestió científica en l’empresa”. In CAMARASA, J. M. & ROCA, A. (directors). Ciència i tècnica als Països Catalans: una aproximació biogràfica als darrers 150 anys. Fundació Catalana per a la Recerca. Barcelona, 1995, pp.1209-1243. CAMARASA, J.M. Cent anys de passió per la natura: una història de la Institució Catalana d’Història Natural. 1899-1999. Barcelona: Institució Catalana d’Història Natural, 2000. CAMARASA, J.M.; ROCA ROSELL, A. “La Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas y el Institut d’Estudis Catalans (1907- 1939)”. Madrid: Residencia de Estudiantes (in press). CRUZ CASTRO, L.; SANZ MENÉNDEZ, L. “Processos polítics i polítiques regionals d’R+D”. Coneixement i Societat. no. 8 (2nd Quadrimester de 2005), pp. 24-43. GABANCHO, P. “Institut d’Estudis Catalans: l’Acadèmia torna a casa”. Arrel. no. 3, (special edition) April-September 1982, pp. 119-124. GACIA, F.; ROCA ROSELL, A. “La Societat Catalana de Física i els seus antecedents”. In: La Societat Catalana de Física. Apunts per a una història. Homenatge a Jordi Porta i Jué. Edicions de la Revista de Física. Barcelona: 2000, pp. 9-82. GALÍ, A. Història de les institucions i del moviment cultural a Catalunya 1900-1936. Llibre XVII: Institut d’Estudis Catalans. Barcelona: Fundació Alexandre Galí, 1986. GIRALT, E. “Anàlisi i perspectives de la política científica de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans”. Butlletí de les Societats Catalanes de Física, Química, Matemàtiques i Tecnología, (segona època). no. 10 (June 1989), pp. 203-209.

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GLICK, T.F. “Ciencia, política y discurso civil en la España de Alfonso XIII”. In: CORTÁZAR, G. (ed.). Nación y estado en la España liberal. Madrid: Editorial Noesis, 1994, pp. 255-275. IEC-CIRIT. La recerca científica i tecnològica a Catalunya: 1990. Barcelona: IEC-CIRIT, 1990. INSTITUT D’ESTUDIS CATALANS. Persperctives del segle XXI: recerca i país. Declaració institucional. Barcelona: IEC, 2004. IGLÉSIES I FORT, J. Els primers excursionistes. Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, 1964. IGLÉSIES I FORT, J. “Els quaranta anys de la Societat Catalana de Geografia”. Treballs de la Societat Catalana de Geografia. no. 19 (1989), pp. 361-379. MONTANER, M.C. Mapes i cartògrafs a la Catalunya contemporània: 1833-1941: els inicis i la consolidació de la cartografia topogràfica. Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya, 2000. NIETO GALAN, A.; ROCA ROSELL, A. (coord.). La Reial Acadèmia de Ciències i Arts de Barcelona als segles VXIII i XIX. Barcelona: Reial Acadèmia de Ciències i Arts de Barcelona, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 2000. ORS, E. d’. “El renovamiento de la tradición intelectual catalana”. Cataluña, revista semanal. no. 170-171, year V (7 and 14 January 1911), pp. 2-7. PIISUNYER, A. “El ideal científico de Cataluña”. Cataluña, revista semanal. no. 170-171, year V (7 and 14 January 1911), pp. 15-16. PIJOAN, J. “Literatura burocràtica”. La Veu de Catalunya (1 February 1907). In: PIJOAN, Josep. Política i cultura. Barcelona: Edicions La Magrana-Diputació de Barcelona, 1990, pp. 110-112. PRAT DE LA RIBA, E. Obra completa, Vol. III (1906-1917). A. Balcells & J. M. Ainaud de Lasarte (eds). Barcelona, IEC-Proa, 2000. QUINTANA, J. M. Regionalisme i cultura catalana a Menorca (1888-1936). Barcelona-Maó: Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat-Institut Menorquí d’Estudis, 1998. RIQUER, B. de (dir.). Història de la Diputació de Barcelona. Barcelona: Diputació de Barcelona, 1987-1988, 3 Vols. ROCA ROSELL, A. “Científicos catalanes pensionados por la Junta”. In: SÁNCHEZ RON, J. M. (coord.). 1907-1987 La Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas 80 años después. Madrid: CSIC, 1988a, Vol. II, pp. 349-379. ROCA ROSELL, A. “Ciencia i sociedad en la época de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914-1923)”. In: SÁNCHEZ RON, J. M. (ed:). Ciencia y sociedad en España. Madrid: Ediciones El Arquero / CSIC, 1988b, pp. 223-252. ROCA ROSELL, A. “Las sociedades científicas del IEC: asociacionismo e investigación científica”. Arbor. no. 641 (May 1999), Vol. 163, pp. 61- 75. ROCA ROSELL, A. “El discurso civil en torno a la ciencia y la técnica”. In: SUÁREZ CORTINA, M.; SALAVERT FABIANI, V. L. (ed.) El regeneracionismo en España. Universitat de València, 2007, pp. 241-159. ROCA ROSELL, A.; CAMARASA, J.M. “La promoción de la investigación en Cataluña: el Institut d’Estudis Catalans en el siglo xx”. In: ROMERO DE PABLOS, A.; SANTESMASES, M.J. Cién años de política científica en España. Madrid: Fundación BBVA, 2008, pp. 39-77. ROCA ROSELL, A.; CASASSAS I SIMÓ, E. “Introducció. Els primers 100 números dels Arxius de les Seccions de Ciències”. In: AMAT, J. i CASASSAS I SIMÓ, E. (coord.). Trenta-dos aspectes de ciència i tecnologia. Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 1995, pp. 9-40. (Arxius de les Seccions de Ciències, no. 100). ROCA ROSELL, A.; SALAVERT FABIANI, V.L. “Nacionalisme i ciència als Països Catalans durant la Restauració”. Afers (2003), Vol. 46, pp. 549-563. ROCA ROSELL, A.; SÁNCHEZ RON, J.M. Esteban Terradas. Ciencia y Sociedad en la España contemporánea. Madrid-Barcelona: INTA-El Serbal, 1990. SÁNCHEZ RON, J.M. (coord.). 1907-1987 La Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas 80 años después. Madrid: CSIC, 1988, 2 vols. TRUYOLS, J. La geologia catalana entre l’oficialitat i la iniciativa privada. Barcelona: Publicacions de la Universitat de Barcelona, 1989. TURA, J.M.; MARQUET, L. “La Societat Catalana de Ciències Físiques, Químiques i Matemàtiques (1932-1982)”. Butlletí de la SCCFQM, (2a època) (1985), Vol. 2, pp. 49-82. VILLAR I LÓPEZ, F. “CIRIT. 25 anys”. Coneixement i Societat. no. 11 (2nd Quadrimester 2006), pp. 48-79. .

44 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

ANNEX: Selected Events 1907-2007

World Catalan Lands IEC 1907-1916

The Ford Model T comes on the market, Victory of Solidaritat Catalana in elections IEC founded. as the first car manufactured on an to the legislature. First campaigns to study Romanesque assembly line. Prat de la Riba elected president of the paintings of the Pallars and Ribagorça Robert Peary reaches the North Pole and Diputació of Barcelona. regions. Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole. Vineyard revolt in Catalunya del Nord Commencement of excavations at Halley’s comet appears, its tail passing (France). Empúries. Statue of Asclepius discovered. very close to the earth. Tragic Week in Barcelona, and strikes and Foundation of the Spanish Archaeology Ernest Rutherford formulates his theory of riots in Valencia and Minorca. and History School in Rome. the atom. National Confederation of Labour (CNT) Science Division and Philology Division Alfred Wegener proposes his theory of founded in Barcelona. created. continental drift, forerunner of the plate Creation of the Mancomunitat of Lexicography Service created. tectonics theory. Catalonia. The Biology Society of Barcelona founded The Titanic sunk by an iceberg. Typhoid fever epidemic in Barcelona. as the IEC’s first subsidiary society. Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr Exhibition of the new Catalan art in Approval and publication of the Normes describe the structure of the atom. Sabadell (Barcelona). Ortogràfiques. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria Creation of the Librarian School. Creation of the Library of Catalonia. assassinated in Sarajevo and World War 1 breaks out. Mancomunitat public libraries opened. Creation of the Monument Preservation Electoral victory for the Lliga Regionalista. and Cataloging Service, Excavations The Panama Canal inaugurated. Service, Service for Preserving and The Lusitania torpedoed by a German Cataloging Archives and Libraries of submarine. (1915) Historical Interest, Malaria Service, Albert Einstein formulates his general Geographic Map Service and Geology theory of relativity (1915). Map Service. 1917-1926

The Russian Revolution breaks out. First Joan Miró exhibition at Galeries The Catalan Natural History Institution The USA enters World War 1. Dalmau in Barcelona. incorporated as a subsidiary society. Influenza pandemic (Spanish flu). Death of Prat de la Riba, and election of Eugeni d’Ors dismissed as secretary Puig i Cadafalch as president of the general and Ramon d’Alòs-Moner Germany surrenders, World War 1 ends, Mancomunitat. appointed in his place. the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Creation of the Mancomunitat’s county empires collapse. Creation of the Meteorology Service of library network. Catalonia and the Onomastics and League of Nations founded. Strike at the Barcelona Traction, Light and Toponymy Service. Alcohol prohibited in the USA. Power Company.

45 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 ARTICLES

World Catalan Lands IEC

Germany’s National Socialist Party Eight-hour working day introduced in Creation of the Pedagogical Seminary- presents its programme. Spain. Laboratory, the Philosophy and Insulin discovered. Dismissal of Eugeni d’Ors. Psychology Seminary-Laboratory, the Experimental Physiology Laboratory and New Economic Policy implemented in Bloody confrontations between anarchist the Physiology Institute. Russia. and free trade unions. Publication of the Diccionari Ortogràfic Fascists march on Rome. Mussolini Industrial crisis. Half of Catalan and Gramàtica Catalana. becomes Prime Minister. Mussolini’s party metallurgical workers out of work. declared the only party in Italy. Admission to the Union Académique Creation of the Bernat Metge Foundation. Internationale. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk proclaims the Primo de Rivera stages his coup. Republic of Turkey. Creation of the Catalan Philosophy Teaching of Catalan prohibited in schools. Society. Lenin dies. Stalin takes power in the USSR. Radio Barcelona, the first radio station in Loss of official recognition and public Spain, commences broadcasting. subsidies as a consequence of the Primo Lemaître formulates the Big Bang theory. de Rivera dictatorship and dismantlement Suppression of the Mancomunitat. The Rif War between Spain and of the Mancomunitat. IEC services Moroccan tribes ends. Guerrilla leader Francesc Macià’s plot to invade Catalonia transferred to the Diputació of Barcelona. from Prats de Molló la Preste (France) Abd-el-Krim is delivered to the French. Participation in the creation of the discovered. International Committee of Historical Annual Book Day inaugurated. Sciences in Geneva. 1927-1936 Charles Lindbergh makes the first solo Internation Exhibition of Barcelona. Recovery of Diputació patronage and transatlantic flight from New York to Paris. Primo de Rivera goes into exile and services returned to the IEC following the Werner Heisenberg develops the General Berenguer takes power. fall of Primo de Rivera. uncertainty principle. Proclamation of the Free Catalan Republic Premises awarded in the Casa de First five-year plans in the USSR. (later the Generalitat) and of the Second Convalescència of the old Hospital de la Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin. Republic in Spain. Santa Creu. Black Friday on the New York stock Anarchist risings in Alt Llobregat, Safor IEC linguistic standards adopted by exchange. The Great Depression. and Ribera Baixa. Valencian writers. Approval of the Catalan Statute of Empire State Building completed. Publication by Pompeu Fabra of the Autonomy. Manchuria invaded by Japan. Mao Diccionari General de la Llengua Zedong proclaims the People’s Republic Creation of the Autonomous University of Catalana, adopted as a standard Barcelona. of China. dictionary. Deuterium discovered. Francesc Macià dies and Lluis Companys is elected president of the Generalitat. Foundation of the Catalan Physical, Neutron and positron discovered. Chemical and Mathematical Sciences The law on crop contracts passed. Discovery of the first sulfamide. Society and the Geography Society. October 1934 revolt. Arrest of members Participation in International Polar Year The first particle accelerator built. of the Generalitat and suspension of the 1932-33. Reichstag fire. Victory of the National Statute of Autonomy. Socialist Party. Adolf Hitler becomes Victory of the Popular Front in the Lluís Nicolau d’Olwer elected as president Chancellor. February 1936 elections. of the Union Académique Internationale. Mao Zedong commences the Long Right-wing military coup (successful in Pompeu Fabra imprisoned as a March. Majorca but a failure in Catalonia, Minorca consequence of the events of October Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. and Valencia) launches the Civil War 1934. (1936-39).

46 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

World Catalan Lands IEC

The first of the Moscow trials. The government of the Spanish Republic IEC subsidiary societies and central Nylon developed. transfers to Valencia. services and the Library of Catalonia transferred to the Casa de Convalescència. Electronic microscope invented. 1937-1946

Guernika bombed by the German Condor Street battles between Republican Pere Coromines, Pompeu Fabra, Pi i Legion. factions in 1937 in Barcelona. Sunyer, Josep Carner, Lluís Nicolau The Munich Conference. Austria and The government of the Spanish Republic d’Olwer, Jaume Serra Hunter, Carles Riba Sudetenland annexed by Germany. is installed in Barcelona. and Bosch i Gimpera go into exile First commercial transatlantic flight. Early applications of Josep Trueta’s method Confiscation of the Library of Catalonia and closure of the Lexicography Service. World War 2 breaks out. for treating fractures resulting from war. Creation and installation in the Casa de Neptunium, the first known transuranic 2nd International Writers Congress in Valencia. Convalescència of the Spanish element, synthesised. Mediterranean Studies Institute to replace Jacques-Yves Cousteau invents the aqua Battle of the Ebro. End of the Spanish Civil the IEC. War lung. Commencement of the reconstruction of The Conference of San Francisco and Prohibition of public use of the Catalan the IEC. language by the Franco regime. founding of the UN. Creation of the Benèfica Minerva Atomic bombs launched on Hiroshima Republican era civil servants removed Foundation to sponsor the IEC. from their posts. and Nagasaki. World War 2 ends. Annual celebrations of St George’s Day Ho Chi Minh proclaims Vietnamese President Lluís Companys is shot in the and IEC awards re-launched in Puig i independence. The First Indochina War. Castle of Montjuïc in Barcelona. Cadafalch’s house. Civil War in China. Universal suffrage suppressed in Andorra. Pompeu Fabra and Josep Carner are ministers of the Catalan government in Nuremberg trials. Rationing cards introduced in Spain. exile and Lluís Nicolau d’Olwer is minister Electricity and petrol restrictions imposed. General Franco’s regime condemned by of the Spanish government in exile. the UN. Ambassadors withdraw from Guerrilla action in the Valley of Aran and Creation of the Catalan Historical Studies Spain. the mountains of Valencia. Society. IBM constructs the first computer. In New York, the Catalan National Council presents The case of Catalonia: appeal to the United Nations. 1947-1956

India and Pakistan become independent. The enthroning of Mare de Déu de Resumption of the activities of the Catalan The Marshall Plan unfolds. Montserrat takes place, considered to be Geographic Society. an act of reconciliation. UN Declaration of Human Rights. Re-establishment of relations with the Dissolution of the government of the Union Académique Internationale. Korean War. exiled Generalitat. Creation of the Catalan Legal, Economic Discovery of the transistor. The Viella Tunnel, connecting the Valley of and Social Studies Society. First oral contraceptive developed. Aran with Catalonia, is opened. Celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Spain admitted to the UN and UNESCO. Pau Casals launches the first Festival de Catalan Natural History Institute. Prada in Conflent (France). Hillary and Tenzing conquer Everest. The IEC obtains recognition of Catalan as Boycott of trams (in response to an a co-official language of the 5th Congress Watson and Crick establish the structure increase in fares) in Barcelona, leading to on the History of the Aragonese Crown of DNA. the strike of 1951. held in Zaragoza.

47 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 ARTICLES

World Catalan Lands IEC

Indochina becomes independent. Arrival of the US 6th Fleet to Barcelona. IEC members participate and give talks in Vietnam partitioned. Catalan at the 7th Romance Languages Rationing ends. First successful kidney transplant. Congress held in Barcelona. 35th International Eucharistic Congress in Second edition of the Diccionari General The Algerian War breaks out. Barcelona. by Pompeu Fabra. Salk develops the polio vaccine. SEAT car factory opened in the Zona First endeavour to re-launch the Biology Franca in Barcelona. First hydrogen bomb exploded on Bikini Society with a conference by Josep Atoll. Josep Tarradellas is elected as president Trueta. of the Generalitat in exile. Anti-USSR revolution in Hungary and Police prevent a celebratory dinner for the invasion by Warsaw Pact forces. First Valencian language and culture 10th anniversary of the Catalan Historical courses at the University of the Valencia. Studies Society. Nylon production begins at the SAFA factory in Blanes (northern Catalonia). 2nd Mediterranean Games held in Barcelona. TVE (the Spanish state television) broadcasts for the first time.

1957-1966

Treaty of Rome and creation of the EEC. Free Meeting of Students at the University Celebration of the 50th anniversary of the First artificial satellites launched into orbit. of Barcelona. IEC in Lluís Bonet i Garí’s home. Josep M. de Porcioles becomes mayor of International Geophysical Year (1957- Police suspension of annual anniversary Barcelona. 1958). celebrations in Lluís Bonet i Garí’s home in The first SEAT 600 cars are sold. 1959. Fidel Castro’s revolution triumphs in Cuba. Boycott of La Vanguardia published by Resumption of the activities of the Catalan First laser developed. Luis Galinsoga, due to an incident in Physical, Chemical and Mathematical The first human, Yuro Gagarin, orbits the which the Catalan language is insulted. Sciences Society. earth in the Vostok I. TVE broadcasts for the first time from First course on Catalan culture for foreign The Berlin Wall goes up. Barcelona. university students. The Palau de la Musica incident, in which Luís Buñuel wins the Palme d’Or at the Creation of the Catalan Studies Advisory a song in Catalan is not performed Board to train teachers of Catalan. Cannes Film Festival for Viridiana. despite being in the programme, results in The USA launches massive attacks on the imprisonment of Jordi Pujol. Commencement of funding by Òmnium Cultural. North Vietnam (1958). First Valencian grape harvester expedition Second Vatican Council (1959). to Catalunya del Nord (France). Resumption of the activities of the Catalan Biology Society. Algeria becomes independent (1962). Campaign calling for education in Catalan and normalisation of the language. First awards for Catalan Physical, Earliest broadcasts by satellite TV. Òmnium Cultural founded (1961) Chemical and Mathematical Sciences Society and the Catalan Biology Society Cuban missile crisis. First concerts in Catalan by Els Setze students. JF Kennedy is assassinated. Jutges (a group associated with singers such as Joan Manuel Serrat, Maria del Ramon Aramon is vice-president of the President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Mar Bonet, Lluís Llach, among others). Union Académique Internationale Act of 1964.

48 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

World Catalan Lands IEC

First unmanned moon landing. (Luna 9) Foundation of Obra Cultural Balear to promote Catalan language and culture on Chinese Cultural Revolution launched. the Balearic Islands. Òmnium Cultural closed down (1963). Acts to celebrate 25 years of peace since the end of the Civil War. Creation of the Democratic Students Union of the University of Barcelona (an event referred to as the Caputxinada). A campaign is launched to have Catalan bishops appointed in Catalonia (Volem bisbes catalans). 1967-1976

The Torrey Canyon sinks, resulting in the Legalisation of the Òmnium Cultural and First reform of the statutes and Jordi first major oil spill at sea (1967). reopening of Palau Dalmases. Rubió elected as the first president under First heart transplant. First fascicules issued of the Gran the new rules. May 1968 protests in France. Enciclopèdia Catalana. Creation of the Philosophy and Social Sciences Division. First manned moon landing (1969) Creation of the Catalan literature award, Premi d’Honor de les Lletres Catalanes. Creation of the Catalan Liturgical Studies Chinese Cultural Revolution ends. Foundation of the Catalan Summer Society. Hymn of the United Nations performed for University in Prada de Conflent (France). Pere Domingo is IEC president (1970-1974). the UN by its composer Pau Casals. Sit-in of intellectuals in Montserrat in The Catalan Natural History Institution The first microprocessors marketed. protest against the Burgos trials. resumes its activities. Club of Rome publishes Limits to Growth. Universal suffrage and age of majority at Meeting of the International Committee of The first earth observation satellite, 21 introduced in Andorra. Historical Sciences at IEC headquarters. Landsat I, launched into orbit. First Catalan literature award, Premis Prada de Conflent manifesto defending The first handheld mobile telephone Octubre, in Valencia. Catalan as a language of scientific developed. Constitution of the Assembly of Catalonia. expression. Augusto Pinochet stages a coup in Chile. Catalan Culture Congress 1975-1977. Creation of the Catalan Musicology President Salvador Allende of Chile dies Society. (1973). General Francisco Franco dies and Juan Carlos I becomes King of Spain. Josep Alsina i Bofill is IEC president Juan Domingo Perón elected president of (1974-1978). Argentina. First issue of the Catalan language newspaper, Avui. Publication of a white paper on nature The first petrol crisis. management in Catalonia and the Catalan For the first time since 1939, radio regions (Llibre Blanc de la Gestió de la The Portuguese Carnation Revolution broadcasts are issued in the Catalan Natura als Països Catalans) by the ends dictatorship (1974). language by the new Radio 4. Catalan Natural History Institution. Richard Nixon impeached as president of First legal celebration (100,000 Creation of individual physics, chemistry, the USA. participants) of the 11 September mathematics and engineering divisions. The military stages a coup in Argentina. festivities in Sant Boi de Llobregat, near Barcelona. Royal decree recognises the IEC.

49 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 ARTICLES

World Catalan Lands IEC 1977-1986

First in vitro baby born (1978). Huge demonstration on the occasion of Return to old headquarters at the Casa de Shah Reza Pahlevi deposed and Ayatollah the 11 September festivities in 1977. Convalescència. Khomeini is the new leader in Iran. President Tarradellas returns from exile Reconstruction of the Catalan Legal, and the Generalitat is provisionally Economic and Social Studies Society Nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island restored (1977). (USA) and Chernobyl (Ukraine). (1977), re-founding of the Catalan Andorran nationality law passed (1977). Philosophy Society (1980) and Afghanistan invaded by USSR troops. The Centre for Documentation and resumption of the activities of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). Animation of Catalan Culture created in Historical Studies Society (1985). The Perpignan (France) (1978). Catalan Agrarian Studies Institute First space shuttle flights. Challenger incorporated as a subsidiary society space shuttle accident. Acció Cultural del País Valencià created to protect the language. (1984). Falklands/Malvinas War between Approval and entry into force of the Creation of 15 new subsidiary societies Argentina and Great Britain. statutes of autonomy of Catalonia, Proposal to organise scientific research in The first personal computers marketed. Valencia and the Balearic Islands (1979, 1982, 1983) Catalonia in 1977. The internet is created. (1983) Elections to the Catalan Parliament. Jordi Joan Ainaud de Lasarte is president Discovery and first description of AIDS. Pujol President of the Generalitat (1980- (1978-1982). Microsoft Windows launched on the 2003) Enric Casassas is IEC president (1982- market. Development of the GNU Commencement of the process for 1987). operating system. separating powers in Andorra with the creation of its first government. IEC is commissioned to produce a white Discovery of the ozone hole. paper on research in Catalonia. (Llibre Attempted coup d’état by Tejero and Blanc de la Recerca a Catalunya). First computer viruses. Milans del Bosch, with tanks taking to the Publication of preliminary results (1982). MIR space station launched into orbit. streets of Valencia. (1981) (1986) Creation of the Interministerial Mercè Rodoreda legacy (1983). Commission for Research and Commencement of the Diccionari del Technological Innovation (CIRIT). (1980) Català Contemporani (1985). First broadcasts by Catalunya Ràdio.(1983) Creation of TERMCAT terminology TV3 (a Catalan television station) database with the Generalitat (1985). commences regular broadcasts. (1983) Barcelona chosen to hold the 25th Olympic Games. (1986) Spain joins the EEC. (1986) 1987-1996

Approval of the Single European Act The Catalan Letters Institute is re- Emili Giralt is IEC president (1987-1995). (1987). launched (1987). Approval of new statutes (1988). Invention of the CD (1987). Federico Mayor Zaragoza is elected Agreement with the Generalitat (1988). director general of UNESCO (1987). Signature of the Montreal Protocol on the Creation of the Biological Science Division ozone layer (1988). Canal 9 television station commences and Science and Technology Division The Exxon Valdez catastrophe (1989). broadcasting in Valencia (1989). from the Science Division (1989). Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989). Civil law compiled for the Balearic Islands Creation of the Atles Lingüístic del Domini (1990). Català launched (1989). End of apartheid in South Africa and The Valley of Aran has restored to it its election of Nelson Mandela as president Presentation of the white paper La recer- Conselh Generau (1991). (1990-1994). ca científica i tecnològica a Catalunya Olympic Games in Barcelona (1992). (1990).

50 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SCIENCE POLICY AND THE INSTITUTE OF CATALAN STUDIES

World Catalan Lands IEC 1987-1996

The USSR collapses and the Approval by referendum of the first Creation of 4 new subsidiary societies Commomwealht of Independent States is Andorran constitution and entry to the UN Creation of the Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer formed (1991). (1993). Foundation (1991) and the Mercè German reunification (1990). UNESCO declares Minorca as a biosphere Rodoreda Foundation (1992). Tim Berners-Lee publishes the first web reserve (1993) and the Silk Exchange of First edition of the Diccionari de la Llengua page (1990). Valencia as world heritage (1996). Catalana of the IEC (1995). Gulf War (1991). The first internet service providers are Agreement with the Generalitat to Yugoslavia breaks up (1991). created (1995). produce the Reports de la recerca a Bosnian War (1992-1995). Alghero (Sardinia) uploads its first website Catalunya (1995). Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992). in Catalan (1996). Debate on the subsidiary societies and CERN launches the World Wide Web Creation of the Meteorology Service (1996). their relationship to the IEC (1995). (1993). Creation of the Collective Catalogue of the Manuel Castellet is IEC president (1995- Dolly, the first cloned mammal (a sheep), Universities of Catalonia as a bibliographic 2002). is born (1996). database (CCUC) (1996). Volume 100 of the Science Division DVD marketed for the first time (1996). minutes is concluded (1996). 1997-2006

Kyoto Conference on climate change Inauguration of the National Theatre of Refurbishment of the headquarters at the (1997). Catalonia (1997). Casa de Convalescència (1997-2001) and First weblogs (1997). Creation of the Valencian Language installation of the subsidiary societies in Academy (1998). new premises in Carrer M. Aurèlia Google launched (1998). Capmany (1998). First major anti-globalisation march in Creation of Viquipèdia (the Catalan Wikipedia) (2001). Centenary year celebrations of the Catalan Seattle (1999). Natural History Institution (1999-2000). First plant genome (Arabidopsis thaliana) Parliamentary elections in Andorra with the victory of the Liberal Union party (2001). Inauguration of the first branches in sequenced (2000). Catalunya del Nord, Lleida and Valencia. Creation of the Ramon Llull Institute (2002). The online encyclopedia Wikipedia Philology Division seminar in Alghero launched (2001). Elections to the Parliament of Catalonia, (Sardinia) (2001). September 11 terrorist attacks in the USA with Pasqual Maragall elected president of the Generalitat (2003-2006). The Society for the History of Education in (2001). Catalan Speaking Regions incorporated Afganistan War. Fall of the Taliban regime The Balearic television station, IB3, as a subsidiary society (2001). broadcasts for the first time (2005). (2001). Josep Laporte is IEC president (2002-2005) Johannesburg Earth Summit (2002). The domain extension .cat authorised for use on the internet (2005). First IEC bulletin in electronic format (2004). The Prestige spills its cargo of oil off the 78th Assembly of the Union Académique Atlantic coast of Spain (2002). Approval of the proposal for the reform of the Statute of Autonomy for Valencia Internationale at IEC headquarters (2004). Azores summit and Iraq invasion. Saddam (2006). Salvador Giner is IEC president (2005 to Hussein regime toppled (2003). Inauguration of the Biomedical Research date). Human genome sequenced (2003). Park in Barcelona (2006). Signing of the programme-contract with March 11 terrorist attacks on Madrid Approval of the third Catalan Statute of the Generalitat (2006). (2004). Autonomy (2006). Presentation of the Reports de la recerca Indian Ocean tsunami (2004). Elections to the Parliament of Catalonia, a Catalunya 1996-2002 (2006). Kyoto Protocol enters into force (2005). with José Montilla elected president of the Inauguration of the IEC centenary year Qinghai-Tibet railway inaugurated (2006). Generalitat (2006). (2006).

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THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY,* GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

Anna M. Sánchez i Granados**

2007 was a decisive year in terms of the creating and designing what could be called the 3 Ps of excellence in innovation administration, a hallmark that will help organisations to become aware of the confirmed fact that innovation is impossible without projects, projects are impossible without research personnel, and it will be difficult for goals to be successfully achieved, while maintaining a position of standing over time, without there being correct administration of the innovation process. In the light of the fact that measurements are necessary in order to be able to evaluate actions and to correct and optimise results, an orderly assessment needs to be made of compliance with the set minimum conditions regarding staff personnel, projects and administration processes through the use of formal indicators. It is along these lines that available certification systems provide entities concerned with homogeneous and standardised criteria for purposes of comparative diagnosis and enhancement and reliable and precise developmental analysis. In this article we show the benefits for R+D and Innovation for industry, goverment, university and the society.

Keywords: research, innovation, evaluation, certification.

Contents

1. Introduction 1.1. The need to innovate 1.2. Innovation and research in the public and private sector 1.3. Certification as a way of promoting innovation 1.4. Innovation evaluation

* Translator’s note: The word empresa in the original text is translated more generically here in the title as Industry. In the body of the text, the terms private enterprise, company, firm, enterprise and entrepreneurialism, together with the plural forms, when applicable. ** Anna Sánchez is general manager of the Research, Development and Innovation Accreditation Agency (AIDIT). She is also Associate Professor of innovation management at the UPC Technical University of Catalonia.

52 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

2. Why does innovation need to be evaluated? 2.1. Evaluation parameters 2.2. Objective evaluation 2.3. Certification as an evaluation instrument 2.4. The need for independent evaluation 3. R&D evaluation. What is happening in Europe? 3.1. Evaluation criteria and levels 3.2. The Spanish model 3.3. The French concept 3.4. What is the present position regarding tax incentives in Europe and other Western economies? 4. The AIDIT project 4.1. How and why did AIDIT originate? 4.2. How was it designed? 4.3. Development of the system 4.4. Appraisal of the system’s development (2006) 4.5. Plan of action for the future 5. Benefits of research and innovation certification 5.1. Research management 5.2. What benefit does the Administration gain? 5.3. Benefits for companies 5.4. Advantages for the university 5.5. What do the experts think? 6. Conclusions

1. Introduction 1.1. The need to innovate

The article explains how the information and As to it being an isolated event, innovation is often knowledge generated during the design and setting the result of interaction and synergy between in motion of the market for research and innovation public authorities, the universities and private certification have been substantiated and used to enterprise, together with other agents present in provide an additional instrument to enhance the the innovation system. The factors associated with science and technology system or, in other words, innovation are basically related to the country’s the innovation system in Catalonia. economic efforts in R&D, technology acquisition

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capability, cooperation between the different of organisational innovation and training in agents, the knowledge that is produced and the contents, values and transversal skills for those human resources. who will become the professionals of the future, the people who will make it possible to establish From a theoretical point of view, the dual role of the and maintain a vital innovation process. impact of R&D activity in terms of a firm’s capacity to produce new products and, at the same time, According to Ian Brinkley,2 “firms not only need to how it represents a decisive element for its capacity invest in technology, but they also have to make to absorb knowledge that has been developed the necessary changes in work organisation to get elsewhere has already been pointed out.1 One the most out of the technology, which is much widely established fact is that scientific research more difficult to achieve, by stimulating innovation development is the key to consolidating in all its forms, from the incremental to the radical, competitiveness in advanced economies and from the process to the product”. This statement is safeguarding social well-being. The results of valid for any type of public or private organisation, research reaching the market that become available organisational or production process, or product or to and can be used by society depend mainly on service. the innovation capability of firms that transform them into products, especially SMEs, which in Firms are adding the concept of technology Catalonia are the main generators of employment. management to their list of instruments for survival and strategic growth. The universities, on the other hand, have become increasingly aware and creative concerning the irreplaceable role assigned The degree to which society benefits from to them in the area of support for the innovation the results of research depends mainly on the system. The Government also increasingly realises that the challenge now is innovation and not innovation capability of firms that transform previous knowledge resulting from research and them into products. reflexion. Nevertheless, the interaction of the different agents in the system is complex, given the highly different goals, roles, cultures and basic everyday realities that all coexist together. In the Nevertheless, an organisation will only be case of Catalonia, there is a sound industrial innovative if the people that it consists of are also structure, quality science in universities that innovative because they need to be capable of produce a sufficient number of well-trained finding the resources in order to realise the ideas graduates; moreover, the Administration is well they are enthusiastic about (the very nature of their aware of the role that it is called to play. The being enterprising often leads them to discover the challenge therefore is to make this potential very resources they need to realise their ideas). available to firms in order to enhance the capacity One should therefore not overlook the importance for scientific and technological knowledge to be

1 COHEN & LEVINTHAL, 1989. 2 BRINKLEY, 2007. Ian Brinkley is Director of the Work Foundation’s Knowledge Economy programme (UK). .

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generated and introduce mechanisms to manage innovation therefore has great potential as an innovation that result in new products, processes indirect tool that notably stimulates technology and services. transfer through mutual understanding and the necessary trust in order to motivate entrepreneurial 1.2. Research and innovation in the public and demand. It goes without saying that this private sector relationship calls for the technical, economic and documentary management of the project portfolio, In order for ambitious private R&D to be stimulated, which involves training plans and a change in the cooperation of the public and private sector is the culture towards the systematisation of the therefore fundamental. The orienting of public innovation process. research towards innovation is complex, however, and there are difficulties in establishing the appropriate instruments for industrial and technology policies. One key element for The orienting of public research towards promoting what can be termed the additions of innovation is complex and there are difficulties research to innovation are university interface in establishing the appropriate instruments for services, which provide contact between public researchers and their private interlocutors in a industrial and technology policies. relaxed atmosphere of mutual interest. The need for innovation obviously stems from demand, and it is the specific known and unrevealed requirements that emerge from this that, given the 1.3. Certification as a promoter of innovation appropriate environment, lead to successful public and private collaborations. Certification is in itself, aside from being an instrument to stimulate R&D in firms, a space of How does this relationship work between encounter between the demand for and supply the system’s three mainstays, i.e. the university, the of knowledge. government and industry? In spite of the consider- able and even unexpected progress made, the At AIDIT, we understand the practice of certifying figures show that there is still a long way to go. R&D and innovation projects to be not just a tool What is wrong then in the relationship between the for demonstrating to third parties the associated university and industry? Is it perhaps the need for characteristics of the activity being carried out, information, training or the strategic planning but also an alibi for internal and external learning, of research and innovation, the routine use of which provides a setting of appropriate trust for instruments to manage these activities, or possibly establishing prospective contractual relations the setting up of new creative spaces of for technology transfer that are ambitious, encounter? More than likely it is all of this together. profitable and sustainable in the long term.

In the search for imaginative instruments to bring It is evidently necessary, or rather, essential to together the supply of and demand for innovation invest many resources in order to stimulate quality solutions, the certification of research and R&D and innovation in a viable way. Nevertheless,

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science and technology measures need to be the agents within the geographical frame of submitted to systematic, rigorous and transparent reference help to promote innovation. evaluation processes to enforce criteria of competence and independence that are difficult to 1.4. Innovation evaluation administer. Moreover, if out of necessity there are different procedures for funding R&D and innovation- In spite of the fact that there are certain chance- related activities of different types and with different related factors in innovation, there is widespread aims, the evaluation and monitoring criteria and recognition of the direct relation they have with the processes also logically have to be of the same efforts to systematise and manage the innovation characteristics. Evaluation protocols consequently process by the actors in the innovation system, will need to include the necessary elements so that such as companies, the universities and the best practices are carried out as part of a government. Even the European Union3 reminds us transparent funding policy that is fair, rigorous and that knowledge and innovation need a favourable independent, as well as efficient, in order for the environment for intellectual and industrial impact of funding policies on economic and social protection for the science-enterprise relation, as well-being to be optimised. In the end, however, well as for the evaluation and monitoring of the best use needs to be made of the lateral effectiveness of R&D funding. Unfortunately, this advantages and external economies of the situation does not often appear spontaneously. evaluation processes and quality assurance, which not only result in things being done better, but also All in all, the certification de R&D and innovation is that appropriate thought is given to the procedures not a bureaucratic formality, but a public and themselves and the organisation. private tool to indirectly help enhance the management, quality and value of knowledge and innovation in Catalonia. There is widespread recognition of the direct relation between innovation and the efforts 2. Why does innovation need to be made by the main actors in the innovation evaluated? system (firms, universities and the government) The evaluation of R&D activities is generally to systematise and manage the innovation inherent to any scientific activity and is usually taken process. into consideration as a support mechanism for enhancing research quality, aside from it being an element of competitiveness. In addition, it serves as a tool to reinforce policy planning and development Even though innovation is difficult to measure and it and funding preferences and can also be used as a is consequently not easy to analyse the means to legitimate funding distribution and make contribution made by the tools to enhance it, all of it more transparent and rigorous.

3 ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION DEVELOPEMENT (OECD), 2006.

56 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

2.1. Evaluation parameters 4. Applications: employment in high-tech services, exports of high-tech products, sales of new-to- The accuracy of the majority of the indicators market products, sales of new-to-firm products associated with innovation is limited to input and employment in medium-high and high-tech. compilation, meaning that existing indicators offer 5. Intellectual property: European EPO patents and a biased view of the capability available in trademarks, American USPTO and Japanese Catalonia. In terms of results, the scientometry and JPO patents, new community trademarks and patents in use since the sixties are valuable new designs. indicators of innovation potential although they need to be associated with other indicators that appropriately balance out any possible The majority of existing indicators conclusions. connected with innovation are limited to The indicators of the European Innovation input compilation and need to be associated Scoreboard for 20064 are grouped into four with other indicators. categories: human resources; the creation of new knowledge; transmission and application of new knowledge; and innovation finance, output and markets. 2.2. Objective evaluation

The Global Innovation Scoreboard (GIS) report of The evaluation of R&D and innovation is therefore 20065 gives the most up-to-date indicators for complicated by the stimuli and criteria that are assessing a country’s innovation performance, associated with it and who finances and carries it which are summarised below: out. Many factors need to be taken into account: the measurement of tangible and intangible 1. Innovation drivers: new S&E graduates, upper results, the risk of the set aim not being achieved, and post-secondary studies, broadband, and the impact it will have, the actors will it be applied continuing or further training. to, the choice of which variables should be used 2. Knowledge creation: public and private and for which period. This complexity may be expenditure in R&D, spending on technology further increased by differences between the and enterprises that receive public funding for stakeholders regarding the aims, prospects and R&D and innovation. expectations, all of which may also obstruct the 3. Innovation and entrepreneurship: innovative objectiveness of the evaluation. The associated SMEs, innovative SMEs cooperating with entities, which are also therefore stakeholders in others, innovation expenditures, early-stage the results of the evaluation, include the planning venture capital, ICT expenditures and SMEs body that designs the strategy, the management using organisational innovations. body and the executor body.

4 EIS, 2006. 5 GIS, 2006.

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This is why any evaluation methodology must be 2.3. Certification as an evaluation tool systematised with reference to the standard and assure recognised criteria of homogeneity, As evaluation processes can be employed either traceability and reproduction. At the same time, from an individual (for example, specific projects however, it needs to be designed so that it can and programmes) or global (plans and policies) adapt to any changes in the criteria on which it is point of view, an accredited certification system based. It is thus a necessary stage where an offers the optimum ingredients for playing a objective analysis is made of how the activities decisive role in the realistic diagnosis of the are carried out, including their technical feasibility position of R+D and innovation in Catalonia, using and economic viability. Use of this tool is individual scale indicators. compulsory prior to any decision-making concerning the redesign or adjustment of a A series of definitions are given below to clarify the planned or implemented policy, plan, programme role of the legal framework concerning R&D and or activity. innovation evaluation.

2.3.1. What is the role of accreditation?

Any evaluation methodology must be Accreditation organisations are responsible for systematised with reference to the standard evaluating and making an objective statement concerning the conformity of products and and assure recognised criteria of services with specific requirements, in both the homogeneity, traceability and reproduction. regulated and voluntary sectors. Accreditation At the same time, however, it needs to be focuses on the evaluation and formal declaration of the compliance of an evaluation body’s technical designed so that it can adapt to any changes competence –test laboratories, certification enti- in the criteria on which it is based. ties, etc.– by accreditation entities, such as ENAC6, in order to increase society’s trust in the information that these institutions provide.

One must also always bear in mind that the design In accordance with the technical standards, or modification of any system of such complexity accreditation must safeguard the impartiality and needs an iteration reality check to the extent where technical competence of management systems there is relevant information for defining certain through the review of a thorough list of criteria.7 The organisational rules and for independent outside current accreditation body in Spain is the ENAC, control. The model sometimes generates the the steering committee of which includes various empirical experience and this why practice often different ministries and government organs, including precedes the theory. the Autonomous Government of Catalonia.8

6 Entidad Nacional de Acreditación. See: . 7 FECYT, 2005. 8 Generalitat de Catalunya.

58 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

The only Catalan entity on the Advisory Committee which to assess products and services. for R&D and Innovation is the AIDIT. Standardisation is also a tool for public policy, in that it complements the regulations and serves as 2.3.2. What is a standard? a reference for opening up public markets and making them transparent. The International Organisation for Standardisation (IOS), in the ISO,9 defines standardisation as “the process of formulating and applying rules for an orderly approach to a specific activity for the benefit The advantages of standardisation for an and with the cooperation of all concerned, and in organisation lie in being able to certify particular for the promotion of optimum overall products and services as a means to guarantee economy taking due account of functional conditions and safety requirements”. It is based on that they fulfil the requirements to satisfy the the results consolidated by science, technology and expectations of consumers and users. experience. Standardisation determines the basis for present as well as future development, with the level being maintained in accordance with progress. 2.3.3. What does certification mean? The standard emerges as a result of the activity of standardisation. It is a document that establishes Certification is the procedure whereby a the minimum requirements that a product or service recognised entity that is qualified and independent must conform to in order for it to serve its intended of the parties concerned gives assurance that a use. It is therefore a document, established by product, process, system, person or service consensus of the key sectors involved in this activity conforms to specific requirements defined in and approved by a recognized body, that provides, standards or technical specifications. for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines and/or characteristics for activities and their results, The use of precise and homogeneous evaluations and it must ensure an optimum degree of order in a applied to all of the actors in the innovation system, given context. and very particularly to firms and public research, offers the public decision-making organs a realistic The advantages of standardisation for an and up-to-date scenario of the competences and organisation lie in being able to certify products capabilities of the business and institutional and services as a means to guarantee that they sectors in Catalonia. fulfil the requirements to satisfy the expectations of consumers and users. It also enables minimum 2.4. The need for independent evaluation operational criteria to be established for a product, process or service and is an exchange tool that Fostering the independent evaluation of quality assists in transactions, with a definition of the means fostering a real understanding of the requirements, and for defining a standard with technological and management advantages and

9 UNE-EN ISO 9000:2005, quality management systems.

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failings in Catalonia, which is information that will being mutilated, there needs to be a clear make it feasible to design, and optimise the impact separation between the strategic and executive of, an innovation stimulus programme, at the same functions and a place maintained for periodic and time that the specific interests of the different high-level communication. public and private actors are, where applicable, taken into account. 3. R&D evaluation. What is happening in Europe?

The very distributive nature of policy may Nobody today questions that the welfare economy inhibit innovation. is possible, largely through innovation. In order for public expenditure allocated to innovation to be correctly organised and managed, clear and well defined evaluation policies are needed. Research Existing interests and institutional rigidity may be evaluation plays an increasingly important role in factors to take into account when explaining the the countries of the OECD (Organisation for difficulties of transposing the rhetoric of innovation Economic Cooperation and Development). into an essential R&D policy.10 This discourse, associated with research and innovation policies, The different evaluation practices in the European often change over time, whereas policies evolve Community –closely connected with the different more slowly as a consequence of the complex scientific structures and volume of allocated structure of actors and interests in the system. economic resources– make any comparison difficult. The main features that they have in One should also bear in mind the effects of fair common have to do with the formula of review distribution: the very distributive nature of policy panels, with a high percentage of internal may inhibit innovation. reviewers, and the use of institutional evaluation, where more strategic aspects are taken into The environment of risk in which everything account for the final assessment of projects. The moves calls for aims to get excited about and specific influence of this factor of the more ambitious goals that lead to all agents naturally strategic aspects in evaluation is not evident, and it becoming involved, which in turn will also call for is highly heterogeneous and conforms to certain policy tools for creative development and parameters that applicants usually have little evaluation. Policy for research and technological knowledge of.11 There is thus considerable development is directly connected with heterogeneity regarding the design and education, innovation and the development of implementation of evaluation procedures by individual and organisational capabilities for different institutions, although external evaluation coming up with and realising new challenges. In has taken on an important role as a tool for order to prevent this inventive capability from decision-making entities.

10 SANZ MENÉNDEZ, L. 11 FECYT, 2003.

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3.1. Evaluation criteria and levels 3.2. The Spanish model

Use is normally made, on the one hand, of criteria A firm in Spain can certify its R&D and innovation for scientific and technical evaluation, i.e. the firm’s activities on a voluntary basis through an external technical capability and its ability to exploit results agency. Requests for the certification of R&D and (manufacturing and/or commercialisation). On the innovation projects are made to an ENAC- other hand, it is common for economic (financial accredited certification agency.14 and profit) criteria to be used.

According to the OECD,12 the object of evaluation can be classified on four levels: the The way in which a series of evaluation evaluation of institutes and groups that criteria is defined, together with the design constitute the basic units of production in the and setting in motion of a complex research sector (and possibly research departments and laboratories); institutions certification structure, are the determining made up of or dealing with research groups; factors in achieving a system directed at public programmes and procedures to give maximum excellence. incentive to innovation, i.e. the evaluation of such incentives and their influence on the research going on in a country; and systems consisting of the whole or subsets (e.g. public In specific terms, the evaluation procedure for policies) of research and/or innovation systems. certification of R&D and innovation projects is carried out according to a series of clearly defined An earlier OECD publication13 sets out the most stages that the applicants are aware of. The first outstanding transversal changes in evaluation concerns a review of conformity with the set formal practices on different levels of the research system: requirements (a more administrative kind of indicators, benchmarking and evaluation; review), classification of the project according to international peer review; situating of the object technological novelty, identification of the of evaluation in its particular context; evaluation evaluation team, evaluation of the proposed and scope-context; policy; time of evaluation and project’s technical status and evaluation of the relevance, and the soundness and credibility of the adequacy of the submitted budget estimate, evaluation. The characteristics that they include adding to this an accounting control (auditing) in are: quality, transparency, reviewer neutrality and the case where there has been implementation. permanence, and evaluation and unforeseen With the result of this first stage, a technical consequences. committee, which fulfils strict requirements

12 OECD, 2006. 13 OECD, 2006. 14 ENAC is the Spanish accreditation body that audits certification entities. .

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according to the projects that are to be dealt with, expenditure in R&D over a three-year period to a makes the decision to authorise the start of the value of at least one third of its highest annual final stage, which involves the drawing up of a final turnover for that period. certification report. The way in which a series of evaluation criteria is defined, together with the A special tax treatment is also provided for newly design and setting in motion of a complex created companies and young innovative certification structure, are thus clearly the companies (YIC) in France.19 According to the law, determining factors in achieving a system directed SMEs of less than eight years that can justify 15% at maximum excellence.15 of expenditure on R&D and innovation can benefit from this. 3.3. The French concept This tool has already been included in the Spanish The OSEO,16 previously known as ANVAR, is a government’s National Plan for R&D and French innovation agency.17 Amongst other Innovation 2008-201120 and is applicable to young support services to innovation, the OSEO issues innovative companies of less than six years, with “innovative enterprise” certifications that are valid less than fifty workers and a high R&D intensity for three years. Firms that obtain this certificate (more than 35% of staff involved in R&D activities), have access to mutual funds for innovation (fonds with grants to fund these activities. communs de placement dans l’innovation), although the main support mechanism for private In 2006, the US Department of Commerce set up research is tax incentives.18 The OSEO carries out a the Recognition of Excellence in Innovation technical and economic examination, the certificate, which is awarded to companies with a expenses of which are paid for by the firm. series of up-to-date indicators associated with innovation capacity.

R&D-related tax incentives such as financial 3.4. What is the current state of affairs regarding tax incentives in Europe and other instruments of science and technology policy Western economies? are widely used to stimulate private investment in innovation in general. There are different types of existing tax incentives in the majority of the developed economies. R&D- related tax incentives such as financial instruments of science and technology policy are widely used The innovative enterprise certificate may be to stimulate private investment in innovation in awarded automatically if the firm can justify general. Reports by the OECD21 show that in 2005

15 For more information on certification, visit the AIDIT website: . 16 See the OSEO website: . 17 Website on French research and innovation support enterprises: . 18 See: . 19 See: . 20 See: . 21 OECD, 2006.

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70% of the member countries had this type of stimulate innovation. The current state framework incentive system, including the United States, includes two basic tax exemptions applicable to Canada, Japan and Australia. corporate tax: the right to amortise assets for R&D activities and deductions in corporate tax for Basic incentives, or corporate income tax, are thus activities in R&D and technological innovation. The the means used although the mixed method is abovementioned regulation of tax credit led to used most frequently, i.e. where expenditure on the introduction of legislation with definitions for R&D and technological innovation in a fiscal year research, development and, more recently, and additional tax effort in previous years are technological innovation, based on the Frascati rewarded. Public joint venture agreements also Manual25 and the Oslo Manual,26 with a series of frequently receive incentives.22 restrictions that also failed to make the situation any clearer or more certain for taxable persons in 3.4.1. European legislation relation to obtaining tax exemptions and the amount of incentives to be applied for these activities, with Unlike Spain, the majority of countries put no expiry the consequent questioning of efficacy, due to the date on tax incentives, quite the contrary in fact as lack of security as far as correct use is concerned. they are considered a permanent and fundamental tax element. The granting of incentives in some countries is conditioned by registration in a governmental programme where the activity is The technical difficulty of classifying the evaluated and subsequently monitored. nature of activities being carried out in research, development and innovation raises As mentioned above, 15 of the 25 member state of the European Union currently offer tax incentives the issue of the efficacy of tax benefits for private research and development, namely: applicable to R&D. Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Poland (2006), Czech Republic (2006), Portugal, Slovenia, Spain and the United Kingdom.23 One important problem where the issue of efficacy is raised is the technical difficulty of classifying the 3.4.2. Spanish legislation characteristics of activities being carried out in research, development and innovation. This In Spain, a process of reform is underway of Law obstacle has been forcefully resolved by the Ministry 35/2006,24 28 November, which sets out an of Finance27 with certain legally binding imprecise amendment of the mechanisms to administrative formulae made available to taxable

22 RIVA, 2007. 23 See: . 24 Law 35/2006, 28 November, concerning personal income tax and the partial amendment of the Law on corporate tax, non-residents’ income and capital tax. Official Spanish Gazzette, BOE (29 November 2006) no. 285, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado. 25 OECD, 2002. 26 OECD, 2005. 27 Ministerio de Hacienda.

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persons, namely, the reasoned reports issued by separation and independence between financial the Spanish Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism28 backers and reviewers that is difficult to measure, (MITYC) based on independent certifications by an in addition to the use of clearly different non- ENAC-accredited entity. The abovementioned tool, homogeneous criteria and evaluation structures which gives the applicant total legal certainty within the Administration itself for applying just one regarding the application of deductions, was public funding instrument. This in addition to the brought into operation in 2004 and since then more difficulty of being able to specify tax deduction- than two thousand reasoned reports have been associated expenditure. issued. In 2006, the MITYC’s classification office29 actuated projects for more than 470 M. euros, 3.4.3. Entry into force of the tax reform which led to nationwide deductions of more than 130.5 M. euros. The corresponding figures for For the 2007 financial year, there will be a Catalonia were approximately 100 and 36 M. euros reduction in deductions according to the respectively. application of a coefficient of 0.92, and 0.85 for 2008. To offset this, the Government has introduced a new alternative instrument, which consists of a reduction of 40% in National In 2006, projects to the approximate amount Insurance (Social Security) contributions for of 100 M. euros were actuated in Catalonia, research staff,32 which has already been implemented. Finally, an additional provision33 was which led to approximately 36 M. euros in tax introduced in the legislation whereby deductions. acknowledgment was given to the need for a more thorough consideration of whether to maintain the model for incentives to R&D in the form of a report assessing the instrument’s Mention must also be made of the authorisation effectiveness to be submitted by the Ministry of granted to the Centro para el Desarrollo Economy and Finance, with the support of the Tecnológico Industrial30 by Royal Decree 2/200731 Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism in the last to issue reasoned reports regarding projects quarter of 2011. The abovementioned instruments funded by the organisation itself. Details of this are should obviously be additional and not alternative, not given here as it would lead to a series of as they respond to clearly different business needs preconceptions associated with the dubious and situations.

28 Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Turismo. 29 Oficina de calificación. 30 Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology. 31 Royal Decree 2/2007, 12 January, which amended Royal Decree 1432/2003, 21 November, which regulates the issuance of reasoned reports regarding conformity with technological and scientific requirements, for purposes involving the application and interpretation of tax deductions for activities in research, development and technological innovation. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (13 January 2007) no. 12, p. 1809, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado. 32 Royal Decree 278/2007, 23 February, on allowances in National Insurance contributions relating to research staff. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (24 February 2007) no. 48, p. 8037, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado. 33 Personal income tax, corporate tax, non-residents’ income and capital tax. Law concerning personal income tax and the partial amendment of the Law on corporate tax. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (29 November 2006) no. 285, p. 41734, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado (RCL 2004/640, 801), non-residents’ income (RCL 2004/651) and capital tax (RCL 1991/1453, 2389).

64 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

For more details on this, a European Community- promote R&D and technological innovation, promoted report gives an overview of all current tax however, tax incentives are the most appropriate incentive models.34 instrument in relation to business needs, given their horizontal characteristics, adaptability and freedom when applied. This financing tool is 4. The AIDIT project thereby an opportunity for small firms that by definition are innovative, in that it stems from the AIDIT is a tool for evaluating and stimulating entrepreneur’s innovativeness. This is why SMEs research and innovation, a meeting point where the are fast at starting and more adaptable at university and enterprise can come together in a systematising the innovation process. context of enhanced trust that generates learning and knowledge transfer. It also acts as an incentive for teaching staff to integrate and direct the innovation culture towards research and the training R&D projects are considered to be of high of future professionals. risk and many firms lack the capacity to manage them, especially SMEs. 4.1. How and why did AIDIT originate?

4.1.1. Technology policy in Catalonia 4.1.2. The concepts of research, development and Direct efforts by the Administration have innovation customarily focused on funding research in the universities and research institutes, and not so There is often a certain amount of confusion much on production systems in industry and concerning the precise scientific definition of the companies, although this situation has begun to concepts of research, development and change. At the same time, R&D projects are innovation. The limits between activities that give considered to be of high risk and many firms lack rise to innovation through the application of the capacity to manage them, especially SMEs. research results and those that stem from the adaptation of existing technologies are not Given this scenario, and the very little effort on obvious. Even though the Frascati and Oslo innovation in the Spanish production system, the reference manuals provide internationally accepted Administration made available a series of definitions, it is each institution that specifies, technology policy instruments to companies to extends and/or limits them in concrete terms encourage business development through the depending, for example, on the particular sector fostering of R&D and innovation. These tools or strategic policy being carried out. One should include tax incentives, direct aid, soft credits, the remember that a distinction needs to be made promotion of venture capital and public between the innovation process and the result of procurement, amongst others.35 In order to the correct management of this process,

34 Promoting innovation by tax incentives: report by the European Commission in the 6th Framework Programme, Sweden, 2006. 35 SÁNCHEZ & SOLÉ, 2001.

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i.e. innovation. R&D is an activity that not only can 4.1.3. AIDIT and the recognition of research, generate radical innovations of worldwide impact, development and innovation - seven years on but is also frequently necessary for resolving technical problems arising during the innovation As mentioned above, AIDIT was set up in response process. From a theoretical point of view, the dual to the corporate world’s requirements to be able to nature of R&D also stands out,36 insofar as it demonstrate efforts made in the field of research, signifies the capacity to produce new products development and technological innovation to third and, at the same, time it represents a decisive parties. In 1995, with the passing of Law 43/1995, factor for the capacity to absorb knowledge 27 December, on corporate tax, express produced outside the organisation. recognition was given to tax allowances in the field of research and development. In 1999 there was an increase in actual deductions for R&D38 and a third deductible item, technological innovation, There was a need for an independent and was included although at a lower rate. This objective entity with the technical capability modification, introduced to enhance the law and to determine what investment is actually give tax relief on a wider range of entrepreneurial activities, increased the problems of applicability, made by companies in R&D and innovation, in due to the legal uncertainty facing companies accordance with the legal criteria. when classifying and demonstrating the technical characteristics of projects they carry out.

The focus of attention in the debate was, on the There are numerous criteria for defining these three one hand, on the legal criteria adopted to define concepts according to their scope: scientific, the concepts of research, development and funding by the different public (European, national technological innovation and, on the other, the and regional) administrations, business and legal need for an independent and objective entity with administrations. In Catalan legislation, article 33 of the technical capability to verify that investment the Corporate Tax Law37 defines the entrepreneurial made by companies had actually been set aside activities that are considered to be R&D and for these activities according to the legal criteria. innovation processes. On the basis of these definitions, AIDIT evaluates the technical 4.1.4. AIDIT, a meeting point between the university characteristics of the project and gives its opinion and industry on whether it is either research, development or technological innovation; where applicable, the By the beginning of 2000, the corporate sector corresponding certificate is issued. had developed an awareness of the need for

36 COHEN & LEVINTHAL,1989. 37 Article 33 of Law 43/1995, 27 December (Corporate Tax Act), which also appears in article 35 of Royal legislative decree 4/2004, 5 April, whereby approval was given to the amended Text of the Corporate Tax Act. 38 Law 55/1999, 29 December, on fiscal, administrative and corporate measures. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (20 December 1999), no. 312, p. 46095, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado.

66 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

instruments to be able to accredit, for both 4.1.5. The aims of AIDIT official purposes (Administration) and business clientele, investments made and activities being The fundamental goal of AIDIT is to establish the carried out in R&D and innovation. parameters for excellence and give an independent and reasoned opinion of R&D and In this context, the social councils of the innovation projects through certification. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC) and the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) The complexity and thoroughness of an agreed that a solution could be found in the evaluation are determined above all by the academic and scientific sphere. The challenge optimum running of the certification structure and was thus taken up to launch a body that, on the the selection of the right experts. The availability basis of university-generated knowledge, could of experts is limited in certain areas, and it is support companies’ projects before the tax difficult for people outside of the scientific authorities. The decision to set up AIDIT was community to find them. In addition, the made in June 2000 by way of a partnership incorporation and comparison of scientific fields agreement between the UPM and UPC, with its in different places is possible through a technical headquarters in Barcelona. certification standing committee, which ultimately helps to homogenise the criteria. The idea of AIDIT originated out of the conviction that the polytechnic universities have 4.1.6. Pioneer in the certification of research and extensive experience in developing research research staff projects in cooperation with private enterprise, given the greater affinity of many subjects with In 2003, the Agency became the first agency in industrial applications, as well as the existence Spain to be officially recognised by the Spanish of a group of specialists, in the form of staff Accreditation Authority (Entidad Nacional de personnel, which is difficult to match in other Acreditación, ENAC). Having dealt with more than organisations. 1,500 applications for certification, the AIDIT has now consolidated itself as the model organisation The initial aim was to offer a pioneer service for in the field of R&D and innovation certification. the certification of R&D and innovation projects The system essentially makes a reliable and the reliable application of allowances evaluation available to the corporate world that is (deductions) in corporate tax for these activities, based on an extensive network of renowned the ultimate purpose being to enhance the Spanish and international experts and scientists, competitiveness of companies in Catalonia. which ensures a rigorous system with the The service’s design was based on practice and guaranteed independence, impartiality, objectivity the advice of experts. The Agency was set up at and technical qualification to certify activities and the end of 2000 as a public enterprise based in persons in all areas of knowledge recognised by Catalonia and it was to become the sole UNESCO. It is a technical audit that shows the certifying body of university R&D and innovation characteristics of an activity being developed to projects. any interested third party.

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In 2007, with the same innovative spirit, AIDIT 4.2.2. Organisational structure became the first and sole certification body for research staff, and it is now officially recognised The AIDIT is a publicly funded entity. Its and accredited with the ENAC. organisational structure complies with the need, on the one hand, to combine efficient and effective 4.2. How was it designed? resource management in providing the services that fulfil the expectations of its customers, in 4.2.1. The certification process terms of both economic services and the speed and quality of results, and, on the other, to reflect The actual issuing of the certificate is the result of a the participation of the two main sectors that the process shown in Figure 1, which contains a series activity is aimed at, namely, the scientific of activities in which the various assistants community and the entrepreneurial (corporate) participate in the AIDIT’s operational structure, world. The representation of these sectors on the under the control and supervision of the Agency’s management organs ensures that a committees that make up the supervisory bodies. permanent affinity is maintained with the leading players in research and innovation.

Figure 1 The AIDIT certification process

Application and Customer documentation received

Evaluation of the report Management team

Contact with the person Management team in charge/section

Appointment of a Head of section reviewer

Drawing up of the Reviewer technical/accounts report ACTIVITIES AIDIT INSPECTIONS Review of report and Head of section opinion proposal

Approval of opinion Technical committee

Certificate issued Management team Advisory committee / Quality assurance

68 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

The Advisory Committee, for example, is made up projects for certification by this pilot system. of representatives of the Administration, Secondly, the intended focus for the AIDIT’s work companies and experts. was service credibility, creating awareness of the need for legal certainty in order to obtain tax Figure 2 allowances, and dissemination of the system’s AIDIT’s organisational certification structure practical application.

Governing bodies Supervisory bodies In 2002, and as a result of this embryonic work, the then Ministry of Science and Technology became Board of Management Advisory committee interested and, through the Spanish Accreditation President Technical committee Authority (ENAC), a mechanism was established General management Quality assurance committee for the accreditation of certification entities of R&D and innovation projects, the aim being to establish Organisational the system on an official basis and to enhance its structure credibility. AIDIT actively participated in the process of defining this accreditation mechanism and contributed its experience and the network of Operational structure knowledge available in the universities. At the same Heads of section time (2002), an entire operational and certification Reviewers structure was developed to comply with the AIDIT certification panel technical and management criteria laid down by “AIDIT’s organisational structure guarantees the technical the ENAC. In May 2003, when this process had standing and reliability of the certification process.” been completed, AIDIT received accreditation from the ENAC as a certification authority for R&D and innovation projects, and it thereby became the first 4.3. Development of the system of its type in Spain. It was also without precedent abroad. During the first few years, the Agency’s activities were focused on two areas. On the one hand, the Figure 3 Agency’s own certification system was initially set The AIDIT seal of certification up with the support of the two university institutions (UPC and UPM), the result of which aidit was the issuing of a technical report. Although it initially lacked any legal validity, this document, as an independent and reasoned opinion, represented an important aid for companies I+D+i applying for tax allowances. For example, during 2001 –when the process of drawing up the technical report and the certification decision- making process were in the design and testing Certificación stage–, six firms submitted R&D and innovation

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Figure 4 AIDIT’s development since its foundation

2000 Agreement between UPC-UPM Within this framework, the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya set up AIDIT as an entity specialising in evaluating, quantifying and assisting companies to obtain tax allowances and deductions for R&D and innovation activities, in accordance with prevailing legislation.

2001 Start-up of activities • AIDIT’s own certifications, based on the evaluation of the TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS of each project. • Credibility of the universities. • First project certification authority.

2002 Accreditation system set up Start of the Spanish Accreditation Authority (ENAC) accreditation process, to demonstrate by Ministry of Science and and guarantee a series of criteria, such as: Technology – Independence/impartiality – Technical and scientific capability – Rigorous reports – Confidentiality – Unifying of evaluation criteria for different certification bodies – No commercial pressure...

2003 AIDIT receives accreditation First certification body of R&D and innovation projects to be accredited by the ENAC.

2004 The new system is tested AIDIT has sufficient experience to enhance the certification process.

2005 Consolidation of the system AIDIT becomes consolidated as the model certification authority in the market. The success of the system leads to the appearance of other certification bodies in the system, leading to competition.

2006 Maintaining of leadership The volume of activity (turnover) and its leadership in the market are maintained in New lines of business spite of uncertainty caused by legislation (Royal Decree) that modifies tax allowances for R&D and innovation. True to the Agency’s pioneering spirit, new lines of business begin to be developed: - Certification of research staff - Certification of sample books (as part of project certifications) - Certification of R&D and innovation management systems (UNE 166002:2006)

During the first few years, the important work of 4.3.1. Legal framework and tax exemptions raising institutional awareness of R&D and innovation certification was carried out; the Agency By 2004, with the path to rigorous evaluation offered itself as a testing ground for trials with its defined by the AIDIT and the support of the first self-designed certification systems; and it corresponding public authorities, it had become finally received the first, officially recognised feasible for a stable framework to be established accreditation as a certification body in this field. for applying tax exemptions for R&D and Private initiatives were quick to react and it can innovation. Up until the present time, the system now be said that AIDIT was the pioneer in a market has dealt with more than two thousand that is currently consolidated and growing. applications for reasoned reports.

70 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

Figure 5 Changes in legislation since the founding of AIDIT

1995-1999 Law 43/1995, Article 33: incentives for R&D Law 55/1999, Article 33: increase in quanties for R&D, introduction of the TI concept Royal Decree 2060/1999. Binding rulings

Draft bill on new enterprise 2003 02/04/03: Additional provision (1) to the “Draft bill on new enterprise limited companies”, limited companies which re-amended article 33 of the Corporate Tax Act, in the point referring to the application and interpretation of deductions: “Taxable persons shall provide a reasoned report issued by the DGPT or CDTI, regarding compliance with the scientific and technological requirements laid down by law. This report shall be legally binding for the Tax Authorities".

Royal Decree 1432/2003 – The Ministry of Science and Technology issues the legally binding “reasoned reports”, on the basis of excellent certification reports of the highest scientific and technological quality and rigour. – Requirement of reports issued by certification bodies of R&D and innovation projects, duly accredited by the Spanish Accreditation Authority (ENAC).

2004 Royal Decree 4/2004 Approval of the amended text of the Corporate Tax Act. Deductions for R&D and innovation: article 35.

2005 Law 23/2005 Reforms to article 35 of Royal Legislative Decree 4/2004. Textile and footware sample collections introduced as a deductible item for TI.

2006 Tax reform draft bill Deductions for R&D and innovation activities maintained for 5 more years (up to 2012), Law 35/2006 with the current structure but lower percentages for deductions in proportion to reductions in tax...

Resolution concerning Companies can choose between two alternatives: maintain the deductions for R&D amendments to the tax reform and innovation up until 2012 or apply 40% reduction in National Insurance (SS) draft bill contributions for full-time research staff. Allowances for research staff Additional provision (23) : Grants for R&D and innovation. In the second half of 2011, the Ministry of Economy and Finance, with the support of the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism must submit a report to the Spanish Government regarding the effectiveness of different grants and subsidies to R&D and innovation applicable 2007-2011, ....

The system has been increasingly perfected and incentive to R&D and technological innovation. the corresponding legal modifications introduced The deductions regulated in article 35 of this law in accordance with Law 35/2006, 28 November,39 shall be determined by multiplication of the set a summarised version of which is given below: deduction percentages by the coefficient of 0.92 for the periods being taxed from 1 January 2007 – Additional provision (10): a reduction in onwards, and 0.85 from 2008 onwards. allowances on the total corporate tax liability for – Additional provision (20): reductions in National

39 Law 35/2006, 28 November, concerning personal income tax and the partial amendment of the Law on corporate tax, non-residents’ income and capital tax. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (29 November 2006), no. 285, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado.

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Insurance contributions for research staff. These The Agency strived to develop a qualified will be equivalent to 40% of the base salary certification service for R&D and innovation and to payable by the employer and incompatible with reach consensus with the Administration and any application of the tax deduction scheme for companies in order to confirm and affirm the R&D and innovation activities. practicalities of its application. – Second derogation provision: concerning corporate tax, applicable to the tax periods The initial challenge of AIDIT was to create a tool to starting in 2012 onwards, article 35 of the improve the situation of innovative enterprises revised wording of the Corporate Tax Act is facing the lack of any proper legal defence when revoked. applying tax incentives for R&D and innovation, – Additional provision (23): grants for activities in which is a powerful instrument to promote research, development and innovation. During entrepreneurial competitiveness. The Agency’s the second half of 2011, the MEH,40 with the initial aims have gone much further however and its support of the MITYC,41 must submit a report to belief is that it has made an important contribution the Government on the effectiveness of the to science and technology in the process of different grants and subsidies for these activities entrepreneurial innovation. It also worked to and, where applicable, bring them in line with establish a sense of mutual trust between the the regulations. university and industry, promote the culture of innovation and give support to knowledge diffusion.

The initial challenge of AIDIT was to create a Furthermore, the AIDIT made all of the knowledge generated during its first two years of existence tool to improve the situation of innovative available to the Administration to assist the setting enterprises facing the lack of any proper up of an ENAC-endorsed certification system for legal defence when applying tax incentives R&D and innovation projects to ensure the secure transfer of jurisdiction between ministries. These for R&D and innovation, which is a powerful measures came to fruition in April 2003 in an instrument to promote entrepreneurial additional provision in the draft bill for new competitiveness enterprise limited companies, which amended article 33 of Law 43/95, 27 December, on corporate taxation: “Taxable persons may submit a reasoned report issued by the Ministry regarding 4.3.2. The first few years compliance with the scientific and technological requirements laid down by law. This report shall be At the end of 2000 the AIDIT led the assignment legally binding for the tax authorities”. to design a high quality scientific and technical evaluation system by setting up an independent In 2004, the Agency made a stage of the body. certification system for use and evaluation available

40 Ministry of Economy and Finance. 41 Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism.

72 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

to companies with the possibility of linking the AIDIT has a range of seventy-two scientific result to dealings with the Ministry of Economy and branches of certification for R&D and innovation Finance. projects accredited by the Spanish Accreditation Authority (ENAC)42 and has extended its sphere of 4.3.3. Consolidation activity to the certification of full time research staff involved in R&D and innovation. This new tool leads 2005 was a decisive year in the consolidation of a to the obtaining of a reasoned report, which system that has proven itself to be more assures a reduction of 40% in National Insurance beneficial for business management than in contributions. The design and implementation of terms of financial aspects. The number of users this service are further evidence of the Agency increased annually and interest for AIDIT was being an active and innovative pioneer in promoting shown by different public and private institutions. research through its available tools and knowledge. Certain results of the Agency’s work are reflected in the fact that more than 1,000 certificates were AIDIT has proposed design and support for the issued in 2006 and it has accrued the expertise seal of excellence in innovation management. and gained the trust of a valuable group of Dubbed as the 3Ps of excellence in innovation expert assistants consisting of more than 400 (projects, people and processes©), this will be professionals, with 60% of the market for highly beneficial to numerous companies and certification in R&D and innovation projects. institutions in Catalonia.

Provisional data for 2007 – More than 1,500 certification applications. Certain results of AIDIT’s work are reflected – 72 scientific fields of certification. in the fact that more than 1,000 certificates – 59 heads of section. – More than 500 experts who assist. were issued in 2006 and it had been – 30 entities that cooperate rewarded with the expertise and gained the – 50% of the market for certification in R&D and innovation projects. trust of a valuable group of expert assistants consisting of more than 400 professionals.

AIDIT also benefits from the assistance and trust of an important group of more than 500 expert assistants who make up the different organs in the 4.4. Appraisal of the system’s development Agency’s organisational structure. The technical (2006) experts who are involved consider that the system is of great interest for understanding corporate – Almost 50% of all companies are small and issues and the sharing of experience and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) with 36% of knowledge. qualified R&D projects and 29% of technological

42 See: .

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Types of certification in 2007 The 3 P’s of excellence in innovation: Projects, People and Processes©

PROJECTS Certification of R&D and innovation projects (Royal Decree 4/2004 and UNE standard 166.001:2006) Benefits: This demonstrates the characteristics of the activities to any interested party. • Valid for requesting the reasoned report from the Ministry of Industry. Trade and Tourism for tax deduction purposes with total legal certainty. • It manages the necessary documentation in anticipation of a tax inspection. • It facilitates budgetary control. • It acts as a reference for organisations in systematising and helping to define, document and manage R&D and innovation projects efficiently and in a homogeneous way. • It helps in the detection of technological evidence and the emergence of possible R&D and innovation projects.

Certification of sample collection activities for textiles and footwear (Law 23/2005)* Benefits: • Valid for requesting the reasoned report, which guarantees legal certainty in deductions.

PEOPLE Certification of the R&D and Innovation activities by research staff (Law 35/2006)** Benefits: • This grants reductions of 40% in National Insurance contributions for research staff. • Assessment of the capabilities and skills of research staff.

PROCESSES Certification of R&D and Innovation management systems in accordance with UNE standard 166.002:2006 Benefits: • It efficiently organisses the management of R&D and Innovation. • It optimistes resources allocated to R&D and Innovation and enhances staff motivation and involvement. • It contributes to the planning and control of R&D and Innovation.

* Law 23/2005, 18 November, concerning tax reforms to stimulate productivity. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (19 November 2005), no. 277, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado. ** Law 35/2006, 28 November, concerning personal income tax and the partial amendment of the Law on corporate tax, non-residents’ income and capital tax. Official Spanish Gazette, BOE (29 November 2005), no. 285, in Spanish. Boletín Oficial del Estado.

74 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

innovation (TI). 5% of all SMEs have more than – There was university involvement in 24% of the one project and it is therefore a tool that is highly projects. Out of these, 27% were universities in useful for and accessible to this type of Catalonia, 24% in Madrid, 47% in the rest of enterprise. In Catalonia, customer SMEs Spain, and 2% were universities abroad. account for 42.4% of the total number of Catalan – According to data from the Ministry of Industry, companies and 14.4% of all Spanish of Trade and Tourism, applications for reasoned companies certified by AIDIT in 2006. reports increased as follows: 298 in 2004, 561 – From an analysis of available data on the type in 2005, 905 in 2006 and 1,200 in 2007. of applicants, there is clearly an increasing trend in its use by large companies, in general An internal report of the Ministry of Industry, Trade terms according to customer and in relative and Tourism44 in 2006 pointed out that the stated terms according to the projects submitted. amount and estimated total deduction for activities – According to the regional Autonomous in R&D and technological innovation respectively in Communities, in terms of the amount stated and Spain was 275 and 201 M. euros, which gives an qualified projects with R&D,43 31.32% of the estimated deduction of 130.5 M. euros. For total were submitted in Catalonia, followed by Catalonia, the respective figures are 87 M. euros Madrid (31.05%), Valencia (11,55%) and Castilla for R&D and 12 M. euros for technological y León (10.06%). innovation, which would give approximate – The main expenditure attributed to projects is deductions of 36 M. euros. associated with staff and external collaborations. – The chemical, automobile and food sectors (in The total estimated deduction for Catalonia Catalonia, mainly), construction and air transportation (Madrid) are the areas where most was 87 M. euros for R&D and 12 M. euros for applications are made for certifications and technological innovation, which gives total reasoned reports. During this period, construction deductions of around 36 M. euros. (17%), the chemical industry (12%) and mechanics (6%) were the sectors of activity where there were most applications for certification. – If an analysis is made of the volume of projects According to the same report, anticipated certified according to areas of knowledge, deductions in 2006 from the General State Budget computer science and construction were 261.44 M. euros, a figure that contrasts with technologies stand out, each with the estimate for deductions associated approximately 12% of all projects, followed by with reasoned reports (130.5 M. euros). The mechanical technology and engineering, comparison shows that, in spite of the important materials technology, telecommunications and growth in applications for reasoned reports, there textiles, all with percentages of around 7%. is still a long way to go, especially in Catalonia, in

43 Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism. Informes motivados para deducciones fiscales por actividades de I+D e innovación tecnológica. Informe solicitudes 2006 (ejercicio fiscal 2005). Directorate General for Industrial Development. Subdirectorate General for the Promotion of Industrial Innovation. Madrid, 11 September 2007. 44 Idem.

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Graph 1 Total expenditure linked to projects as against deductions obtained in 2006

71,878,592.48 €

179,696,481.20 €

9,674,750.98 €

96,747,509.83 € 203,266,724.11 € 102,116,888.63 €

R&D TI

Deductible volume Expenditure accepted Expenditure claimed terms of taking full advantage of the possibility of in these two regions. R&D and innovation-related tax allowances. The distribution of project applications according In 2005, AIDIT certified 75% of all tax deductible to region (Autonomous Community) confirms, to a expenditure, and 60% in 2006, which amounts to certain extent, the higher tendency for companies 124 M. euros, in a market shared with eight other in the Madrid region to use the secure, legally certification bodies, all of the others based outside binding system and the reasoned report to obtain of Catalonia. In 2006 it classified close to 280 M. deductions for certified projects. euros, which resulted in approximately 82 M. euros in deductions. Another interesting fact can be seen from an observation of the technical characteristics of the 4.4.1. Analysis by Autonomous Communities (region) projects certified by AIDIT during 2006, in which and characteristics R&D projects stand out with 55.73%, followed by those involving technological innovation with The distribution of project applications according 40.45%. to Autonomous Communities is given in Graph 2. The data need to be set in context bearing in mind These figures are due to two key aspects, the the effect of the concentrated diffusion in Catalonia percentage distribution of companies located in and Madrid, in which, as mentioned above, there is Catalonia and Madrid and the present-day a total correlation with the concentration of more concentration of the system’s focus of diffusion than 80% of all the companies in Spain.

76 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

Graph 2 Distribution of project applications according to Autonomous Communities, 2006 44.2% 30.96% 29.13% 25.23%

2006

2005 10.55% 6.42% 6.42% 4.13% 3.21% 2.29% 2.06% 1.61% 1.83% 0.92% 1.15% 0.92% 0.46% 0.46% 0.23% 0.69% 0.23% 0.23% Galicia Madrid Aragón Navarra Asturias Valencia Catalonia Andalusia Cantabria Extremadura Castilla y León Basque Country Castilla La Mancha

Great care is needed, however, when presenting as indirect scenarios for cooperation between the data associated with the use of this new tool in specialised technical experts are established, and a market that is becoming more stable but where where a third specialist appears who is a catalyst there are still certain defects, such as access to for the relationship instead of a technical expert. information on the system. For the time being, therefore, these data are significant for reflexion and analytical purposes although they should The certification system provides the university never be used to design specific public policies. with relevant information on the demand for technology in the market and supports the 4.4.2. Opinion polls practical orientation of public research. As shown in Graphs 3, 4 and 5, in relation to the relevant empirical factors, it is also interesting to point out the opinions of the stakeholders directly 4.5.1. Establishing ties between the university and involved in the certification system, such as the entrepreneurialism customers and assistant experts. The certification system provides the university 4.5. Plan of action for the future with relevant information on the demand for technology in the market and supports the The view held by industry of the university as a practical orientation and strategic planning of driving force for economic development changes public research. Researchers also value their

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Graph 3 Opinion polis: customers’ impressions of the certification process, 2006

86% 86%

76% 73%

64% 64%

Better experience Work again Attention received Results/expectation Quality/price Appraisal of the than with other with AIDIT from AIDIT relationship relationship semms process certification bodies staff excellent

Graph 4 Opinion polis: customers’ views on the position of the university, 2006

78%

72%

70% 69% 69%

66%

This type of service helps improve The university’s management The view taht the technical standing university-industry cooperation in capability is seen to have of public research has greatly R&D and innovation projects greatly improved improved

2005 2006

78 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

Graph 5 Opinion polis with the assistance expert, 2006

94% 94% 94% 94% 87% 85% 77% 74%

Attention received from LoyaltyAppropriate ness of The Agency’s support AIDIT staff the procedure in the evaluation

2005 2006 individual knowledge of technological needs and opportunities in the understanding, analysis and entrepreneurial tensions. improvement of the factors that stimulate public and private interaction in terms of R&D and AIDIT is set up as an entity to invigorate the innovation, an opportunity that is open to all the relations between the academic and corporate agents in the innovation system although mainly, worlds through permanent contact with university and given the Agency’s university background, to experts, on the one hand, while the supply of senior research fellows and students in the services to firms and institutions committed to R&D university, who are the professionals of tomorrow’s and innovation enables it to identify and foster world. synergies that are important for both groups. All of this has been undertaken without any Through its commitment to R&D and innovation intention of economic profit. Over and above this since 2000, the Agency continues the search for aspect, however, AIDIT has become an instrument instruments to promote research and innovation in that promotes the culture of innovation in Catalonia, as a meeting point for the corporate and enterprise and a new interface between the public university worlds and the Administration. and private sector. By means of this project, researchers in Catalonia have a new gateway to 4.5.2. Stimulating R&D and innovation the real world of industry and enterprise, where they can enter in contact with the research, We at AIDIT believe that our role is to generate development and technological innovation being

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carried out there and get to know the people who – To apply the know-how gained from continuous make it possible. This knowledge about what is enhancement to the process and the design of going on in the production section in Catalonia other related services. comes back to the laboratories and university – To transmit to, and train the university and classrooms and gets converted into an aid that enterprise in the culture of innovation in order to enhances both teaching and research and, in turn, foment the implementation of a continuous becomes a seed for technology transfer. system for R&D and innovation management. – To boost the universities’ capacity for 4.5.3. Evaluating the impact of certification technology transfer and that of companies for innovation, and the capability to manage this. To finish off, thought should be given to the – To deal with the large number of special certification of research and its effectiveness, i.e. characteristics in certain sectors, and treat them the degree to which this instrument stimulates and as opportunities for enhancing the certification induces more entrepreneurial R&D and innovation. processes. There are insufficient data and research on this – To design and implement evaluation systems for question unfortunately although the available data innovation in non-technology sectors. do show a trend. The challenge is a twofold one: on the one hand, to disseminate and enable Catalan companies to The challenge is a twofold one: on the one make best use of financial incentives for innovation and, on the other, to give support to the hand, to disseminate and enable Catalan coordinating of ambitious activities based not on companies to make best use of financial distribution, but on excellence. incentives for innovation and, on the other, to give support to the coordinating of ambitious 5. Benefits of research and activities based not on distribution, but on innovation certification excellence. 5.1. Research management

Good management is needed for research to 4.5.4. Future challenges produce optimum economic profit and social benefit and transform knowledge into wealth and Within this context the Agency continues to focus well-being. on a series of challenges, which to a great extent we have risen to and intend to improve: The certification of R&D and innovation projects has become consolidated as an indirect tool for – To be the model for independent and qualified improving the planning and strategic management technical auditing that makes a transparent and of university and entrepreneurial research. This qualified evaluation system available to improves understanding and confidence between institutions. the public and private sector, which is of particular

80 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

importance given the special need for the free-flow private aims become integrated together, and exchange of information between the two. there is acceleration in the exchange of knowledge between science and technology and the 5.1.1. Incentives production sector.

New university services need to be invented to As mentioned above, the framework of fiscal bring about contact between technical experts in incentive schemes for entrepreneurial R&D and areas of mutual interest, as is the case with the innovation is highly favourable for the contracting certification of R&D and innovation. The crossing- of public research projects and research staff. In over of knowledge between public and private operational terms, project certification serves not researchers that gets set in motion always has just as a way of reducing risk when these positive repercussions, in terms of the knowledge incentives are applied, but to also make for a perspective as well as self criticism. In such change in habits towards the standardisation of scenarios of cooperation, the technical quality of systems to manage innovation and improve the professionals in both sectors is held in high knowledge management, budgetary control regard and there is the emergence of the need for and staff motivation. Public administration and and interest in cross relationships. management in private enterprise also benefit from evaluation leading to project certification, as it One should remember that the framework of serves as a reference for the allocation of project fiscal incentives should be born in mind as a funding. Moreover, the evaluation system available powerful indirect instrument for promoting R&D through certification by AIDIT has shown itself to be and innovation where it is applicable. Current a complementary selling point in that the data give results that not only indicate the certification of R&D and innovation is increasingly system’s tendency to act as a driving force for being recognised as a synonym for added value research, but also collateral spin-off, such as the and quality. This distinction is fundamental for an obligation to manage and record R&D and SME in a competitive, globalised market. innovation activities, associated budgetary controls and the increase in value of the key intangible asset that is knowledge. Project certification also makes for a change 5.1.2. Certification in habits towards the standardisation of systems to manage innovation and improve AIDIT understands the certification of R&D and innovation projects as being an activity that is not knowledge management, budgetary control just beneficial to the company, in that it and staff motivation. demonstrates to any third party the associated characteristics of the activity, but that it is also an indirect tool that stimulates technology transfer, activates learning and habilitates an environment In short, the seal of excellence implicit in for understanding and trust. This scenario certification enhances an organisation’s corporate promotes a natural process whereby public and image.

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It is worth pointing out the advantages of R&D accordance with defined and homogeneous and innovation certification to the Administration, criteria (accredited quality control system). the university and companies, together with the – Control over the carrying out of funded projects benefits they gain from it. as anticipated, and detection of any technical or economic deviations. 5.2. What benefit does the Administration – A more objective understanding of the activities gain? carried out by companies, and support for improving the administration and ensuring the Generally speaking, with the support of a precise effective use of allocated resources. and homogeneous evaluation, the public decision- – A realistic snap-shot that is objective and up- making bodies have a realistic, unbiased and up- to-date of research at the university and to-date snap-shot of the current expertise and entrepreneurial level, as the starting point for capability of the entrepreneurial and institutional defining and establishing priorities for the most sectors. By classifying assessed R&D activities appropriate technology policies for Catalonia according to the field of novelty and business as a whole. sector, one obtains a representation of the variety – The ability to influence the achievement of goals of significant technological capabilities in the for technology policy in Catalonia, through the entrepreneurial sector. bringing into line of the lateral results of certification with the goals to promote In more specific terms, the Administration in understanding between the university and Catalonia could take better advantage of and industry. exploit to the full the stock of knowledge – Encouragement for interrelationship, thereby and intellectual capacity that they themselves making a noteworthy contribution to have promoted and funded. In addition, all of the strengthening organisations and enhancing the rigorous standards of the academic world are value of knowledge transfer. available to it without any additional overhead expenses. Added to this, the Administration gives 5.3. Benefits for companies credibility to public research system, which is based on university evaluation structures. Why is it necessary to certify entrepreneurial R&D and innovation? The availability of a large, flexible evaluation structure that guarantees total independence Recent years have seen the consolidation of the between reviewers and evaluees, promoters, certification culture beyond mere fiscal funders and executors provides: considerations. Certifications in R&D and innovation contribute to greater trust in organisations, they – A flexible, transparent and independent stimulate the setting up of corporate strategies and instrument – of interest not just for technical they help to enhance internal and external prestige. reasons – that provides objective and up-to- date information on projects to be funded. The key corporate challenge lies in maintaining an – Assurance that the allocation of funding granted efficient innovation process; formalising multi- for a certain project has been carried out in disciplinary teams; implementing documentary

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administration and budgetary control systems for otherwise impossible to quantify. each project; implementing tools to monitor, obtain 10. To have more accurate budgetary control and administer funding; and designing cost-benefit and/or to justify expenditure in R&D and/or analysis indicators and parameters. In this respect, innovation to the parent company or any other implementation of a formalised system will interested party. obviously accelerate the implementation of tools aimed at achieving this goal. In relation to the internal benefits for a company, In specific terms, the system may prove to be of according to the comments of a company with use to companies in relation to the following: experience in the certification system, this system defines, systematises, documents and helps to 1. To show customers and suppliers that activities develop R&D and innovation projects; it allows for the to be carried out, or that are being developed, better management of budgetary control over have official and scientific recognition as R&D objective and homogeneous approaches over time; and/or innovation. it gives better control over the resources used in the 2. To facilitate access to different sources of project; it leads to an economic appraisal and funding. The Administration may use certificates performance evaluation (results); it is a support for issued by AIDIT as a reference for qualifying financial planning; and it involves an objective projects to be funded through tax deductions evaluation of the project folio from the research and and direct aid. innovation point of view. 3. To help systematise and homogenise R&D and innovation projects to improve the efficiency of Several of the external benefits are: transparency of a project documentation and administration project’s research and innovation content; legal guarantee as an aid in applying tax deductions and process organisation. preparing for a possible prospective tax inspection. It 4. To manage the organisation’s knowledge through also facilitates the obtaining of other sources of documentation. This means transforming part of funding and accounts for expenditure in R&D and the intellectual capital of the organisation’s innovation to the parent company and other technical experts into its structural capital. interested parties. 5. To detect technological evidence that would otherwise remain unnoticed. At the same time, it gives a high-profile nature to 6. To identify and materialise possible R&D and projects for agents outside of the company: an innovation projects and activities and reuse the enhanced image for the Administration, university, results that are capable of generating new suppliers, customers, etc. technologies. 7. To carry out a more conscientious strategic To recapitulate, the formal obligations of evaluation to assist the company’s investment documentation act as a reference for decision-making process. systematising R&D and innovation and help in 8. For corporate prestige and an image of the planned management of knowledge to corporate excellence. make it tangible in the form of the 9. To increase the company’s value and give clear organisation’s structural capital. proof of a series of intangible assets that are

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What does certification offer technical experts in as it allows research to be orientated towards companies? work of industrial interest. It provides an – References given in the extensive certification understanding of the key activities in the reports, which include bibliographical references different sectors, the methodologies used to and the points of view of specialists, provide innovate, the needs, concerns and clues for select information on the firm’s activity (which is establishing potential points for cooperation in of great interest for research work they have ambitious multidisciplinary projects. It is an developed or intend to carry out), in addition to opportunity to convey and adapt the being an element of contrast. researcher’s work to existing interests, as well – It gives orientation to future research work and as being an opportunity to break with any false eliminates risks associated with the activity’s lack ideas of lack of common interest between of originality and methodology, and it thereby technical experts in the universities and the becomes a learning experience for increasing private sector. project quality and obtaining feedback on future – It provides a comparative perspective projects, with specific enhancement proposals regarding the issues, volume, approach and and the assistance of long term planning. scope of projects promoted by industry – It helps to identify places where possible and the universities. improvements can be made. – It enables a comparison to be made of – It allows them to implement a systematic opinions by experts in the field and, at the process for justified and documented projects, same time, for them to come into contact meaning that the company’s experts must with colleagues in other specialities and with describe, assess and synthesize a project. different experience, which is an opportunity – It reinforces the work of the technical experts that occurs frequently in the scientific world. within the company itself. – It provides an overall qualitative perspective of progress being made in R&D in the country. It is an opportunity to participate actively and Certification is an opportunity to break with closely in the work of stimulating innovation, together with the Administration and any false ideas of lack of common interest companies. between technical experts in the universities – The university as a whole benefits from the and firms. better qualification of its workers, in addition to the recognition of its know-how, thereby improving its strategic position, prestige and experience in the production sector, and 5.4. Advantages for the university: reinforcing its role in the eyes of society.

What does AIDIT contribute to the academic It can therefore be said that it contributes as: community? 1. Support for technology transfer: experience – Researchers are of the opinion that has shown that AIDIT contributes to creating a cooperation with AIDIT is of the highest interest climate of mutual trust between the university

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and the private sector. This trust – a core factor 5.5. What do the experts think? in the success of technology transfer from the university – may subsequently result in stable contractual relations. The future of this A short classification depends on greater encouragement for cooperation between the university and the According to assistants that collaborate with AIDIT, it private sector and making possible stable is the universities that benefit most from the system. scenarios for long-term investment. Within the university, this includes institutions and 2. Promotion for the innovation culture. collaborating researchers, who profit from the 3. Guidance for planning research strategies. knowledge of matters that are of interest to Permanent contact with technological issues in companies, prestige from the evaluation of projects the private sector leads to research orientated and the transmission to companies of the idea that towards resolving existing scenarios, instead of the universities can be a powerful focus for the creating new ones. subcontracting of R&D. 4. The university’s active participation and role of initiative in generating and disseminating In the view of the experts, the second group that knowledge. The certification process brings benefits most are companies. Aside from obvious together the knowledge and production tangible tax benefits, a report is obtained that systems and puts the academic world, provides a measure of the quality of the project associated fundamentally with science and submitted, the associated expenditure and technology, in consonance with the process of guidelines for R&D managers to structure, administer entrepreneurial innovation. and enhance the quality of projects. 5. The updating of knowledge: teachers and researchers that participate in certification Thirdly, the Administration benefits from an objective processes need to be aware of the latest and independent assessment of R&D projects theoretical and applied advances in a particular carried out by companies, as reviewers are field of knowledge in order to be able to separated from the executors and funders, and objectively determine the characteristics of the significant statistical data are obtained. project being evaluated. 6. As an aid to teaching: all of this knowledge is of Finally, the idea of benefit to society in general is less assistance, assuming that teaching plans and important than in the other cases, given that it is experience complement each other. really a compendium of everything else expressed 7. Learning and knowledge transfer: these types above. Transformation of the overall benefit for of relations promote the researcher’s society into a tangible reality will be brought understanding of problems and requirements about by dynamic companies, an active in the innovation process. To summarise this, university and an ambitious Administration that interactive learning processes are set in motion has confidence in the entities provide funding for people in particular and for organisations in and/or stimulation. general.

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more beneficial effect of the lateral results from According to the survey carried out on the heads of applying what can, amongst other things, be the various sections of AIDIT, the percentage termed the obligation to manage and record R&D distribution of the main beneficiaries would be: and innovation activities in documentary form, monitor associated budgets and enhance the Entity value of the intangible key that provides this Universities 38.41% activity, namely, the knowledge that is generated Companies 32.19% and the synergies between the actors and the Administration 16.31% stakeholders. Society 13.09% It can therefore be concluded that, within the field of tax incentives for R&D and innovation, 6. Conclusions there is a series of tools that will help to reduce risk when they are applied and facilitate control Catalonia has the potential to achieve the marked over the fulfilment of budgetary goals throughout goals and it has the human capital, high quality the project. scientific staff and a higher percentage of graduates in science and technology than the Parallel to this, important recognition has been average for Europe as a whole. In order to be a given by the corresponding institutions to R&D leader in the future, it needs to be ambitious and and innovation as a result of AIDIT’s successful make all of this available to private enterprise. development. This development shows that the university is prepared to launch innovative initiatives that help to enhance the technological level of the production sector and, at the same The Agency’s successful development shows time, have positive repercussions in the academic that the university is prepared to launch world as well. innovative initiatives that help to enhance the AIDIT maintains a difficult balance between form technological level of the production sector and content in its analysis of a project’s scientific and, at the same time, have positive contents to determine its qualities and verify that the contents conform to the legal requirements repercussions in the academic world as well. for obtaining tax concessions or any other type of criteria established during the procedure.

Reviewers who have worked with AIDIT stress The Administration needs to do much more than the importance of the contact with and just use the customary instruments to stimulate understanding of business activity, together with research and innovation. The framework of tax the appropriateness, simplicity, adaptability and incentives, as an indirect instrument to promote speed of the certification process, which all help R&D and innovation, was innovative in its time to homogenise the work of review and but data are now emerging that show the even evaluation.

86 THE USEFULNESS AND IMPACT OF R&D AND INNOVATION CERTIFICATION. WHO BENEFITS THE MOST: INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY OR THE UNIVERSITY?

To finish off, mention is made of one fact as increasing influence of innovation management shown by experience, namely, the constant training in the technical experts involved, which increase in the quality, form and content of are a stimulus to the creation of the long sought- projects submitted for certification and the after innovation culture.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to my team at AIDIT, the heads of the scientific section for their opinions, Miquel Martí, Maria Mirabet, Tomeu Sabater, Francesc Solé, Aina Barceló, Susanna Bellés and Mònica Aguilar for their time, criticisms and contributions to the content of this article.

References

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European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), 2002. See: .

FERNÁNDEZ DE CALEYA, R. [On-line]. “Los comienzos de la evaluación científica en España”, Quark, no. 22-23, October 2001-March 2002. See: . . [Consulted: 13 May 2008].

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“Fiches pratiques pour les entreprises”. Ministère de L’Economie des Finances et de l’Emploi. [On-line]. See: .

Frascati Manual 2002. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development. The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities. OCDE/OECD Publishing, 2002. ISBN:92-64-19903-9.

GIS. Commission of the European Communities, Global Innovation Scoreboard. GIS, 2006. See: .

Guía de Incentivos Fiscales para la Ciencia y la Tecnología. Madrid: Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, 2002.

HAGEDOORN, J.; LINK, A. N.; VONORTAS, N. S. “Research partnerships”. Research Policy, no. 29 (2000), pp. 567-586.

HIRSHHORN, R.; NADEAU, S.; RAO, S. Innovation in a Knowledge-based Economy: The Role of Government. Rao y Sharpe, 2002.

“Jeune entreprise innovante”. Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche. [On-line]. See: .

LAWTON SMITH, H. The Regulation of Science and Technology. Londres: Palgrave, 2002.

LEFEBVRE, F. Impuesto sobre Sociedades 2004, Memento práctico. Madrid: Ediciones Francis Lefebvre, 2003.

LÓPEZ LABORDA, J.; ROMERO JORDÁN, D. Eficacia de los incentivos fiscales a la inversión: aspectos teóricos y aplicados. Hacienda Públi- ca Española, (Monografic edition 2001), 2001, pp. 207-250.

MARTÍNEZ GINER, L. F. “Los conceptos de Investigación y Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica en el Impuesto sobre Sociedades”. Revis- ta Técnica Tributaria, no. 62 (2003), pp. 17-53.

Modelos de Protocolos para la Evaluación de Actividades de I+D e Innovación. Fundación Española para la Ciencia y la Tecnología FECYT, 2003.

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AN APPRAISAL OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIRONA ON THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT

Miquel Carreras Simó* and Ricard Rigall i Torrent**

From an economic viewpoint, university institutions can be seen as knowledge managers: organisations that use resources (inputs) to generate and transfer knowledge (outputs). This approach can be used to synthesise two economic factors with local effects. Firstly, knowledge management is a vital factor for local competitiveness. Knowledge affects the local production system because the bases of economic growth affect productivity, and it affects the current and future efficiency of the local organisations because it acts as an element of attraction for the creation and maintenance of economic activities. Secondly, university activity affects local demand directly and indirectly and stimulates the production of local goods and services. Universities thus act as engines of the local economy, because they affect the level of wealth and occupation in the territory in which they are located. As has been done with other Catalan universities (the Universities of Lleida, Rovira i Virgili and Vic), this article assesses the impact of the University of Girona (UdG) on the local economy. This is done from two perspectives. Firstly, the input-output methodology is used to assess the economic impact of the demand generated in the province of Girona. Secondly, a series of indicators are used to measure the output of the UdG and to place it in the framework of Spain and the counties of Girona.

Keywords: economic impact, economic growth, university

Contents

1. Introduction 2. A static perspective: the effect on economic activity, employment and income 2.1. Methodology 2.2. Direct effects

* Miquel Carreras i Simó is a lecturer at the Department of Economics of the University of Girona. ** Ricard Rigall i Torrent is a lecturer at the Department of Economics of the University of Girona.

90 AN APPRAISAL OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIRONA ON THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT

2.3. Associated effects 2.4. Sectoral distribution of the economic impact 3. A dynamic perspective: the effect on economic growth 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Formation of human capital 3.3. Research and development 3.4. Knowledge transfer and services to companies 3.5. Research and development: a brief comparison 4. Conclusions 5. References

1. Introduction 1) The activity carried out by university institutions that directly and indirectly affects University institutions affect the economic level local demand and consequently stimulates the and welfare of the persons residing in a territory short-term production of local goods and through short- and long-term processes and services (demand impacts). University mechanisms that are varied, complex and highly institutions act as engines that drive the interrelated. Using an economic perspective, it different sectors of the local economy and was proposed to schematise these effects by understanding universities as active agents in the production system of a territory.1 Specifically, a university institution is conceived as an University institutions act as engines that organisation that manages knowledge by using drive the different sectors of the local production resources (inputs) to generate and transfer knowledge (outputs). Through this economy, affecting the level of wealth and approach it is possible to simplify the effect of employment of the territories in which they university institutions on the welfare of the are located. inhabitants of the territory in which they are located and to divide it into two main areas:

1 FELDSTEIN, 1996.

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affect the level of wealth and employment of exhaustive list, these effects include the following: the territories in which they are located. 1) Universities enrich the social fabric and foster 2) The effects arising from the outputs generated cohesion and social progress by promoting by the university institutions (supply impacts). and participating in welfare activities, sports, Knowledge management is a factor of vital local associations, charities, cooperation for importance for the competitiveness of a development, and forums of debate and territory in the medium and long term. dissemination of topics of specific interest to Knowledge affects the local production system the local community. because it reinforces the bases of economic 2) The presence of the university affects the offer growth by affecting productivity and the current of services to the whole host community by and future efficiency of the local organisations, means of the use of sports facilities, libraries and by acting as an element of attraction, and documentation centres, educational creation and maintenance of economic infrastructures and other university services activities. Higher education institutions are and facilities. increasingly considered as public 3) Universities are involved in the conservation infrastructures that contribute to local and promotion of the cultural heritage. economic growth and increase the quality of life 4) The location of a university within the urban of the territories in which they are located. mesh is an element of urban planning that revitalises the urban, historic, social and economic fabric of a territory. 5) The stimulus to the purchase and renting of The urban location of the UdG was a key housing caused by the demand of the factor in the rehabilitation of the old city members of the university community helps to activate the local property market. centre and in consolidating Girona as a prime 6) The existence of the university involves reference for tourism in Catalonia. associated environmental repercussions, such as its effect on territorial mobility. 7) Universities are activating instruments that can help to rebalance a territory. Considering these two main areas, the article studies the economic impacts generated by the In the particular case of the UdG, some of these presence of the University of Girona (UdG) in effects have been of particular importance. For the counties of Girona. However, though the example, the urban location of the UdG was a proposed approach covers many of the effects of key factor in the rehabilitation of the old city the presence of a university, it is unable to centre and in consolidating Girona as a prime account for all of them. There are many other reference for tourism in Catalonia. ways in which a university affects the welfare of the persons in a society, whether or not they An accurate assessment of the economic impact generate an explicit economic activity or have a of the UdG should include all the ways in which monetary value. Without pretending to offer an this university influences the social welfare of

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Girona. Unfortunately, the complexity of this task economic activity observed in the presence and is beyond the scope of this article. Consequently, absence of this agent, and attributing this this study probably underestimates the real difference to the existence of the agent. The impact of the UdG on the social welfare of practical application of this approach takes as a Girona, because it only takes into account the reference the expenditure impact,2 i.e. the prime function of the university, knowledge quantification of the expenditure that would not management, and the repercussions that it has be located in a territory if the agent being on the local productive fabric by stimulating analysed were not present. Two types of demand. expenditure impact are commonly differentiated: firstly, the expenditure incurred directly by Section 2 begins with a presentation of the the agent for the purchase and rental of the methodology used in the analysis, and then materials, facilities and services used in its considers the effects of the presence of the UdG activity (direct expenditure); and secondly, the on local demand and the result of these effects expenditure that is not made directly by on the economy of Girona. Section 3 presents a the agent but is associated with its location in descriptive analysis of the main indicators of the the territory (associated expenditure). activities of the UdG in education, research and technology transfer, placing them in the The evaluation of the expenditure impact is used framework of the area of Girona and the Spanish to determine the stimulus to local demand that university system. Finally, Section 4 presents the can be attributed to the presence of the agent, main conclusions of the article. and to quantify the resulting impact on the local production system. In order to assess the effects that the expenditure impact has on the 2. A static perspective: the effect production system of a territory, three basic on economic activity, employment models have been proposed: the export base and income multiplier, the Keynesian multiplier and the input- output table (IOT). These models show many 2.1. Methodology similarities3 but, unlike the other two methods, the IOT model allows the interrelations that occur The main aim of an economic impact study is to between the sectors of production of the local determine the level of economic activity that economy to be analysed as a consequence of can be attributed to the presence of an agent the expenditure impact. For this reason, and (a company, institution or industrial sector) in a because it is the methodology most widely used territory. It consists in carrying out a hypothetical in the economic impact studies of universities,4 it exercise to measure the difference between the was decided to use the IOT model in this study.

2 BARÓ & BONET, 1997. 3 They use the same sequential approach to evaluating the economic impact in a territory (expenditure-production-income), they consider economic relations statically, assuming that the prices and costs of the factors do not change, and they consider supply to be perfectly elastic to exogenous changes in demand, a hypothesis that is justified in situations with idle production resources. 4 SALA, ENCISO, FARRÉS & TORRES, 2003; SEGARRA, 2004; PARELLADA & DUCH, 2005.

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However, in addition to the problems that are and services used by the institution. generally recognised,5 the IOT methodology 2) Associated effects, generated by the involves the problem of establishing the expenditure of the students and staff of boundaries of the local economy within which the university, whose territorial location is the UdG has its impact.6 In this study it was justified by the presence of this institution. decided to establish these boundaries according 3) Indirect effects, related to the sequential to the geographic location of the agents making adjustment in all the economic sectors that is the expenditure. We therefore considered the necessary to respond to the changes in the effects located in the most likely territory of local demand caused by the direct and influence of the UdG: the counties of Girona. associated effects. These effects can be classified as follows:7 The approach of this economic impact study of 1) Direct effects, generated directly by the the University of Girona is described schematically purchase and rental of the material, facilities in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Methodological approach to the economic impact assessment

Direct effects (purchase of goods, Impact on GDP services and facilities) and income

Associated effects Sectoral Economic (expenditure of staff interactions activity and students) (multiplier) generated

Indirect effects Impact on (sequential adjustment employment of the economy)

Source: own design.

5 SEAMAN, 2003. 6 The territorial dimension should correspond to the smallest functional economic area, i.e. the territorial scale with the greatest level of disaggregation that allows a significant part of the territorial impact to be represented. The area of the autonomous community is, however, the highest level of disaggregation for which an IOT (that of 2001) is available for the area of Girona. Thus, the economic impact analysis takes Catalonia as a model of the economic structure of Girona. 7 SEAMAN, 2003; HERRERO, 2004.

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It must be taken into account that the input- 2.3. Associated effects output model does not consider the effects on the local economy of the additional increases in To calculate the impact of the associated effects income arising from the economic impact, which of the activity of the University of Girona, one would not have existed if the university had not must consider the expenditure made by the staff been created.8 and students in the counties of Girona. During the 2005-2006 academic year, 1,759 persons In order to calculate the economic impact by were working at the University of Girona, of means of the IOT, it is necessary to determine the whom 70.9% were teaching and research staff direct and associated expenditure generated by and the rest administrative and service staff. This the presence of the UdG and to assign it to the represented 1,559 full-time equivalent workers. different branches of activity. Of the UdG’s staff, 90.3% lived in the province of Girona (86.6% of teaching and research staff and 2.2. Direct effects 98.8% of administrative and service staff).

The University of Girona had an income of almost Though the expenditure on staff and grants was €74.8 million in 2005,9 of which only 21.1% €43.4 million, the consumer expenditure must be came from direct charges for services supplied. calculated from the net payment, which is Most of its income came from current transfers estimated at €29.3 million. However, only a part (56.7%) and capital (10.4%). Of the UdG’s of this payment –the part that is not saved– is income from transfers, 64.7% came from translated into consumption and therefore affects the Spanish public administration (7.7%) and the demand for goods and services in the the Generalitat of Catalonia (57%). The presence counties of Girona. Consumption represented of the UdG therefore plays a major role in 91.2% of the available household income in attracting to the territory resources that would 2005.11 Therefore, the expenditure in consumption otherwise go elsewhere. With regard to the resulting from the payment of staff of the UdG is expenditure, only items referring to the purchase estimated at €26.7 million. of consumer goods, the payment of external services and the purchase of facilities (€41.5 Of the 12,636 students registered for official and million), and those that involve a financial transfer UdG-specific first, second and third cycle to domestic economies (wages of staff and grants, courses in the 2005-2006 academic year, €43.4 million), affect demand (i.e. they are involved 11,457 attended in a school located within the in the expenditure impact sequence).10 boundaries of Girona and 71.9% of these came

8 Two methods can be used to deal with this limitation. The first is the social accounting matrix, an extended model of the IOT that incorporates a more detailed circular flow of income. The second is the iterative use of the IOT, i.e. if a series of assumptions are made on the effect of the increase in income on final demand, the circular flow of income (expenditure-production-income) is approximated sequentially and the effect that it has on the local economy is assessed. 9 Including the two most important foundations in which the University of Girona has a major shareholding, the figure was €77.4 million. 10 In the purchase of new facilities the annual variation in fixed assets was taken into account as a measure of investment activity. Therefore, the alternative of using the depreciation and amortisation of fixed assets was rejected because it includes an annual deferment of the loss of value of assets acquired in the past and therefore gives an artificial value of annual investments. However, in using the annual variation in fixed assets one runs the risk of overestimating the expenditure impact, because it includes extraordinary investments. 11 CAIXA DE CATALUNYA, 2006.

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from this area.12 As there are no direct figures requirements to establish a reasonable scenario, available for estimating the consumption it was decided to use the information on expenditure of the students, from the Continual residence as the criterion for the territorial Survey of Family Budgets of the National assignation of expenditure.15,16 One must then Statistics Institute (INE), an annual expenditure of determine the part of the expenditure of the staff €6,894 was calculated per person of university and students of the UdG arising from the age (between 17 and 25) in Catalonia.13,14 The presence of the institution that affects local expenditure associated with a university student demand and its sectoral distribution. The lack of during an academic year lasting 8.5 months is information on the territorial and sectoral €5,860. Multiplied by the total number of structure of the expenditure of these groups students residing in the counties of Girona, this means that it cannot be assigned directly. As an gives a total expenditure of €48 million. indirect method, we used the IOT of the Catalan economy disaggregated into 120 sectors (with The total expenditure of staff and students information on the sectoral and territorial residing in the counties of Girona (associated distribution of the consumption of Catalan expenditure) is therefore about €75 million. households), assuming that the expenditure of the staff and students of the UdG follows the After estimating the expenditure of the staff and same territorial and sectoral distribution pattern students of the UdG, one must estimate the total as that of Catalan households in general. expenditure impact of these groups in the counties of Girona. In order to do so, one must 2.4. Sectoral distribution of the economic first consider the hypothetical scenario of how impact the decisions of the staff and students, and therefore the territorial distribution of their The expenditure associated with the presence of expenditure, would change if the UdG did not the UdG in the area of reference (Table 1) was exist. After considering the information over €85 million, of which €27,509,925 (32% of

12 The study does not consider students of the UdG Training Foundation, who have a more adult and clearly professional profile. 13 Calculations corresponding to annual figures of Catalan households in 2004 (updated according to the Consumer Price Index (CPI)) obtained by comparing the expenditure of households with no members in the 17-25 age bracket with that of households with at least one member in this age bracket. The different dimension of these two types of households was used as a correcting factor. 14 It is considered that the average expenditure of a university student is equal to that of a non-university student in the same age bracket. On the one hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the proportion of non-university students in employment is higher than that of university students in this age bracket, and therefore the average expenditure of the former must be higher. According to the Estudi sobre la segona enquesta d'inserció laboral dels graduats universitaris (AQU Catalonia, 2005), 40.17% of the students of the UdG do not work during their degrees. According to the Survey of the Active Population of the INE, 38.83% of Catalans aged between 16 and 25 were not employed in 2005. However, the higher level of income of families with members attending university residing in the area of Girona may compensate for this effect. 15 MORRAL, 2004; PARELLADA &DUCH, 2005. 16 This criterion can introduce biases. On the one hand, it implicitly assumes that the staff and students residing in the area of Girona would seek work and education outside this area. This assumption may overestimate the expenditure impact, because some of these people might continue to reside in the area of Girona if the UdG did not exist. However, on the basis that this part of both groups would continue to maintain their relation with universities, the level of expenditure made in the area of influence of the UdG would be reduced, which limits the bias introduced by the assumption. On the other hand, it is assumed that the staff and students residing outside the area of influence do not affect the expenditure impact. This assumption underestimates the expenditure impact, because it is to be expected that part of the expenditure made by these groups would be located in the area where they work or study, particularly bearing in mind that part of these groups may live in the area of influence of the UdG though they legally reside outside this area. The two biases may be mutually compensatory, at least in part.

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the total) corresponds to direct expenditure and represents the largest part of the impact. Most of €58,145,564 to associated expenditure (i.e. it is this associated expenditure (66.7%) corresponds assumed that the 77.5% of the total expenditure to consumption by students. In terms of sectoral of €75 million associated with the UdG affects distribution, the most favoured sectors are, first, local demand). The expenditure associated with “other services”; second, “hotels and catering”; the staff and students of the UdG therefore and, third, “retailing, repair and recycling”.17

Table 1 Distribution of direct and associated expenditure of the University of Girona in the counties of Girona by sectors, in euros (2005)

Direct Associated Total % of total Sector expenditure expenditure expenditure expenditure

Other services18 8,956,872 7,706,757 16,663,629 18.80% Hotels and catering 592,027 13,330,600 13,922,626 16.25% Retailing, repair and recycling 1,011,313 12,409,740 13,421,053 15.67% Real estate services 614,228 8,438,687 9,052,915 10.21% Transport and communications services 1,608,169 3,188,792 4,796,961 5.60% Industrial cleaning services 4,014,171 44,382 4,058,553 4.58% Construction work 2,955,786 616,574 3,572,360 4.17% Paper, publishing and graphic arts 3,062,300 227,911 3,290,210 3.84% Financial mediation and insurance services 246,901 2,888,557 3,135,458 3.66% Education services 1,388,995 1,632,626 3,021,620 3.53% Mining, energy and water 1,500,423 1,125,875 2,626,297 3.07% Health services 0 2,356,953 2,356,953 2.75% Food, drinks and tobacco 44 2,155,039 2,155,083 2.52% Chemical products 635,713 466,433 1,102,146 1.29% Other manufactured products 262,084 340,472 602,555 0.70% Machinery, mechanical, electrical, electronic and optical equipment 468,787 111,330 580,117 0.68% Textil, clothing, footwear and leather 30,268 476,641 506,909 0.59% Agriculture and fisheries 20 336,682 336,702 0.39% Transport material 0 251,244 251,244 0.29% Rubber and plastic products 111,862 7,098 118,960 0.14% Metalworking and metal products 31,239 11,452 42,690 0.05% Non-metallic minerals 18,723 9,694 28,417 0.03% Wood, cork and derivatives 0 12,025 12,025 0.01%

Total 27,509,925 58,145,564 85,655,489 100% Source: own design.

17 Though the study was disaggregated into 120 sectors, these sectors are consolidated in the presentation. 18 “Other services” includes rental services; computer services; research services; legal services; architecture and engineering services; advertising services; security, law and order and civil protection services; travel agency and tour operator services; social services and social security; personal services; and leisure and cultural services.

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If we consider the indirect effects corresponding University of Girona (Table 2). For each euro of to the general increase in sectoral production expenditure associated with the existence of this necessary to satisfy the demands of the sectors university there was an additional increase in that, in turn, had to satisfy the demands arising indirect expenditure of €0.41, so the multiplying directly from the direct and associated effect on the production associated with the expenditure,19 in 2005 a production volume of existence of the UdG is estimated at 1.41. This is €120.6 million euros was required in order to meet comparable to the value estimated for the other the demand arising from the existence of the university institutions in the area.20 The sectors that

Table 2 Total, direct and indirect impact of the University of Girona on the production of the counties of Girona, in euros (2005)

Direct Indirect Total % of total effect effect effect effect

Other services 16,663,629 6,023,864 22,687,493 18.8% Retailing, repair and recycling 13,421,053 3,660,950 17,082,003 14.2% Hotels and catering 13,922,626 341,357 14,263,984 11.8% Real estate services 9,052,915 2,968,373 12,021,288 10.0% Transport and communications services 4,796,961 4,351,140 9,148,101 7.6% Construction work 3,572,360 2,335,518 5,907,878 4.9% Financial mediation and insurance services 3,135,458 2,633,027 5,768,485 4.8% Paper, publishing and graphic arts 3,290,210 1,795,391 5,085,601 4.2% Food, drinks and tobacco 2,155,083 2,465,253 4,620,336 3.8% Industrial cleaning services 4,058,553 504,827 4,563,380 3.8% Mining, energy and water 2,626,298 1,305,233 3,931,531 3.3% Education services 3,021,621 656,141 3,677,762 3.0% Health services 2,356,953 388,926 2,745,879 2.3% Chemical products 1,102,146 1,008,632 2,110,778 1.7% Machinery, mechanical, electrical, electronic and optical equipment 580,117 992,103 1,572,220 1.3% Agriculture and fisheries 336,702 1,098,284 1,434,986 1.2% Textile, clothing, footwear and leather 506,909 386,069 892,978 0.7% Other manufactured products 602,555 148,028 750,583 0.6% Transport material 251,244 387,339 638,583 0.5% Rubber and plastic products 118,960 388,549 507,510 0.4% Non-metallic minerals 28,417 460,271 488,688 0.4% Metalworking and metal products 42,690 486,496 529,187 0.4% Wood, cork and derivates 12,025 188,509 200,534 0.2%

Total 85,655,489 34,974,280 120,629,769 100% Source: own design.

19 The approach used was input-output analysis. From the coefficients of the inverse Leontieff matrix, the internal multipliers of the Catalan economy were obtained for each production sector. These multipliers quantify the general increase necessary in the production of each sector arising from the unit increase in demand of a given sector. Using these multipliers, and considering the increase in the demand of each sector arising from the expenditure associated with the presence of the UdG, we obtained the estimated magnitude of the total impact on production. 20 PARELLADA & DUCH (2005) estimate the production multiplier associated with the existence of the University of Vic at 1.4306.

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most benefited from the increase in economic added (GVA) of almost 92.6 million, i.e. for each activity arising from the presence of the UdG were euro of expenditure associated with the UdG an “other services” (over €22.6 million), “retailing, income of €1.08 was generated (Table 3).21 This repair and recycling” (over €17 million) and “hotels leads to an estimation of the multiplier of the GVA and catering” (over €14 million). of 1.37.22 In relative terms, using as a reference the GVA of the counties of Girona for 2005,23 the The expenditure arising from the presence of the UdG had an impact of 0.7% of the GVA of UdG represented an impact on the gross value the province of Girona for that year.

Table 3 Total, direct and indirect impact of the University of Girona on the value added of the counties of Girona, in euros (2005)

Direct Indirect Total % of total effect effect effect effect

Other services 13,173,160 4,666,724 17,839,884 19.26% Retailing, repair and recycling 11,170,913 2,940,733 14,111,646 15.20% Hotels and catering 10,992,960 270,392 11,263,352 12.20% Real estate services 8,495,256 2,785,522 11,280,778 12.18% Transport and communications services 3,712,076 3,312,911 7,024,987 7.60% Financial mediation and insurance services 2,538,012 2,227,578 4,765,590 5.10% Construction work 2,639,974 1,725,411 4,365,385 4.70% Industrial cleaning services 3,676,643 457,323 4,133,966 4.46% Education services 2,687,114 591,683 3,278,797 3.50% Paper, publishing and graphic arts 1,983,715 950,932 2,934,647 3.20% Food, drinks and tobacco 1,124,130 1,263,766 2,387,896 2.60% Health services 1,995,584 330,008 2,325,592 2.50% Mining, energy and water 1,418,034 688,546 2,106,580 2.30% Agriculture and fisheries 254,298 790,878 1,045,176 1.10% Machinery, mechanical, electrical, electronic and optical equipment 296,029 509,442 805,471 0.90% Chemical products 412,064 328,582 740,646 0.80% Textile, clothing, footwear and leather 260,085 217,291 477,376 0.50% Other manufactured products 358,702 87,184 445,886 0.50% Non-metallic minerals 18,772 308,019 326,791 0.40% Productes de cautxú i de plàstic 61,309 200,392 261,701 0.30% Metalworking and metal products 23,260 271,799 295,059 0.30% Transport material 90,775 188,510 279,285 0.30% Wood, cork and derivates 6,070 95,159 101,226 0.10%

Total 67,388,935 25,208,785 92,597,720 100% Source: own design.

21 Note that Table 2 shows the effect of the UdG on the amount of the economic transactions generated by its activity, whereas Table 3 shows the value of the income generated (value added) by all the economic activities associated with the existence of the University. In other words, Table 3 shows that only the difference between the income of an activity and the costs of carrying it out (value added) represents an increase in the income of the territory. 22 The multiplier of the GVA is defined as the relation between the GVA corresponding to the total effect divided by the GVA corresponding to the direct effect. 23 Anuari econòmic comarcal of Caixa de Catalunya. Available at: .

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Finally, the activity of the UdG in 2005 As the number of occupied persons in the represented an estimated impact on employment province of Girona in 2005 was 333,400 of 2,409 jobs, of which 78% resulted from the persons,24 the number of jobs directly and direct effect of the expenditure associated with indirectly associated with the presence of the the presence of the UdG and the rest from the UdG represented 1.25% of the occupied indirect effects of this expenditure (Table 4). persons in the area of Girona.

Table 4 Total, direct and indirect impact of the University of Girona on employment in the counties of Girona, in number of persons employed (2005)

Direct Indirect Total % of total effect effect effect effect

Other services 520 103 623 38.10% Retailing, repair and recycling 405 72 477 19.80% Hotels and catering 252 6 258 10.70% Industrial cleaning services 212 26 238 9.88% Construction work 79 52 131 5.50% Transport and communications services 61 58 119 4.90% Education services 83 17 100 4.10% Financial mediation and insurance services 38 32 70 2.90% Paper, publishing and graphic arts 42 26 68 2.80% Real estate services 45 15 60 2.49% Food, drinks and tobacco 28 30 58 2.40% Health services 44 7 51 2.10% Agriculture and fisheries 12 26 38 1.60% Mining, energy and water 15 7 22 0.90% Textile, clothing, footwear and leather 10 8 18 0.80% Machinery, mechanical, electrical, electronic and optical equipment 7 12 19 0.80% Other manufactured products 13 3 16 0.70% Chemical products 7 5 12 0.50% Rubber and plastic products 1 5 6 0.30% Non-metallic minerals 0 6 6 0.30% Metalworking and metal products 1 8 9 0.30% Transport material 2 4 6 0.30% Wood, cork and derivatives 0 4 4 0.20%

Total 1,877 532 2,409 100% Source: own design.

24 Statistical Institute of Catalonia.

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3. A dynamic perspective: the the lack of precise figures. Nevertheless, some effect on economic growth methodological proposals have been drawn up. In the formation of human capital, the proposed 3.1. Introduction methodologies estimate the benefit of the investment returned to society in the education of The UdG activates the economy of Girona by university graduates, taking into account the means of lasting forces that affect the current opportunity costs arising from the non-active and future economic activity. The modern participation in the labour market and the different literature on economic growth stresses the productivity of the workforce with a university importance of ideas –such as new perspectives education.26 The literature shows a positive relation in the field of production processes, product between the level of higher education and marketing, education, price setting, chemistry, economic growth: for example, a study shows that mathematics and engineering– and their positive a 1% increase in the level of higher education in the effect on the productivity of work.25 When they countries belonging to the Organisation for have been created and placed at the disposal of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)27 the public, ideas do not diminish with use, so is associated with a 5.9% increase in the rate of they offer increasing yields of scale. The UdG can growth of GDP.28 A recent study for the Scottish play an essential role in the economic growth of universities29 estimates that the social rate of return the counties of Girona through its contribution to the generation of ideas that affect:

1) Formation of human capital: improvement of The University of Girona can play an essential the knowledge and skills of individuals that role in the economic growth of the counties are applied to private enterprise and the public sector. of Girona through its contribution to the 2) Research and development: activities related generation of ideas. to the progress of knowledge at a basic and applied level. 3) Knowledge transfer: placing the UdG’s knowledge and research at the disposal of on the investment in higher education is 17%. With companies and the public sector. regard to the effects of research and technology transfer, the empirical evaluation was seriously The empirical evaluation of the effects of limited by the lack of data. However, at the level of knowledge management is a complex and countries and regions empirical evidence suggests controversial field due, among other reasons, to that there is a close relation between the level of

25 BARRO & SALA-I-MARTÍN, 1999. 26 Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2005. 27 . 28 GEMMELL, 1996. 29 Universities Scotland, 2006.

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research of a university and the location of 3.2. Formation of human capital innovative companies in its area of influence.30 The courses offered at the UdG embrace a wide However, it is not easy to delimit the influence of range of fields and levels, from training for the activity of the UdG on the growth of Girona’s employment in private enterprises and the public economy. Here we will analyse the action of this sector to training to explore the current frontiers of university with relation to indicators of the scientific research. However, the formation of human formation of human capital, research, capital carried out at the UdG could obviously be development and knowledge transfer. Each of carried out by other universities. The impact of the these indicators gives only a partial idea of the UdG in forming human capital would be low if, in its effect of the institution on economic growth, absence, its graduates would have done the same because the knowledge generated is no more courses in other universities. Therefore, one indicator than a factor of production that must later be used of the impact of the UdG in forming human capital by companies in their activity. –albeit partial and subject to several interpretations– is the percentage of university graduates before and after its creation in relation to the total for Catalonia The increase in the percentage of the and other nearby areas. population with university degrees was far From the comparison of the population with higher in the Gironès and in the city of Girona diplomas and degrees/PhDs for different than in Catalonia as a whole and in the city of geographic areas in 1986 (before the creation of the Barcelona and its metropolitan area. University of Girona) and 2001 (nine years after its creation), two patterns can be detected (Table 5). First, the increase in the percentage of the

Table 5 Effects of the University on the percentage ot the population with university qualifications

Population with first cycle Population with university Total population with a Area university diplomas degrees/PhDs university qualification

1986 2001 Variation 1986 2001 Variation 1986 2001 Variation

Catalonia 2.88% 5.53% 92.04% 2.77% 6.00% 116.73% 5.65% 11.52% 104.14% City of Barcelona 4.89% 7.69% 57.28% 5.64% 10.77% 90.85% 10.54% 18.46% 75.26% Metropolitan Area of Barcelona 3.05% 5.78% 89.58% 3.11% 6.76% 117.66% 6.15% 12.54% 103.75% Counties of Girona 2.51% 4.70% 87.52% 2.00% 4.41% 119.95% 4.51% 9.11% 101.94% The Gironès 3.44% 5.99% 74.27% 2.37% 6.46% 172.88% 5.81% 12.45% 114.48% City of Girona 4.63% 7.56% 63.28% 3.31% 8.98% 170.93% 7.94% 16.53% 108.19%

Source: own design based on figures of the Statistical Institute of Catalonia.

30 VARGA, 1998.

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population with university degrees was far higher 3) A total of 43 patents, with an annual average in the Gironès and in the city of Girona than in of 3.4. Catalonia as a whole or in the metropolitan area of 4) Over 10,300 contributions to congresses, with Barcelona. Second, the greatest difference was in an annual average of over 750. the number of graduates with degrees and PhDs: 5) Around 6,100 publications in books, with an in the Gironès it increased by almost 173%, annual average of 418. compared with 117% in Catalonia as a whole and the metropolitan area of Barcelona. Though these 3.4. Knowledge transfer and services to increases may conceal several factors, the creation companies of the University certainly plays a major role in them. It can thus be conjectured that the UdG has not If the knowledge and research generated by merely absorbed students who would have gone to universities are to be useful, they must be placed other universities, but has also helped persons at the service of companies, the public sector to study at university (especially to take degrees and society in general. The University of Girona is and PhDs) who would not otherwise have done so. very active in this area. For example, since 2000 Because the level of education is related to GDP, over one thousand collaboration agreements the positive influence of the UdG on the standard of have been reached with companies and living in Girona may have been considerable. institutions, representing over 142 agreements per year. The main transfer activities are: 3.3. Research and development 1) The Technology Trampoline, a unit of support to The second pillar of the potential growth of an the creation of knowledge-based companies economy is technology, which progresses thanks from which, since 2001, nine official spin-offs to research and development. In January 2007 have emerged and 15 companies have been the UdG had 931 lecturers dedicated to research set up with an accumulated turnover of almost and 668 persons dedicated to support for €1.2 million and a capitalisation of over €4.3 research and development, representing a total million. of 1,128.5 full-time equivalent workers. These 2) The Network of Centres of Support to researchers formed part of institutes (6.6% of Technological Innovation (XIT), composed of the institutes recognised in Catalonia by the research units and groups that are able Generalitat’s Research and Innovation Plan to provide technological innovation services to [PRI]), research groups (more than a third of companies in Catalonia. It currently comprises which are recognised by the PRI), chairs, eight centres. observatories and associated institutions. The 3) The Science and Technology Park, which research carried out by the researchers of concentrates resources and activities to foster the UdG from 1998 to 2006 resulted in: knowledge transfer from universities to the business community in four main areas of 1) Around 6,000 publications in scientific action: life sciences, physical sciences, journals, with an annual average of 390. tourism and social sciences. 2) A total of 1,263 theses, dissertations and 4) The Job Mart, from the 1997-1998 academic research projects, with an annual average of 114. year to the present the number of cases

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managed by the Job Mart has increased from 1) The year of foundation. Created in late 1991, 775 to almost 5,500. the UdG is among the twelve youngest 5) Educational cooperation agreements, during universities in Spain. the 2004-2005 academic year 1,303 2) The degree of specialisation. Universities agreements of this type were entered into, specialised in a few areas of knowledge and involved the participation of 1,180 concentrate resources in a few areas and students and over 400,000 hours of work use economies of scale and scope in teaching placement. and research. In the 2004-2005 academic year the UdG offered more than 28% of the degree 3.5. Research and development: a brief courses from the official list (Table 6) and, unlike comparison larger and more consolidated universities, the qualifications it offered represented a large A comparison with the other Spanish universities proportion of the official list of qualifications in places the research activity of the UdG in the different areas of the knowledge. perspective.31 Three aspects must be taken into 3) The quantity and quality of the results. These account: depend on the efficiency of the management,

Table 6 Official undergraduate courses and numbers of full-time equivalent teaching and research staff (FTETRS) of Spanish public universities (2004-2005 academic year) Branches of teaching (%) Total nº of % of FTETRS qualifications official list Humanities Social Experimental Health Technology of course Politécnica Madrid 42 30 0 3.2 6.7 0 67.8 72.7 Complutense 74 52.9 76.9 87.1 73.3 100 11.9 68.6 Sevilla 65 46.4 50 64.5 46.7 66.7 32.2 56.8 U. de València 61 43.6 42.3 87.1 66.7 77.8 10.2 48.9 U. de Barcelona 78 55.7 84.6 116.1 66.7 55.6 8.5 47.0 Autónoma de Madrid 45 32.1 53.8 58.1 53.3 11.1 6.8 45.2 Politècnica València 56 40 3.8 19.4 26.7 0 76.3 42.8 Politècnica Catalunya 54 38.6 0 0 26.7 0 84.7 42.2 Pablo de Olavide 13 9.3 11.5 25.8 13.3 0 0 36.3 Autònoma de Barcelona 66 47.1 65.4 83.9 60 55.6 15.3 35.5 Euskal H. Unib. 106 75.7 50 103.2 80 55.6 74.6 35.1 Alacant 47 33.6 34.6 64.5 40 22.2 16.9 35.0 Alcalá 38 27.1 15.4 48.4 20 44.4 20.3 33.5 Granada 95 67.9 73.1 151.6 80 77.8 16.9 33.2 Málaga 55 39.3 26.9 77.4 33.3 44.4 25.4 33.0 Santiago 60 42.9 57.7 67.7 46.7 55.6 20.3 32.9 Murcia 52 37.1 34.6 83.9 53.3 55.6 6.8 32.8 Pompeu Fabra 20 14.3 15.4 35.5 6.7 0 6.8 32.7 Jaume I 26 18.6 11.5 45.2 6.7 0 13.6 31.4 Rey Juan Carlos 31 22.1 0 61.3 6.7 44.4 11.9 30.8 La Laguna 55 39.3 34.6 54.8 40 55.6 30.5 30.8

31 Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo (CYD)

104 AN APPRAISAL OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIRONA ON THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT

Table 6 (continued) Branches of teaching (%) Total nº of % of FTETRS qualifications official list Humanities Social Experimental Health Technology of course Pública de Navarra 23 16.4 0 35.5 0 11.1 18.6 30.0 Córdoba 37 26.4 19.2 32.3 46.7 33.3 20.3 29.0 Vigo 49 35 23.1 77.4 33.3 11.1 22 28.2 Cantabria 33 23.6 7.7 32.3 13.3 22.2 28.8 27.3 Da Coruña 46 32.9 15.4 54.8 13.3 55.6 30.5 27.1 Zaragoza 103 73.6 34.6 87.1 53.3 55.6 91.5 26.0 Salamanca 79 56.4 80.8 77.4 60 66.7 32.2 25.2 Las Palmas 57 40.7 26.9 54.8 6.7 44.4 47.5 24.5 Almería 30 21.4 11.5 41.9 20 11.1 16.9 24.1 Illes Balears 38 27.1 26.9 54.8 40 22.2 10.2 22.8 Valladolid 93 66.4 46.2 132.3 53.3 55.6 45.8 22.8 Miguel Hernández 31 22.1 7.7 22.6 40 55.6 18.6 22.8 Cádiz 56 40 30.8 51.6 33.3 44.4 39 22.6 Extremadura 71 50.7 34.6 77.4 40 100 39 22.6 Politécnica Cartagena 21 15 0 6.5 0 0 32.2 22.4 Carlos III 61 43.6 34.6 100 20 0 30.5 22.1 Jaén 40 28.6 11.5 48.4 26.7 22.2 27.1 21.4 Girona 39 27.9 26.9 54.8 20 11.1 18.6 20.1 Burgos 30 21.4 3.8 48.4 13.3 11.1 18.6 19.7 Rovira i Virgili 51 36.4 34.6 71 13.3 55.6 22 19.1 Oviedo 101 72.1 50 96.8 66.7 111.1 64.4 18.9 Castilla la Mancha 92 65.7 46.2 132.3 26.7 88.9 45.8 18.3 Huelva 41 29.3 11.5 51.6 20 11.1 30.5 18.0 Rioja 23 16.4 15.4 29 20 0 11.9 18.0 León 54 38.6 23.1 67.7 26.7 77.8 27.1 16.1 Lleida 40 28.6 26.9 45.2 13.3 44.4 22 15.8 Source: own design based on figures of Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo: Cifras y datos: universidades públicas españolas. Curso académico 2004-2005.

the total volume and the type of resources. In more consolidated universities with a larger the 2004-2005 academic year the UdG was critical mass of research staff (Figure 1). With in 39th place in full-time equivalent (FTE) regard to the research activity of the teaching teaching and research staff per course, far below staff, the UdG occupied a similar position to the more consolidated universities (Table 6). other universities of a similar size (Figure 2).32 A high proportion of its research is basic (Figure 3), In this framework, the research and development and during the 2004-2005 academic year it was results of the University of Girona are among the universities with the highest outstanding. The UdG occupied one of the percentage of privately financed research (Figure leading places in research and development 4), thus showing its involvement in the local income per FTE lecturer –far ahead of much productive structure.

32 Several studies indicate the existence of a correlation between the number of tenured lecturers with six-year bonuses and the number of six-year bonuses per lecturer and the year of foundation of the universities. This may indicate a higher proportion of young lecturers still forging their academic careers in young universities, rather than a lower research activity.

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Figure 1 Research and development income per full-time equivalent teaching and research staff member (2004-2005 academic year) Income for FTETRS member 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 )

€ 25,000 20,000 15,000 Amount ( 10,000 5,000 0 Vigo Jaén Rioja León Cádiz Lleida Alcalá Sevilla Girona Murcia Huelva Oviedo Burgos Almería Alacant Jaume I Average Carlos III Granada Santiago Córdoba Valladolid Zaragoza Cantabria La Laguna Da Coruña Salamanca Las Palmas Illes Balears Extremadura Rovira i Virgili Complutense U. de València Pompeu Fabra Euskal H. Unib. U. de Barcelona Rey Juan Carlos Pablo de Olavida Castilla la Mancha Miguel Hernández Pública de Navarra Autónoma de Madrid Politécnica de Madrid Politécnica Cartagena Politècnica de València Autònoma de Barcelona Politècnica de Catalunya University Source: own design based on figures of Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo: Cifras y datos: universidades públicas españolas. Curso académico 2004-2005.

Figure 2 Six-year research bonuses per tenured lecturer (2004-2005 academic year) Six-year research bonuses for tenured lecturer 2.5

2

1.5

1 Number

0.5

0 Vigo Jaén Rioja León Cádiz Lleida Alcalá Sevilla Girona Murcia Huelva Oviedo Burgos Màlaga Almería Alacant Jaume I Average Carlos III Granada Córdoba Santiago Valladolid Zaragoza Cantabria La Laguna Da Coruña Salamanca Las Palmas Illes Balears Extremadura Rovira i Virgili Complutense U. de València Pompeu Fabra Euskal H. Unib. U. de Barcelona Rey Juan Carlos Pablo de Olavide Castilla la Mancha Miguel Hernández Pública de Navarra Autònoma de Madrid Politécnica de Madrid Politécnica Cartagena Politècnica de València Autónoma de Barcelona Politècnica de Catalunya University Source: own design based on figures of Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo: Cifras y datos: universidades públicas españolas. Curso académico 2004-2005.

106 AN APPRAISAL OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIRONA ON THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 3 Classification of research according to type (2004-2005 academic year) Type of research 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40%

Percentage 30% 20% 10% 0% Vigo Jaén Rioja León Cádiz Lleida Alcalá Sevilla Girona Murcia Huelva Oviedo Burgos Màlaga Almería Alacant Jaume I Carlos III Granada Córdoba Santiago Valladolid Zaragoza Cantabria La Laguna Da Coruña Salamanca Las Palmas Illes Balears Extremadura Rovira i Virgili Complutense U. de València Pompeu Fabra Euskal H. Unib. U. de Barcelona Rey Juan Carlos Pablo de Olavide Castilla la Mancha Miguel Hernández Pública de Navarra Autónoma de Madrid Politécnica de Madrid Politécnica Cartagena Politècnica de València Politècnica de Catalunya Basic (%) Applied (%) University Source: own design based on figures of Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo: Cifras y datos: universidades públicas españolas. Curso académico 2004-2005.

Figure 4 Classification of research according to the source of finance (2004-2005 academic year) Research by source of finance 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% Percentage 30% 20% 10% 0% Jaén Rioja León Cádiz Lleida Alcalá Girona Murcia Huelva Oviedo Burgos Almería Jaume I Carlos III Granada Córdoba Santiago Valladolid Zaragoza Cantabria La Laguna Salamanca Las Palmas Illes Balears Extremadura Complutense U. de València Euskal H. Unib. U. de Barcelona Rey Juan Carlos Miguel Hernández Pública de Navarra Autónoma de Madrid Politécnica de Madrid Politécnica Cartagena Politècnica de València Politècnica de Catalunya Private (%) Public (%) University Source: own design based on figures of Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo: Cifras y datos: universidades públicas españolas. Curso académico 2004-2005.

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must be taken with some caution, because they In the particular case of knowledge transfer, are subject to the assumptions implicit in the application of the input-output methodology, and the UdG is among the Spanish university to the limitations of the approaches used to institutions with the highest level of research assess the volume of local expenditure income, perhaps indicating the strong associated with the UdG’s presence. However, they are comparable with the results obtained by relations that it has established with the other universities in its area.33 productive fabric. Secondly, we have presented a descriptive analysis to show the results of the basic activity of the UdG: knowledge management. In the area of formation of 4. Conclusions human capital, the creation and consolidation of the UdG has been accompanied by a clearly higher This article has placed in perspective some of the growth in the percentage of university graduates in effects that the activity of the University of Girona the counties of Girona (above all those obtaining has on the social and economic fabric in which it degrees and PhDs) than in Catalonia as a whole. In is located. Firstly, the input-output methodology the area of research and development and was used to assess this institution as a driver of knowledge transfer, bearing in mind the volume economic activity. The results obtained indicate and type of resources it manages, the research that the presence of the UdG channelled a total results of the UdG are fully comparable with those volume of expenditure of almost €86 million in of other universities in the Spanish public system. In the area of Girona in 2005. The impact of this the particular case of knowledge transfer, the UdG expenditure on the production of Girona has is among the Spanish university institutions with the been estimated at €120.6 million, corresponding highest level of research income, perhaps indicating to a gross value added of €92.6 million and the strong relations that it has established with the involving the creation of 2,409 jobs. The results productive fabric.

33 SALA, ENCISO, FARRÉS & TORRES, 2003; SEGARRA, 2004; PARELLADA & DUCH, 2005.

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References

BARÓ, E.; BONET, L. “Els problemes d'avaluació de l'impacte econòmic de la despesa cultural”. Revista Econòmica de Catalunya. no. 31 (1997), pp. 76-83.

BARRO, R.; SALA-I-MARTIN, X. Economic Growth. MIT Press, 1999.

BOSCH, J.; SANCHO, F. “Un exemple d'avaluació de l'impacte econòmic d'un projecte d'inversió: el laboratori de llum de sincrotó”. Institut d'Estudis Territorials. Document de Treball. no. 13 (2004).

FELDSTEIN, D. “The university in the metropolitan area: impacts and public policy implications”. Urban Studies. no. 9 (1996), vol. 33, pp. 1565- 1580. Fundación Conocimiento y Desarrollo (CYD) [En línia]: La Contribución de las Universidades Españolas al Desarrollo. Years 2004, 2005 and 2006. See: . [Consulted: 05 May 2008]

GEMMELL, N. “Evaluating the impacts of human capital stocks an acumulation on economic growth: some new evidence”. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. no. 58 (1996), pp. 9-28.

HERRERO, L.C. “Impacto económico de los macrofestivales culturales: reflexiones y resultados”. Boletín de Gestión Cultural. no. February (2004). Informe sobre consum i economia familiar. Caixa de Catalunya. no. 44 (September 2006).

MORRAL, N. “L'impacte econòmic de la Universitat de Vic sobre el territori”. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Documents de Recerca del Programa de Doctorat d'Economia Aplicada. no. 03/2004 (2004). [Consulted: 16 May 2008].

PARELLADA, M.; DUCH, N. “La Universitat de Vic i el seu impacte en el territori”. Coneixement i Societat. no. 7 (2005), pp. 28-51.

SALA, M. et al., “L'impacte econòmic de la Universitat de Lleida”. Coneixement i Societat. no. 2 (2003), pp. 30-49.

SEAMAN, B. “Economic impact of the arts”. Dins: A Handbook of Cultural Economics. Ed. Ruth Towse. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, pp. 224-231.

SEGARRA, A. “La Universitat com a instrument de dinamització socioeconòmica del territori”. Coneixement i Societat. no. 3 (2004), pp. 78-101. Prosperity Scotland: How higher education creates Scottish wealth. Universities Scotland, 2006. See: [Consulted: 21 April 2008]. The investment payoff: a 50-State analysis of the public and private benefits of higher education. Institute for Higher Education Policy. Washington, DC; Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2005.

VARGA, A. University research and Regional Innovation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academy Publishers, 1998.

109 notes 114 128 Biocat, a driving force for Associations and science the BioRegion of Catalonia Bibiana Bonmatí i Recolons Montserrat Daban, Montserrat and Jordi Mazón i Bueso Vendrell, Marta Príncep and Manel Balcells CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 NOTES

BIOCAT, A DRIVING FORCE FOR THE BIOREGION OF CATALONIA

Montserrat Daban,* Montserrat Vendrell,** Marta Príncep*** and Manel Balcells****

Biocat is an organisation responsible for promoting biotechnology and biomedicine in Catalonia. Its aim is to create a suitable environment for enhancing research, to consolidate the sector as an economic driver, and to foster its role in society. It operates in the BioRegion of Catalonia, a geographic cluster of interrelation between the many actors in the field of biotechnology and biomedicine, including public research institutions, the public administration, companies (working in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, medical technology and services to the sector), and support structures for knowledge transfer and innovation. Biocat has drawn up a common strategic plan for the sector with the support of all the actors. Its aim is to make Catalonia an international hub for the life science: a competitive biocluster.

Keywords: innovation, cluster, biotechnology, biomedicine, network.

Contents

1. Biotechnology as an economic driver 2. The BioRegion of Catalonia, an area of interrelation and excellence 2.1. Excellence in research and innovation 2.2. The entrepreneurship 3. Biocat, a promoter of the cluster 4. Strategic Plan for Competitiveness 5. Key projects for the BioRegion 5.1. Internationalisation 5.2. Infrastructures 5.2.1. Biopol Health Science Park 5.2.2. European Institute of Technology

* Montserrat Daban is the Communications and External Relations Manager of Biocat. ** Montserrat Vendrell is the General Manager of Biocat. *** Marta Príncep is the Innovation Project Manager of Biocat. **** Manel Balcells is Chair of the Executive Commission of Biocat.

112 BIOCAT, A DRIVING FORCE FOR THE BIOREGION OF CATALONIA

5.2.3. International Centre for Scientific Debate 5.3. Technology transfer and funding 5.3.1. Innovative Business Clusters 5.3.2. Innovative Medicines Initiative 5.4. Training 5.4.1. Science and Innovation Management Studies 5.4.2. Biocat conferences 5.5. Social perception of biotechnology 6. Future challenges

1. Biotechnology as an economic driver Biotechnology has potential in a wide range Biotechnology1 is key in the 21st century if Europe of sectors, including medicine and health, is to meet the objectives laid down in the Lisbon primary production, the agri-food business, Strategy for 2010, when it should have positioned industrial production processes, energy and itself as the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, following the environment. a model of sustainable development –the second strategy for the future adopted by the EU. Despite growing concern in Europe about whether these objectives can be met by the deadline, they remain will be– an integral part of the economy of the valid and biotechnology must play a major role in European nations and of the developed world. In achieving them. It has potential in a wide range of fact, many EU reports indicate that biotechnology sectors, including medicine and health, primary and its applications make an important production, the agri-food business, industrial contribution to the economy, and many national production processes, energy and the and EU funding programmes are aimed at environment. developing it. Furthermore, the jobs created by biotechnology are mainly higher-skilled because There is a vital need to support biotechnology, developing and working with biotechnology because with its products and processes it is –and products and processes requires a high level of

1 According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), biotechnology is “the application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production of knowledge, goods and services”.

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training. The two areas in which the need to innovation in biomedicine and the agri-food sector, support biotechnology is most evident are health and house a network of services (technology and the agri-food business. Modern biotechnology platforms) in areas such as genomics, proteomics, in human health provides better treatments and crystallography, nanotechnology and fine diagnoses and safer foods. chemistry.

Barcelona is also the seat of ITER (Fusion for 2. The BioRegion of Catalonia, an Energy) and Alba, a new European synchrotron3 (a area of interrelation and large particle accelerator that functions as a giant excellence microscope for observing highly magnified atoms and molecules) that will provide service to The Catalan biomedical cluster was consolidated researchers and high-tech companies. in 2007, and the BioRegion of Catalonia is now set to become one of the European clusters of The network of research centres linked to reference in this sector, with a critical mass universities, the Spanish National Research of researchers, prestige universities, local industry, Council (CSIC) and the science parks provides a political will and a financial sector that is the framework for the life science groups that increasingly aware of the value of biotechnology. generate high-level projects and nurture new biotechnology projects (initiators), and for the Catalonia attracts international interest due to its major pharmaceutical partners.4 inherent assets, such as its strategic location and its high quality of life, and assets that it has earned, The three biomedical research parks of Barcelona such as research excellence and the enterprise and the Metropolitan Area are the Barcelona spirit. It is therefore not surprising that Barcelona is Science Park (PCB), the first incubator in considered as a dynamic and strategic location Catalonia, the Biomedical Research Park (PRBB) with the best quality of life in Europe, and the fourth and the Science Park of the Autonomous best city in Europe for business.2 University of Barcelona (UAB). The latter contains a series of centres, such as the Centre of Animal 2.1 Excellence in research and innovation Biotechnology and Gene Therapy (CBATEG), the Agricultural Genomics Research Centre (CREG) With a network of sixty hospitals, six of which are and the CSIC-UAB Proteomics Laboratory (LP among the most scientifically productive in Spain, CSIC-UAB), created to respond to specific needs Catalonia stands out in the field of clinical research in fields of research of great interest. The PRBB is and human health. In addition to its twelve one of the largest biomedical parks in southern universities, it has twelve science parks, six of Europe. It houses several research centres and is which are devoted specifically to R&D and the nucleus of knowledge of one of the major

2 CUSHMAN & WAKEFIELD, 2006. 3 For further information, see . 4 The list of research centres (in all fields) and consolidated research groups (in life sciences) can be found at: and .

114 BIOCAT, A DRIVING FORCE FOR THE BIOREGION OF CATALONIA

Figure 1 Map of the universities and science parks in Catalonia that carry out activities related to the life sciences

assets of the city: 22@ Barcelona, a technology pharmaceutical companies –Almirall Prodesfarma, district that includes various actors of the Esteve, Grupo Ferrer and Uriach– have become innovation system. multinational groups and together represent 100% of the national Spanish pharmaceutical 2.2. The entrepreneurship production. Furthermore, several subsidiaries of the main multinationals of the pharmaceutical In Catalonia there are 250 companies related to sector have chosen Catalonia as their base: the biotechnology sector: 60 biotechnology Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis, Pfizer and companies, 60 pharmaceutical companies and Sanofi-Aventis. 120 companies that use biotechnology or serve the sector. There are 800 persons working in Biotechnology is an emerging sector in Catalonia. the biotechnology sector and 20,000 in the Of the approximately sixty companies associated pharmaceutical sector. Four of its family-owned with the employers’ association CataloniaBIO,

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more than thirty have been created since 2002. 3. Biocat, a promoter of the cluster The current growth rate is over ten companies per year. In fact, in 2006 and 2007 Catalonia was the The coordinating body of the biotechnology cluster, most dynamic autonomous community in Spain Biocat, was created in 2006 by the government of with regard to creation of new biotechnology Catalonia with the support of the Barcelona City companies.5 Council. Its current management was appointed by the government in 2007, marking the start of a period of consolidation and a new impulse for the strategic lines of its Master Plan. Biocat aims its The current growth rate of biotechnology strategy towards problems that are common to companies in Catalonia is over ten the sector, in order to establish the Catalan brand of excellence in the life sciences and to achieve a companies per year. sufficient critical mass in the public and private spheres to compete in the international arena. Biocat thus plays a prescriptive role in defining and setting up a strategic plan for promoting the Figure 2 biotechnology and biomedical sector in In 2006 and 2007 Catalonia was the most dynamic Catalonia. autonomous community in terms of creation of biotechnology companies 4. Strategic Plan for Competitiveness Others Catalonia The year 2007 was a milestone for Biocat. Basque Country Attention focused first on the organisation of the cluster. The three strands of the triple helix (public administration, companies and research institutions) were mapped. An abbreviated version of the resulting directory is already available on the Biocat website,6 and a search Valencia tool for members with additional information (activity, size, turnover, number of employees/ researchers, etc.) will soon be available.

Madrid The strategy for promoting the biotechnology and Andalusia biomedical sector was also defined and included in the Government Action Plan for the period 2007- Source: Spanish Association of Bioenterprises (Asebio). 2011. The aim of the Plan is to promote the sector

5 ASEBIO (Spanish Association of Biocenterprises), 2006 and pers. comm. 6 .

116 BIOCAT, A DRIVING FORCE FOR THE BIOREGION OF CATALONIA

Figure 3 promoting the sector. Biocat continually organises Biocat is an organisation promoted by the Generalitat visits and delegations to other countries, in order to of Catalonia and composed of research companies learn from successful models and to establish and institutions that activates the biotechnology and biomedical sector in Catalonia alliances with similar organisations abroad. It also receives representatives from other geographic areas who wish to learn about the situation of the sector. The internationalisation activities of Biocat include coordinating the participation of the sector in events such as the International Convention of the Biotechnology Industry Organisation (BIO), the main world congress in this sector, which this year is to be held in San Diego in June.7 The Catalan delegation will consist of over 70 persons –over two thirds of the Spanish participants.

The bases have also been laid for Catalonia to participate in the Eurobioregion project and to work with the French partners of Midi-Pyrénées and Languedoc-Roussillon in the design of the southern Europe biocluster. Exploring more distant frontiers, Biocat has signed framework agreements with foreign partners such as the All by following five strategic lines, which include India Biotech Association in order to foster internationalisation, improving the social perception business between Catalan and Indian companies. of science, local organisation of the cluster and promotion of the sector as an important economic driver. The Plan presented by Biocat is intended to be the roadmap for the years to come. Through Biocat, Catalonia participates in the Eurobioregion project and works with the 5. Key projects of Biocat for the French partners of Midi-Pyrénées and BioRegion Languedoc-Roussillon in the design of the southern Europe biocluster. 5.1. Internationalisation

Internationalisation is strategic for all sectors, but for biotechnology it is key for competitiveness. It is It also works with Catalan institutions to identify therefore one of the main strategies of Biocat for and design instruments that facilitate the

7 .

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internationalisation of companies, to seek The planned location is a development area beside geographic areas of interest, to obtain aid for the Duran and Reynals Hospital in the Gran Via, missions, delegations and congresses, and to L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, near the airport and the provide access to foreign partners in general. centre of Barcelona. The park will stimulate urban regeneration in this area and new ways of 5.2. Infrastructures developing its economy. Its functioning will be based on the knowledge synergies arising from 5.2.1. Biopol Health Science Park the proximity of the actors. The existing actors, which make the chosen location very attractive, The mission of the Biopol Health Science Park is to are: establish a network of relations between hospitals, universities, research centres and companies. The – The University Hospital of Bellvitge and the aim is to promote the sector beyond the local area Duran i Reynals Hospital, located in a prime in order to make it an international centre of health care area. reference located in a high-profile environment with – The University of Barcelona Health Science a quality urban design and advanced services and Campus (the Schools of Medicine, Nursing, infrastructures, following the current trend in Podiatry, Dentistry and the Dental and science parks.8 Podiatric Clinics). – Two major research centres: the Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (Idibell) and the Catalan Institute of Bioengineering (IBEC), One of the key projects of Biocat is the which is soon to be located in the area. activation and coordination of the Biopol Health Science Park (PCS) of L’Hospitalet All the organisations that locate in the park de Llobregat, which brings together (companies, research institutes and hospitals) will be working in the field of human health and hospitals, universities, research centres will promote technology transfer in treatment, and companies. diagnosis and preventive medicine to firms working in biotechnology and new technologies.

The differentiating characteristic of the Biopol is The Biopol is promoted by the University of that it will place the patient at the centre of the Barcelona, the Generalitat of Catalonia (the system, offering innovation in its processes and Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Economy and services through an integral vision of health. It is Finance and the Ministry of Innovation, Universities intended that it should be a think-tank for and Enterprise) and L’Hospitalet de Llobregat City innovation in health services, providing new Council. It is coordinated by Biocat, which also solutions that can be exported to other fields and acts as an activator in this initial stage. geographic areas.

8 CONDOM, P. and ROURE, J., 2007.

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Figure 4 The Biopol is a major health park project that brings into play several actors of the biomedical sector

5.2.2. European Institute of Technology requirements. The Spanish government recently agreed to present Sant Cugat as the Official In February 2006 the president of the European Spanish candidate for the seat of the EIT.10 Commission (CE), José Manuel Durão Barroso and the Commissioner for Education, Training, One of the EIT’s aims is to compete with other Culture and Multilingualism, Jan Figel, presented leading institutions, such as the Massachusetts proposal to create the European Institute of Institute of Technology (MIT), and to place Europe Technology (EIT),9 which has an initial budget from at a high scientific and technological level in order direct EU funds. In 2007 the Sant Cugat Town to achieve a dynamic, knowledge-based economy Council presented its candidature as the seat of that can compete with the United States and with the EIT and the EU found that it met the the emerging India and China.

9 . 10 When the manuscripts were approved for publication, the EC had not yet decided that the headquarters of the EIT would be in Budapest.

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The EIT, whose regulation was approved in April 5.2.3. International Centre for Scientific Debate of this year, will be divided into Knowledge and Innovation Communities (KICs) composed of The future International Centre for Scientific highly qualified teams from the most outstanding Debate will be a unique, pioneering centre for companies, universities and research centres. multidisciplinary debate in Spain, specialised in These communities will be distributed throughout holding high-level scientific meetings. It will Europe and will organise the activities of the organise around 50 activities per year, at which Institute in multidisciplinary strategic areas. small groups of local and foreign scientists, led by a prestigious researcher in each specific field, will meet to debate and find solutions. Each seminar or specialised course will last between Biocat has presented a proposal to lead the two and five days and will have a maximum of 40 participants, of whom a fixed percentage will be knowledge and innovation community (KIC) from Catalonia. The activities will focus on the life in life sciences, which will organise the sciences in addition to mathematics, physics, the activities of the European Institute of environment, social sciences, linguistics and sociology. The coming together of these groups Technology in this area. will stimulate a constant exchange of ideas and will facilitate contact between Catalan scientists and their colleagues from other countries. Other expected benefits of this initiative are that it will In this area, Biocat has made a very ambitious achieve scientific prestige through the intellectual additional proposal, which complements the activity of the researchers, create a scientific, candidature for the seat in Sant Cugat. The aim of touristic and social image around the project, the Catalan biocluster, and therefore of Catalonia, and establish a quality brand for Catalonia as a is to lead one of the nodes of this network –the country recognised by prestige scientists. one dealing with the life sciences. The proposal was launched with the total support of the Work is currently underway to set up the government of Catalonia, ESADE, the Strategic foundation that will manage the project, which is Metropolitan Plan, the Graduate School of expected to come into operation in 2009. A Economics and all the Catalan universities and science and knowledge committee is also being science parks. Biocat promotes the initiative as an organised to represent all the disciplines of organisation set up by the Generalitat of Catalonia science. It will be composed of ten recognised and formed by companies and institutions that Catalan experts who will manage and define the activate the biotechnology and biomedical sector subjects of the debates and the scientists who will in Catalonia. A committee composed of all the lead each one. promoters of the project and the Sant Cugat Town Council will work together with the Foreign Biocat has promoted this project, with the Secretariat and the Secretariat for the European sponsorship of the Social Projects division of “La Union to explore internal and external connections Caixa” savings bank, in the framework of its towards this end. collaboration with the Generalitat of Catalonia. It will

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be located in Torre Marimon, in the municipality of In accordance with its strategic priorities, within Caldes de Montbui, a heritage building belonging to this programme Biocat presented a successful the Barcelona Provincial Council that will be shared application to coordinate the drawing up of two by the Centre and the Institute of Agriculture and strategic plans for two AEIs: Food Research and Technology (IRTA). – BioTec-Cat, whose aim is to foster and 5.3. Technology transfer and funding promote biotechnology and biomedicine in Catalonia. It was developed with the The universities and research institutes in Spain collaboration of over thirty biotechnology have a high rate of scientific production. However, companies and with CataloniaBIO (the Catalan judging from the low number of patents that are Association of Biotechnology Companies). applied for and granted, this production is – MedTec-Cat, whose aim is to position the unfortunately not translated into applied research. emerging Catalan medical technology sector in In agreement with its strategic priorities, Biocat has the international arena. It was developed jointly proposed to promote and facilitate policies so that with 22@, the CIDEM and the Ministry of Health research institutions and companies can find of the Generalitat of Catalonia. common interests to improve technology transfer and research exploitation.

5.3.1. Innovative Business Clusters To consolidate the Catalan biotechnology A new instrument, created by the Directorate- and biomedical cluster, two Innovative General of Small and Medium-Sized Company Business Clusters (AEIs) have been set up: Policy (DGPIME) of the Spanish Ministry of BioTec-Cat and MedTec-Cat. Industry, Tourism and Trade in order to improve the international competitiveness and feasibility of companies by increasing their innovative capacity, was seen by Biocat as an opportunity to support the consolidation of the Catalan biotechnology and Both of these initiatives were supported by biomedical cluster. The instrument, created in April research centres and institutes and by other 2007, is known as the Innovative Business Cluster prestigious public and private organisations in (AEI) Programme. Catalonia. The strategic plans presented to the DGPIME by Biocat identify the main strategic The clusters promoted by this programme must be challenges and propose measures and actions composed of companies of a specific sector in that must be taken in order to meet them. These addition to public or private training centres and measures are aimed mainly at improving the research units that share the same geographic competitiveness and internationalisation of space and are involved in joint innovation projects. companies, reinforcing the system of research Membership of an AEI gives advantages to exploitation and transfer, fostering collaboration companies when they apply for competitive grants between universities and companies, developing for research projects. financial instruments for these sectors, creating

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and promoting major infrastructures, and years, and the cost of the process has developing measures for capturing national increased. The IMI focuses on the problems of and foreign talent. clinical safety and improving the efficacy of new drugs for cancer, mental illnesses and inflammatory, metabolic and infectious diseases. Its aim is to remedy shortcomings in knowledge In 2007 Biocat coordinated Barcelona’s management and in the education and training candidature for the European office of the of researchers in Europe. It has a budget of 2 Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI), which million, provided in equal parts by the EU and industry, which will finance the projects until was unsuccessful but opened up new 2013. The beneficiaries will be the institutions opportunities. and SMEs that form part of consortia.

In 2007 Biocat coordinated Barcelona’s candidature for the European office of the IMI. After this initial stage of creation of BioTec-Cat Though the Commission finally decided to and MedTec, Biocat will continue to play an establish this office in Brussels, Catalonia has important role in the activation and coordination achieved increased visibility thanks to the of these two business groups, and will foster and groundwork carried out. Furthermore, Biocat is promote the two sectors in order to consolidate working jointly with other sectoral actors (the them as clusters of excellence in our country. Barcelona Science Park, the Biomedical Research Park of Barcelona, the Centre for 5.3.2. Innovative Medicines Initiative Innovation and Business Development (CIDEM), the Catalan Ministry of Health and the The Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) is an companies of the sector) in order to disseminate alliance between the European pharmaceutical financing opportunities and facilitate the industry, represented by the European constitution of public consortia (institutions and Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and SMEs) with a view to presenting project Associations (EFPIA), and the European proposals to the IMI platform. Commission, which was formally constituted in December 2007 as part of the Joint Technology Initiatives (JTIs) of the 7th Framework 5.4. Training Programme of the EU, and its aim is to foster European leadership in the field of biomedical Innovation, as a source of wealth for a country, R&D and innovation. can only be achieved by combining training and research. It is therefore essential for organisations The IMI has been defined as a tool for improving and companies to invest in highly trained and the research bottlenecks for new drugs. qualified human capital. One of Biocat’s priorities Because the safety requirements and regulations is to promote and stimulate the training offer in are increasingly strict, the appearance of new Catalonia in the biotechnology and biomedical drugs has decreased dramatically in the last few sector.

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Within the general objective of creating a pool of together the main executives of the Catalan health expert managers for the life sciences industry, sector to analyse the role of the Catalan hospital Biocat wishes to recruit managers from abroad system in the Biocat project. The meeting was and to foster local and European training. The also attended by the ex-president of the programmes aimed at experts will require grants Generalitat, Pasqual Maragall, and the Minister for entrepreneurs to attend specific modules. of Health, Marina Geli. The panellists included Following this spirit, Biocat participates in representatives of the Strategy and Coordination projects of the 7th Framework Programme of the Secretariat of the Catalan Ministry of Health, EU which provide training measures and the ICT Health Foundation, 22@Barcelona, the initiatives in a network with other European CIDEM, the Bioengineering Institute of Catalonia bioregions. (IBEC) and the Sabadell Health Park. The health research map of Catalonia was presented and Biocat is already developing two initiatives in this the panellists discussed innovation and new direction. Firstly, it will support the existing training technologies as a value in hospitals. This meeting offer, placing special emphasis on providing provided a diagnosis and a series of driving training in research exploitation for researchers in proposals. In accordance with these initiatives, hospitals and universities. Secondly, it will Biocat has opened a strategic line within the field promote initiatives aimed at covering unsatisfied of hospital research exploitation. needs, such as training managers and executives of biotechnology companies.

5.4.1. Science and Innovation Management Studies Special emphasis is placed on providing training in research exploitation for Biocat collaborates in the design of the Science and Innovation Management Studies (SIMS) researchers in hospitals and universities, courses promoted by the Biomedical Research and on promoting initiatives aimed at Park of Barcelona and the Continuing Education covering unsatisfied needs, such as training Institute (IDEC) of the Pompeu Fabra University (UPF). The aim is to train managers of emerging managers and executives of biotechnology biotechnology companies in critical areas of companies. management, intellectual property and value creation. These courses are in the format of seminars and participatory discussions with personalities of reference in the biotechnology 5.5. Social perception of and regulatory world of Europe and North biotechnology America. Science and technology are increasingly entering 5.4.2. Biocat conferences the daily life of the population and we are therefore often faced with the need to make On 26 and 27 April 2007 Biocat and the Ministry of decisions and take a stand on controversial Health, with the sponsorship of Pfizer, brought subjects, or simply to decide whether we wish to

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use the latest technological advances. – Knowledge of biotechnology and its benefits: Furthermore, progress requires the support of at the Euroscience Open Forum in Barcelona society and an interest in research and (ESOF), from 18 to 22 July 2008, Biocat will innovation among the younger members of organise a session aimed at the general public society. on the value of biomedical research for society.

Among the strategic lines of Biocat there is 6. Future challenges also room for promoting knowledge and improving society’s perception of The year 2008 promises to be rich in intentions biotechnology and biomedicine. and projects for Biocat, and it offers a great challenge: the consolidation of biotechnology as a strategic economic sector. Success depends on the development of a facilitating environment Among the strategic lines of Biocat there is also that improves knowledge transfer, offers greater room for promoting knowledge and improving profitability to the companies in the sector and society’s perception of biotechnology and reduces the perception that the sector is a risk as biomedicine. A series of actions involving the an investment target. The alternative stock coordination and collaboration of the actors of market that will be set up for high-growth the BioRegion are currently underway. Examples companies is an initiative that has met with of these actions are: enthusiasm in the sector. This market will overcome one of the greatest difficulties faced by – Activation of the network of communicators: biotechnology companies: the lack of ways out – Mapping of Catalan communicators in for investors that enter the different stages of biomedicine. growth. In 2007, with the support of Biocat, – Promotion of meetings to analyse the CataloniaBio (the employers’ association of the challenges of research dissemination. Catalan biotechnology sector) presented a study – Organisation of scientific meetings with other of access to markets of this type for European bioregions to analyse common biotechnology companies, and the package of projects. incentives that are necessary in order to make – Participation in European projects involving them feasible. Alternative markets of this type in promotion of scientific culture. other countries have shown their ability to – Promotion of vocations in the field of the life activate the sector. sciences through actions such as sponsoring the Research in Primary Education Finally, the 7th Framework Programme of the EU programme of the Barcelona Science Park. opens many doors to the actors of the BioRegion Thanks to Biocat, in 2007 students from for leading or forming part of international primary schools were able, on request consortia. The EU shows a clear commitment to from the schools, to attend dramatisations on all areas of biotechnology: innovation, drug trials, research and to visit the Park. integrated research and communication of

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research results. Neither Europe nor Catalonia wishes to miss the boat of world economic The challenge is great, but the many assets of leadership. Currently the position is favourable and the actors on the international stage are the Catalan biocluster will help to make already beginning to recognise the Catalan Catalonia a leader in the life sciences. biomedical cluster as one of the most dynamic and attractive in Europe. The geographic nucleus where most of its activity is concentrated, Barcelona, is a candidate to house the main sector. meetings of the sector, which involve enormous In conclusion, the challenge is great, but the many business opportunities in a rapidly expanding assets of the Catalan biocluster will help to make

References

Asociación Española de Bioempresas, ASEBIO. Informe ASEBIO 2006 [On-line] 1st. ed. June 2007. See: p.15. [Consulted: 14 May 2008].

CONDOM P.; ROURE J. “Els parcs científics i tecnològics: eines per a la construcció de l’economia del coneixement”. Coneixement i societat. Núm. 13 (2007), pp.7-25.

CUSHMAN and WAKEFIELD, European Cities Monitor Research, 2006. See: . [Consulted: 29 April 2008].

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ASSOCIATIONS AND SCIENCE

Bibiana Bonmatí Recolons* and Jordi Mazón Bueso**

Science and associations have maintained a close relationship from the end of the 19th century until the present day. A distinction should be drawn between the sort of associations that are comprised of the professionals of science and have more to do with the academic world, most notably scientific societies, and the cultural or social kind of scientific associations in which science is an interest, or at least is not the main professional activity of their members. In this note we will focus on the latter type of association, which has its roots in the social movement of the “scientific outdoor clubs” that arose during the Catalan Renaixença or “Renaissance”. The note provides a brief historical outline of the origin of this type of association, followed by a small selection of associations that are currently carrying out activities related to science.

Keywords: associations, science, culture, outdoor clubs

Contents

1. Historical background 1.1. Amateur science 2. The birth of the cultural association movement 2.1. The legacy of the scientific outdoor movement 3. Science in the associations of today 3.1. Nature watchers 3.2. Friends of the Dinosaurs of the Alt Urgell (ADAU) 3.3. Association for the Defence and Study of Nature (ADENC) 3.4. Garrotxa Naturalist and Ecologist Group (ANEGX) 3.5. Rivers Project

* Bibiana Bonmatí is an honours graduate in Physics, science communicator and member of the Catalan Science Communication Association (Associació Catalana de Comunicació Científica or ACCC). ** Jordi Mazón is an honours graduate in Physics, in the Department of Applied Physics at the Technical University of Catalonia (UPC) and secondary school teacher of Physics. Board member of the ACCC.

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4. Skygazing: astronomy and meteorology 4.1. Sabadell Astronomy Group 4.2. Astronomical Studies Group (GEA) 4.3. Dark Sky 4.4. Catalan Meteorological Observers’ Association (ACOM) 5. Conclusions

1. Historical background provided future physicians with the possibility of putting into practice – at the nearby Hospital de la In the second half of the 17th century, Europe saw the Santa Creu – their newly acquired knowledge, and birth of the first scientific societies: the Royal Society it made up for some of the training shortcomings of (1660) in London, with the support of Francis Bacon, the University of Cervera.1 and the Académie des Sciences in Paris (1666). These are the first of a long list of exponents of the The Medico-Practical Academy, the embryo of more academic sort of scientific associations. today’s Royal Academy of Medicine of Catalonia, was set up in Barcelona in 1770. The Academy In Catalonia, as a result of the War of the Spanish was another example of the creation of new bodies Succession (1700-1714), all the universities were for the practice of science following the abolition of closed in 1717, including those of Barcelona and the Catalan universities. Lleida, which had medical schools, and a new university was set up in Cervera. In addition, as we will see in the following section, the existence of individuals and personalities with The closure of the Catalan universities brought a sound training and scientific vocation led in about the appearance of non-university bodies for 1764 to the creation of the Experimental the practice of science, such as the Royal College Physico-Mathematical Conference, with the aim of Surgery of Barcelona (Reial Col·legi de Cirurgia of holding regular meetings on mathematical and de Barcelona). This was basically a centre of experimental physics. In 1770 this body gave rise learning created by the Crown in 1760 to modernise to the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and the training of health professionals. Apart from the Arts of Barcelona, now known as the Royal University of Cervera, it was the only institution Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona,2 of where it was possible to study medicine. It a markedly academic leaning.

1 For further information (in Catalan) see: . 2 .

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1.1. Amateur science Another much later example was that of Francesc Martorell (1822-1878). He left his archaeology, In 18th century Catalonia, a growing interest in numismatics and natural history collection to science, which in the absence of universities took Barcelona City Council, who built a museum place in other institutions, coincided with the to house it, initially called the Martorell Museum. presence of libraries and private collections of a This was the origin of the present-day Natural scientific nature. These two factors sowed the Science Museum in the Ciutadella. seeds of some of Catalonia’s museums, and ushered in a new concept: what we now call Collections of this sort are proof of the existence “amateur science”. of an extraofficial science, represented by individual people, usually members of bourgeois or well-to-do families. The Salvador family built up an extensive scientific collection containing a herbarium, 2. The birth of the cultural association movement nature collections (of shells, minerals, fossils, etc.) and a sizeable scientific library. In the 19th century, Catalonia experienced the cultural movement of the Renaixença or “Renaissance”, which brought about a process of recuperation of the Catalan language and One example of this evolution is the work that Catalan culture and marked the beginning of the was done by the Salvadors, a family of naturalists cultural association movement in Catalonia. This and apothecaries whose interest in these matters movement took many forms, including the creation brought them to build up an extensive scientific of the first athenaeums and the first outdoor clubs. collection containing a herbarium, nature All these institutions were strongly influenced by collections (of shells, minerals, fossils, etc.) and a the science that was being carried out at that time. sizeable scientific library. These materials, in most cases perfectly classified and labelled, The most representative example of the together made up the Gabinet de Curiositats athenaeum movement is the Ateneu Barcelonès, (cabinet of curiosities), open to scholars and founded in 1860. Although this was the association considered to be the first museum in Barcelona that brought together the leading lights of Catalan to open its doors to the public. In 1937, the letters, science nevertheless had its place there. Catalan government took responsibility for these It disseminated the new scientific theories of collections, which were then passed on to Darwinism, naturalism and positivism. The last Barcelona City Council and ultimately to the of these caused a crisis in the Ateneu; a series of Botanical Institute of Barcelona, where they are lectures on the subject was finally cancelled after kept today.3 a board vote won by the conservatives.

3 For further information see: .

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But the associations that best represent the union science in Catalonia, since according to Jordi Martí of the cultural association movement and science in his book L’excursionisme científic, it is clear to are those we could call “scientific outdoor clubs”. see that in their early days these associations had a This phenomenon dates back to the first outdoor strong scientific bent which was reflected in their clubs, which started to operate towards the end of by-laws, even though many of their projects were the 19th century. never carried out, for a variety of reasons.

The rise of this association movement with an interest in science is attributable to several factors. The Renaixença took many forms, including Firstly, the Renaixença encouraged Catalans to get to know their country and preserve it, and this took the creation of the first athenaeums and the the form of a discovery of the countryside through first outdoor clubs, which were strongly disciplines such as geology, archaeology and the influenced by the science that was being natural sciences in general. Secondly, the situation carried out at that time. of science at the end of the century also played a part, as the arrival of Darwin’s theories on evolution had triggered a fierce scientific and social debate. It should be noted that the outdoor movement also Lack of coordination, or of sufficient knowledge, began to figure in university curricula, although field and the need for complex and expensive trips were not in currency until the 1880s, and even instruments may be some of the reasons why the then only very exceptionally. proposed projects never came to fruition. Nevertheless, we find a constant relationship The first Catalan outdoor club was founded in between the scientists of the period – J. Comas 1876, with the name “Catalanist Association for (1868-1937), E. Fontserè (1870-1970) and N. Scientific Excursions” (Associació Catalanista Font i Sagué (1874-1910), among others – and d’Excursions Científiques) (ACEC). Its by-laws the various outdoor clubs, either in the form of stated as its prime social objective:4 active participation as members, or as disseminators, giving lectures or organising trips “To encourage excursions throughout our land to to collect material and make observations, make it known and loved, and also to publish the sometimes to be reported subsequently in the works resulting from these excursions, with a view associations’ bulletins. to creating a library, a museum and archives.” At the first congress of outdoor clubs, in 1911, 2.1. The legacy of the scientific outdoor there was agreement on the need to set up movement weather stations and to catalogue the fauna of Catalonia, among other points. However, in the Some historians have gone so far as to qualify the end many projects never saw the light of day, and scientific outdoor movement as the cradle of the most far-reaching contributions were in the field

4 .

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of meteorology. One of them, for example, was the The current classification makes it impossible to installation of several meteorological observatories, quantify the number of science-related such as those of Sant Jeroni, Collsacabra and organisations, such as astronomy groups, of Santa Fe, which made up an important network. which there are calculated to be about 50 in Catalonia, or others that do not specialise in a These organisations also gave support to the particular area of science, such as associations of creation of municipal and county museums to friends of a particular nature park or museum. house local costumes, archaeological remains or documentary sources. With time, the outdoor Below we present a selection of organisations to clubs leaned more towards leisure and sports illustrate this union between cultural associations activities, with less emphasis on the scientific side, and science. The associations we have chosen fall although some still preserve sections with these into the areas of nature on the one hand and origins, such as the Geography and Natural astronomy and meteorology on the other. Sciences Section of the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya, set up in 1908. 3.1. Nature watchers

The environment is undoubtedly one of the areas of science that is best covered by the association The environment is undoubtedly one of the movement. This area still harbours the spirit to areas of science that is best covered by protect the natural heritage that imbued the first scientific outdoor clubs, and at the same time the association movement. that of the ecologist movement that arose in the 1970s.

3.1.1. Friends of the Dinosaurs of the Alt Urgell 3. Science in the associations of today Amics dels Dinosaures de l’Alt Urgell (ADAU) was set up in 1985 when, following the discovery of a There are no studies available at present on the site with remains of dinosaurs in and around Coll relationship between the cultural association de Nargó, a group of friends got together to find movement and science, and we have no data new sites and protect them. about the number of associations that devote part or all of their activity to some area of science. Being aware of the importance of the sites, they reported the find to the various relevant There are nearly 50,000 associations and administrations and institutions and recommended foundations in Catalonia today. In the Guide to their preservation. A couple of sites were Registered Organisations administered by the rehabilitated, but they were unable to go any Department of Justice, there are almost 1,500 in further for lack of funds. the area of ecology, nature and the environment, and within the category of foundations, 10% are The ADAU have focused their activities on the classified under the heading “scientific purposes”. municipality of Coll de Nargó from the start,

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although they study dinosaur remains throughout Ripoll, Sant Iscle Hills, etc.) environments. the county of the Alt Urgell. The activities Another of its projects is to supervise the state of promoted by this association include studying different habitats in order to detect any possible the existing sites; organising campaigns to find effect on areas of interest. new bones, footprints and other remains, and to raise the awareness of both the local population and the various institutions regarding the need to protect, conserve and communicate this The butterfly group of the Association for heritage; and working for the declaration of the the Defence and Study of Nature (ADENC) sites as a protected area and the prohibition of the extraction of remains from the sites. monitors the butterfly populations of an area on the outskirts of Sabadell and takes 3.1.2. Association for the Defence and Study of advantage of the fact that they are Nature bioindicators to obtain data on climate The Associació de Defensa i Estudi de la Natura change. (ADENC), now 25 years old, carries out environmental awareness-raising activities, with courses, exhibitions and talks, but also research, through a number of work groups. Thus, for 3.1.3. Garrotxa Naturalist and Ecologist Group example, the botany group (L’Esbarzer; “The Bramble”) organises field trips to monitor The Agrupació Naturalista i Ecologista de la the flora of our mountains and promote Garrotxa (ANEGX), founded in 1980 and now knowledge of it. totalling more than 150 members, was one of the first in the Girona region to organise For the past two years the butterfly group has environmental education campaigns, and been monitoring the butterfly populations of an combines this activity with that of carrying out area on the outskirts of Sabadell, as part of the environmental projects. Since 2004 they have Catalan Butterfly Monitoring Scheme led jointly periodically monitored the section of the River by the Department of the Environment and Fluvià that passes through the county, in order to Housing and Granollers Museum. One of the detect the possible arrival of avian influenza, aims of this study is to take advantage of the fact through an agreement with the Garrotxa that butterflies are bioindicators to obtain data on Environmental Consortium. Fortunately there has climate change. been no indication that the disease has arrived in the county to date. The ornithology group performs periodic monitoring of the birds of the Vallès region and Simultaneously, the waterfowl of the Garrotxa collaborates in studies on various subjects, such section of the Fluvià are extensively monitored. as raptor electrocutions, transects and fauna in The ANEGX also monitors bioindicators urban (Catalunya Park, Taulí Park, large city (invertebrates and birds) in the mature woodland squares and gardens, etc.) and periurban (River of the Garrotxa in order to determine its quality,

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within a programme promoted by the savings aim of preserving and improving Catalonia’s bank Caixa d’Estalvis i Pensions de Barcelona in rivers and encouraging people to get to know the period 2006-2009. They have also drafted an their natural surroundings better. The project inventory and a management plan for the coordinates various groups of volunteers who preservation of a biological corridor between work according to a simple standardised the Garrotxa Volcanic Area Nature Park and the methodology. No previous knowledge of Pla de l’Estany in collaboration with the Territory hydrology is necessary in order to participate, and Landscape Foundation of the savings bank nor is experience in field work. Caixa de Catalunya. Basically, the Rivers Project takes the form of Other projects include the monitoring of the periodic inspections (at least once a year) of the county’s lammergeyers, together with the Alta country’s rivers, streams, brooks and other Garrotxa Consortium (CAG), and the monitoring watercourses, in a chosen section. In these of the population of native white-clawed crayfish inspections, the volunteers perform an analysis in the streams and rivers of the county, and also of the fluvial ecosystem, using the materials that of the American red swamp crayfish, which supplied free of charge by the organisation to has been done since 2005. Lastly, we should measure variables such as the acidity of the mention the management and analysis of the water, the concentration of particular substances data obtained from the network of (nitrates, carbonates, etc.), the physical quality meteorological observers in the Alta Garrotxa, in of the water, and so on. The field data obtained collaboration with the CAG and the Regional by the various groups taking part constitute the Meteorological Centre in Catalonia. basis of the Report on the State of our Rivers (Informe sobre l’estat dels nostres rius) that the organisation prepares annually.

The field data obtained periodically by the 3.2. Skygazing: astronomy and meteorology various groups taking part in the Rivers Project constitute the basis of the Report on In the case of astronomy and meteorology, the figure of the amateur scientist, much like those the State of our Rivers that the organisation of the late 19th century, is clearly discernible. This prepares annually. field has given rise to a number of private observatories, such as that of the amateur observer Josep Manteca, who at his facilities in Begues (Baix Llobregat) has discovered a total 3.1.4. Rivers Project of 17 new asteroids to date, giving them names of such local flavour as Castelldefels, Begues, Projecte Rius was founded in 1997 as an Copito, Obsfabra and Subirachs, among environmental education project with the main others.5

5 Further information is available at the International Astronomical Union (IAU), which is responsible for the register of asteroids and other heavenly bodies. .

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3.2.1. Sabadell Astronomy Group In 2003, Sabadell Astronomy Group received With more than 1,000 members, the Agrupació Astronòmica de Sabadell has 500 sq m of the Narcís Monturiol Plaque awarded by the facilities devoted to astronomy, including an Catalan government for scientific and observatory for dissemination purposes. In 2003, technological merit in recognition of its the group received the Narcís Monturiol Plaque awarded by the Catalan government for scientific research work. and technological merit. The announcement of the award in the Catalan Official Journal, Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya recognises its research work with these words: “Since its 3.2.3. Dark Sky foundation in 1960 it has contributed decisively to the development of Catalan and Spanish The objective of Cel Fosc is to campaign for astronomy, promoting the association ideal improved public and private lighting of open among its members and performing educational spaces, respecting the environment and saving and research work with amateur means.” The natural resources. Light pollution has been studied association has observation projects in many with regard to both its effects on the viewing of the areas of astronomy, from the daily monitoring of night sky and the influence it has on ecosystems. solar activity to the tracking of asteroids, comets This organisation contributed decisively to the and satellites, and outside the solar system, drafting of the Catalan government’s night sky supernovae and variable stars. protection act.6

3.2.2. Astronomical Studies Group The association is engaged in several activities at present with a view to publicising the The members of the Grup d’Estudis Astronòmics problem, the harm it does, and the solutions that (GEA), founded in 1984, are mostly astronomical exist; working with government bodies to observers who have set up their observatory with legislate and reduce light pollution; denouncing their own resources, although there are also those government bodies and private professionals who contribute with their companies that waste and abuse common knowledge to the group’s activities. Whatever resources; and proposing solutions and their professional status, all the members work pressing for their application. as a team, making astronomical observations, developing computer programs, doing 3.2.4. Catalan Meteorological Observers’ Association administrative work and so on. The GEA has carried out valuable research in astronomy, The Associació Catalana d’Observadors above all in the area of the photometry of variable Meteorològics (ACOM), founded in 1995 and now stars, comets and new asteroids. totalling almost 500 members, comprises both

6 Law 6/2001, of 31 May 2001, for the Environmental Planning of Lighting for the Protection of the Night Environment. Catalan Official Journal, DOGC (12 July 2001), no. 3407, p. 8685, in Catalan. Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya. .

133 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 NOTES

meteorological observers who belong to some have worked in close collaboration with the SMC official body and those who have set up their own to make up for the “blindness” suffered by observatory with their own resources. The weather radar and other instruments when there association has a twofold objective: first, to are low-altitude snowfalls. Weather radar is useful communicate and exchange data of observations to track and forecast rainfall, especially and local studies on climatology and meteorology, cloudbursts, but it is of little use in snowfalls. and second, to disseminate knowledge of these Snow has a very low reflectivity to the radar sciences. Thus, the ACOM has performed research signal, which explains why this instrument is in collaboration with other organisations and incapable of detecting snowfalls. It is the mission bodies, for example the Climate Study of the of the 80 or so observers to inform the SMC when Garrotxa Volcanic Area (in conjunction with Girona it starts to snow in their municipality. The phone Provincial Council and Garrotxa Volcanic Area calls from these voluntary observers are essential Nature Park) and the Approximation to the Climate to be able to activate snow alerts in Catalonia. of Garraf Massif Nature Park, which first highlighted the rainfall anomaly of the Llobregat Delta. 4. Conclusions In the field of dissemination, the association is organising the exhibition “Meteoròlegs amb cara i From a qualitative point of view, cultural ulls” (“Flesh-and-Blood Meteorologists”), which associations can be considered to contribute to seeks to pay tribute to the memory of the great science today. The most significant and recurrent Catalan meteorologists of history, with a clay feature is the dissemination work done by the sculpture of each of them, accompanied by a organisations, who have programmes or biography. activities aimed at making certain aspects of science more widely known. Furthermore, those that carry out research projects, specifically in the case of environmentalist associations, do so The contribution of many associations to the mainly at the local or county level of the dissemination of science and its applications association concerned. Another characteristic of is unquestionable. the projects is that they are often aimed at recovering the natural or scientific heritage. Another feature is that most of these projects are performed with the collaboration of public bodies In addition to these dissemination and research and/or private foundations. activities, the association is involved in the coordination of the meteorological observatories, The contribution of many associations to the in collaboration with the Meteorological Service of dissemination of science and its applications is in Catalonia (SMC). Some 80 observers belonging any event unquestionable. These associations do to the association, located throughout Catalonia, not compete with the science done by professional act as voluntary meteorological observers in the researchers; rather, they perform tasks in those event of snowfalls. For the past four winters they areas that science cannot reach.

134 ASSOCIATIONS AND SCIENCE

In this account we could have mentioned hundreds of what we could call the cultural science of associations that have some scientific topic association movement. among their objectives, from sundials, as is the case of the Catalan Gnomonics Society, which studies this heritage, to speleology, which often comes under the umbrella of an outdoor club and Cultural science associations do not compete reveals a part of the country that is still largely with the science done by professional unexplored, and science communication, as in the Catalan Science Communication Association, researchers; rather, they perform tasks in which seeks to safeguard the quality of the those areas that science cannot reach. scientific information that reaches society through the media. These and many others would form part

References

Associacions: cultura i societat civil a Catalunya. Barcelona: Departament de Cultura de la Generalitat de Catalunya, 1991, 257 pp. ISBN 84-86542-45-6.

GABRIEL, Pere (Ed.) Història de la cultura catalana. Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1995, 10 volumes.

MARTÍ HENNEBERG, Jordi. L’excursionisme científic i la seva contribució a les ciències naturals i a la geografia. Barcelona: Editorial Alta Fulla, 1994, 168 p. ISBN 84-7900-056-2.

OLIVER, Josep M. Historia de la astronomía amateur en España. Madrid: Equipo Sirius, 1997, 285 pp. ISBN 84-86639-84-0.

VERNET, J.; PARES, R. (Eds.). La ciència en la història dels Països Catalans II: Del Naixement de la ciència moderna a la il·lustració. Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans and Universitat de València, 2007. ISBN 84-7283-760-7.

135 resúmenes en castellano resums en català CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 RESÚMENES EN CASTELLANO

EL INSTITUT D’ESTUDIS CATALANS parte de los poderes públicos de Catalu- luar con un cierto orden el cumplimiento de A LO LARGO DE CIEN AÑOS DE ña y del Estado. En los últimos años, en las condiciones mínimas establecidas, es POLÍTICAS CIENTÍFICAS un contexto académico muy diferente del decir, nuestras personas, los proyectos y de los primeros años del siglo xx, y con los procesos de gestión, con el apoyo de Josep M. Camarasa y Antoni Roca i Rosell unos condicionantes políticos también indicadores formalizados. En esta línea, los muy diferentes, el IEC ha luchado, con sistemas de certificación aportan unos cri- suerte desigual según el momento, por terios homogéneos y estandarizados, El Institut d’Estudis Catalans (IEC) fue cre- encontrar su lugar en las políticas de in- unas herramientas de diagnosis y de mejo- ado por Enric Prat de la Riba a principios vestigación catalanas. A raíz de la conme- ra de la capacidad comparativa y de análi- del s. XX como instrumento de política moración del centenario, las perspectivas sis evolutivo fiable y preciso que se ponen científica. Pensaba que una institución de parecen favorables. a disposición de los entes interesados. alta cultura tenía que ayudar a reforzar su En este articulo se muestran los beneficios proyecto de autonomía política para Cata- PALABRAS CLAVE: Institut d’Estudis de la I+D y la Innovación tanto para las em- luña. Sin embargo, a pesar de este carác- Catalans, política científica, investigación, presas como para la Administración, la ter inicialmente instrumental, el IEC asu- centenario. Universidad y la Sociedad. mió muy pronto un grado considerable de autonomía funcional, señaló directrices PALABRAS CLAVE: certificación, eva- preferentes de investigación y de divulga- LA UTILIDAD Y EL IMPACTO DE LA luación, innovación, investigación. ción del conocimiento y favoreció la verte- CERTIFICACIÓN DE LA I+D Y LA bración de una comunidad científica cata- INNOVACIÓN. ¿A QUIÉN lana. La autonomía con relación a las BENEFICIA MÁS, A LA EMPRESA, UNA APROXIMACIÓN AL IMPULSO instituciones se convirtió en total durante LA ADMINISTRACIÓN, LA ECONÓMICO DE LA UNIVERSIDAD la dictadura de Primo de Rivera, si bien a SOCIEDAD O LA UNIVERSIDAD? DE GIRONA SOBRE EL ENTORNO costa de encontrarse desamparado de LOCAL Anna M. Sánchez i Granados todo apoyo económico público, y la con- Miquel Carreras i Simó servó en los años de la República y de la y Ricard Rigall i Torrent Guerra Civil, durante los que se instaló en Este año 2007 ha sido decisivo en cuanto los locales de la Casa de Convalescència a la creación y el diseño de lo que pode- del antiguo Hospital de la Santa Creu, ce- mos denominar las 3 P de la excelencia Desde una perspectiva económica, las didos por el Ayuntamiento de Barcelona. en la gestión de la innovación, un sello instituciones universitarias se pueden Bajo el franquismo, que se limitó a darlo que ayudará a las organizaciones a tomar concebir como gestoras del conocimien- por extinguido pero no lo suprimió explíci- conciencia de un hecho constatado: no to: organizaciones que utilizan recursos tamente, mantuvo la actividad en condi- puede haber innovación sin proyectos, ni (input) para generar y transferir conoci- ciones de semiclandestinidad, pero nun- proyectos sin personal investigador y será mientos (outputs). Este enfoque permite ca dejó de actuar. A partir de 1963, difícil de alcanzar los objetivos con éxito, sintetizar dos efectos económicos que Òmnium Cultural le cedió como sede al- manteniendo una posición solvente a lo afectan al territorio. En primer lugar, la gunos espacios del Palau Dalmases, lo largo del tiempo, sin implantar una gestión gestión del conocimiento se convierte en que le permitió reanudar una cierta pre- correcta del proceso de innovación. un factor vital para la competitividad del sencia pública, así como volver a iniciar Dado que para valorar las actuaciones, territorio. El conocimiento afecta tanto al las actividades de sus sociedades filiales. rectificar y optimizar los resultados esta- sistema productivo local (ya que las bases En 1976 recuperó el reconocimiento por mos obligados a medir, tenemos que eva- del crecimiento económico inciden sobre

138 la productividad) como a la eficiencia ac- a la investigación, consolidar el sector es la actividad profesional principal de las tual y futura de las organizaciones locales como motor económico y potenciar su personas asociadas. En este artículo nos (ya que actúa como elemento de atrac- papel en la sociedad. El ámbito de ac- centraremos en este último tipo de aso- ción, de creación y de mantenimiento de ción de Biocat es la BioRegión de Cata- ciacionismo, que tiene los orígenes en el actividades económicas). En segundo lu- luña -el clúster-, un concepto geográfico movimiento social denominado excursio- gar, la actividad universitaria afecta directa y de interrelación en el que confluyen los nismo científico, nacido durante la Re- e indirectamente a la demanda local y múltiples actores del ámbito biotecnoló- naixença. El artículo pretende hacer una estimula la producción de bienes y de ser- gico y biomédico (instituciones públicas introducción histórica breve del origen de vicios locales. La universidad actúa, pues, de investigación, Administración, em- este tipo de asociacionismo y, posterior- de motor que arrastra la economía local, presas biotecnológicas, farmacéuticas, mente, hacer una pequeña selección de ya que repercute sobre el nivel de riqueza de tecnologías médicas y de servicio en entidades que, hoy día, llevan a cabo ac- y de empleo del territorio donde se en- el sector, estructuras de apoyo a la tividades relacionadas con la ciencia. cuentra ubicada. De manera parecida a transferencia de conocimiento y la inno- otras universidades catalanas (universida- vación, etc.). PALABRAS CLAVE: asociacionismo, des de Lleida, Rovira i Virgili y de Vic), este Biocat ha elaborado un plan estratégico ciencia, cultura, excursionismo. trabajo valora el impacto de la Universidad común para el sector, que cuenta con el de Girona (UdG) en la economía del entor- apoyo de todos los actores y que tiene no. La aproximación se hace desde dos que permitir convertir Cataluña en un refe- vertientes. Por una parte, se utiliza la me- rente internacional en ciencias de la vida, todología input-output para valorar el im- en un bioclúster competitivo. pacto económico de la demanda genera- da sobre el territorio gerundense. Por PALABRAS CLAVE: innovación, clúster, otra, mediante una serie de indicadores, biotecnología, biomedicina, red. se mide la salida producida por la UdG y se contextualiza en el marco español y de las comarcas gerundenses. ASOCIACIONISMO Y CIENCIA

Bibiana Bonmatí i Recolons y PALABRAS CLAVE: impacto económi- Jordi Mazón i Bueso co, crecimiento económico, universidad.

La ciencia y el asociacionismo han man- BIOCAT, DINAMIZANDO LA BIO- tenido una relación estrecha desde fina- REGIÓN DE CATALUÑA les del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX hasta nuestros días. Hay que distinguir Montserrat Daban, Montserrat Vendrell, Marta Príncep y Manel Balcells entre el asociacionismo científico, enten- dido como el que forman los profesiona- les de la ciencia y más relacionado con el Biocat es la organización que tiene por ámbito académico, encabezado por las objetivo promover la biotecnología y la sociedades científicas, del asociacionis- biomedicina en Cataluña, con el fin de mo científico cultural o social, en que la crear un entorno adecuado que dé valor ciencia es una afición o, en todo caso, no

139 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14 RESUMS EN CATALÀ

L’INSTITUT D’ESTUDIS CATALANS públics de Catalunya i de l’Estat. Els da- cions mínimes establertes, és a dir, les AL LLARG DE CENT ANYS DE rrers anys, en un context acadèmic molt nostres persones, els projectes i els pro- POLÍTIQUES CIENTÍFIQUES diferent del dels primers anys del segle cessos de gestió, amb el suport d’indica- xx, i amb uns condicionants polítics tam- dors formalitzats. En aquesta línia, els sis- Josep M. Camarasa i bé ben diferents, l’IEC ha lluitat, amb sort temes de certificació aporten uns criteris Antoni Roca i Rosell desigual segons els moments, per trobar homogenis i estandarditzats, unes eines el seu lloc en les polítiques de recerca de diagnosi i de millora de la capacitat L’Institut d’Estudis Catalans (IEC) va ser catalanes. Arran de la commemoració comparativa i d’anàlisi evolutiva fiable i creat per Enric Prat de la Riba a principis del centenari, les perspectives semblen precisa que es posen a disposició dels del s. xx com a instrument de política favorables. ens interessats. En aquest article es mos- científica. Pensava que una institució tren els beneficis de la certificació de d’alta cultura havia d’ajudar a reforçar el PARAULES CLAU: Institut d’Estudis l’R+D i la Innovació tant per a les empre- seu projecte d’autonomia política per a Catalans, política científica, recerca, ses, com per a l’Administració, la Univer- Catalunya. Però, tot i aquest caràcter ini- centenari. sitat i la Societat. cialment instrumental, l’IEC va assumir ben aviat un grau considerable d’autono- PARAULES CLAU: recerca, innovació, mia funcional, va assenyalar directrius LA UTILITAT I L’IMPACTE DE LA avaluació, certificació. preferents de recerca i de divulgació del CERTIFICACIÓ DE L’R+D I LA coneixement i va afavorir la vertebració INNOVACIÓ. QUI EN TREU MÉS d’una comunitat científica catalana. L’au- PROFIT, L’EMPRESA, UNA APROXIMACIÓ A L’IMPULS tonomia amb relació a les institucions va L’ADMINISTRACIÓ, LA SOCIETAT O ECONÒMIC DE LA UNIVERSITAT esdevenir total durant la dictadura de Pri- LA UNIVERSITAT? DE GIRONA SOBRE L’ENTORN mo de Rivera, si bé a costa de trobar-se LOCAL desemparat de tot suport econòmic pú- Anna M. Sánchez i Granados blic, i la va conservar els anys de la Re- Miquel Carreras Simó i pública i de la Guerra Civil, durant els Aquest any 2007 ha estat decisiu quant a Ricard Rigall i Torrent quals es va instal·lar als locals de la Casa la creació i el disseny del que podem ano- de Convalescència de l’antic Hospital de menar les 3 P de l’excel·lència en la gestió Des d’una perspectiva econòmica, les la Santa Creu, cedits per l’Ajuntament de de la innovació, un segell que ajudarà les institucions universitàries es poden con- Barcelona. Sota el franquisme, que es va organitzacions a prendre consciència cebre com a gestores del coneixement: limitar a donar-lo per extingit però no el d’un fet constatat: no hi pot haver innova- organitzacions que utilitzen recursos va suprimir explícitament, va mantenir ció sense projectes, ni projectes sense (inputs) per generar i transferir coneixe- l’activitat en condicions de semiclandes- personal investigador i serà difícil d’assolir ments (outputs). Aquest enfocament tinitat, però mai no va deixar d’actuar. A els objectius amb èxit, mantenint una po- permet sintetitzar dos efectes econò- partir del 1963, Òmnium Cultural li va ce- sició solvent al llarg del temps, sense im- mics que afecten el territori. En primer dir com a seu alguns espais del Palau plantar una gestió correcta del procés lloc, la gestió del coneixement esdevé un Dalmases, la qual cosa li va permetre re- d’innovació. factor vital per a la competitivitat del terri- prendre una certa presència pública, així Atès que per valorar les actuacions, recti- tori. El coneixement afecta tant el siste- com tornar a iniciar les activitats de les ficar i optimitzar els resultats estem obli- ma productiu local (ja que les bases del seves societats filials. El 1976 va recupe- gats a mesurar, hem d’avaluar amb un creixement econòmic incideixen sobre la rar el reconeixement per part dels poders cert ordre el compliment de les condi- productivitat) com l’eficiència actual i fu-

140 tura de les organitzacions locals (ja que cietat. L’àmbit d’acció de Biocat és la que té els orígens en el moviment social actua com a element d’atracció, de crea- BioRegió de Catalunya –el clúster–, un anomenat excursionisme científic, nas- ció i de manteniment d’activitats econò- concepte geogràfic i d’interrelació en el cut durant la Renaixença. L’article pretén miques). En segon lloc, l’activitat univer- qual conflueixen els múltiples actors de fer una introducció històrica breu de l’ori- sitària afecta directament i indirectament l’àmbit biotecnològic i biomèdic (institu- gen d’aquest tipus d’associacionisme i, la demanda local i estimula la producció cions públiques de recerca, Administra- posteriorment, fer una petita selecció de béns i de serveis locals. La universitat ció, empreses –biotecnològiques, farma- d’entitats que, avui dia, duen a terme ac- actua, doncs, de motor arrossegador de cèutiques, de tecnologies mèdiques i de tivitats relacionades amb la ciència. l’economia local, ja que repercuteix so- servei al sector–, estructures de suport a bre el nivell de riquesa i d’ocupació del la transferència de coneixement i la inno- PARAULES CLAU: associacionisme, territori on es troba ubicada. De manera vació, etc.). ciència, cultura , excursionisme semblant a altres universitats catalanes Biocat ha elaborat un pla estratègic (universitats de Lleida, Rovira i Virgili i de comú per al sector, que compta amb el Vic), aquest treball valora l’impacte de la suport de tots els actors i que ha de per- Universitat de Girona (UdG) en l’econo- metre convertir Catalunya en un referent mia de l’entorn. L’aproximació es fa des internacional en ciències de la vida, en de dues vessants. D’una banda, s’utilitza un bioclúster competitiu. la metodologia input-output per valorar l’impacte econòmic de la demanda ge- PARAULES CLAU: innovació, clúster, nerada sobre el territori gironí. De l’altra, biotecnologia, biomedicina, xarxa. mitjançant un seguit d’indicadors, es mesura la sortida produïda per la UdG i es contextualitza en el marc espanyol i ASSOCIACIONISME I CIÈNCIA de les comarques gironines. Bibiana Bonmatí Recolons i PARAULES CLAU: impacte econòmic, Jordi Mazón Bueso creixement econòmic, universitat La ciència i l’associacionisme han man- tingut una relació estreta des de finals del BIOCAT, DINAMITZANT LA segle XIX i principis del segle XX fins als BIOREGIÓ DE CATALUNYA nostres dies. Cal distingir entre l’associa- cionisme científic, entès com el que for- Montserrat Daban, Montserrat Vendrell , men els professionals de la ciència i més Marta Príncep i Manel Balcells relacionat amb l’àmbit acadèmic, encap- çalat per les societats científiques, de Biocat és l’organització que té per objec- l’associacionisme científic cultural o so- tiu promoure la biotecnologia i la biome- cial, en què la ciència és una afició o, en dicina a Catalunya, per tal de crear un qualsevol cas, no és l’activitat professio- entorn adequat que doni valor a la recer- nal principal de les persones associades. ca, consolidar el sector com a motor En aquest article ens centrarem en econòmic i potenciar-ne el paper a la so- aquest darrer tipus d’associacionisme,

141

. CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT Knowledge and Society. Journal of Univesities, Research and Innovation. Number 14. 1st. semester 2008

Also available on-line in Catalan and in English on the DIUE web site: www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/coneixementisocietat www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/knowledgeandsociety

ISSN (english e-version): 1696-8212 ISSN (catalan printed version): 1696-7380 ISSN (catalan e-version): 1696-8212 Legal deposit (english e-version): B-38745-2004 Legal deposit (catalan printed version): B-27002-2003 Legal deposit (catalan e-version): B-26720-2005

Chief editor Josep M. Camarasa i Castillo

Coordinator Blanca Ciurana i Llevadot

Editorial board Joan Bravo i Pijoan, Roger Cabezas Rodríguez, Joan Cadefau i Surroca, Joan Francesc Cordoba Perez, Iolanda Font de Rubinat i García, Joaquim Ibàñez Fanés, Xavier Lasauca i Cisa, Esther Morales Miquel, Esther Pallarols i Llinàs, Emilià Pola i Robles, Alba Puigdomènech Cantó, Josep Ribas i Seix, Jordi Sort i Miret, Ignasi Vendrell i Aragonès, Fina Villar i López

Coordinating editor and production Mireia Pérez i Bauzà Glòria Vergés i Ramon

Desing Quin Team!

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English translation Alan Lounds Jones, Ailish M. J. Maher, Charles Southgate and Toby Willet

© Generalitat de Catalunya Departament d’Innovació, Universitats i Empresa Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca

The contents of the articles and notes are the sole responsability of the authors. CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT does not necessarily identify with the author Reproduction of articles and notes is allowed, provided that the original author and source are specified.

Subscription to the printed Catalan version of CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT is free. It can be obtained from: Departament d'Innovació, Universitats i Empresa Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca Via Laietana, 33, 6è 08003 Barcelona tel. 935 526 700 Fax. 935 526 701 e-mail: [email protected] 14 14 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 14

SUMARI

ARTICLES

One hundred years of science policy and the Institute of Catalan Studies 06 Josep M. Camarasa and Antoni Roca i Rosell

The usefulness and impact of R&D and Innovation certification. Who benefits the most: industry, CONEIXEMENT government, society or the university? 52 Anna M. Sánchez i Granados

An appraisal of the economic impact of the University of Girona on the local environment 90 Miquel Carreras Simó and Ricard Rigall i Torrent CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT NOTES Knowledge and Society. Journal of I

Biocat, fostering the BioRegion of Catalonia 112 SOCIETAT Universities, Research and Innovation. Montserrat Daban, Montserrat Vendrell, Marta Príncep and Manel Balcells Number 14. 1st. semester 2008.

Associations and science 126 Bibiana Bonmatí i Recolons and Jordi Mazón i Bueso http:// www.gencat.cat/universitatsirecerca/coneixementisocietat

RESÚMENES EN CASTELLANO / RESUMS EN CATALÀ 137

One hundred years of science policy and the Institute of Catalan Studies The usefulness and impact of R&D and Innovation certification. Who benefits the most: industry, government, society or the university? An appraisal of the economic impact of the University of Girona on the local environment Biocat, fostering the BioRegion of Catalonia Associations and science

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